A2 Physiological Factors and Performance

CONCORD HIGH SCHOOL / IBDP SPORTS, EXERCISE & HEALTH SCIENCE
OPTION A.2: ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS & PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE
ENVIROMENTAL FACTORS & PHYSICAL

PERFORMANCE
16.
CHS / IBDP Sports, Exercise & Health Science 2015 / Option A.2: Environmental Factors & Physical Performance / Wang HMPage 1
1. INTRODUCTION
Performance in sport can be affected by both internal and external factors. Some internal factors
affecting performance are shown in Fig. 1.
Fig.1. Some internal factors affecting performance in sport.
External factors that affect sporting performance include:

 Environmental & weather conditions including temperature, windspeed & humidity
 Facilities, equipment & technology
 Other players (teammates and / or opponents)
In this section of the syllabus, we consider the effects of external environmental factors (including
temperature and humidity) on physical performance, as well as how to modulate those effects.
2. HEAT PRODUCTION & THERMOREGULATION IN THE HUMAN BODY

2.1 HEAT PRODUCTION & DISTRIBUTION IN THE HUMAN BODY
AO Assessment Statement
A.2. 3 Explain the relationship between cellular metabolism and the production of heat in the
1 human body. Include consideration of the meaning of efficiency with regard to energy
liberation, ATP re-synthesis and heat production.
A.2. 1 State the normal physiological range for core body temperature.
2
The human body consists of a peripheral shell (i.e. the skin) and a central core (i.e. the internal organs).
While the shell temperature can vary with external temperature, the core temperature is kept constant.
The core temperature has a normal physiological range of 36.5-37.5C (normothermia). Shell (i.e.
skin surface) temperature, on the other hand, can vary more widely depending on the external temperature
(Fig. 2) but is generally in the range of 1-6C lower than core body temperature.
Fig.2. Core versus shell temperatures in different environments.
 The core body temperature is usually above that of the surrounding temperature. This implies that the
body continually produces heat, and that heat is lost to the surroundings at a rate that allows for
the core temperature to be kept constant.
 During cellular respiration (recall: Energy Systems), fuels such as glucose and fatty acids are
broken down and the energy stored in their chemical bonds is released.
 About 20-30% of the energy released is captured in the chemical bonds of ATP. The remainder
(about 70-80%) of the energy is lost as heat.
 The core body temperature of a resting individual is thus mostly determined by their basal
metabolic rate (BMR), which is affected by factors such as age, gender, hormonal levels etc.
 The main sites of heat production are the regions of the body where demand for and thus production
of ATP occurs at the highest rate.
 Under sedentary (non-active conditions), most heat is produced by the internal organs in the
thoracic & abdominal cavities, as well as by the brain.
 As exercise intensity increases, an increasing proportion of heat production occurs in the skeletal
muscles involved in exercise. Larger muscles tend to contribute more to heat production.
Body temperature varies between different body regions based on factors such as:
 blood supply (heat produced in these regions of the body is transferred to other body parts by
the bloodstream down a heat transfer gradient, Fig. 3)
 heat conducting ability (e.g. adipose tissue is a thermal insulator (it does not conduct heat
well) - regions of the body with little fat will thus lose and gain heat more easily).
 proximity to the body’s surface, as surface regions of the body (e.g. skin) can acquire or lose
heat from the surrounding environment. As environmental temperatures are usually lower than
the core temperature, this means than measurements taken from deep within the body (e.g. using a
rectal thermometer) generally reflect higher values than those taken from the surface of the body
(e.g. using a forehead thermometer).
Fig.3. Heat is transferred more quickly down a steeper heat transfer gradient.
Temperature also varies over the course of the day (Fig. 4) (and for women, over the course of each
menstrual cycle, Fig. 5).
Fig.4. Temperature varies over the course of the day. It is Fig.5. In women, the temperature increases after ovulation in each
generally the lowest while an individual is sleeping. menstrual cycle as the levels of the hormone progesterone increase.
Thus, there is no one true core body temperature and it is more correct to refer to a normal
(physiological) range of temperatures instead.
2.2 THERMOREGULATION
A.2.3 2 Outline how the body thermoregulates in hot and cold environments. Include the
principles of conduction, convection, radiation and evaporation.
The ability of people who habitually live in very cold/hot climates to tolerate these harsh
conditions compared with people who live in temperate climates could be considered.
A.2.4 3 Discuss the significance of humidity and wind in relation to body heat loss.
A.2.5 2 Describe the formation of sweat and the sweat response. Consideration of the role of
the sympathetic nervous system and the hypothalamus is not required.
A.2.1 2 Outline the principal means by which the body maintains core temperature in cold
1 environments.
Consider shivering, non-shivering thermogenesis and peripheral vasoconstriction.
In order to maintain the core body temperature within such a narrow range, there must be a careful
balance between heat production and heat loss. The control of body temperature is known as
thermoregulation (which is a form of homeostasis) and allows humans to live and exercise and in a wide
range of environments without adverse effects.
In order to carry out thermoregulation, the body must be able to (Fig. 6):
(a) receive information about its’ own and the surrounding temperature, via receptors
(b) process and integrate the information received
(c) if necessary, cause changes that result in the return of body temperature to the normal
physiological range.
Fig.6. Summary of the process of thermoregulation.
(a) Detecting temperature changes

 Temperature receptors in the skin detect changes in the shell temperature (which increases or
decreases based on external temperature).
 Temperature receptors in other areas detect changes in the core temperature.
(b) Processing information about temperature changes

 Changes that are large enough to result in the core temperature increasing above or decreasing
below the normal physiological range result in signals being sent to a processing center in the
brain known as the hypothalamus.
 The hypothalamus also has temperature receptors of its’ own that detect changes in the
temperature of the blood that passes through it.
(c) Causing changes that return body temperature to the normal physiological range
 Based on the information it receives, the hypothalamus sends nerve impulses to effector organs
(e.g. the muscles & skin), directing a coordinated response that results in an overall increase or
decrease in body temperature.
 The response generally opposes the initial detected deviation (i.e. if an increase in temperature
was first detected, the response would be to decrease the temperature), so that the normal
physiological range is re-attained.
 These changes generally fall into two categories:
 increase or decrease the rate of heat production (by altering the metabolic rate)
 increase or decrease the rate of heat loss (by conduction, convection, radiation or evaporation)
Thermoregulation allows for the maintenance of a balance between heat production/gain and heat loss.
Heat is transferred between the body & environment by one of the following four mechanisms (Table 7):
(a) Conduction
 Conduction is the movement of heat from molecule to molecule.
 Heat transfer by conduction requires contact between two objects
of differing temperatures, e.g. the movement of heat from the
body to the layer of air immediately surrounding the body.
 The material & thickness of clothing affects conductive heat loss.
(b) Convection
 Convection is the movement of heat from one place to another by
the movement of air or water, e.g. the transfer of heat from
muscles to the skin surface by the movement of blood.
 With an increased rate of air movement, air next to the skin that
has been warmed by conduction is moved away and replaced by
cooler air. In this way, the rate of heat transfer increases.
 Convection accounts for the wind chill effect.
(c) Radiation
 Radiation is the movement of heat from one place to another
through a vacuum (i.e. without a connective medium).
 Any object at a higher temperature than its surroundings radiates
heat to objects at a lower temperature, e.g. the warming of the
body by solar energy.
(d) Evaporation
 The change of state of water from the liquid state (e.g. in sweat)
to the gaseous state (e.g. water vapour in the air) is known as
evaporation and requires heat energy.
 The main routes by which evaporative heat loss occurs are
through respiration and sweating. However, sweat that is wiped
off or drops off does not contribute to evaporative cooling.
 The rate of evaporative cooling depends on the relative humidity
of the surrounding air. If the surrounfing air is fully saturated with
water vapour (i.e. 100% humidity), no evaporative cooling occurs.
Table 7. The four main mechanisms of heat loss from the human body.
Note that for conduction, convection and radiation, the rate of heat transfer depends mainly on the
temperature gradient (Fig. 3). Thus, they are effective heat loss mechanisms only when the temperature
of the environment is lower than body temperature (Fig. 8 & 9).
Fig. 8.The effectiveness of conduction, convection & radiation as heat loss mechanisms at different environmental temperatures.
Fig. 9.Mechanisms of heat transfer.
Note that on extremely hot days, conduction, convection & radiation can result in heat gain by the body.
Evaporative cooling then has to remove this additional heat as well as the heat produced by metabolism.
Fig. 10 summarizes the various mechanisms of heat transfer.
Fig. 10.Mechanisms of heat transfer.
The human skin (Fig. 11) is adapted to allow for heat loss (or heat gain) from the environment to occur.
Fig. 11.A cross section of human skin. Note particularly the sweat glands & pores and blood capillaries.
Feature Function in heat loss / gain

Large surface area to  Increased rate of heat loss / gain by conduction, convection & radiation.
volume ratio  Postural changes (e.g. stretching out versus curling up) alter the surface
(especially in children area to volume ratio, altering the rate of heat loss.
and thin individuals)  Moving from sun to shade or vice versa alters the total area exposed to heat.
Sweat glands and  Production of sweat increases during exercise, increasing the rate of
sweat pores evaporative cooling.
 The distribution and density of sweat glands over the skin surface, as well
as the capacity of each sweat gland to produce sweat, determines the
sweat production at each particular area.
 Generally, most sweat production occurs on the back and chest (i.e. the
trunk, nearest the heat-generating core), while sweat production on the
limbs is significant only after a substantial rise in core temperature.
Blood supply near  Under cold conditions,  Under warm conditions,
skin surface vasoconstriction of arterioles vasodilation of arterioles leading
leading to the skin surface decreases to the skin surface increases the
the rate of blood flow to the surface, rate of blood flow to the surface,
decreasing the rate of heat loss increasing the rate of heat loss
Layer of fat beneath Fat provides thermal insulation, decreasing the rate of heat loss.
the skin
Bodily mechanisms to control heat production include
 Increasing or decreasing metabolic rate
 Shivering (an involuntary reflex contracting of skeletal muscles), which results in increased energy
usage and thus heat production
These mechanisms are summarized in Figs. 9, 12, 13 & 14.

(a) Thermoneutral zone
 In the thermoneutral zone (i.e. the zone which organisms can tolerate), minimal energy is
expended on thermoregulation. There are no changes to basal metabolic rate.
The main mechanisms utilized to maintain the core temperature are
 vascular regulation mechanisms (i.e. vasoconstriction or vasodilation of the arterioles leading
to the skin surface – these can alter the blood flow rate from between 1ml/100g of skin per
minute to 150ml/100g of skin per minute)
 postural changes
 moving into or out of the sun / shade
 sweating
(b) Below thermoneutral zone

 Below the lower critical temperature (i.e. the temperature where maximal vasoconstriction is
attained), metabolic mechanisms to increase the rate of heat production come into play.
The main mechanisms used are
 Shivering
 Nonshivering thermogenesis (an increase in the metabolic rate)
If the body is unable to maintain its’ core temperature using these mechanisms, the core
temperature will begin to drop. A drop of core temperature below 35.0C is considered as
hypothermia, and can result in death if the person is not quickly warmed up.
(c) Above thermoneutral zone

 Above the upper critical temperature, (i.e. the temperature where maximal vasodilation is
attained), the human body is unable to lose heat at sufficient rates to prevent a rise in core
temperature.
A severely elevated temperature of above 40C can lead to death.
Fig. 12.Summary of mechanisms involved in thermoregulation.
Fig. 13.Principle of thermoregulation.
Fig. 14.Simple flowchart showing mechanisms involved in thermoregulation.
3. EXERCISE IN HOT ENVIRONMENTS

3.1 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE TO EXERCISE UNDER HOT CONDITIONS
A.2. 3 Discuss the physiological responses that occur during prolonged exercise in the heat.
6 Limit this to cardiovascular response (cross reference with 2.2.8), energy metabolism*
and sweating.
* The reduced muscle blood flow in high temperatures results in increased glycogen
breakdown in the muscle and higher levels of muscle and blood lactate in comparison to
the same exercise performed in a cooler environment.
Prolonged exercising in hot, humid conditions when the body is not accustomed to it can place the body
under great stress and reduce exercise tolerance. Perceived exertion also increases due to the higher
temperature of blood flowing to the brain.
(a) Cardiovascular response

 During exercise, the blood flow to the muscles increases to supply oxygen and fuel sources for
energy production. The increased rate of energy production generates more heat.
 However, blood flow to the skin also increases in order to allow heat loss. Due to the shallow
temperature gradient between the body and the exterior air, less heat can be lost by conduction,
convection and radiation, necessitating in a higher rate of blood flow to the skin.
(b) Changes in energy metabolism

 Due to the need for increased blood flow to the skin for heat loss, the muscle may not receive an
optimum blood flow & thus oxygen supply. The rate of aerobic respiration may thus decrease.
 This is compensated for by the use of anaerobic respiration, resulting in increased glycogen
breakdown and higher levels of muscle and blood lactate.
 Hence, fatigue sets in more easily when exercising under hot conditions.
(c) Sweating
 Increased sweat production occurs during exercise under hot conditions in order to maximize the
effect of evaporative cooling.
 As water and salts are lost in the sweat, excessive sweating decreases the volume of blood plasma,
which may lead to circulatory collapse.
 Furthermore, evaporative cooling is effective only under conditions of low relative humidity. Under
conditions of high humidity, when the water in sweat is unable to vaporize, the sweat simply drips off
the body.
3.2 HEAT-RELATED DISORDERS

A.2. 3 Discuss the health risks associated with exercising in the heat.
7 Heat-related disorders include heat cramps, heat exhaustion and heat stroke.
Because of their relatively large body surface area and immature sweat response,
infants, children and young adolescents are more susceptible to complications
associated with exercise performed in the heat and the cold.
A.2. 2 Outline what steps should be taken to prevent and to subsequently treat heat-related
8 disorders.
Different individuals have different abilities to tolerate heat stress, depending on factors such as age,
lack of fitness, lack of acclimatization to hot environments, hydration levels, body mass (which
corresponds to a low surface area to volume ratio) and clothing choices. With increased numbers of
individuals participating in extreme sports, ultra-endurance events & the globalization of sport, more
awareness of heat-related disorders and how to treat them is necessary.
Fig. 15 shows the risk of heat stress (i.e. developing a heat-related disorder) at different temperatures &
relative humidity levels.
Fig. 15.The risk of heat stress varies with temperature

and relative humidity.
Some heat-related disorders, in increasing order of severity, are:

(a) Heat cramps
 Heat cramps are associated with excessive sweating during exercise and are usually caused by
dehydration, salt loss, and inadequate blood flow to the skeletal muscles. They usually occur
in the quadriceps, hamstrings, and calves.
 Treatment for heat cramps is rehydration with an electrolyte (salt) solution and muscle stretch.
(b) Heat syncope (fainting)

 Heat syncope results from physical exertion in a hot environment.
 In an effort to increase heat loss, the skin blood vessels vasodilate to such an extent that blood
flow to the brain is reduced causing symptoms of headache, dizziness, faintness, increased heart
rate, nausea, vomiting, restlessness, and possibly even a brief loss of consciousness.
 Treatment for heat syncope is to sit or lie down in a cool environment with elevation of the feet.
Hydration is very important so there is not a possible progression to heat exhaustion or heat
stroke.
(c) Heat exhaustion

 Heat exhaustion is a shock-like condition that occurs when excessive sweating causes
dehydration and salt loss.
 A person with heat exhaustion may have headache, nausea, dizziness, chills, fatigue, and extreme
thirst. Signs of heat exhaustion are pale and clammy skin, rapid and weak pulse, loss of
coordination, decreased performance, dilated pupils, and profuse sweating.
 Treatment for heat exhaustion is to immediately stop the activity and properly hydrate with chilled
water and/or an electrolyte replacement sport beverage. The exerciser should be cleared by his/her
physician before resuming sport or other strenuous outdoor activities.
(d) Exertional Heat Stroke (Hyperthermia)

 Heat stroke is a life-threatening condition in which the body’s thermal regulatory mechanism is
overwhelmed.
 There are two types of heat stroke – fluid depleted (slow onset) and fluid intact (fast onset).
 Fluid depleted means that the individual is not hydrating at a rate sufficient to function in a heat
challenge situation.
 Fluid intact means that the extreme heat overwhelms the individual even though the fluid level is
sufficient.
 Key signs of heat stroke are hot skin (not necessarily dry skin), peripheral vasoconstriction (pale
or ashen colored skin), high pulse rate, high respiratory rate, decreased urine output, and a
core temperature (taken rectally) over 41C, and pupils may be dilated and unresponsive to light.
 Treatment for heat stroke is to move the person to a cool shaded area and reduce the body
temperature immediately. If immediate medical attention is not available, immerse the person in a
cool bath while covering the extremities with cool wet cloths and massaging the extremities to
propel the cooled blood back into the core.
Another possible disorder associated with exercising in the heat is exercise-induced hyponatremia , also
known as water intoxication.
 This is due to excess water intake, which fails to replenish the sodium losses that result from
sweating and dilutes the plasma even further.
 Symptoms of hyponatremia include light-headedness, malaise, nausea, to altered mental status.
 Athletes should thus drink only as much fluid as they lose due to sweating, and should
consider the salt concentration of the beverage being consumed.
Table 16 shows a summary of some heat-related disorders.
Table 16.A summary of heat-related disorders.
Some recommendations on how to prevent exertional heat related illness include:

 Be aware of the local weather. Try to exercise in the cooler and/or less humid hours of the day.
 Take breaks frequently in the shade.
 Wear appropriate clothing. Such clothing should be lightweight and allow for or promote
convective, radiative and evaporative heat loss. If clothing becomes wet with sweat, it should be
changed frequently.
 Drink moderate amounts of water or an isotonic sport beverage frequently, rather than large
amounts at one time. Thirst is not a good indicator of fluid deficit; rather, the athlete should weigh
themselves before & after exercise, work out the rate of fluid loss, and drink fluids at the same rate.
 Avoid caffeinated, protein, and alcoholic drinks, e.g., colored soda, coffee, tea, which increase the
rate of water loss through urination
 Acclimatize to exercising outdoors.
.
3.3 ACCLIMATIZATION TO HOT CONDITIONS

A.2.9 2 Describe how an athlete should acclimatize to heat stress.
Performing training sessions in similar environmental conditions (heat and humidity) for
5 to 10 days results in almost total heat acclimatization. Initially, the intensity of training
should be reduced to avoid heat-related problems in these conditions.
National representative teams/sportspeople choosing to acclimatize to the conditions of
a host country during a major international sporting competition could be considered.
Aim 8: The cost associated with the acclimatization of athletes using environmental
chambers and/or expensive overseas training facilities (science and technology drives
demand) could be explored. This also raises an ethical implication that poorer nations
will be unable to afford such support mechanisms and so their athletes are
disadvantaged in comparison to athletes from wealthier nations.
A.2.1 3 Discuss the physiological and metabolic adaptations that occur with heat
0 acclimatization. Include increased plasma volume, increased sweat response and
reduced rate of muscle glycogen utilization.
The mean temperature of different parts of the world varies widely (Fig. 17). Each region of the world is
inhabited by individuals who are adapted or acclimatized to their daily environmental conditions.
Fig. 17.Different regions have widely differing temperatures to which their inhabitants must acclimatize.
Heat acclimatization is a natural

adaptation to allow for improved
climate tolerance & exercise
performance. Heat
acclimatization requires exercise
in (not just exposure to) a hot
environment for about 10-14
days. It results in physiological
changes (Fig. 18) that improve Fig.18.Physiological
changes due to heat
exercise performance. acclimatization.
Chronic (long-term) physiological adaptations include:

(a) Cardiovascular changes (occurring within 1-5 days)
 Increased plasma volume (by up to 25%) due to increased salt retention. This allows for increased
rates of sweat production during exertion.
 Due to the increased plasma volume, stroke volume increases. In order to maintain the total cardiac
output, the heart rate decreases by 15-25%.
 The reduced heart rate reduces the rating of perceived exertion.
 Altered blood distribution to supply less blood to the skin and more blood to skeletal muscle, which
allows for a reduced rate of muscle glycogen use by anaerobic respiration.
(b) Thermoregulatory changes (occurring within 8-14 days)

 Decreased resting core temperature
 Increased rate of sweating
 More dilute sweat (i.e. reduced rate of salt loss through sweat)
 Earlier onset of sweat production (i.e. at a lower temperature threshold)
Due to the combination of adaptations that occur, heat acclimatization reduces the incidence of heat-
related disorders and the intensity of symptoms.
Table 19 shows that exercise in hot conditions is more effective in inducing adaptation than exposure to
hot conditions.
Physiological responses No exercise Exercise Exercise
hot conditions cool conditions hot conditions
Lower core temperature at the onset of sweating ++ + ++
Increased heat loss via radiation & convection (skin ++ ++ ++

blood flow)
Increased plasma volume + + ++
Decreased heart rate O ++ ++
Decreased core body temperature ++ + ++
Decreased skin temperature + + +
Altered metabolic fuel utilization O ++ ++
Increased sympathetic nervous system outflow + ++ ++

(efferent)
Increased oxygen consumption O ++ ++
Improved exercise economy O O +
Adaptation to exercise in a cool environment O ++ ++
Adaptation to exercise in a hot environment + + ++
Symbols: O = minimal effect; + = moderate effect; ++ = major effect.

Table 19. The effects of 14 days of passive and strenuous exercise protocols in cool and hot conditions on selected
physiological responses (Armstrong and Maresh, 1991).
Heat acclimatization of athletes (especially those travelling to hotter countries to compete) is carried out
by gradually increasing the duration and intensity of exercise in the heat over about two weeks.
 Athletes may arrive earlier in the hosting country to acclimatize (however, this incurs additional
cost), or simulate event conditions in their home country (e.g. by exercising in an indoor,
heated area with warm, heavy clothing).
 Heat acclimatisation should occur daily or at intervals of no more than three days apart for 10 to 12
sessions, as the adaptations are transient and require repeated exposure to maintain.
 Exercise duration should gradually increase to between 60-90 minutes at 50-70% VO2max, or at
least the level sufficient to provoke a sweating response.
 Temperature and humidity conditions should parallel the competition conditions as closely as
possible.
 Coaches should monitor athletes’ hydration status (by monitoring urine colour & output /
weighing athletes before and after all training and heat acclimatisation sessions) to ensure that
dehydration does not occur.
An example of guidelines for a heat acclimatization program is shown in Fig. 20.
Fig. 20.An example of a heat acclimatization program. Note the progressive increase in the frequency and intensity of
trainings.
 Higher levels of aerobic fitness decrease the intensity and duration needed to maintain heat
acclimatization.
 The benefits of heat acclimatization gradually disappear if not maintained by continued heat
exposure.
 Heat acclimatization adaptations begin to disappear within a week of returning to a cooler
environment.
 75% of the adaptations will be lost within 3 weeks.
 Reacclimatization to heat is possible, and easier to accomplish than initial acclimatization.
4. EXERCISE IN COLD ENVIRONMENTS

4.1 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE TO EXERCISE UNDER COLD CONDITIONS
A.2.1 3 Discuss the physiological responses to exercise in the cold. Limit this to muscle
5 function and metabolic responses.
A.2.1 3 Explain why the body surface area-to-body mass ratio is important for heat
2 preservation. For example, tall, heavy individuals have a small body surface area-to-
body mass ratio which makes them less susceptible to hypothermia. Small children
tend to have a large body surface area-to-body mass ratio compared to adults. This
makes it more difficult for them to maintain normal body temperature in the cold.
Humans possess much less capacity for adaptation to long-term cold exposure than to prolonged heat
exposure. Cold exposure results in an increased rate of heat loss to the environment due to the
steeper temperature gradient; however, our body has few physiological mechanisms to prevent heat
loss as well as a limited capacity to generate heat.
(a) Cardiovascular response

 Vasoconstriction of arterioles leading to the skin surface, decreasing the rate of heat loss to the
environment (Fig. 21).
Fig. 21.A thermogram showing the effect of vasoconstriction in a cold environment. Picture (a) to the left was taken
immediately after placing the hand in an environment of 9C; picture (b) to the right was taken 4 minutes later.
 Vasoconstriction of arterioles leading to the skeletal muscles and skin, allowing for heat to be kept
within the core. As the activity of enzymes decreases at very low temperatures, conserving heat within
the core ensures that metabolic reactions can continue to occur at a rate sufficient to sustain life.
 This vasoconstriction results in increased blood pressure and heart rate due to the increased work
needed to move blood through the constricted vessels.
(b) Changes in energy metabolism

 Increased metabolic rate (non-shivering thermiogenesis), resulting in increased heat production
 Shivering (involuntary repeated rhythmic contractions of the skeletal muscles), resulting in increased
heat production.
 Shivering usually begins in the torso and spreads to the limbs as shivering intensity increases.
 Shivering increases the rate of utilization of metabolic fuels. Like in low intensity exercise, fats
are utilized first, followed by blood glucose and muscle glycogen. The relative contribution of
each of the metabolic fuels to heat production during cold exposure depends on existing glycogen
levels, shivering intensity, and the severity and type of cold exposure.
 Prolonged shivering can result in depletion of glycogen stores and thus an inability to maintain
blood glucose levels.
The response to cold stress varies between individuals based on their

 Gender – males and females differ in their hormonal levels, basal metabolic rates & body
composition. Females tend to have more fat stores (which serve as a good thermal insulator),
whereas males tend to have more muscle (which generates heat at a higher rate than fat).
 Body mass & surface area to volume ratio – Individuals with higher body mass tend to have a lower
surface area to volume ratio, which lead to decreased rates of heat loss. Children, who tend to
have a higher surface area to volume ratio, conversely lose heat more rapidly.
 Age – elderly people tend to have lower activity levels and metabolic rates and thus generate less
heat. Furthermore, they also tend to have impaired cardiovascular and shivering responses.
 Short-term acclimatizing mechanisms – although there are fewer mechanisms that allow for
adaptation to cold environments than hot environments, chronic exposure to low temperatures does
result in acclimatization. Some examples are:
 Habituation, a desensitization of the normal response to cold
 Metabolic acclimatization, with a higher basal metabolic rate even at normal temperatures and
a more rapid increase in metabolic rate when exposed to cold conditions. Both non-shivering
thermiogenesis and the shivering response have an earlier onset and generate larger amounts
of heat than in non-acclimated individuals.
 Insulative acclimatization, the increased vasoconstriction of skin arterioles to reduce heat
loss.
For individuals who habitually live in extremely cold

environments, they may have one or more of the following long-
term adaptations:
 Decreased surface area to volume ratio to decrease
the rate of heat loss. Individuals living in colder climes
generally need to conserve rather than expel heat, so
they should have a lower surface area exposed to the
environment (Fig. 22).
 Bergmann’s rule: This rule predicts that individuals
of larger size are found in colder environments, and
individuals of smaller size are found in warmer
regions.
 Allen’s rule: This rule predicts that individuals from
hot climates usually have appendages that are long
and thin while individuals from cold climates usually Fig. 22. Bergman & Allen’s rules illustrated by
have shorter and thicker versions of those body comparing between typical arctic and tropical
body forms.
parts.
 Altered fat distribution patterns – more fat is
deposited in the trunk, increasing thermal insulation for the core.
 Long-term change in blood flow patterns resulting in chronic vasoconstriction of skin arterioles.
 Increased basal metabolic rate to increase the rate of heat production.
4.2 COLD-RELATED DISORDERS

A.2.1 2 Describe the health risks of exercising in the cold, including cold water.
6
The main health risks associated with exercise in the cold include hypothermia, frostnip & frostbite (Fig.
25 & 26).
(a) Hypothermia
 Hypothermia refers to a drop in core body temperature below 35.0C, which occurs when the rate
of heat loss far exceeds the rate of heat production.
 Hypothermia is dangerous as the drop in body temperature results in a slowing of metabolic
reactions below the rate required to sustain life.
 The causes of hypothermia generally fall into one of three categories:

 acute or immersion hypothermia, which happens when a person loses heat very rapidly – for
example, after falling into cold water (KIV: Section 4.3)
 exhaustion hypothermia, which happens when a person’s body has exhausted its’ energy
stores and can no longer generate heat
 chronic hypothermia, where heat is lost slowly over time; this is common in elderly people who
live in poorly heated accommodation or in people who live on the streets.
 Hypothermia is categorized into mild (36.1-33.9°C), moderate (33.9-32.2°C) and severe (32.2-
27.8°C) stages (Fig. 23).
Fig. 23.Stages of hypothermia.
(b) Frostnip & Frostbite

 Both of these conditions are caused by actual freezing of the skin, and vary only in their degree of
severity (Fig. 24).
 Prolonged exposure to cold temperatures results in vasoconstriction to the extent that skin
tissues die from lack of oxygen & nutrients. This causes the irreparable damage seen in more
severe forms of frostbite.
 As the temperature of skin tissues continues to decrease, freezing occurs and results in the
formation of ice crystals that rupture cell membranes, causing severe damage to cells. However, it
is not possible for freezing to occur when the air temperature is above 0C.
Fig. 24.Frostnip (first degree frostbite), superficial

(mild / second degree) frostbite, and deep (severe /
third degree) frostbite.
Frostnip refers to the freezing of only the superficial layers of the skin, and can be thought of as
mild (first degree) frostbite.
 Frostnip does not result in long-term tissue injury.
 The skin feels numb due to the lack of blood flow.
 The skin looks pale and feels cold while the underlying tissues remain warm and flexible.
 Simple re-warming of the affected area resolves the symptoms of frostnip.
Frostbite can be divided into mild (second degree) and severe (third degree) categories.
 Mild frostbite
 The skin turns white or blue and feels hard and frozen, but the deeper tissues are unharmed.
 Extracellular ice crystals form. Water migrates across the cell membrane down its’
concentration gradient, resulting in decreased cell volume, membrane rupture and cell death.
 The skin may form blood- filled blisters after rewarming, as blood returns to the affected areas
and leaks out of the damaged blood vessels into tissues.
 Severe frostbite
 Skin turns white, blue or mottled.
 The tissues beneath the skin feel hard and frozen. Deeper body parts are injured, such as blood
vessels, nerves, tendons and muscle.
 Even upon re-warming, these body parts may not regain function as the tissues have already
died.
 The feet, hands and protruding areas of the face (e.g. the nose & ears) are at the greatest risk of
incurring frostnip and frostbite. This is due to their
 Relatively low muscle mass (less heat generation)
 Relatively low fat content (less thermal insulation)
 Large surface area to volume ratio
 Peripheral vasoconstriction to conserve the body’s core temperature.
Some risk factors that increase an individual’s susceptibility to cold-related disorders are:
 Very young babies, who have a larger surface area to volume ratio and are unable to regulate
their body temperature as well as adults
 Older people, particularly if they're not very active, do not eat enough or have insufficient fat stores,
have illnesses or take medication that can interfere with the body's ability to regulate temperature.
 Relevant illnesses include those that affect the indiivdual’s ability to realize drops in
temperature or thermoregulate (e.g. peripheral neuropathy, advanced diabetes, stroke), that
affect memory (e.g. Alzheimer’s disease)
 Relevant medications include sedatives (which decrease consciousness levels, as well as
decrease the body’s ability to thermoregulate).
 Homeless people who are unable to find shelter.
 Heavy drug and/or alcohol use – these substances affect the body's ability to retain heat. Skin
arterioles remain vasodilated, increasing the rate of heat loss.
Fig. 25.on the preceding page and Fig. 26 above show two advisories issued for individuals who may be exposed to cold
weather.
4.3 FACTORS AFFECTING ENVIRONMENTAL COLD STRESS

A.2.1 2 Outline the importance of windchill in relation to body heat loss. A chill factor created by
3 the increase in the rate of heat loss via convection and conduction caused by wind.
A.2.1 3 Explain why swimming in cold water represents a particular challenge to the body’s
4 ability
to thermoregulate.
Consider the thermal conductivity of water and air.
During cold-water immersion, humans generally lose body heat and become
hypothermic at a rate proportional to the thermal gradient and the duration of exposure.
During swimming, the effect of cold water on body heat loss is increased because of
greater convective heat loss. However, at high swimming speeds, the metabolic rate of
the swimmer may compensate for the increased heat loss.
The main external factors for environmental cold stress during outdoor activities are air temperature,
wind speed, air humidity and water immersion.
(a) Wind speed

 Wind results in a perceived decrease in air temperature felt by the body on exposed skin due to the
flow of air. This is known as the wind chill effect (Fig. 27).
 The rate of heat loss by convection depends on the temperature gradient between the body and the
environment.
 As convection from a warm surface heats the air around it, an insulating boundary layer of warm air
forms against the surface of the body. Moving air (i.e. wind) disrupts this boundary layer, allowing for
cooler air to replace the warm air against the surface.
 Thus, the faster the wind speed, the more rapidly the surface cools.
 Wind chill also depends on the speed of the athlete relative to the wind velocity. Running into a
headwind increases the apparent wind chill effect as compared to standing still or running with a
tailwind.
Fig. 27.Windchill equivalent temperature chart showing various combinations of temperature and wind speed that result in
the same cooling power as that seen with no wind. For example, a wind speed of 20km/h at -10C would result in the same
heat loss as-30C with no wind. Also shown in the figure is the risk of tissues freezing as windchill increases.
(b) Cold water immersion

Immersion in cold water results in a greater rate of heat loss (by up to 25 fold) than exposure to cold air.
 Water has a much higher specific heat capacity than air. This means that raising the temperature of
1cm3 of water by 1°C takes more than 3200 times as much heat energy than that required to heat the
same volume of air by the same amount.
 Thus, the layer of water surrounding the body heats up only very slowly. The temperature
gradient between the water and the body stays very steep, so the rate of heat loss by conduction
remains high.
 Water also has a much higher thermal conductivity than air. This means that water conducts heat
much better than air does, and heat loss via conduction when immersed in water is greater.
 Finally, the presence of water currents result in an increased rate of convective heat loss.
The response to cold water immersion has four phases.

(i) Cold shock response (1-3 minutes)
 On initial immersion, there is a large inspiratory gasp followed by severe hyperventilation, which
may result in the submerged individual inhaling water.
 Cold shock also results in a large increase in heart rate (known as tachycardia) and blood
pressure. This is due to peripheral vasoconstriction in order to prevent heat loss; however
peripheral vasoconstriction also results in the heart having to work harder in order to pump blood
through the constricted vessels.
 The sudden immersion into cold water can also result in muscle spasms due to reflex contraction
of the skeletal muscles.
 Managing the cold shock response includes fighting the gasp reflex, staying calm and
controlling breathing, and minimizing the surface area exposed to water by curling up or
huddling with others in the water (Fig. 28).
Fig. 28. Reducing exposed

surface area reduces the
rate of heat loss while
immersed in cold water.
(ii) Cold incapacitation (5-15 minutes)

 Peripheral vasoconstriction decreases blood flow to the skeletal muscles, resulting in a loss of
control of muscular coordination.
(iii) Hypothermia (more than 30 minutes)

 The time taken for hypothermia to set in varies depending on water temperature, body type, size,
level of insulation of clothing and degree of acclimatization.
(iv) Circum-rescue / post-rescue collapse (after removal from cold water)

 Victims of hypothermia who have just been rescued can undergo circulatory system collapse if not
carefully managed. One of the theories as to why this occurs is that with sudden warming,
vasodilation occurs and blood pressure suddenly drops. With insufficient blood supplied to the
muscles and brain, the victim may lose consciousness or possibly even die.
Fig. 29 summarizes the stages response to cold water immersion.
Fig. 29. Stages of response to cold water immersion.
Swimming in cold water, especially in open water, represents a particular challenge to the athlete.
 Immersion in cold water results in a very high rate of heat loss by conduction and convection. This
can result in hypothermia relatively quickly if an individual does not wear protective clothing.
 However, for a trained athlete who is able to swim at high speeds, the excess heat generated by
the increased metabolic rate may compensate for the heat lost to the water.
4.4 PREVENTION OFCOLD-RELATED DISORDERS

A.2.1 3 Discuss the precautions that should be taken when exercising in the cold.
7 The principal barrier is clothing, the amount of insulation offered by which is measured
in a unit called a clo (1 clo = 0.155 m2 K W-1). Consider the insulating effect of clothing.
Consideration of exercising in water is not required.
As there is a limit to the rate of heat production by the body, preventing heat loss (by wearing
appropriate clothing) is an important mechanism in preventing cold-related disorders.
Clothing for cold-weather protection aims to

 Reduce the exposed surface area of the body
 Decrease heat loss by conduction, convection, radiation & evaporation (Table 30)
Reducing  Materials with low thermal conductivity should be chosen.
thermal  Materials that trap a layer of air are also helpful for heat conservation, as air has a
conduction very poor thermal conductivity.
 The more layers of clothing between the skin and the external air, the more
insulation. Several layers of lighter clothing provide better protection than a single
bulky layer.
Reducing  The fibers in thick, fluffy clothing reduce air movement, reducing convective heat
convection loss.
Reducing  Materials with low emissivity (ability to radiate heat) should be chosen.
radiation  The external surface of the material should cool to ambient temperature, allowing
for a less steep temperature gradient, reducing the rate of heat loss.
Reducing  Breathable materials that “wick” sweat away from the skin and allow it to evaporate
evaporation should be chosen.
 If sweat is not allowed to evaporate, it saturates the fibers of clothing materials,
displacing trapped air. This drastically reduces the insulative properties of the
material (by up to 90%).
 However, the material chosen should also be waterproof (i.e. it prevents water from
the exterior from entering). This is accomplished by having very small pores in the
material that allow the individual water molecules found in water vapour to pass, but
are too small to allow aggregations of water molecules found in liquid water through.
Table 30. Considerations when choosing clothing for cold-weather activity.
An ideal material would thus be lightweight, not limit movement or comfort, trap a layer (or layers) of
still air for insulation, and be both breathable and waterproof (Fig. 31).
Fig. 31. Properties of a material suitable for cold-weather clothing.
Thermal insulation is generally optimal with three layers of clothing (Table 32 & Fig. 33):
Main Functions & properties Common
characteristic materials
Base layer Breathability  Traps a layer of air near to the skin (this layer should Synthetic
be fitting, without large gaps, but not tight) wicking
 A breathable layer which wicks sweat away so it does material
not remain in contact with the skin (e.g. DryFit,
Thinsulate)
Mid layer Insulation  A thick, fluffy middle layer that traps air for insulation Fleece /
 Has to be breathable to allow evaporation of sweat microfleece,
 It should also prevent skin contact with the wool, down
outermost wind-breaking layer (which, as it is thin,
gets close to the ambient temperature)
Shell layer Wind-  An outermost layer than is thin, breathable and Synthetic
breaking waterproof. waterproof
 It should be wind-proof to reduce the wind chill effect material
 This layer reaches ambient temperature, resulting in a (e.g. Gore-
lowered rate of heat loss from the inner layers Tex)
Table 32. Layers of clothing for cold weather insulation.
Fig.33. Layers of clothing

and their main properties
In and of itself, layering of clothes traps air between layers, increasing insulative properties. Layering also
allows for easy removal or addition of clothing when temperature or activity levels change.
Additional protection may be needed for the head, face, ears, fingers and toes, which tend to lose heat
easily due to either exposure to the environment, large surface area and / or low muscle and fat content.
 This additional protection can come in the form of hats, scarves, ear muffs, gloves & mittens and
socks & shoes.
 Layering of such additional protective materials can also be considered in very cold conditions.
Clothing should be selected to suit the temperature, weather conditions (e.g., wind speed, rain) and the
nature, level and duration of activity.
 If the clothing chosen is inadequate, heat loss will occur faster than heat production, resulting in
cold-related disorders.
 If the clothing chosen is excessive, sweating may occur, decreasing the insulative value of the
clothing and increasing the risk for cold injuries.
The insulative value of clothing is measured in clo units (Fig. .

 1 clo unit is defined as the amount of insulation that allows a person at rest to maintain thermal
equilibrium in an environment at 21°C (70°F) in a normally ventilated room (0.1 m/s air
movement).
 The clo unit requirement is thus affected by an individual’s metabolic rate.
 Individuals with a higher BMR will require less clo units of insulation.
 Activities of higher intensity will generate more heat. Individuals performing such activities
require less clo units of insulation.
 The clo unit requirement is also affected by ambient temperature and wind speed.
Some examples of suitable clothing for different activities in cold weather are shown in Figs. 34 & 35.
Clothing for hiking in cold weather (outdoor activity of moderate intensity)
Clothing for staying in camp in cold weather (low activity intensity)
Fig.34. Different clothing requirements for different activities.

Fig.35. Clothing insulation factors for different clothing combinations.
Fig. 36 shows the roles of coaches & athletes in ensuring that cold-weather exercise is carried out safely.
Fig.36. Roles of coaches & athletes in ensuring that cold-weather exercise is carried out safely.

A2 Physiological Factors and Performance

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CONCORD HIGH SCHOOL / IBDP SPORTS, EXERCISE & HEALTH SCIENCE

OPTION A.2: ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS & PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE

ENVIROMENTAL FACTORS & PHYSICAL

Fig.1. Some internal factors affecting performance in sport.

External factors that affect sporting performance include:

2. HEAT PRODUCTION & THERMOREGULATION IN THE HUMAN BODY

Fig.2. Core versus shell temperatures in different environments.

Fig.6. Summary of the process of thermoregulation.

(a) Detecting temperature changes

(b) Processing information about temperature changes

Fig. 9.Mechanisms of heat transfer.

Fig. 10.Mechanisms of heat transfer.

Feature Function in heat loss / gain

These mechanisms are summarized in Figs. 9, 12, 13 & 14.

(b) Below thermoneutral zone

(c) Above thermoneutral zone

Fig. 12.Summary of mechanisms involved in thermoregulation.

Fig. 13.Principle of thermoregulation.

Fig. 14.Simple flowchart showing mechanisms involved in thermoregulation.

3. EXERCISE IN HOT ENVIRONMENTS

(a) Cardiovascular response

(b) Changes in energy metabolism

3.2 HEAT-RELATED DISORDERS

Fig. 15.The risk of heat stress varies with temperature

Some heat-related disorders, in increasing order of severity, are:

(b) Heat syncope (fainting)

(c) Heat exhaustion

(d) Exertional Heat Stroke (Hyperthermia)

Table 16 shows a summary of some heat-related disorders.

Table 16.A summary of heat-related disorders.

Some recommendations on how to prevent exertional heat related illness include:

3.3 ACCLIMATIZATION TO HOT CONDITIONS

Heat acclimatization is a natural

Chronic (long-term) physiological adaptations include:

(b) Thermoregulatory changes (occurring within 8-14 days)

Lower core temperature at the onset of sweating ++ + ++

Increased heat loss via radiation & convection (skin ++ ++ ++

Increased plasma volume + + ++

Decreased heart rate O ++ ++

Decreased core body temperature ++ + ++

Decreased skin temperature + + +

Altered metabolic fuel utilization O ++ ++

Increased sympathetic nervous system outflow + ++ ++

Increased oxygen consumption O ++ ++

Improved exercise economy O O +

Adaptation to exercise in a cool environment O ++ ++

Adaptation to exercise in a hot environment + + ++

Symbols: O = minimal effect; + = moderate effect; ++ = major effect.

An example of guidelines for a heat acclimatization program is shown in Fig. 20.

4. EXERCISE IN COLD ENVIRONMENTS

(a) Cardiovascular response

(b) Changes in energy metabolism

The response to cold stress varies between individuals based on their

For individuals who habitually live in extremely cold

4.2 COLD-RELATED DISORDERS

 The causes of hypothermia generally fall into one of three categories:

Fig. 23.Stages of hypothermia.

(b) Frostnip & Frostbite

Fig. 24.Frostnip (first degree frostbite), superficial

4.3 FACTORS AFFECTING ENVIRONMENTAL COLD STRESS

(a) Wind speed

(b) Cold water immersion

The response to cold water immersion has four phases.

Fig. 28. Reducing exposed