RULE BOOK ALTERNATIVE TRANSIENT PROGRAM RB-05A.PDF Vv BRANCH CARDS TO MODEL SINGLE PHASE Bla NONLINEAR ELEMENTS V-A___| pseudo - non linear resistance R(j) (Type - 99 branch) | SA-1/2 V-B | pseudo - non linear reactor L(i) (Type -98 branch) _| 5B-1/2 | ;V-C | staircase time - varying resistance R(t) (Type - 97 5C-112 branch) i V-D | pseudo - non linear histeretic reactor L{i) (Type -96 | §D-1/2 branch) [V-E | exponential ZnO surge arrester R(j) (Type - 92 "5655") | 5E-1/4 V-F piecewise - linear time- vary resistor R(t) (Type -91; | 6F-1 "3333") _| V-G _| true - non linear resistance R(l) (Type -92; "4444") | 5G-1/3 [(CAUE - COMITE ARGENTINO DE USUARIOS DE EMTP - ATPPage 5-1 ‘J. BRANCH CARDS TO MODEL SINGLE-PHASE NONLINEAR ELEMENTS R, L. Single-phase nonlinear elements are those corsisting of a single, nonlinear network branch having two terminal nodes. Both resistors R and inductors fall into this class. Although such elements are usually installed in 3-phase banks at some location of the network, the elenents themselves are inherently Single-phase, It is not the elements themselves, but rather the network, which provides coupling among such elements. ‘his is to be contrasted with multiphase nonlinearities of rotating electric machinery, which are not treated in the present single-phase section (for machinery, see Sections VIII and Ix). In addition to nonlinear elements, time-dependent elements are also treated in the present section, Although linear, such elements can not conveniently be solved together with those linear elements that are constant (and which can be built into a constant nodal admittance matrix [¥]). Time-varying linear elements are grouped with nonlinear elements because they can be solved by the same specialized solution techniques, The Type-97 staircase time-varying resistance of Section v-c is solved along with pseudo-nonlinear elements, Whereas the Type-91, piecewise-linear, time-varying resistor of Section V-F is solved along with true nonlinear elements using compensation and superposition. ‘The dominant distinction among the various nonlinear and time-varying elements of the present chapter has to do with the solution method that is used. Half are solved "exactly," as "true" nonlinearities, using compensation and superposition, The other half, called "pseudo-nonlinear,* are only solv? approximately (although this may be perfectly adequate for engineering purpos*. Pseudo-nonlinearities are represented at each time step by a single linear segment that was selected from the known solution of the preceding time step. Whereas true nonlinearities are rigorously solved using Newton's method to iterate on all coupled nonlinear equations of an isolated subnetwork, pseudo- nonlinearities have no such coupling, and the resulting solution may involve error (if operation does not remain on the assumed linear segment). A pseudo nonlinearity is really only appropriate if the user knows that the resulting operation will vary smoothly along the characteristic as a function of time. ‘The various subsections of this chapter are devoted to specific nonlinear elements, ‘They have been ordered according to the solution method that is used. First come the pseudo-nonlinear models (Sections V-A through V-D), followed by the true nonlinear models (Sections V-E through V-K). The Table of Contents (Section ) provides a summary list of all of then. ‘The computational burden of true nonlinearities is quite different than that of pseudo-nonlinearities, and this difference should be understood by the user, For the case of inductors, this aspect is important in selecting between the two alternate forms of modeling. Pseuio-nonlinearities are represented within the nodal admittance matrix [¥] for the linear network. Each time the operating point of any pseudo-nonlinear element of the network changes from one Linear Segment to another of the piecewise-linear characteristic, the affected four elements of [¥] must be modified, and the entire matrix must be retriangularized. Case summary statistics show the number of times this has happened upon the completion of execution (see "No. times =" in the line of List 5). As network size grows to infinity, reliance upon pseudo-nonlinear modeling would result in segment changes on nearly every time step, and hence very slow 327Page 5-2 Simulation. Users who assemble networks with thousands of nodes and hundreds or thousands of nonlinearities should be aware of this disturbing asymptotic limit. as for true nonlinearities, these are not a part of {¥) at all. instead, they are handled as current injections (using superposition) after the nonlineat element currents have been found by a solucion that involes a Thevenin equivalent of the linear network. This is the compensation approach. Provided distributed-parameter transmission circuits isolate nonlinearities into Subnetworks of reasonable size (e.g., involving just 3, or 6, or even 12 nonlinearities for each subnetwork), compensation has ‘the advantage that computational effort only varies linearly with network size, and repetitive triangulerization of [¥] is avoided, Smoothness of operation is even more important than computational efficiency in selecting between "true" and "pseuio" nonlinear element model ing, however. After all, if a simulation is erroneous, it matters little how quickly the computer produced it. Unless the user is sure that operation will be ‘smooth, he should consider avoiding pseuio-nonlinear modeling, since the error might be intolerable. On the other hand, if the user does know that operation will be smooth, he is advised to consider avoiding true nonlinear modeling in order to minimize the burden and/or comflicts of compensation. Resistors and inductors are quite different in this respect. As a general rule, nonlinear resistors may undergo unpredictable and discontinuous operation. For example, a resistor in parallel with a linear inductor will have voltage that is equal to the derivative of the inductor current, and this derivative need not be continuous. On the other hand resistors in parallel with lumped, linear capacitance will necessarily oper? smoothly, since the voltage is the integral of the capacitor current. so, Pseudo-nonlinear modeling of a resistor in parallel with a linear inductor i$ generally suicidal, whereas pseuio-nonlinear modeling of a resistor in parallel with a capacitor is generally acceptable. But if such details are unclear, the general rule is that nonlinear resistors should be modeled as true nonlinear elements. I.e., in the absence of knowledgable advice to the contrary, avoid ‘Type-99 modeling of Section V-A, and use Type-92 modeling of Sections V-£ and V-F instead. 4s a general rule, nonlinear inductors will operate smoothly, since flux is the integral of voltage. Hence pseudo-nonlinear modeling (Type-98 of Section V— 8, or Type-96 of Section v-D) are acceptable, and are to be preferred over the true nonlinear modeling (Type-93 of Section V-H). ‘This assumes that the network is not too large (resulting in too much triangularizing), and that the characteristic is not represented by too many segments (resulting in too many or too fast changes among segments). ‘The general principle is simple: compensation is too good and too powerful to be wasted on something as simple as a saturable reactor. Save the compensation for those cases where it may be needed (e.g., 2n0 modeling, or maybe the U.M.) . Pseudo-nonlinear elements involve no inherent prohibitions regarding connectivity. | Not so for true nonlinear elements, which must be isolated in subnetworks (by distributed transmission ‘circuits) that do not contain compensation-based U.M. usage. This is because any of the true nonlinearities of the present Section V can be solved together as a coupled set. However, the solution method does not allow for U.M. equations, which are completely different. ‘The U.M. can be present in the same subnetwork, but it must be represented without compensation. @@) Page 5-3 Because user-supplied FORTRAN has been connected to true nonlinear elements, but has not yet been connected to psewto-nonlinear elements, there is much greater potential variability of true nonlinearities. If the réader does not notice the nonlinear modeling that he is looking for, perhaps he could write his own, Details are covered in Section VJ. "TACS CONTROL" to Modify Any True Nonlinear Element ere eo ns TACS can be used to modify or enhance any basic, true, nonlinear element in any one or a combination of the following three elementary ways: 1) A TACS-controlled series voltage source can be added; 2) A TACS-controlled shunt current source can be added; 3) The nonlinear characteristic can be scaled by TACS, Each true nonlinear element can use up to three TACS variables to control these three functions. The names are declared on a special-request card that must inmediately follow the "9999"-card that terminates the nonlinear element to be controlled. The format of the declaration is as follows: c 1 2 3 © 345678901234 567890 |123456|789012! c TACS CONTROL] A6 | AG | AG | © = |---| c NAME] NAME2 NAME3 The three TACS variable names of columns 15-32 correspond to the three functions listed, in order. Any name that is left blank is interpreted as a request for no such TACS control. In the cases of sources, the value (voltage or current, respectively) is set equal to the controlling TACS variable at each time step. As for the usage of NAME3 to scale the characteristic, it is the current that is multiplied by the TACS variable in question. Examples of such usage can be found in the BENCHMARK test cases. For series voltage ("NAME1") control, see the 2nd subcase of BENCHMARK DC-37; For shunt current ("NAME2") control, see the 2nd subcase of BENCHMARK DC-45; For scaling of the characteristic ("NAME3 usage), see the 3rd subcase of BENCIMARK DC-45. The interpretation of the "TACS CONTROL" ceclaration can be illustrated by the solution to the 2nd subcase of BENCHMARK DC-37: c 1 2 Z 4 5 6 7 C 345678901234567890 12345678981 2345678901 23456789012345678901 2345678901 ¢ — [a 3 TACS NL control variables. 22 @ o | TACS CONTROLBATTER Convergence of the Newton Iteration for True Nonlinear Elements = While it is possible that no solution will be found using Newton's method (in which case an ENTP error termination would result), the nonlinear element solution should be correct if the simulation runs to completion. This is a dominant advantage of the compensation-based approach. A disadvantage is that isolating, distributed-parameter transmission lines must be used to separate a subnetwork containing ‘such single-phase nonlinear elements from any compensation-based U.M. modeling. " But since the U.M. generally can be used without compensation if necessary, the artificial separation using stub lines isPage 5-4 almost a ching of the past. Such isolaticn is almost never necessary for single-phase, nonlinear elements, although it might be used as a matter of computational convenience (to reduce the maximum number of non! inearities within any one subnetwork) . Consider controls of the Newton iteration, which may require adjustment for difficult configurations. It is the "ZINC OXIDE" special-request card of Section _II-A that allows the user to redefine Newton controls at the beginning of execution. A possible error termination for true nonlinear elements is associated with singularity of the equations being solved. To invert the Jacobian matrix [J] of Newton's method, pivoting is used, and miscellaneous data parameter EPSILN provides the measure for “how small is small." If a solution is diverging ("blowing up"), it is not uncommon for there to be an EMTP error termination complaining about a singular (J): KILL = 269, ISTAT(19) = 3501. This is particularly true for ZnO arresters of Section V-E, since excess voltage is fed back into “the ZnO nonlinearity to produce astronomical currents. Elements of the Jacobian matrix thus can be quite abnormal, and it is the singularity test that not infrequently terminates the simulation. BPA production users have had this problem in cases where ZnO protection of series capacitors was used, with a fault placed on the system in the phasor sinusoidal steady state solution for initial conditions (Ref. 8, Vol. X, Page MIOG-12, "Rule", 8 March 1980). So, if ‘a simulation ends prematurely due to a singular Jacobian matrix, the user is advised to examine the voltages across the nonlinear element at the time of difficulty, since this is the initial guess for Newton's method. Unless such voltages are reasonable physically, the iteration has Little hope for convergence. Possibly the iteration limit would simply be reached, but more likely, singularity of the Jacobian would be detected. Should the Newton iteration of coupled nonlinear elements somehow terminate abnormally, the user of interactive execution, observation, and control (SPY of Section XVI) will be given an opportunity to observe and correct the trouble. First, there will be an abbreviated explanation of the trouble, followed by suspension of the simulation, and a disaster-level audible alarm and prompt as follows: SEND REMEDY (SPY, SOLVE, LOOK, STOP) + ‘The simplest of possible responses is "STOP", which is to be used if the user surrenders, and if he wants to terminate program execution. But more optimistic is the always appropriate and simple "LOOK", which will result in a repeat of the failed Newton iteration with DIAGNOSTIC ‘printout turned on. The user can control the level, since there will be a subsequent prompt for it in this case: ‘SEND DIAGNOSTIC LEVEL IPRSUP (12 FORMAT) : ‘The response "9" is generally appropriate here. From the resulting diagnostic output, the source of the trouble may be evident, in which case the user might attempt an on-line correction using SPY (which will be available after sending “SPy"), The user might want to change control parameters of the Newton iteration via "DEPOSIT", and for the, the following information about the storage of variables of the “ZINC OXIDE" special-request card is critical. ‘The maximum number of iterations is stored in variable MAXZNO, the convergence tolerance is EPSZNO, the warning tolerance is ERWARN, and the fatal error tolerance (resulting in the present interruption) is EPSTOP, Finally, corrections of the Newton iteration are limited by ZNOLIM(1) and ZNOLIM(2). ‘The interactive user only relinquishes control by sending "SOLVE". yet, if the resulting, resumed iteration fails to converge, the “SEND REMEDY" prompt will reappear in short order. @ &Page SA-1 V-A. Tyre-99 Pseudo-Nonlinear Resistance R(i) Data cards for a Type-99, pseudo-nonlinear resistor R(i) begin with a single branch card bearing type code "99" in columns 1-2: ¢ 1 3 5 ¢ 1345678! 001234 867808 11234561789812| 345678 9012341567896! ¢ |—- I> 991 a6 | AG | AB | AG | £6.01! 6.0 | £6.0 | £6.01 Etc. —-—| C BUS] BUS2 8US3BUS4 VFLASH TDELAY JUMP SEAL ‘The usual pair of terminal node names 8US1 and BUS2 occupy columns 3-14, and BUS3 and BUS4 of columns 15-26 are used for reference-branch or branch-naming purposes. As usual, column 80 can be used for branch output requests. In between are four variables V-flash, Tdelay, JUMP, and V-seal -— all related to flashover of the built-in gap or cpening on a current zero. The ‘Type-99 branch is an open circuit during the phasor solution, and it is only connected when the branch voltage exceeds (in absolute value) the threshold v- flash. Then operation will begin on segment number JUMP, and conduction will continue for a while (usually until a current zero). When a current zero occurs, there will be opening, provided a time interval greater than or equal to T-delay has elapsed since the most recent flashover. The current zero is noted by a reversal in the sign of the current, and it is assumed that this reversal will occur only while operation is on the first segment of the characteristic. If the current zero occurs while operation is on some higher segment, a warning message will be issued: IIL Tracking trouble with Type-99 or 98 element number I = XK. I£ such a message is every seen, the user should be skeptical of the solution, and should either look for an error in his choice of parameters, or he should consider switching to true nonlinear modeling. An alternative opening strategy is use a voltage criterion rather than a current zero. If keyed positive, parameter V-seal provides for this: there will be disconnection when the branch voltage falls below this threshold in absolute value. This allows opening before a current zero (useful in some cases). Next come cards that specify the nonlinear i-v characteristic point by point, from left to right (in order of increasing device current), with one data card for each pair of values defining the piecewise-linear curve. The format is: c 1 2 a © 34567890123456|78901234567890121 ——| £16.0 | —-! C Current (1) voltage (v) The origin (0,0) is an implied point number zero that the user is to skip. ‘The v-i characteristic is assumed to be symmetric, so no negative values are to be keyed by the user. The user merely keys 2 or more positive points (for a nonlinearity; one point would result in a linear branch), and terminates this characteristic with a "9999"-card (a special value of current, in effect). vePage 5A-2 ‘The user of ‘Type-99 modeling must resist the illusory idea that accuracy improves as the the number of segments that define the characteristic approach infinity. The trouble is that operation is only allowed to move from one segment to an adjacent segment during a single time step. Too many Segments means that operation will sometimes be on the wrong segment, leading to error. If the user wants to allow a Type-99 element to flash only once, then he can use the "SINGLE FLASH" option. This is declared on a "9999"-card as follows: c 1 2 3 4 © 3456790123456 |7890123456789012| 345678901234 [SINGLE FLASH c— Within any data case, the "SINGLE FLASH" request is to be keyed only once, on the first element (in order of data input) to be controlled in this way. Any other Type-99 element that has the same first breakpoint voltage will be assumed to have such modeling, too. Hence any number of Type-99 elements can be constrained to flash only once, but’all must have the same characteristic (or more precisely, the first voltage of each must be identical) . The interpretation of input data cards for the Type-99 pseudo-nonl inear resistance R(i) can be illustrated using the solution to BENCHMARK DCPRINT-6. ‘The initial branch card confirms the values of parameters VFLASH, TDELAY, and JUMP, whereas (x,y) values of the characteristic are confirmed on each such card: c 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 © 3456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901 2345678901 234567890 ¢— eseuadiooatoieney eeaeeeeee ‘Type-99 nonlinear R. 5.00E+00 3.000540 2 ‘|99REC Breakpoint. 1.000006+00 — 1.00000E+02 i) Breakpoint. 2.08000E+00 2. 00100622 | 2.0 Special termination-of-points card. I 9999 Should the "SINGLE FLASH" option be used on the "9999"-card, then the interpretation of this final card is augmented as follows: Special termination-of-points card. I-flash | 9999 @>, Page 58-1 V-B. Type-98 Pseudo-Nonlinear Reactor L(i) Data cards for a Type-98, pseudo-nonlinear reactor L(i) begin with single branch card bearing type code "98" in columns 1~ c 1 2 3 8 © 1345678 |901234 567890 /123456178901213456781 lal C [ane |-aa ~ |-—-=—= |---| II 981 AB | AG | AB | AG | £60 | £6.09 | {r1 © | ane Janna fee = a Iet C BUS! BUS28US3 BUSA CURR FLUX, K ‘The usual pair of terminal node names BUS] and BUS2 occupy columns 3-14, and BUS3_ and BUS4 of columns 15-26 are used for reference-branch or branch-naming purposes. AS usual, column 89 can be used for branch output requests. . in between are the coordinates (CURR, FLUX) in the current-flux plane for the linear representation during the steady-state phasor solution. Were column space more plentiful, these two variables would be labeled i-steady and PSI- steady, respectively. Next come cards that specify the nonlinear i-pSI characteristic point by point, from left to right (in order of increasing device current), with one data card for each pair of values defining the piecewise-linear i-PSI curve. The format is: c 1 2 3 © 34567890123456|7890123456789012! c c— as © current (i) Flux (PST) The origin (0,0) is an implied point number zero that the user is to skip. The i-PSI characteristic is assumed to be symmetric, so no negative values are to be keyed by the user. The user merely keys 2 or more positive points (for a nonlinearity; one point would result in a linear branch), and terminates this characteristic with a "9999"-card (a special value of current, in effect). For typical production usage, the Type-98 pseudo-nonlinear inductance works well, and is recommended ahead of the compensation-based, ‘Type-93 model of Section V-H. The type-98 reactor a subcomponent of the saturable TRANSFORMER model of Section IV-E, and can be connected alnost anywhere, in any number, without much concern by the user. The only general concerns are about computational efficiency for very large cases (see Section V), problems with a large number of short segments to represent the characteristic, and excessive flux during the phasor solution. The user of ‘Type-98 modeling must resist the illusory idea that accuracy improves as the number of segments that define the characteristic approaches infinity. Operation is only allowed to move from the current segment to an adjacent segment during a single time step, and this may cause trouble. Too many segments means that operation will sometimes be on the wrong segment, leading to error. Note that the use of 2 segnents always avoids this problen (each Segment is adjacent to the other). On the other hand, two segments is too crude for typical, modern modeling. ‘The use of 3 to $ is common, and generally without trouble.Page 58-2 Trouble with excessive flux during the phasor solution refers to operation on other than the first segment of the nonlinear characteristic. Actually, the characteristic is not used, since an equivalent linear inductor of the user's choice is used to represent the branch during the phasor solution. But when the phasor solution is complete, and the flux at time zero is calculated from it, there is a problem if this initial flux exceeds the end of the first segment of the characteristic. Since flux is continuous, step one of the transient simulation will involve an abrupt change of current, as the operating point moves toward the appropriate 2nd or later segment. The associated surge of current produces voltage spikes in other inductors, of course. In general, then, there may be bothersome discontinuities at time zero, if the phasor flux exceeds the first segment of the magnetization curve. This is a good reason to have a long first segment, and also to consider adjusting the angular reference of phasors so that no one problem flux is at its maximum at time zero. ‘The interpretation of input data cards for the Type-98 psewio-nonl inear reactance L(i) can be illustrated using the solution to the second subcase of BENCHMARK DCPRINT-15, The initial branch card confirms the values of parameters CURR and FX, whereas (x,y) values of the characteristic are confirmed on each such card: c 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 © 34567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890 c ——-— a a Type-98 pseulo-nonlinear L. 5.000E-03 3.0006+01 |98TRAN Breakpoint. 5.00000E-03 300000841 | +005 Breakpoint. 1.00000E-62 4. 000005481 | +01 Breakpoint. 2.00000E-62 © 4.S0000E+01 | 02 Breakpoint. 1.00000E-81 5. 00000E+81 | Br Breakpoint. 5.00000E0O 1. 000005402 | 5.0 Special termination-of-points card. 1 9999 @ ©Page 5C-1 97 Staircase Time-varying Resistance R(t) If a staircase representation of resistance is acceptable, then the Type-97 branch may be appropriate for modeling a time-varying resistance. On the other hand, if continuity of the time-varying resistance is desired, the reader is advised to consider the piecewise-linear alternative that is provided by Type-91 modeling in Section V-F. Or the user could control the resistance himself from TACS (using the TACS-controlled R(t) of Section V-I). Even though it is linear, the staircase time-varying resistance is solved by the same computational procedure as are pseudo-nonlinear elements. That is, each time there is a change of resistance (from one step to another), [Y] must be modified and retriangularized. As a result, the Type-97 element is sloppily referred to as a pseudo-nonlinear element for simplicity. Data cards for a Type-97 staircase, time-varying resistance R(t) begin with a single branch card bearing type code "97" in columns 1-2: c 1 2 3 8 , C 1345678 1901234 /567890|1234561789012|345678] la) ( € |= |---| = oe 97| AB | AB | AG | AG | £6.01 86.0] Etc. {TL © | mmr | a nnn | lee ded C 8US1 BUS2 BUS3_BUS4 VFLASH TDELAY K ‘The usual pair of terminal node names BUS1 and BUS2 occupy columns 3-14, and BUS3 and BUS4 of columns 15-26 are used for reference-branch or branch-naming Purposes. AS usual, column 89 can be used for branch output requests. In between are the flashover voltage V-flash in colunns 27-32 and a delay time T-delay in columns 33-38. These two parameters control when the element is connected to, and when it is to be disconnected from, the network. There are just three common cases: Case 1: If TOEIAY=-1, then VFIASH is ignored, and the element is assumed to be connected for all time, including the phasor solution for initial conditions. In effect, the first segment or step is extended horizontally to the left to cover all negative times (this is the resistance used for the phasor solution) . case If TDELAY >, __ the element will never be connected before the simulation time t reaches this minimum time TDELAY. If no such delay is wanted, leave the field blank, or key zero. case If VFIASH > 0, and TDEIAY is not -1, then the element will never be connected before the branch voltage reaches this flashover value VEIASH. Yet the user must remember that positive TDELAY also inhibits such connection (see case 2). By leaving VFLASH blank or zero, there is no such flashover gap. sorPage 5C-2 Next come cards that specify the staircase resistance values point by point, from left to right (in order of increasing time), with one data card for each pair of values defining the staircase R(t) curve.’ The format is: ¢ 1 2 3 C 34567890123456/7890123456789012! € Time (t) Resistance (R) Such data (2 or more such cards) are to be terminated by a 9999-card (a special value of time, in effect). The user need not worry about times larger than his last point, since the program automatically extends the final step to infinite time. ‘The interpretation of input data cards for the Type-97, staircase, time dependent resistance R(t) can be illustrated using the solution to BENCHMARK Dc-42, The initial branch card confirms the values of parameters VFLASH and ‘TOELAY, whereas (x,y) values of the characteristic are confirmed on each such card: c 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 © 345678901 2345678901 2345678901 2345678901234557890 1 2345678901234567890 nnn nnn | ‘Type-97 R(T). 9. 0000E+00 -1. coadE+o i97L0AD Breakpoint. 2.00000E+02 = 1, 000B0EWO | 9.0 Breakpoint. 2.01000E+00 5. 00008E-81 | 2.01 Breakpoint. 6.01000EWO = 2. 00000E+00 | 6.a1 Breakpoint. 7.01000E+08 —1.00000E435 | 7.01 Special termination-of-points card. ' 9999 ®Page SD-1 Type-96 Pseudo-Nonlinear Hysteretic Inductor L(i) The pseudo-nonlinear hysteretic inductor is very similar to the Type-o8 seudo-nonlinear inductor described in Section v-8. The major difference is that the ‘Type-96 element represents the hysteretic behavior of the magnetic core, whereas the Type-98 element does not. Data cards for a Type-96, pseudo-nonlinear, hysteretic inductor L(i) begin with 9 single branch card bearing type code "96" in columns 1-2: 1 2 8 1345678 901234) 567899 1234561789012] 245678|901236| 1@! 1 I=] | a6 | AG | AG | E6.@ | £6.0 | 6.0 | [ra Lovee dl C BUS1 BUS2 BUS3 BUS4 CURR FLUX RESID K ‘The usual pair of terminal node names BUS] and BUS2 occupy columns 3-14, and BUS3 and BUS of columns 15-26 are used for reference-branch or branch-naming purposes. As usual, column 80 can be used for branch output requests. In between are the coordinates (CURR, FLUX) in the current-flux plane for the linear representation during the steady-state phasor solution. Were column space more plentiful, these two variables would be labeled i-steady and PSI- steady, respectively. There also is RESID of columns 39-44, which is for an ‘optional residual flux. More about these final three data fields leter. aa n= |---| Next come cards that specify the nonlinear i-PSI characteristic point by point. ‘There is assumed symmetry to the hysteresis loop, so only points of the lower half of the loop are to be inputted. These begin with the first point to the right of the negative saturation point (where the two curves meet in the 3rd quadrant), and they end one point to the right of the positive saturation point (where the two curves meet in the first quadrant). Points are inputted from left to right (in order of increasing device current), with one data card for each pair of values defining the piecewise-linear lower curve. The format is: c iy 2 3 © 34567890123456 |7890123456789012! C Current (i) Flux (PSI) Such data are terminated bya "g999"-card (a special value of current, in effect). Ié the hysteretic inductor is not energized during the phasor solution for initial conditions, then residual flux is to be keyed in data field RESID of columns 39-44. Qn the other hand, if the inductor is energized during the steady-state, then value RESID will generally be ignored. In any case, RESIS must lie within the major hysteresis loop. I£ not, execution will be terminated with an error message (KILL = 205). ‘The steady-state phasor solution for initial conditions is the trickiest aspect of the ‘Type-96 hysteresis element. Although only the ratio of ESI- steady and i-steady is actually required to define the phasor reactance, PSI-steady is taken to be the limit on the linear region of operation. If initial flux exceeds this value, the EMTP prints out a warning message after the steady-state solution. In addition, the point (i-steady, PSI-steady) must iiePage 5D-2 within the major hysteresis loop. If it does not, the program will halt execution with an error message (KILL = 204). As a general rule, ‘the user should-avoid 2 phasor inductance smaller than that corresponding to the positive saturation point. ‘The user also has the option of allowing the program to calculate i-steady and PSI-steady itself. This option is chosen oy keying i-steady = agae and leaving PSI-steady (columns 33-38) blank. Then the program will select the Steady-state point by the following method. First, an energization trajectory extending from the origin to the positive saturation point is imagined. On this curve, the point having flux equal to 78% of the saturation flux will then be chosen as the steady-state point. I.e., the phasor inductance will pass through this point. Whenever a type-96 element is being used, there must be a phasor solution, whether it is used for subnetwork of the hysteretic inductor or not. If this ig not the case, execution will be terminated with an error message (KILL = 203). ‘The remedy to such a complaint is easy enough. add an isolated, dummy source and one-ohm resistor to ground. An additional restriction must be imposed on any phasor solution for initial conditions of the hysteretic inductor. If the initial condition is found to lie outside of the major hysteresis loop, this is impossible, so can not be allowed. The program will move any such illegal initial condition so that it does lie within the major loop. Logic for this is simple enough. In effect, the program draws a line of constant current through the illegal initial point, noting the two flux values where this line intersects the upper and low: halves of the major hysteresis loop. An average of these two flux values <3 used along with the solution current for the required initial condition. Whenever such correction is required, the program will issue a detailed warning message. ‘It is the user's responsibility to determine whether the change made is acceptable or not. It should be realized that transients due to sudden changes in flux (like those being made here) may die out very slowly. ft is strongly suggested that the user make legitimate alterations that cause all such messages to disappear. It is anticipated that many users will have difficulty obtaining hysteresis characteristics for type-96 modeling. Those who lack all data are referred to Section XIX-H for a simple, first attempt based on standard magnetic core materials, an example is provided by the third subcase of BENCHMARK DC-13. ‘The interpretation of input data cards for the Type-96 hysteretic inductor L(i) can be illustrated using the solution to BENCHMARK DC-33. The initial branch card confirms the three floating-point parameters CURR, FLUX, and RESID, whereas (x,y) values of the characteristic are confirmed on each such card: c 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 © 345678901 23456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901 234567890 c—— ——-==——-———— | -——— Hysteresis. 8.8880E+03 9.0000E+20 1.000E-05 |96GROUNDGEN Breakpoint. 1.00000E40S -7.00000E-21 | 1.0 Breakpoint. 2.00000E100 © 9. 00000E-21 | 2.0 Breakpoint. 3.50000E+00 1. 000008420 | 3.5 Special termination-of-points card. i 9999, @Page SE-1 V-E. Exponential 2nO surge arrester R(i) — (type-92; | "5555") re ee ee The model of this section provides for true (as opposed to pseuio) nonlinear representation of an arbitary number of ZnO surge arresters. The original theory and implementation are documented in Ref. 22, Vol. 1, to. 2, December 1979, pages 6-9. Extension to multiple exponentials and a static gap is documented in Ref. 22, Vol. 1, No. 3, April 1560, pages 2-13. The basic constraint equation for ZnO modeling is resistive, and is highly nonlinear: i= p* (v/vret )#q where "i" is the arrester current, "v" is the arrester voltage, and "p", V-ref, and "q" are constants of the device. Typically one picks the reference voltage vref to be twice the rated voltage, or something close to this. In theory, the choice is arbitrary (it is an extra parameter, note). However, it normalizes the equation, and prevents numerical overflow during the exponentiation. Then constants ‘"p" and “q" are unique parameters of the device. ‘The nonlinear V-I arrester characteristic can be approximated by an arbitrary number of exponential segments. Both gapped and gapless arresters can be represented. ‘The gapped arrester requires the specification of two sets of exponential segments, while the gapless arrester requires only one set. The choice of exponentials can be made automatically by a separate supporting Program (use the request "ZNO FITTER" of Section XIX-I). Least-mean-square fitting is used. Although the exponential modeling of the present section can be applied to other cases then ZnO, as a general rule, it should not be wasted on less extreme nonlinearities. If a piecewise-linear characteristic of only a few segments would be sufficiently accurate, the alternative of Section V-G should probably be considered. unless there is a real need, the use of exponentials is wasteful computationally. Due to the extreme nonlinearity of ZnO characteristics, very little current is drawn for voltages that are substantially below the rated voltage vref (2.9., 0.5*#30 = 9.£-10). So, _in order to avoid the possibility of underflow during exponentiation, and also to speed the numerical solution, a linear model is actually used for low voltages. But this is hidden, out of sight of the user, and it need not concern him. In physical terms, the solution is unaffected by such simplification (no ammeter could detect the difference) . ‘There is some application of the present model to silicon carbide (Sic) arresters, although serious (perhaps unacceptable) approximations must be made. No dynamics of the gap can be provided. Hence the possibilities of such usage will not be emphasized. The interested reader is referred to Ref. 22, vol. 1, No. 3, April 1980, pages 8-13. In essence, such usage represents the block very accurately ("two exponential segments appear to provide a very adequate fit") while ignoring totally the dynamics of the gap (the gap modeling after flashover) saaPage SE-2 Q Data for a ZnO surge arrester begin with a single branch card for a Type 92 nonlinear element (nonlinear resistance). Invariant data of such a 2nd request has "92" in columns 1-2 and the special zno identifier "5555." in columns 39-44: c 1 2 3 4 8 © 1345678 1912341567890 |123456 1789012345678 19012341 Jal ¢ |= g2l a6 | AG | AG | AB | | 5555.1 cl C BUS1 BUS2 8US3_BUS4 K As usual, terminal names are BUS] and 8US2 (columns 3-14 as 2A6 information), and BUS3 and BUS4 (columns 15-26) can be used for the reference branch feature, if data of this arrester is to be copied from a preceding one. Variable K is for branch output requests (keyed in column 89 as usual, with values 1 through 4). I=! Bte. |I1 Ite Ted = |amnnn [=a |---| The second data card of a ZnO surge arrester contains control variables VREF, VELASH, VZERO, and COL as follows: + 4 VREF (cols. 1-25) is the reference voltage of the ZnO constraint equation, in units of voltage (nominally, volts). VELASH (cols. 26-58) is the normalized (i.e., divided by VREF) flashover voltage of the gap. If the arrester is gapless, any negative number should be keyed. VZERO (cols. 51-75) is the initial arrester voltage (the value at time zero, ineffect) in the same units as VREF. In almost all cases, leave it blank. ‘The Newton iteration then will begin with zero current. COL (cols. 76-88) is the number of columns (parallel copies or elements) of the characteristic. If blank, zero, or unity, one column is assumed, and the characteristic is to be used without modification. But for positive CCL (normally an integer), the coefficient COEF of all following cards will be internally multiplied by COL during data input, prior to storage and usage.Page SE-3 Next come cards that specify the exponential segments. these begin with the characteristic before flashover (the only characteristic if there is no gap). Eacn characteristic is to be terminated by a special "9999"-card (this value is to be keyed in columns 22-25). the following format is used for each exponential segment of each characteristic, in natural order (of increasing current and voltage) : i— COEF (cols. 1-25) is the coefficient "p’ (see the start of this section). this amperes) . of the ZnO constraint equation is in units of current (normally EXPON (cols. 26-50) is the dimensionless exponent "gq" of the 2n0 constraint equation. VMIN (cols. 51-75) is the minimum voltage for usage of the just-stated characteristic, in per unit based on the reference voltage VREF. All such cards describing the exponential segments of a 2nO characteristic are to be in their natural order of increasing device current. Terminate each grouping with a "9999" card. If the arrester is equipped with a gap, the pre flashover characteristic comes first, followed by the post-flashover characteristic. Control of the Newton iteration is provided by various parameters that initially are defined by the STARTUP file, but which may be redefined by a "ZINC OXIDE" special-request card. See details of the latter in Section IT-A for an explanation of the six controls. Illustrations of ZnO usage can be found in the several subcases of BENCHMARK DC-37 (for Single-phase ZnO) and 00-38 (which involves a 3-phase bank of Zn0). The interpretation of input data cards for a ZnO surge arrester can be illustrated using the solution to the second subcase of BENCHMARK DC-37: c L 2 3 4 5 6 7 C 345678901234567890123456789012345678961234567890123456789012345678901 23456 ¢ _ - Type-92 R(i) 0.0000E+90 0.0000E+00 5.5550E+03 |92REC Zinc oxide. 7. 7800E+05 1.0000E+0 9.0000E+00 | 9.778200000000000E+06 Breakpoint. 2.9480E-21 1.2000E+00 9.0000E+00 | — 9.294795442961157E-20 Special termination-of-points card. ! 9999 Breakpoint. 2.9480E+04 2.6530E+01 5.4505E-01 | — .294795442961157EHIS Special termination-of-points card. I 9999 DatPage 5E-4 Recommendaticns in Case of Nonconvergence of a ZnO Iteration a eee eee Should the 2n0 solution using Newton's method fail to converge, remedial action almost always is possible provided the parameters of the model are realistic. Understanding of basic numerical mathematics is the key. One Potential source of failure, namely singularity of the Jacobian matrix [J], has already been discussed toward the end of Section v. Although such solution failure applies to all nonlinear elements, it is most commonly associated with one or more 2n0 elements. ‘This is because of the extreme nonlinearity involved. Any 2n0 user is advised to read the aforementioned paragraph carefully. In addition, there are several more specific recommendations to correct failed Newton iterations: REC]. Really gross blunders by the user are the source of considerable difficulty with production usage of ZnO modeling. For example, if there is confusion between sets of arrester data, it is possible for lower-voltage 20 data to be applied at a higher-voltage bus, with the result typically being a nonconverged iteration. So, any user should always check that his znd charac— teristic does in fact match the voltage that is being applied to it. REC2. Reduction of the simulation time-step size DELTAT might help, sometimes. Recall that Newton's method is guaranteed to converge if a solution exists, provided the initial guess is close enough. This may translate into a need to track the transient closely, since the initial guess for the Newton iteration comes from the solution of the preceding time step (for steps numbered 2 or later). Teo big a time step might make the shock too big for the Newton iteration to survive. REC3. Some spurious voltage oscillation can sometimes be removed by connecting a leakage capacitance or bus capacitance in parallel with the arresters having trouble. A resistor in series with a capacitor can provide useful damping. For further details of this concept, although emphasis is on inductors rather than capacitors, see Ref. 22, Vol. 2, Number 3, February 1982, Pages 16-32. REC4. Interactive execution, observation, and control (SPY) of Section XVI Provides the most convenient framework for the remedy of nonconverged groupings of 2n0. Even if the correction is not made interactively, the diagnosis is so much simpler, particularly for big cases (for which conventional, batch-mode DIAGNOSTIC printout can be overpowering). This wes summarized at the end of Section V.Page SF-1 V-F. . Type-91 Multiphase Time-varying Resistence R(t) ‘The ‘Type-91 component of the present section provides for the continuous, piecewise-linear representation of a time-varying resistance R(t). This is to be contrasted with the ‘Type-97 representation of Section v-C, for which the function R(t) is necessarily a discontinuous, staircase function. ‘The present element uses compensation the same way "true" nonlinear elements do. any Type 91 elements are solved using Newton's method along with all true nonlinear elements of a subnetwork. ‘The ‘Type-91 resistive element begins as an open circuit, drawing no current. It is connected to the circuit only when the terminal voltage exceeds (in absolute value) the user-specified initiation voltage V-start. at this instant, the timer of the resistance function R(t) is started. If TSTART is the instant when voltage exceeds Vv-start, then the resistance for larger times t is R(t-TSTART). This is the correct mathenatical notation, although for simplicity we usually denote this using the shortened form R(t). There is a time offset, however, and this offset usually is unknown ahead of time, since it depends on the solution voltage. Data cards for a time-varying resistance begin with a branch card bearing type code "91" in columns 1-2 and the further identifier "3333." in colur 39-44: c 1 4 e C 1345678 1901234 | 567890 | 123456 | 789012345678 1901234 | la! aaa | === [am] eee |=d Q1l a6 | a6 | AG | AG | 1 3333.1 Ete. 111 eee lel Cc BUS1 BUS2 BLS? BUS K ‘The usual pair of terminal node names BUS] and BUS2 occupy columns 3-14, and BUS3 and BUS of columns 15-26 are used for the reference-branch or branch- naming purposes. Finally, column 8@ can be used for branch output requests. For an example of such usage, see BENCHMARK DC-42. ‘This initial branch card is to be followed by a separate card from which the starting voltage V-start is read: c 1 2 © 345678901234567890123451 ¢ Vestart Present element logic requires a positive value for this datum. Hence, if the user really wants the Type-91 timer to begin when voltage first becomes nonzero, he can key an arbitrarily small number (e.g., 1.6-38, which should be valid for all modern scientific computers) . 24 2