Professional Documents
Culture Documents
86:1616–1631
American Dairy Science Association, 2003.
1616
EFFECT OF CO2 ON PROTEOLYSIS AND LIPOLYSIS 1617
Table 1. ANOVA models used for data analysis for experiments 1, 2, and 3.
df for
experiments df for
Independent variables 1 and 2 experiment 3 Analyzed as Error term
Whole-plot factors
Replicate 1 1 Block
SCC 1 1 Fixed effect E(a)
Treatment 2 3 Fixed effect E(a)
Treatment × SCC 2 3 Interaction E(a)
E(a) = Replicate × SCC + replicate × treatment + 5 7 Whole-plot error
replicate × treatment × SCC
Repeated measure factors
Day 3 3 Repeated measure factor E(b)
Day × SCC 3 3 Interaction (fixed) E(b)
Day × treatment 6 9 Interaction (fixed) E(b)
Day × SCC × treatment 6 9 Interaction (fixed) E(b)
E(b) 18 24 Error
Corrected total 47 63
added CO2, and HCl acidified to pH 6.2 (4°C), which at 4°C. The preservative does not inhibit endogenous
matched the pH of the unpreserved milk with 1500 milk enzymes activities (Senyk et al., 1985).
ppm added CO2 (Figure 1). Milks were stored in glass Similar to the unpreserved milks, the preserved low-
containers and analyzed for proteolysis and lipolysis on and high-SCC milks were carbonated to contain approx-
d 0 (day of sample preparation), 7, 14, and 21. Differ- imately 0 ppm (control, pH 6.9 at 4°C) and 1500 ppm
ences in the extent of proteolysis and lipolysis between (pH 6.2 at 4°C) added CO2, and HCl acidified to pH 6.2
the control and milk with 1500 ppm added CO2 would (4°C), which matched the pH of the unpreserved milk
be due to an effect of CO2 addition on the combination with 1500 ppm added CO2 (Figure 1). Milks were ana-
of both endogenous milk enzymes plus enzymes contrib- lyzed for proteolysis and lipolysis on d 0, 7, 14, and
uted by the growth of bacteria during 21 d of storage 21. Differences in proteolysis and lipolysis between the
at 4°C. Upon CO2 addition, there was a decrease in preserved control milk and preserved milk with 1500
milk pH. Addition of an inorganic acid, such as HCl, ppm added CO2 would be due to an effect of CO2 addition
does not inhibit microbial growth (King and Mabbitt, on milk proteolysis and lipolysis by endogenous milk
1982; Daniels et al., 1985) but does reduce milk pH. enzymes. Comparison between preserved milks of the
Therefore, the milk acidified with HCl would act as a same pH, one acidified by CO2 and one by HCl, would
positive control to explain whether the effect of CO2, if indicate if the effect of CO2 on endogenous protease and
any, was simply a consequence of pH reduction. lipase activities, if any, might be a consequence of pH
reduction. The ANOVA model used for data analysis
The ANOVA model used for data analysis is shown
was the same as the one used for data from experiment
in Table 1. The analysis compared the effects among
1 (Table 1).
the three treatments: control, milk with 1500 ppm
Experiment 3: Preserved milks with different
added CO2, and milk acidified with HCl. Replicate is a
carbonation level. To answer the fourth question, pre-
block effect. The whole-plot factors were SCC, treat- served low- and high-SCC milks were carbonated to
ment, and treatment × SCC. The repeated measure contain approximately 0 ppm (control, pH 6.9 at 4°C),
factors were day and the interactions terms: day × SCC, 500 ppm (pH 6.5 at 4°C), 1000 ppm (pH 6.3 at 4°C),
day × treatment, and day × SCC × treatment. The main and 1500 ppm (pH 6.2 at 4°C) added CO2 (Figure 1).
interest was to examine whether, during storage, treat- Milks were analyzed for proteolysis and lipolysis on d
ment types affected the extent of proteolysis and lipoly- 0, 7, 14, and 21. The ANOVA model used for data analy-
sis in the low- and high-SCC raw milks. Analyses were sis was similar to the one used for data from experi-
done using SAS (2001). ments 1 and 2, except in this case the treatments were
Experiment 2: Preserved milks. To answer the sec- the four carbonation levels (treated as a category vari-
ond and third questions, separate portions of the low- able): 0 ppm (control), 500, 1000, and 1500 ppm (Ta-
and high-SCC standardized milks from experiment 1 ble 1).
were preserved (with 0.02%, wt/wt, potassium dichro-
mate). The preservative inhibits microbial growth and Milk Collection
thus eliminates the production of proteases and lipases To obtain milk with low and high SCC, 3 d before
by psychrotrophic bacterial in raw milk during storage milk collection, milks from 60 Holstein cows from the
Cornell Teaching and Research Farm were screened for from the same treatment were left unopened for testing
milk fat, protein, and SCC using a Milk-Scan Combi at later storage days to avoid microbial contamination.
4000 (Integrated Milk Testing; A/S N. Foss Electric, Microbial count was performed on both unpreserved
Hillerød, Denmark) by a commercial laboratory (Dairy (d 0, 7, 14, and 21) and preserved (d 21 only) milks.
One, Ithaca, NY) licensed for milk payment testing in Microbiological testing included standard plate count
New York state. Eight cows that produced milk with (SPC), coliform count (CC), and psychrotrophic bacte-
low SCC (<100,000 cells/ml) and nine cows that pro- ria count (PBC; Marshall, 1993; method numbers 6.2,
duced milk with high SCC (>800,000 but <1,200,000 7.8, and 8.1, respectively).
cells/ml) were selected. Cow selection was done to en-
sure that the expected levels of protein and fat in the Chemical Analysis
commingled low- and high-SCC raw milks would be
similar. Cows were on a thrice-daily milking schedule, All chemical analyses were performed in duplicate.
and they averaged 18 ± 120 DIM and 1.7 ± 1.2 in parity. Milk pH (at 4°C), CO2 concentration (Ma et al., 2001),
Procedures of milk collection and commingling were CN as a percentage of true protein (CN/TP), and FFA
similar to those described by Ma et al. (2000). were measured at 0, 7, 14, and 21 d of storage.
Proteolysis. Total nitrogen (TN; AOAC, 2000;
Milk Treatments method number 991.20; 33.2.11), nonprotein nitrogen
(NPN AOAC, 2000; method number 991.21; 33.2.12),
Low- and high-SCC raw milks were separated at 50°C and non-CN nitrogen (NCN; AOAC, 2000; method num-
into a skim and a cream portion using a lab-scale cream ber 998.05; 33.2.64) were determined by the Kjeldahl
separator (model 100, Delaval, Poughkeepsie, NY). Per- method. All nitrogen results were expressed as a pro-
centage of fat of the separated cream (AOAC, 2000; tein equivalent using a conversion factor of 6.38. Calcu-
method number 995.18; 33.3.18) and the skim milk lations for content of true protein (TP) and CN were
(Marshall, 1993; method number 15.8B) was deter- (TN − NPN) × 6.38 and (TN − NCN) × 6.38, respectively.
mined by the Babcock method. High- and low-SCC CN/TP was calculated as (CN/TP) × 100%. Decrease in
milks were standardized to 3.25% fat, and their fat CN/TP was used as an index of proteolysis.
contents were confirmed using the Mojonnier method Lipolysis. The FFA content was determined using
(AOAC, 2000; method number 989.05; 33.2.26). For the copper soap method (Shipe et al., 1980) with modi-
both the low- and high-SCC milks, one portion of the fication, and results were expressed in meq FFA/kg
milk was preserved with potassium dichromate (0.02%, milk. Increase in FFA was used as an index of lipolysis.
wt/wt). Reagents used in the analysis were prepared as de-
Raw preserved and unpreserved milks were sparged scribed by Shipe et al. (1980) unless specified otherwise.
with CO2 (beverage grade) in a sealed 15-L cylindrical On d 0, 7, 14, and 21, aliquots of each of the milk
stainless steel tank (Zahm and Nagel Co., Inc., Buffalo, samples were quick-frozen to −70°C and subsequently
NY) at <4°C to contain 500, 1000, and 1500 ppm added stored at −40°C. Frozen milks were analyzed in sets of
CO2 (Ma et al., 2001). The HCl-acidified milks were 20 samples. On the first day of an analysis cycle, 20
prepared by adding 2 N HCl dropwise to milk at 4°C samples were thawed in a microwave oven. During mi-
with gentle stirring. Milk pH was determined at 4°C crowave thawing, the sample temperature was kept
using an electrode (model HA 405 DXK-58/120 combi- below 10°C at all times. Immediately after each sample
nation pH probe; Mettler Toledo, Columbus, OH), cali- was thawed and mixed, a 1.0-ml aliquot was pipetted
brated with pH 3.99 and 7.10 buffers (Fisher Scientific, into a weighed (to 0.0001 g) screw-top centrifuge tube
Fair Lawn, NJ) at 4°C. During milk collection and prep- (Nalgene Oak Ridge Teflon FEP tube, 50 ml; Fisher
aration, efforts were made to minimize bacterial con- Scientific) that contained 0.2 ml of 0.7 N HCl. The tube
tamination. Milk was stored at 4°C in 240-ml glass jars was immediately capped, weighed, and vortexed to
fitted with metal lids (Alltrista Co., Muncie, IN) with allow thorough mixing of the acid and the milk. Mixing
approximately 7% headspace. Milks were analyzed on HCl with milk stopped further lipolysis. Acidified sam-
d 0 (day of sample preparation), 7, 14, and 21. ples were stored at 4°C until the next morning.
On the second day, after the prepared milk-acid mix-
Microbial Testing ture was warmed to room temperature, 0.2 ml of 1%
(vol/vol) Triton-X 100 solution was added, and the mix-
On each of the storage days, milk from one jar was ture was vortexed. The Triton-X solution was added
used for all the microbial and chemical tests, with sam- to help prevent the formation of emulsion during the
ples for microbial tests removed first aseptically, prior shaking step later in the procedure. The copper soap
to sampling for chemical analysis. The other containers reagent (4 ml) was added, and the mixture was vortexed
again. Next, 12 ml of chloroform-heptane-methanol reading of the blank was <0.01. If readings of both
(CHM [49:49:2, vol:vol:vol, HPLC grade]) solvent were blanks were high, the CHM solvent was tested for con-
added to each tube without vortexing. The mixture had tamination using the following method: mix 3.5 ml of
two distinct layers: the deep blue aqueous layer on the CHM solvent used in the analysis directly with the color
bottom and the colorless CHM solvent layer on the top. reagent in an acid-washed test tube, and then measure
Next, the centrifuge tubes containing the reagents absorbance at 440 nm. If the absorbance of the CHM
plus milk samples were shaken for 30 min in a basket and color reagent mixture was high like that of the
that was attached to a Babcock shaker (Garver Shaker, blanks, it indicated problems with the CHM solvent, the
Union City, IN). The tubes were in horizontal position color reagent, the test tubes, or the spectrophotometer.
on the shaker. The shaking speed for the Babcock When the above situation occurred, minor impurities
shaker was 470 rpm (dial setting at 60). During shak- in solvent, due to different manufacturer production
ing, the deep blue aqueous copper soap layer breaks into batch or unclean test tubes, was the reason for high
pea-sized “beads,” and the “beads” were continuously in blank reading. If the absorbance of the direct mixture
contact with the colorless solvent. When shaking was from the CHM solvent and the color reagent was much
stopped, two distinct layers were quickly reformed. Oc- lower than that of the high blanks, then each of the
casionally, emulsion was formed after shaking. If emul- analysis steps and reagents was evaluated to identify
sion occurred, the particular milk sample was prepared where the problem occurred. The level of FFA in milk, in
again. After shaking, the tubes were centrifuged at micrograms of FFA, was calculated from the standard
5000 rpm (2500 × g) for 10 min in a Sorvall Superspeed curve. The final result was expressed in units of meq
centrifuge (RC2-B, Sorvall SA-600 rotor; DuPont In- FFA/kg of milk and was calculated as: [(µg of FFA ×
struments, Wilmington, DE). The top colorless solvent 10−3 mg/µg)/(256.43 mg/meq)]/(g of milk × 10−3 kg/g) =
layer (3.5 ml) was carefully removed from the centrifuge meq FFA/kg of milk.
tube using a disposable glass Pasteur pipette and trans-
ferred into an acid-washed test tube (10 × 75 mm) con- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
taining 0.1 ml of the color reagent. After mixing, ab-
sorbance was measured immediately at 440 nm in a Fresh Raw Milk Quality
cuvette with 1-cm path-length using a Spec 20 spectro- Mean (n = 2) SCC of the low- and high-SCC milks
photometer (20 Genesys; Spectronic Instruments, were 3.1 × 104 cell/ml and 1.1 × 106 cells/ml, respectively.
Rochester, NY). Two blanks (1.0 ml of deionized water The fat contents of the standardized low (3.30%) and
instead of 1.0 ml of milk) were also prepared and ana- high (3.26%) SCC fresh raw milks were similar, as
lyzed with the milk samples. planned in the experimental design. The high-SCC milk
With each batch of 20 milk samples, a standard curve had a higher pH (6.89 at 4°C), a higher FFA (0.21 meq/
was constructed using palmitic acid (GC grade cyrstal, kg of milk), and a lower CN/TP (79.79%) than the low-
MW = 256.43; Alltech Associates, Inc., Deerfield, IL). SCC milk (6.85 at 4°C, 0.15 meq/kg milk, and 82.27%,
Six concentrations of palmitic acid were prepared: 0, respectively). In general, differences in the initial milk
60, 120, 180, 240, and 300 µg of palmitic acid/g of hex- composition between the low- and the high-SCC milks
ane. The standards were stored at −20°C in 2-ml GC observed in the current study were in agreement with
glass vials (12 × 32 mm) that were tightly sealed with differences reported in the literature (Klei et al., 1998;
PTFE-lined screw caps (National Scientific, Law- Ma et al., 2000).
renceville, GA). On the first day of the analysis cycle,
1 ml of the standard was added to a screw-top centrifuge
Experiment 1: Unpreserved Milks
tube, and its weight was recorded. The hexane solvent
was evaporated with nitrogen (high purity) under the Microbial growth. Microbial growth curves for all
hood. After the solvent was completely removed, 0.2 ml of the unpreserved milks are shown in Figure 2. No
of 0.7 N HCl and 1.0 ml of deionized water was added effect of SCC on microbial growth was observed in the
to the tube. The standards were analyzed with each current study. On d 0, for both the low- and high-SCC
group of 20 milk samples and the two blanks. milks, SPC (approximately 104 cfu/ml) was higher than
Absorbance readings of standards were corrected by PBC (approximately 103 cfu/ml). During storage, SPC
subtracting the average of the two blank readings, and and PBC became similar for all treatments. This indi-
a regression line was constructed, correlating the cor- cated that during 4°C storage, the microorganisms pres-
rected absorbance with micrograms of palmitic acid. A ent in milk had become predominantly psychro-
record of slopes and intercepts of standard curves was trophic bacteria.
kept to monitor and ensure consistency of method per- For both the low- and high-SCC milks, the SPC and
formance. Under normal conditions, the absorbance PBC in the control and the HCl-acidified treatments
Figure 2. Mean (n = 2) log10 psychrotrophic bacteria count (PBC) and log10 standard plate count (SPC) of the control (䊏), 1500 ppm CO2
(䊊), and HCl-acidified (䊉) unpreserved low- (a, b) and high- (c, d) SCC standardized raw milks during 21 d of storage at 4°C.
were similar (Figure 2). The addition of 1500 ppm of storage temperature were kept very low (e.g., just
CO2 significantly decreased microbial growth in both slightly above zero).
the low- and high-SCC unpreserved milks (Figure 2). CO2 level and pH. Control raw milks on d 0 con-
There was about a one to two logarithmic difference in tained 50 to 90 ppm of CO2. These values are typical
PBC and SPC between the milk with 1500 ppm added for fresh raw milks (Ma et al., 2001). On d 0, average
CO2 and the control or the HCl-acidified milks on d 14 CO2 concentration in the carbonated low (1519 ppm)
and 21 (Figure 2). In general, CC were <200 cfu/ml and high (1584 ppm) SCC milks were similar (P > 0.05).
(data not shown), and no substantial difference was During storage, there was a progressive decrease in
observed among treatments and between the low- and CO2 concentration in both the low- and high-SCC car-
high-SCC milks. Results from the current study were bonated milks, and the losses in the two milks were
consistent with those previously reported (King and similar (P > 0.05, data not shown). By d 21, there were
Mabbitt, 1982; Rowe, 1988). The antimicrobial effect of about 18 and 14% decreases in CO2 concentration, re-
CO2 is independent of its pH reduction effect. spectively, in the low- and high-SCC carbonated unpre-
The legal upper limit for SPC specified by the Pas- served milks (data not shown).
teurized Milk Ordinance (PMO) for Grade A commin- For both the low- and high-SCC control milks, pH
gled bulk-tank milk before pasteurization is 3 × 105 cfu/ was similar (P > 0.05) between d 0 and 14 but decreased
ml (PMO, 1999). For SPC to reach this limit from an significantly (P < 0.05) from d 14 to 21 (Table 2). The
initial count of 104 cfu/ml in fresh raw milk, it took decreases in milk pH in the unpreserved control milks
about 7 d for the control and the HCl-acidified low- and were probably caused by the high level of microbial
high-SCC milks, and it took approximately 14 d for the growth late in the storage period, when SPC and PBC
low- and high-SCC milks with 1500 ppm added CO2 were above 107 cfu/ml (Figure 2). Guinot-Thomas et
(Figure 2). From the perspective of the microbial count, al. (1995a) also observed a decrease in milk pH when
the addition of 1500 ppm of CO2 doubled the storage microbial growth reached the end of the exponential
time of raw milk at 4°C. The storage time of raw milk phase.
based on microbial count could be extended even longer The pH values of low- and high-SCC milks with 1500
if the fresh raw milk had a lower initial bacteria count, ppm added CO2 on d 0 were 6.18 and 6.19, respectively.
the CO2 concentration were further increased, and the The pH of the HCl-acidified low (6.18) and high (6.21)
Means (n = 2) in the same row with no common superscript differ (P < 0.05).
a,b,c
SCC milks were similar (P > 0.05) to their carbonated in CN/TP was also observed in the unpreserved HCl-
counterparts on d 0. Between d 0 and 7, a similar extent acidified low-SCC milk (Figure 3a). The extent of prote-
of pH increase occurred in both carbonated and the olysis in the HCl-acidified low-SCC milk was similar
HCl-acidified low- and high-SCC milks (Table 2). It is (P > 0.05) to that of the control low-SCC milk on d 14
not clear what caused the increase in milk pH during but was less (P < 0.05) on d 21. Nonetheless, the extent
the first week of storage. From d 7 to 21, the pH of of decrease in HCl-acidified low-SCC milk was signifi-
the carbonated low- and high-SCC milks remained the cant (P < 0.05), from 82% on d 0 to 78% on d 14 and to
same, but that of the HCl-acidified low- and high-SCC 73% on d 21. For the low-SCC unpreserved milk with
milks decreased slightly (Table 2). Similar to the control 1500 ppm added CO2, no significant (P > 0.05) proteoly-
milks, this decrease in pH for the HCl-acidified low- sis was observed over the 21-d storage period at 4°C
and high-SCC milks could be related to high levels of and CN/TP was maintained at 82% (Figure 3a). Thus,
microbial growth at the end of the storage period (Fig- 1500 ppm of CO2 significantly reduced proteolysis in
ure 2). the low-SCC unpreserved milk, probably due to the
Proteolysis. The ANOVA (Table 3) found an effect inhibition of bacteria that produce proteolytic enzymes.
of SCC, treatment, day, and day × treatment but not In the control high-SCC unpreserved milk, CN/TP
of day × SCC or day × SCC × treatment. The nature of decreased during storage at 4°C, and the decrease was
the effect of different treatments on proteolysis during large between d 14 and 21 (Figure 3b). A similar (P >
storage at 4°C can be seen in Figure 3. In the low-SCC 0.05) extent of proteolysis as seen in the control was
control milk, significant (P < 0.05) proteolysis occurred observed during storage in the unpreserved high-SCC
on d 14 (Figure 3a), and CN/TP decreased from 82% on milk with HCl acidification (Figure 3b). Thus, the re-
d 0 to 66% by d 21. A significant (P < 0.05) decrease duction in pH due to HCl addition did not retard proteol-
Table 3. Sum of squares (SS) and probabilities (P) from the ANOVA of proteolysis and lipolysis data in
experiment 1.
Proteolysis Lypolysis
SSM1 = 1308.39, Model R2 = 0.92 SSM = 0.1184, Model R2 = 0.85
Independent variables SS2 P SS P
Whole-plot factor
Replicate 39.24 0.0133
SCC 98.27 0.05 0.0152 <0.01
Treatment3 183.06 <0.05 0.0133 <0.05
Treatment × SCC 5.35 NS4 0.0041 NS
E (a) 78.65 0.0041
Repeated measure factors
Day 627.12 <0.01 0.0362 <0.01
Day × SCC 6.06 NS 0.0062 NS
Day × treatment 258.02 <0.01 0.0216 <0.05
Day × SCC × treatment 12.62 NS 0.0044 NS
E (b) 112.50 0.0203
1
SSM = Sum squares of model.
2
SS = Sum squares of individual factors.
3
Treatment = unpreserved control milk, unpreserved milk with 1500 ppm CO2, and unpreserved milk
acidified with HCl.
4
NS = Not significant, P > 0.05.
ysis in unpreserved high-SCC milk. In the high-SCC concentration was observed between d 14 and 21 (Fig-
unpreserved milk with 1500 ppm added CO2, CN/TP ure 4a). In the low-SCC milk with 1500 ppm added
decreased significantly (P < 0.05) from 79.8% on d 0 to CO2, FFA level remained low and showed no significant
77.5% on d 21 (Figure 3b). Even a small (e.g., 1 to (P > 0.05) increase up to d 21 of storage at 4°C (Figure
2%) decrease in CN/TP can have important economic 4a). Thus, for unpreserved low-SCC milk, the addition
impacts. Enzymatic damage to CN can be directly re- of 1500 ppm of CO2 significantly reduced lipolysis dur-
flected in the percentage decrease in cheese yield (Bar- ing 21 d of storage at 4°C, but acidification with HCl
bano et al., 1991; Klei et al., 1998). In addition, a 4.04% to the same pH as the carbonated milk did not.
decrease in CN/TP has been shown to cause bitter off- Typically during mastitis, when milk SCC is high, it
flavors in pasteurized fluid milk (Ma et al., 2000). By is expected that the extent of lipolysis is higher due to
14 d of storage, it is likely that bitter off-flavor and
active somatic cell lipases and damaged milk-fat glob-
other off-flavors related to microbial activity would
ule membrane (Downey, 1980; Murphy et al., 1989).
have developed in the control and HCl-acidified milks,
However, in the current study, no significant FFA in-
but not in the milks containing 1500 ppm of CO2. Addi-
crease was observed in all of the high-SCC milks be-
tion of 1500 ppm of CO2 significantly reduced the prote-
tween d 0 and 14 (Figure 4b). In the high-SCC unpre-
olysis in both the low- and high-SCC unpreserved milks.
Lowering milk pH with HCl to the same pH as milk with served control milk, a significant (P < 0.05) increase in
1500 ppm added CO2 did not show the same inhibitory FFA was observed between d 14 and 21 (Figure 4b),
effect on proteolysis as the addition of 1500 ppm of CO2 similar to what was observed in the low-SCC unpre-
did in unpreserved low- and high-SCC milks. served control milk (Figure 4a). Both the HCl-acidified
Lipolysis. The ANOVA found (Table 3) significant and carbonated high-SCC unpreserved milks showed
effects of SCC, treatment, day, and day × treatment no significant (P > 0.05) increase in FFA over 21 d
but not of day × SCC, or day × SCC × treatment. For (Figure 4b). Thus, the addition of 1500 ppm CO2 to milk
both the control and HCl-acidified low-SCC unpre- retarded lipolysis in high-SCC raw milk during 21 d of
served milks, a significant (P < 0.05) increase in FFA storage at 4°C.
Figure 3. Mean (n = 2) casein as a percentage of true protein (CN/TP) in the control (䊏), 1500 ppm CO2 (䊊), and HCl-acidified (䊉)
unpreserved low- (a) and high- (b) SCC milks during 21 d of storage 4°C. Means for the different treatments on the same storage day with
no common letter differ (P < 0.05).
Figure 4. Mean (n = 2) free fatty acid (FFA) content (meq FFA/kg milk) of the control (䊏), 1500 ppm CO2 (䊊), and HCl-acidified (䊉)
unpreserved low- (a) and high- (b) SCC milks during 21 d of storage 4°C. Means for the different treatments on the same storage day with
no common letter differ (P < 0.05).
Experiment 2: Preserved Milks (P > 0.05) between the low- and high-SCC preserved
milks (Figure 5). From d 0 to 21, CO2 concentration
Microbial growth. The PBC, SPC, and CC of the decreased about 15.6% to 1268 ppm in the low-SCC
preserved milks at d 21 were very low, indicating that preserved milk and about 15.3% to 1260 ppm in the
preservative worked and that the microbial counts of high-SCC preserved milk. The extent of CO2 loss in the
preserved milks were much lower than those of unpre- preserved carbonated milks was similar to that ob-
served milks (Figure 2). For control, HCl-acidified, 500, served in unpreserved carbonated milks in experi-
1000, and 1500 ppm of CO2 milks, the PBC were, in ment 1.
general, <10 cfu/ml, the SPC were <1500 cfu/ml, and CC The pH of the control low (6.83 to 6.86) and high (6.88
were <10 cfu/ml. Potassium dichromate preservative to 6.89) SCC preserved milks remained the same (P >
inhibited the growth of microorganisms but did not in- 0.05) over the 21-d storage period at 4°C. In the carbon-
hibit the activity of endogenous milk enzymes (Senyk ated (1500 ppm) and HCl-acidified low- and high-SCC
et al., 1985). Therefore, any proteolysis and lipolysis milks, pH increased progressively with storage time,
that occurred in preserved milks would be caused by especially between d 0 and 7 (Table 4), as was observed
endogenous milk proteases and lipases and the differ- in the unpreserved milks in experiment 1 (Table 2). On
ence in the extent of proteolysis and lipolysis between each of the storage days, pH increases were similar (P
the preserved low- and high-SCC milks would be due > 0.05) between the low- and high-SCC preserved milks
to the difference in their endogenous enzyme activities. of same treatment type. Compared to the unpreserved
CO2 level and pH. Control raw milks on d 0 had control and HCl-acidified milks in experiment 1, which
CO2 levels ranging from 50 to 90 ppm. On d 0, the all had pH decrease late in storage (Table 2), no pH
average added CO2 concentrations were, respectively, decrease was observed in the preserved milks (Table
1503 and 1487 ppm for the preserved low- and high- 4), probably due to the lack of microbial growth in the
SCC carbonated milks. During storage, there was a preserved milks.
progressive decrease in CO2 concentration in the car- Proteolysis. The results of ANOVA comparing the
bonated milks, and the extent of decrease was similar decrease of CN/TP in the control, the HCl-acidified, and
Figure 5. Mean (n = 2) level of dissolved CO2 content of preserved low- (a) and high- (b) SCC carbonated milks stored at 4°C for 21 d.
The target levels of carbonation were 500 (䊐), 1000 (䉭), and 1500 (䊊) ppm. Means for the same target carbonation level across days with
no common letter differ (P < 0.05).
1500 ppm of CO2 preserved low- and high-SCC milks during the 21 d of storage at 4°C, the decrease in CN/
are shown in Table 5. In general, the preserved high- TP was similar (P > 0.05) for the HCl-acidified and the
SCC milks had more proteolysis (P < 0.01) during 21 d 1500 ppm of CO2 milks, and both milks had less CN/
of storage at 4°C than the preserved low-SCC milks TP decrease than the control milk (Figure 6b). In the
(Figure 6), and the effects of SCC (P < 0.01), day × SCC control high-SCC preserved milk, CN/TP decreased
(P < 0.01), treatment (P < 0.01), and treatment × SCC about 3% from d 0 to 21 (Figure 6b), and this was
(P < 0.05) were significant (Table 5). greater than the decrease in the preserved control low-
In the low-SCC preserved milks, the decreases in CN/ SCC milk during the same period (Figure 6a), as indi-
TP during the 21 d of storage were relatively small cated by the significant (P < 0.05) treatment × SCC
(Figure 6a) compared with those for unpreserved milks effect (Table 5). We hypothesized that this difference
(Figure 3a). Compared with the control, the decrease was caused by the higher level of endogenous milk pro-
of CN/TP was less in the 1500 ppm of CO2 milks on d tease activity in the high-SCC milk, as suggested by
14 and 21 (Figure 6a). In the high-SCC preserved milks, previous research (de Rham and Andrews, 1982; Sae-
Table 5. Sum of squares (SS) and probabilities (P) from the ANOVA of proteolysis and lipolysis data in
experiment 2.
Proteolysis Lipolysis
SSM1 = 183.09, Model R2 = 0.99 SSM = 0.0649, Model R2 = 0.93
man et al., 1988; Verdi and Barbano, 1991). For pre- reduced proteolysis to a similar extent (Figure 6b). This
served high-SCC milks, the two treatments, addition is in contrast to the HCl treatment not demonstrating
of 1500 ppm of CO2 and acidification with HCl, both any inhibitory effect on proteolysis in unpreserved
reduced milk pH to a similar extent, and both also milks (Figure 3). Therefore, the inhibitory effect of CO2
Figure 6. Mean (n = 2) casein as a percentage of true protein (CN/TP) of the control (䊏), 1500 ppm CO2 (䊊), and HCl-acidified (䊉)
preserved low- (a) and high- (b) SCC milks during 21 d of storage 4°C. Means for the different treatment on the same storage day with no
common letter differ (P < 0.05).
Figure 7. Mean (n = 2) free fatty acid (FFA) content (meq FFA/kg milk) of the control (䊏), 1500 ppm CO2 (䊊), and HCl-acidified (䊉)
preserved low- (a) and high- (b) SCC milks during 21 d storage at 4°C.
on proteolysis by endogenous milk protease appears to (Table 5). Milk FFA concentration increased (P < 0.05)
be due to the pH reduction, not a direct interaction of with days of storage in both the low- and high-SCC
CO2 with the endogenous proteolytic enzymes. preserved milks (Figure 7). Similar extent of fat degra-
Lipolysis. Results of the ANOVA comparing lipolysis dation occurred in milks of different treatments in the
in the control, the HCl-acidified, and 1500 ppm of CO2 low- and high-SCC preserved milks. No significant ef-
preserved low- and high-SCC milks are shown in Table fect of carbonation or acidification on the FFA content
5. Only the effects of SCC and day were significant of preserved low- and high-SCC milks was observed
Table 6. Sum of squares (SS) and probabilities (P) from the ANOVA of proteolysis and lipolysis data in
experiment 3.
Proteolysis Lypolysis
SSM1 = 239.42, Model R2 = 0.99 SSM = 0.0944, Model R2 = 0.93
Whole-plot factors
Replicate 24.89 0.0065
SCC 169.75 <0.01 0.0609 <0.01
Treatment3 11.42 <0.01 0.0035 NS4
Treatment × SCC 1.49 NS 0.0001 NS
E (a) 1.32 0.0083
Repeated measure factors
Day 22.30 <0.01 0.0069 <0.01
Day × SCC 6.29 <0.01 0.0048 <0.01
Day × treatment 1.39 NS 0.0014 NS
Day × SCC × treatment 0.57 NS 0.0020 NS
E (b) 2.70 0.0075
1
SSM = Sum squares of model.
2
SS = Sum squares of individual terms.
3
Treatment = CO2 concentration, i.e., preserved milk with control level, 500, 1000, and 1500 ppm CO2.
4
NS = not significant, P > 0.05.
Figure 8. Mean (n = 2) casein as a percentage of true protein (CN/TP) of preserved low- (a) and high- (b) SCC milks with control level
(䊏), 500 (䊐), 1000 (䉭), and 1500 (䊊) ppm CO2 during 21 d of storage 4°C. Means for the treatments on the same storage day with no
common letter differ (P < 0.05).
Figure 9. Mean (n = 2) free fatty acid (FFA) content (meq FFA/kg milk) of preserved low- (a) and high- (b) SCC milks with control level
(䊏), 500 (䊐), 1,000 (䉭), and 1500 (䊊) ppm CO2 during 21 d of storage 4°C.
over the 21-d storage period at 4°C. Thus, lowering milk FFA in the high-SCC preserved milks, and the rate of
pH to 6.2 or adding 1500 ppm of CO2 did not retard FFA increase during storage at 4°C was greater in the
lipolysis caused by endogenous milk lipases. high-SCC preserved milks (Figure 9). No significant
treatment or day × treatment (P > 0.05) effect was de-
Experiment 3: Preserved Milks tected (Table 6). This is consistent with the result from
with Different Carbonation Level experiment 2: in preserved milks, if there was no effect
of CO2 at a concentration of 1500 ppm, then carbonation
Microbial growth. The PBC, SPC, and CC of low- at levels below 1500 ppm would not be expected to have
and high-SCC preserved milks with four levels of car- an effect.
bonation at d 21 were very low, as described above.
Similar to the results in experiment 2, during storage
microbial growth was blocked by the preservative, and Mechanisms for Reduced Proteolysis
there was no difference in the microbial counts among and Lipolysis in Raw Milk with Added CO2
the low- and high-SCC preserved milks with the four
Experiments 1 and 2 were designed to separately
different CO2 concentrations (data not shown).
determine the effect of added CO2 in raw milk on prote-
CO2 level and pH. On d 0, mean (n = 2) CO2 concen-
olysis and lipolysis contributed by enzymes originated
trations of carbonated milks were 585, 1062, and 1503
from spoilage bacteria growing in raw milk vs. proteoly-
ppm for the low-SCC preserved milks and 593, 1068,
sis and lipolysis contributed by endogenous milk en-
and 1487 ppm for the high-SCC preserved milks. Dur-
zymes (e.g., plasmin and LPL). The addition of 1500
ing storage, there was a progressive decrease in CO2
ppm of CO2 to unpreserved raw milk reduced microbial
concentration in all of the carbonated milks, and the
growth (Figure 2) and dramatically reduced proteolysis
decreases were similar (P > 0.05) over time at each
(Figure 3) and lipolysis (Figure 4). Most of this reduc-
carbonation level for both the low- and high-SCC pre-
tion in proteolysis and lipolysis was attributed to the
served milks (Figure 5).
The pH of the control low- and high-SCC preserved influence of CO2 as an inhibitor of microbial growth.
milks remained the same (P > 0.05) during storage. In Because added HCl did not have the same impact, the
the carbonated low- and high-SCC milks (500 to 1500 effect on bacteria was primarily due to the CO2 and not
ppm), pH increased progressively with storage time, the reduction of milk pH caused by the CO2.
especially between d 0 and 7 (Table 4). During storage, The concentration of extracellular enzymes of micro-
a similar (P > 0.05) extent of pH increase was observed bial origin has been shown to increase exponentially
in the low- and high-SCC preserved milks at the same when bacteria cell count reached 107 cfu/ml (Rowe et
carbonation level. al., 1990). Our results are in agreement with previous
Proteolysis. The results of the ANOVA comparing literature (Law, 1979; Downey, 1980; Grieve and
the decrease of CN/TP in milks with four levels of car- Kitchen, 1985; Guinot-Thomas, et al., 1995b) and sug-
bonation (approximately 0 [control], 500, 1000, and gest that significant contributions to proteolysis and
1500 ppm added CO2) are shown in Table 6. In general, lipolysis by microbial enzymes occur when microbial
the high-SCC milks had more proteolysis during stor- cell count reaches above 106 to 107 cfu/ml. Once active
age at 4°C, and the effects of SCC and day × SCC were proteases and lipases are secreted by microorganisms,
both significant (P < 0.01; Table 6). In the low-SCC the proteolysis and lipolysis by microbial enzymes are
preserved milk, the extent of CN/TP decreases were all typically much more substantial than those by endoge-
<1% over the 21-d period (Figure 8a). During storage at nous milk enzymes.
4°C, the levels of proteolysis in the high-SCC preserved In unpreserved milks, proteolysis and lipolysis may
milks with 500, 1000, and 1500 ppm added CO2 were not only depend on the total bacteria count but also
similar (P > 0.05; Figure 8b) and were all less (P < on the types of bacteria present, the concentration the
0.05) than that in the high-SCC preserved control milk, extracellular enzymes secreted, and their activities
especially on d 14 and 21. Thus, the addition of 500 (Cousin, 1982). This may explain the differences in pro-
ppm of CO2 already effectively reduced proteolysis in teolysis between the control and the HCl-acidified un-
the preserved high-SCC milk during storage at 4°C, and preserved low-SCC milks on d 21 (Figure 3a), even
a further increase in CO2 concentration, or a further though the total microbial counts in these two milks
decrease in milk pH, did not further reduce proteolysis were similar (Figure 2). The difference in lipolysis be-
in preserved high-SCC milk. tween the control and the HCl-acidified unpreserved
Lipolysis. The ANOVA (Table 6) found significant high-SCC milks on d 21 (Figure 4b) could also be related
effects of SCC, day, and day × SCC (P < 0.05). In general, to the particular types of microorganisms that were
on each of the storage days, there was a high level of present in the two milks.