WATER

Water serves as the solvent

ROLES AND FUNCTION IN THE BODY

1. Component of body weight
a. 60% of body wt in adult
b. Newborns have a larger percentage of water in the BW and
therefore are more likely to be affected by changes in the
diet and water balance.
c. 2/3 of body water is intracellular and 1/3 is extracellular
25% of fluids outside the cell is w/in the blood
vessels(intravascular ) while the 75% is in between the cells
(interstitial space)-included is water in CSF. IOF. GI
secretions and bone, etc.
2. Transport and participant in chemical reactions
a. Water will freely move (by osmosis) to equalize solute
concentration in the body to maintain balance.
b. Chemical reactions in the body exist in fluid medium
3. Carries nutrients and waste products throughout the body
4. Participates in metabolic reactions
5. Serves as the solvent for minerals, vits, amino acids, glucose
and many other small molecules.
6. Aids in maintaining the body’s BP and temp.
7. Maintains blood volume
8. Acts a s a lubricant and cushion around joints, inside the
eyes, spinal cord and amniotic sac surrounding a fetus in the
womb.

To support these and other vital functions, the body actively

regulates its water balance.
FLUID INTAKE
- Is supplied to the body via 3 routes by :
⮚ Ingestion of fluids (Oral fluids);
⮚ from preformed fluid of foods esp. fruits and veg.(solid
food) and
⮚ from the production of water during metabolism of
energy nutrients (metabolic water).

Metabolic water - for every 100 gms of fat, CHO and

CHON, the estimated water produced is abt. 107 ml, 55 ml.
and 41ml., respectively.
Fluid excretion – fluids in the body may find its way out
through
● formation of urine (by the kidneys),
● part of the feces (via GIT),
● thru breathing (via lungs),
● and sweating (via the skin)

Water balance
Water Amount Water losses Amount
sources
Liquids 550-1500 Kidneys(urine) 500-1400
Foods 700-1000 Skin(sweat) 450-900
Metabolic 200-300 Lungs(breath) 350-500
H20
 GI tract 150
(FECES)
Total 1450-2800 TOTAL 1450-2800

AI for total water

Men – 3.7L/day
Women – 2.7L/day
*1L = 1 qt. = 32 oz. = 4 cups
VITAMINS- are subs that your body needs to grow and develop
normally.
- Are potent compounds unrelated chemical composition,
w/c occur in minute quantities in foods and are needed in
small amount for specific regularly functions to maintain
life and normal growth.
- There are 13 vitamins your body needs. They are Vit. ADEK
and the B vits.(thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic
acid, biotin, B6, B12 and folate
- You can usually get all your vitamins from the foods you
eat
- Your body can also make vitamins D and K
- Formerly called “ACCESORY FOOD FACTORS”
- They are the last group of organic compounds vital to
human life maintenance and growth to be discovered
- The word vitamin was organized by CASIMIR FUNK, a
polish Chemist, in 1912 when he was searching for
constituent in rice bran, w/c could cure beri-beri ( caused
by lack of thiamine B1)
- S/S:wt loss, pain, weakness on the limbs, irregular heart
rate, edema.In advance cases, may cause heart failure and
death.
- The missing subs he named VITAMINE was coined from:
VITA- necessary for life
AMINE – denoting that anti beri-beri factor containing
nitrogen
- Each Vitamins has specific jobs. If you have low levels of
certain vits, you may develop a deficiency disease, for
example, if you don’t’ get enough Vit D, you could develop
 rickets. Some vits may help you prevent medical problems.
Vit A prevents night blindness

CLASSIFICATION:
● Vitamins are commonly grouped according to solubility.
● A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble, and B complex and C are water
soluble.
● Vitamin D is sometimes classified as a hormone, and the
B-complex group may be classified as catalyst or co-enzymes
Coenzyme -

Fat Soluble Vitamins

- Fat soluble vitamins are stored in the fatty tissues of the body,
and can be toxic if taken in excess of need.
- Unaffected by normal temperature and methods of food
preparation.
● It is transported thru’ the blood by lipoproteins bec they are
not soluble in H2O.
● Excess amounts can be stored in the liver. They go and wait
around in your body fat until your body needs them.
● do not dissolve in water

VITAMIN A – 3 diff forms of Vitamin A are active in the body;

retinol, retinal and retinoic acid. Collectively, these compounds
are known as Retinoids.
● Foods derived from animals provide compounds (retinyl
ester)that are easily converted to retinol in the intestine
● Food derived from plants provide carotenoids(pigments
commonly found in plants and animals),some of w/c have
 vit.A activity. The carotenoid w/ the greatest vitamin A
activity is the BETA-CAROTENE, w/c can be split to form
Retinol in the intestine and liver.
● RETINOL-the alcohol form of vitamin A
● BETA-CAROTENE- one of the carotenoids;an orange pigment
and vitamin A precursor found in plants, and are among the
best phytochemicals. A PRECURSOR is a compound that can
be converted into an active vitamin.

FUNCTIONS/ROLES:
Each form of vitamin A performs specific tasks.
● RETINOL- supports reproduction and is the major transport
and storage form of the vitamin. (a special transport protein
is the Retinol-binding protein(RBP), in w/c it picks up vit A
from the liver, where it is stored and carries it in the blood.

● RETINAL – is active in vision and is also an intermediate in

the conversion of retinol to retinoic acid.

● RETINOIC ACID – acts like a hormone, regulating cell

differentiation, growth and embryonic dev’t.

ROLES OF VITAMIN A
1.Role in vision – it helps maintain a crystal -clear outer window,
the cornea
- and it participates in the conversion of light
energy into nerve impulses at the retina
 2. Maintenance of healthy skin and mucous membrane – all
body surfaces, both inside and out, are covered by layers of cells,
known as epithelial cells. The epithelial tissue on the outside of
the body is the skin.
● RETIN A – another vit A relative, fights acne, the wrinkles of
aging and other skin disorders. Applied topically, this
ointment smooths and softens skin, it also lightens skin that
has become darkly pigmented after inflammation. During
treatment, the skin becomes red and tender and peels.

3. Role in Reproduction and Growth – in men retinol participates

in sperm development and in women, vit. A supports normal fetal
dev’t. during pregnancy
- Children lacking vit A fail to grow. When given supplement of vit
A, these children gain wt and grow taller.

4. Beta-carotene as an Antioxidant – in the body, beta-carotene

serves primarily as a vitamin A precursor. Not all dietary
beta-carotene is converted to active vit A, however, some
beta-carotene may act as an antioxidant capable of protecting the
cells from free radicals – a highly reactive atom or group of atoms
w an unpaired electron and can be formed when oxygen interacts
w/ certain molecules.

DEFICIENCY:
Vit A status depends mostly on the adequacy of vit A stress,
90% of w/c are in the liver. Vit A status also depends on a person’s
protein status bec retinol-binding proteins serve as the vits
transport carrier inside the body.

1. Infectious Diseases- ex. Measles, the severity of the illness

often correlates w/ the degree of vit A deficiency. Deaths in
developing countries are usually due to related infections
such as pneumonia and severe diarrhea. Providing large doses
of vit A reduces the risk of dying from these infections.
● Vit A supplementation also protects against the complications
of other life-threatening infections, including malaria, lung
diseases and HIV(human immunodeficiency virus., a virus that
causes AIDS)

2. Night Blindness – one of the first detectable signs of vit A

Deficiency.
● Total blindness is caused by a lack of Vit. A at the front of the
eye, the cornea
● Severe vit A def. is the major cause of childhood blindness in
the world. Blindness known as XEROPTHALMIA ( serious eye
disease characterized by dry mucus membranes of the eye),
(BITOT’S SPOT in its mild form),develops in stages. First, the
cornea becomes dry and hard, a condition known as
XEROSIS(abnormal drying of the skin and mucous
membranes;a sign of vit A def). Corneal xerosis can quickly
progress to KERATOMALACIA ,the softening of the cornea that
leads to irreversible blindness.

3. Keratinization – in vit A def, the epithelial cells secrete the

protein keratin in a process known as
 keratinization(keratinization doesn’t occur in GIT, but mucus
producing cells dwindle and mucus production declines)

Deficiencies:
● night blindness (nytalopia)
● Xerophthalmia – corneal degeneration and blindness
● Respiratory infections
● Bone growth ceases
● Corneal drying ( xerosis)
● Bitot’s spot ( triangular gray spots on eye)
● Hypokeratosis ( white lumps at hair follicles)
● Keratomalacia (softening of cornea )

TOXICITY:Hypervitaminosis (excess vit A)

1. Bone Defects – excessive amounts of vit A over the years may

weaken the bones and contribute to osteoporosis. People
consuming large amnt. Of vit A either from supplements or
from foods containing retinol have a significantly greater risk
of hip fracture. Such findings suggest that most people shld
not take vit A supplements.
2. Birth defects – excessive vit A poses a teratogenic risk. High
intakes (10,000Iu/day of vit A supplement)before the 7th wk of
pregnancy appear to be the most damaging .For this reason,
vit A is not given as a supplement in the first trimester of
preg. Unless there is specific evidence of defiency, w/c is rare .
3. Anorexia
4. Hyperirritability
5. Drying of mucous membrane, loss of hair (chronic cases)
 6. Fever, insomnia, fatigue, wt loss, bone fragility, diarrhea,
anemia(chronic cases)
7. Nausea and vomiting
8. Desquamationof the skin
9. Muscle and abd’l pain and weakness
10. Bone and joint pain
11. Headache
12. Hypercalcemia

SOURCES:
From darkly colored pigments, both green and orange in fruits
and vegetables( squash, carrots, sweet potato, spinach, broccoli,
pumpkin, squash, mango, cantaloupe.
Liver, butter, whole milk, cheeses and eggyolk

Recommended Allowances: for adults is 1000 micrograms (retinol

equivalents) for men and 800 micrograms for women
● retinol equivalent is 1 mcg retinol or 6 mcg beta carotene
Recommended daily intake
Vitamin A
Dietary Reference Intake:
RDA/AI* UL
Life Stage Group
ug/day ug/day
Infants
0-6 months 400* 600
7-12 months 500* 600
Children
1-3 years 300 600
4-8 years 400 900
Males
9-13 years 600 1700
14-18 years 900 2800
19 - >70 years 900 3000
Females
9-13 years 600 1700
14-18 years 700 2800
19 - >70 years 700 3000
Pregnancy
<19 years 750 2800
19 - >50 years 770 3000
Lactation
<19 years 1200 2800
19 - >50 years 1300 3000

● RDA = Recommended Dietary Allowances

AI* = Adequate Intakes
UL = Upper Limit
 ● (Note that the limit refers to retinoid forms of vitamin A.
Carotene forms from dietary sources are not toxic.[7])

Vitamin D- is actually a hormone rather than a vitamin; it is

required to absorb calcium from the gut into the bloodstream
- is a grp of fat-soluble prohormones, the 2 major form of w/c
are Vit. D2(or ergocalciferol) formed in plants and Vit. D3(or
cholecalciferol)formed in humans from cholesterol in the skin. Vit.
D3 is produced in skin exposed to sunlight, esp. ultraviolet B
radiation.
● Each is formed from a pro-vitamin when irradiated w
ultraviolet light
● Considered a prohormone bec it is converted to a hormone in
the human body
● Heat stable and not easily oxidized.

Sources: the best source is the sunlight w/c changes a

provitamin to vitamin D3 in human. Sometimes referred to as
“sunshine vitamin”

*primarily in foods of animal origin

eggs
liver
butter
fatty fish
salmon with bones
 fortified soy milk
fortified foods such as milk and margarine

Functions:
● Regulates the calcium and phosphorus and magnesium in the
blood by promoting their absorption from food in the
intestines and by promoting re-absorption of calcium in the
kidneys.
● It promotes bone formation and mineralization and is
essential in the dev’t of an intact and strong skeleton

INTAKE RECOMMENDATION:
● Newborns-51 y/o , pregnant and lactating women– 5.0 ug
(200 iu)
● 51-70 – 10 ug (400iu)
● 70+ - 15 ug ( 600iu)

DEFICIENCIES:
● Tetany is a syndrome char.
By abnormal muscle
twitching, cramps and
sharp bilateral spasm of
joints in the wrist and
ankles.
● Rickets in children is the
severe form manifested in
defective bones and
retarted growth
TOXICITIES:
● Nausea
● Diarrhea
● Polyuria
● Wt loss in early stages
● Demineralization of bones
and deposits minerals in
soft tissues in the later
stages
● Renal damage- deposits of
calcium salts, mostly
calcium phosphate in body
 ● In infants, detention and
closing of fontanel are
delayed
● In adults, is osteomalacia
(adult rickets), meaning
softening of the bones.
Skeletal deformities,
fragility of bones and
rheumatic-like pains of
joints.
tissues and it forms stones
esp in the kidneys.
● Hypercalcemia – excessive
quantities of Vit D..may
cause the hardening of
blood vessels and is esp.
dangerous in the major
arteries of the heart and
lungs.

Vitamin E
● Consist of two groups of chemical compounds
● Tocopherols – four types, alpha, beta, delta and gamma
● Tocotrienols

Sources:
plant oils (such as sunflower and safflower oil)
wheat germ
whole grains
unroasted almonds
sunflower seeds
Brazil nuts
mango
green leafy vegetables
broccoli
 Functions:

- Vitamin E is well on its way to becoming a superhero in

the antioxidant army. Due to its fat-soluble nature it can
do its antioxidant work where most of the other
antioxidants can't go.
● Recommendations:
Depending on age and level of activity, adults should get
between 400-800 IU of vitamin E daily. When looking for a
supplement the preferred form has mixed tocopherols (this
should include d-alpha, d-beta, d-gamma, and d-delta
tocopherols) and w/ tocotrienols (it inhibits propagation of
existing breast CA)
● Vitamin E should be used cautiously by anyone with an
overactive thyroid or rheumatic heart disease. Vitamin E in
large doses may aggravate iron deficiency anemia.
● Vitamin E supplements can cause a transient rise in blood
pressure and should be used with caution by anyone suffering
from hypertension, having blood-clotting problems of any
kind, or taking anticoagulant medication.

DEFICIENCIES: TOXICITIES:
● Hemolysis of RBC ● Hypervitaminosis E has not
● Low blood levels been reported largely bec
● the nutrient could not be
stored to a large extent in
the body.
Vitamin K
- is made up of several compounds that are essential to blood
clotting.

TYPES:
a. Vitamin K1 – commonly called phylloquinone
● Found in dietary sources esp green leafy veg such as broccoli
and in animal tissue
b. Vitamin K2 – commonly called menaquinone
● Synthesized in the intestine by bacteria and also found in
animal tissue.
c. Vitamin K3 – called menadione, destroyed by light and
alkalies.
● Absorbed like fats, mainly from the small intestine and slightly
from the colon.
● It is a synthetic water soluble form that is no longer used
medically bec of itsd ability to produce Hemolytic anemia.

Functions:
1. Essential for the formation of prothrombin, w/c permits the
proper clotting of the blood/ required for the production of
of coagulation factor II, IX and X in the liver
2. Needed for phosphorylation, a chemical process that aids the
phosphate radical to glucose so that its passage through the
cell membrane is hastened.

Sources:
*Primarily in plant foods
spinach
broccoli
kale
Brussels sprouts
cabbage
lettuce
cereals
fruits
dairy products
meats
Bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract also provide a the body with
vitamin K.

INTAKE RECOMMENDATION:
● AI for vit K is 120 ug for men and 90 ug for women
● Infants-6mons 2ug/day
● 6mons-1yr is 2.5ug/day
DEFICIENCIES:
● Hemorrhagic disease in
newborn-newborn infants
has a sterile intestinal tract
and the vit K producing
bacteria takes weeks to
establish themselves-
injection of vit k at vastus
lateralis.
● Delayed blood clotting in
adults
TOXICITIES:
● Vomiting, hemolysis and
albuminuria
● Kennicterus – a condition
resulting from the
accumulation of bile
pigments in the gray matter
of the CNS.
● Hemolytic anemia- caused
by increase destruction of
erythrocytes
● Interferes w/ anti-clotting
medication
Water Soluble Vitamins
-Water soluble vitamins (with the exceptions of B12) cannot be
stored by the body and are normally excreted in the urine. And
they must be replaced each day, preferably through a high quality
liquid multivitamin.
- Water-soluble vitamins travel freely through the body, and
excess amounts usually are excreted by the kidneys. The body
needs water-soluble vitamins in frequent, small doses. ... But
niacin, vitamin B6, folate, choline, and vitamin C have upper
consumption limits.
- are easily affected with cooking process and exposure to air.
- Disssolves in cooking water.
-lessens danger of overdose
- Vitamin C is quickly destroyed by heat{dry or moist}, exposure to
air, presence of an alkali and water.
-Thiamine is easily destroyed by prolonged cooking
- Riboflavin is destroyed if heated in the presence of alkali {such
as bicarbonate of soda}, when exposed to light {the reason why
foods such as milk should be stored in the dark}
- Niacin is the most stable of the B vitamins in normal cooking
process.

● Vitamin C - also called ascorbic acid

Sources:
papaya
oranges
orange juice
 kiwifruit
strawberries
cantaloupe
sweet red peppers
cauliflower
broccoli
brussels sprouts
green peppers
grapefruit
kale
strawberries
Functions:
● Important in the synthesis of collagen, which is the main
structural component of the skin as well as many other body
tissues.
● Vitamin C also works as a powerful antioxidant,
● aids in the absorption of iron,
● is critical in fighting off infections,
● helps alleviate allergic reactions,
● and aids in wound healing.
RDA: men- 90 mg/day: women- 75mg/day; smokers- +35mg/day
Upper Level: adults – 2000mg/day
Deficiency Disease – Scurvy {bleeding gums, loosened teeth}
S/S: Anemia (small-cell type), atherosclerotic plaque, pinpoint
hemorrhages, bone fragility, joint pain, poor wound healing,
frequent infection, bleeding gums, loosened teeth, muscle
degeneration and pain, depression, rough skin, blotchy bruises.
Toxicity: headache, fatigue ,insomnia and worsening gout.
●
Thiamin - also called Vitamin B1

Sources:
lean pork- richest source
sunflower seeds
wheat germ
whole or enriched grain products
organ meats and nuts
legumes

Functions:
● Helps the body turn carbohydrates into energy,
● And for proper transmission of nerve signals.
● It is also necessary for normal muscle function, growth,
digestion, DNA replication, and normal appetite.

Deficiencies:
● Beriberi – prolonged thiamin deficiency. beri means
weakness. S/s: damage to heart and other muscles and in
nervous system.Types of beri-beri, wet, w/ edema and dry, w/
muscle wasting.
● wernicke-korsakoff syndrome – a severe thiamin deficiency
in alcohol abusers.S/S: disorientation, loss of short-term
memory, jerky eye movements and staggering gait.
Toxicity : nausea, anorexia, lethargy and ataxia {means loss of the
ability to coordinate muscular movement; in general usage, it
means unsteady movements and staggering walk. Common
causes of ataxia include infection, injury, and degenerative
diseases such as multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, brain
tumors and genetic factors.}

RDA: men – 1.2mg/day

Women – 1.1mg/day

Riboflavin - also called Vitamin B2. Helps in the release of energy

from nutrients in all body cells.
● Can be destroyed by UV light and irradiation
● Stable to heat
● Does not destroy in cooking

Sources:
milk and milk products are the best sources
yogurt
cocoa
cheeses
eggs
meat
green leafy vegetables

Functions:
● Necessary in the release of energy from carbohydrates,
● the activation of many vitamins, and the breakdown of fat.
 ● Also required for normal growth and tissue repair,
● For the synthesis of red blood cells, corticosteroids, and
glycogen.

Deficiency:
● Riboflavin deficiency is called “araboflavinosis”

Deficiency Symptoms:
● Inflamed eyelids due to exposure to light and sensitivity
to light(photophobia)
● Reddening of cornea
● Sore throat
● Cheilosis or angular stomatitis
● Glossitis-Inflamed,Painful smooth, purplish red tongue
● Dermatitis-Inflammation char by skin lesions covered w/
greasy scales.

Excesses appear to cause no harm

No Upper limit has been established

RDA: men- 1.3mg/day
Women- 1.1mg/day

Niacin - also called Vitamin B3.

● The name niacin describes structures: nicotinic acid and
nicotinamide ( also known as niacinamide)
● The body can easily convert nicotinic acid to nicotinamide,
which is the major form of niacin in the blood.

Functions:
 ● Helps the body produce energy from CHO, CHON and fats
● Supports normal vision and skin health
● Also required for proper metabolism and brain function.

Niacin Recommendation:
● Niacin is unique among the B vits in that the body can make it
from the amino acid tryptophan
● To make 1mg of niacin requires approximately 60mg of
dietary tryptophan
● Recommended intakes are stated in niacin equivalents
● A food containing 1 mg niacin and 60mg tryptophan provides
the equivalents of 2mg niacin or 2 niacin equivalents

Sources: protein rich foods contribute much of the niacin in

people’s diet…. like
Milk
Eggs
meat
tuna
halibut
beef
chicken
turkey
pork
cereal grains
fortified cereals
seeds
legumes
peanut butter
 Deficiency:
● Pellagra- niacin deficiency disease. Pellis= skin;agra=rough
-S/S: diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia and eventually death
(often called the four D’s), also, abdominal pain, vomiting,
inflamed, swollen, smooth, bright red tongue, depression,
fatigue, loss of memory, headache, bilateral symmetrical
rash on areas exposed to sunlight.
● Glossitis – black, smoothness of the tongue}
● Failure to grow
● Dementia
● Confusion

Toxicity:
● Niacin coming from foods cause no harm, but large doses
from supplements or drugs produce a variety of adverse
effects most notably the “niacin flush”.
● This would occur when nicotinic acid is taken in doses only
3-4 times the RDA. It dilates the capillaries and causes a
tingling sensation that can be painful.
● The nicotinamide form does not produce this effect.
“Niacin Flush” – a temporary burning, tingling, and itching
sensation that occurs when a person takes large doses of nicotinic
acid; often associated w/ headache and reddened face, arms and
chest.
● Diarrhea, heartburn, nausea and vomiting, ulcer irritation,
fainting, dizziness, abnormal liver function, abnormal glucose
tolerance, low blood pressure.
● Large doses of nicotinic acid have been used to help lower
blood cholesterol and prevent heart disease
 RDA : Men- 16mg NE/day
Women- 14mgNE/day

Pantothenic acid - also called Vitamin B5. Part of coenzyme

Involves in the energy metabolism, synthesis of lipids,amino acid
metabolism and glycogen synthesis.
Pantos = everywhere
● It is readily destroyed by freezing, canning and processing

Functions:
● Critical in the synthesis and breakdown of many body
compounds.
● It is necessary for the metabolism of food and normal
immune function.
● Also plays a role in the synthesis of hormones, cholesterol,
fatty acids and neurotransmitters.

Sources:
*this panthotenic acid is widely distributed in foods
● Beef
● poultry
liver
● potatoes
● tomatoes
peanuts
wheat germ
brewer's yeast
egg yolk
legumes
 whole grain cereals
mushrooms
broccoli
avocados
royal jelly from bees

Deficiency:
● deficiency is rare. Its symptoms involve a general failure of all
the body’s systems and include fatigue, GI distress,
depression, irritability, restlessness, hypoglycemia, increased
sensitivity to insulin
● “The burning feet” syndrome that affected The POW in asia
during WWII is thought to have been caused by pantothenic
acid deficiency

Toxicity: no toxic effects have been reported

RDA: 5mg/day

Biotin- is a part of a coenzyme used in energy metabolism and

gluconeogenesis

Sources:
*widely spread in foods:
-organ meats, eggyolks, soybeans,fish, whole grains, also produce
by GI bacteria

Functions:
● Needed for proper energy metabolism (especially
carbohydrates and protein) and growth.
 ● It is critical in the production of fatty acids,
prostaglandins, antibodies, digestive enzymes, hormones,
and cholesterol.
● Also important in niacin metabolism.

Deficiency:
● Biotin deficiency rarely occur. Researchers can induce a biotin
deficiency in animals or human beings by feeding them raw
eggwhites w/c contain a protein, that binds biotin and thus
prevents its absorption
● The protein AVIDIN in eggwhites binds biotin…avid-greedy.
Deficiency symptoms include skin rash, hair loss and
neurological impairment.
● More than 2 doz raw eggwhites must be consumed daily
for several months to produce these effects.
●
Toxicity: none reported
No Upper Level

RDA: adult 30mcg/day

Vitamin B6 – occurs in 3 forms- pyridoxine, pyridoxal and

pyridoxamine. All 3 can be converted to the coenzyme
PLP(pyridoxal phosphate), w/c is active in amino acid metabolism.

Functions:
● Needed for proper protein metabolism,
● the conversion of tryptophan to niacin and to serotonin
● Supports the synthesis of myelin coating around nerves
for proper brain function
 ● and for the synthesis of fatty acids.
● Necessary for normal growth
● for immune function
● for synthesis of red blood cells, and hormone regulation.

Significant Sources:
-Meats, fish, poultry, potatoes, legumes, non-citrus fruits, fortified
cereals, liver and soy products.

Deficiency:
● Anemia {small-cell type},irritability, depression, neuritis
● greasy dermatitis, muscle twitching and rashes
● w/o adequate vit B6, synthesis of key neurotransmitters
diminishes and abnormal compound produced during
tryptophan metabolism accumulate in the brain
● early symptoms of deficiency include depression and
confusion: advanced symptoms include abnormal brain wave
patterns and convulsions.

Toxicity :
● large doses taken for months or years may cause irreversible
nerve degeneration
● S/S : depression, fatigue, irritability, headaches,impaired
memory, headaches, nerve damage, causing numbness and
muscle weakness, difficulty walking, weakness loss of
refrexes.

RDA: adult (19-50 y/o): 1.3mg/day

Folic acid (synthetic form found in fortified cereals and
supplements)
- also called Folate/ folacin (natural form found in food)
-easily destroyed by heat and oxygen.

Significant Sources:
● fortified grains, green leafy vegetables, legumes, seeds, liver.

Functions:
● Important in the metabolism of proteins and in the synthesis
of new proteins
● It is a necessary component in the production of red blood
cells, necessary for normal cellular division and production of
DNA.
● Folate also increases appetite and digestive acids.
● Required for the release of energy from food esp amino acids
● Works with cobalamine {vit b 12} to protect and develop the
nervous system.

● Research is also showing folate may reduce the risk for heart
disease .
● May prevent certain cancers also , esp to men who smoke,
against pancreatic cancers and to women who drinks alcohol
against breast cancer.
● Folate plays an important role in tissue growth and function
and can significantly reduce the risk of neural tube defects

Deficiency:
 ● Folate deficiency impairs cell division and protein
synthesis-processes critical to growing tissues.
● Folate deficiency symptom is anemia, char by large, immature
RBC(due to its large size and oval shape, they cant carry
oxygen or cant travel thru the capillaries as efficiently as
normal RBC)
● Megaloblastic anemia / macrocytic anemia
● Anemia

Toxicity:
● folate from food alone appears to cause no harm.
● Excess folate from fortified foods or supplements,
however, can reach high enough levels to obscure
vit B 12 deficiency.

RDA: adult- 400mcg/day

Upper Level – 1000 mcg/day

Vitamin B12 - also called cobalamin

- vit B12 and folate are closely related. Each depends on the other
for activation.
● The regeneration of the amino acid methionine and the
synthesis of DNA and RNA depend on both folate and vit B12
● In addition, w/o any help from folate, Vit B12 maintains the
sheath that surrounds and protects nerve fibers and
promotes their normal growth.
● Bone cell activity and metabolism also depend on vit B12.

Significant Sources:
 ● Animal products (meat, fish,poultry, shellfish, milk, cheese,
eggs), fortified cereals

Deficiency :
● Most vit B12 deficiencies reflect inadequate absorption, not
poor intake.
● Inadequate absorption typically occurs for 1 or 2 reasons: a
lack of hydrochloric acid or lack of intrinsic factor. W/o
hydrochloric acid, the vitamins is not released from the
dietary proteins and so is not available for binding w/ the
intrinsic factor. W/o the intrinsic factor, the vit B12 cant be
absorbed.
● Even if people will stop eating foods rich in vit B12 just like in
the case of vegetarians, may take several years to develop
deficiency symptom, about 2-3 years.
● Deficiency disease is the Pernicious Anemia

Deficiency symptoms: anemia, fatigue, degeneration of

peripheral nerves progressing to paralysis.

Toxicity : no reported

RDA: Adults – 2-4 mcg/day

PROTEIN – it is a basic material of body cell.
- Can be found in both animals and plants
- It is the only nutrient grp that contains nitrogen
- Essential for growth and development
- - can uniquely make new cells and rebuild tissues
- Most proteins contain saturated fats and cholesterol
- The enzymes are a class of proteins that are essential for
all kinds of reactions that occur in your body, from
digestion of food to the replication of DNA.
- Other kinds of proteins include Antibodies, w/c help your
immune system fight off infections and hormones also,
w/c send messages throughout your body.
- Proteins contains carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, sulfur and
nitrogen (essential to life)
- Proteins are composed of amino acids
- Amino Acids – are nitrogen-containing compounds
a. Essential amino acids – the body can’t make it or it can’t be
synthesized, so it must be provided by the diet. They are
necessary for normal growth and dev’t.
- Accdg to Roth, there are 20 amino acids, but only 10 are
considered essentials to humans.
Arginine (during childhood only) Methionine
Histidine (during childhood only) Phenylalanine
Isoleucine Threonine
Leucine Tryptophan
Lysine Valine

b. Nonessential- the body can synthesize them or can produce

them from the essential AA, vits and mineral that foods
provide.
 Alanine Glutamine Tyrosine
Arginine Glycine
Asparagine Histidine
Aspartic acid Proline
Cysteine Serine

c. Conditionally essential – Sometimes a nonessential amino

acids become essential under special circumstances.
For ex. The body normally uses the essential amino acid
phenylalanine to make tyrosine ( a nonessential AA).
And if the body fails to supply the needed phenylalanine and if
the body cannot make any conversion due to the absence of
the enzyme phenylalanine hydroylase just like in the case of
genetic/inborn metabolic disorder/amino acid disorder, the
PKU, then the tyrosine becomes conditionally essential AA ,
so, tyrosine should be obtain from the diet. bec tyrosine help
in the synthesis of neurotransmitter and a precursor of
melanine also.

Classification
1. Complete proteins – they provide all the essential amino acids
in sufficient amount to meet the body’s needs. And they are
of high biologic value/high quality.
- They are extremely bioavailable(nutrients can be absorbed
and use by the body)
- Meats, fish, poultry, eggs, milk and cheese.
2. Incomplete Proteins – Plant protein foods, except soya, are
“Incomplete Proteins”
- If a combination of plant proteins is eaten together(e.g.
beans and rice or lentil soup w/ bread) then the essential
 amino acids, w/c are limited in one, are provided by the
other.
- Cannot build tissue w/o help of other proteins
- Don’t contain all of the essential AA.
- corn, grain, nuts, sunflower seeds, sesame seeds and legumes.

OR Complementary Proteins- Occur when a combination of

incomplete proteins are eaten In the same day to make a
complete protein, bec one incomplete protein food can
provide essential amino acids the other lacks, so it shld be in
combination to provide all essential AA.
- Ex. Corn and beans, rice and beans, bread and peanut
butter, bread and split pea soup, bread and cheese, bread
and baked beans, macaroni and cheese, cereal and milk.

Food Combinations that provide Complete proteins

Grains + Legumes
● Peanut butter sandwich
● Rice and beans / baked beans w/ bread
● Split pea soup w/ croutons
● Falafel (chicken pea balls) on pita bread
● Lentil soup w/ rye bread

Grains / legumes + Animal proteins (small amounts)

● Chile w/ beans and cornbread
● Ready to eat cereal w/ skim milk
● Cheese sandwich or pasta w/ cheese
● Rice pudding
● Pancakes(made w/ milk and or eggs)
FOOD SOURCES:
1. Animal sources- (excellent sources) the complete proteins –
meats includes lamb, beef, pork, fish, poultry, eggs, milk and
cheese

2. Plant sources – Incomplete proteins – corn, grain, nuts,

sunflower seed, sesame seeds and legumes. And powdered
protein supplements such as anchovies or dilis powder, monggo
powder, hipon alamang powder, these may be added to soups,
omelet or dishes.

3. Analogues – meat alternatives made from soy protein and other

ingredients to simulate various kinds of meat. They are excellent
sources of CHON, Fe and Vit B.
TOFU – is a soft, cheeselike food made from soy milk.
- Helpful to strict vegetarians to meet their protein needs.
- It is rich in high quality proteins and B vits and it is low in
NA.
- Soy protein and tofu are both economical and nutritious
meat replacement.

❖ Cheaper Sources of Quality proteins includes tiny fish w/

bones, small shrimps, lean “carabeef”, tripe and intestines,
small crab and mussel, and legumes as well.

NUTRITIONAL ROLES IN THE BODY

-Protein provides the materials for building the matrix of virtually
all parts of body tissues in children, protein is essential for growth
and development while adults need them for the repair of
worn-out tissues.
 - Specifically, Protein is needed for-
1. Building and repairing body tissues
The COLLAGEN is a protein from w/c connective tissue such as
scar (wherein it knits the separated parts or from torn tissues
together), tendons, ligaments and the foundation of bones
and teeth are made.

2. Building Antibodies – proteins from the immune system

molecules that fight diseases.

3. Regulating body Functions

As Enzymes- some proteins act as enzymes. Participates in

digestive enzymes

As Hormones – The body’s many hormones are messenger

molecules, and some hormones are proteins
The hormone insulin provide a familiar example.
Wherein, when blood glucose rises, the pancreas releases its
insulin. Insulin then stimulates the transport proteins of the
muscles and adipose tissue to pump glucose into the cells
faster. Then as blood glucose falls, the pancreas slows its
release of insulin.

As transport Component
- Albumin is a major protein in plasma that helps to
transport free fatty acids and binds w/ certain medications
in the body
 - Hemoglobin is protein that has oxygen- carrying capacity
- Ferritin and transferring are protein carriers that are
connected w/ iron storage and transfer in the body.
- Myoglobin is a protein carrier found in muscle cells
- Lipoproteins (protein+fat) help to carry cholesterol and fat
soluble vitamins in the body.

4. Regulators of Fluid balance

- Proteins help to maintain the body’s fluid balance
- The body’s fluids are contained inside the cells
(Intracellular) or outside the cells (Extracellular). These
extracellular fluids can now be found either in the spaces
between the cells (Interstitial) or w/ in the blood vessels
(Intravascular)
- The fluid w/in the intravascular spaces are called PLASMA
5. Providing Energy – Proteins provide fuel for the body’s energy
needs when carbohydrate and fat are insufficiently
consumed. They supply 4 kcal per gram of protein

NITROGEN BALANCE- intake equals nitrogen excreted

POSITIVE NITROGEN BALANCE – exists when nitrogen intake
exceeds amount excreted
- This indicates that new tissue is being formed and it occurs
during Pregnancy, Children growing years and when
athletes develops additional muscle tissue(weight
lifting),and when tissue are rebuilt after physical trauma
such as illness/injury/surgery

NEGATIVE NITROGEN BALANCE – exist when more nitrogen is

lost than taken in.
 - protein is being lost caused by fever, injury, surgery, burns,
starvation,stress – so during these times the body losses
nitrogen as it breaks down muscle and other body proteins
for energy.

PROTEIN IN EXCESS:
- Heart disease
- Colon Cancer
- Kidney disease
- Osteoporosis
- Obesity

PROTEIN DEFICIENCY: Symptoms

- Muscle wasting occurs
- Albumin ( protein in bld plasma) deficiency causes edema
- Loss of appetite, strength and weight
- Lethargy, depression and slow wound healing

PROTEIN DEFICIENCY DISEASES

PEM(Protein-Energy malnutrition)
- People suffering from PEM lack both protein and energy
–rich foods
- Two deficiency diseases that affect children are caused by
a grossly inadequate supply of protein or energy or both.
 MARASMUS – condition resulting from severe
malnutrition/severe deprivation/poor absorption of
nutrients
- Common in infants (less than 2 years)
- Develops slowly
- Infant w/ marasmus appears emaciated, but don’t have
edema
- Severe weight loss w/ gross loss of muscles
- Almost no subcutaneous fat and no edema
- No fatty liver
- Appetite may be normal or poor
- Hair is sparse, thin and dry, easily pulled
- Skin- dry,thin and wrinkled

KWASHIORKOR – cause by insufficient protein intake

- appears when there is sudden or recent lack of
protein-containing food (such during famine).
- Common in older children (1-3 years)
- Rapid onset : Acute PEM
- Causes fat to accumulate in the liver,
- and the lack of protein and hormones results in edema,
- painful skin lesions and skin rash
- and changes in the pigmentation of skin
- hair is dull and dry and discolored hair
- some weight loss
- some muscle wasting
- Apathy, misery, irritability and sadness
- Loss of appetite
-
DIETARY REQUIREMENTS:
 - Determine by size, age, sex and physical and emotional
conditions
- The NRCNAS considers the average adult’s daily reqmt. To
be 0.8gm of CHON for each Kg of body weight.
- To determine your reqmt. – divide body wt. by 2.2 then
multiply the answer by 0.8.

NRCNAS – National Research Council of the National Academy of

Sciences.
MINERALS – it is an inorganic element that is necessary for
the body to build tissues, regulate body fluids or assist in
various body functions.
● They are found in all body tissues.

● They can’t provide energy by themselves but in their role

as body regulators, they contribute to the production of
energy w/in the body

● They are found in water and in natural foods, together w/

proteins, CHO, Fats and vitamins.
●
MINERALS are divided into Two Groups:

1.Major Mineral – they require amounts greater than 100mg/

day.
● Also known as macrominerals
● Major minerals include: Sodium, Potassium, Calcium,
phosphorus, Magnesium, Chloride and Sulfur.

2.Trace Elements – w/c needed in amounts smaller than

100mg/day
● Also known as microminerals
● Trace elements include: Iron, Iodine, Zinc, Selenium,
Copper, manganese, Fluoride, Chromium and
Molybdenum

❖As Minerals dissolve in water, they break into separate,

electrically charged particles called IONS.
❖IONS if positively charged they are called CATIONS.
 ❖When negatively charged, they are ANIONS
❖CATIONS and ANIONS must be balanced w/in the body
fluids to maintain electroneutrality
❖These IONS are called ELECTROLYTES.

Sodium-
▪ It is always found as a compound w/ other
elements in nature, such as common salt.
▪ It is found mainly in blood plasma and in the
fluids outside the body cells.
▪ It is an electrolyte whose primary function is the
maintenance of fluid balance in and out of body
cells in the body.
▪ It is found most in body secretions like, saliva,
gastric & intestinal secretions, bile and
pancreatic fluid.
Functions:
- Necessary for the regulation of water balance within
the body,the passage of substances in and out of each
cell, and the maintenance of a normal body pH.
- Sources:
-primary dietary sources of sodium is table salt w/c is
40% sodium
- it is naturally available in animals foods.
- It is present in fruits and vegs, milk, meats
- and even drinking water(softenend water-high Na content
than hard water)
-It is added to condiments and other foods and can be listed
in food ingredient label as sodium, sodium chloride,
monosodium glutamate (MSG), sodium nitrite, sodium
bicarbonate(baking soda) and sodium benzoate.
- it is added to commercially prepared foods by controlling
growth of microorganism

Requirements: The DRI for Na is 1500mg or 3800 mg salt.

The UL is 5800mg.
- 1 tsp of salt is equivalent to 2000mg

Deficiency or Excess:
● Either deficiency or excess of sodium causes upset in
the body’s fluid balance, drawing water and potassium
out of the cells where it is needed to maintain electrolyte
balance.

Deficiency – can occur after severe vomiting(too much acid

is lost during this condition and tetany would result due to
alkalosis), diarrhea or heavy perspiration w/c dehydration
can result
- It can also upset the acid-base balance in the body.
Cells functions well in a neutral or slightly alkaline
medium
- Athletes can lose so much sodium and drink so much
water that they develop Hyponatremia-too little Na in the
blood.

Hyponatremia – is a sodium deficit/ serum Na level of

less than 135 mEq/L
 Causes: gastrointestinal fluid loss, sweating and use of
diuretics
S/S: lethargy, confusion, apprehension, muscle twitching.
Abd’l cramps, anorexia, N&V, headache, seizure and
coma.

Excess: may cause edema

- And excess sodium is frequently associated w/ CVD
such as Htn and CHF- more Na means more water
reabsorbed in the kidneys. More water means increased
blood volume and inc BP.

Hypernatremia may occur – too much Na in the blood,

Serum Na above 145mEq/L
- Excess Na in the ECF-bec the osmotic pressure of
ECF is high, fluid moves out of the cells into the
ECF-cells become dehydrated.

Causes: by insensible loss ("Insensible" losses can

neither be perceived nor measured directly. You've lost
it, but you don't know that you've lost it (and, of course,
you do not know how much you have lost...)

e. g. hyperventilation/fever, water from feces (can’t be

measured but it is estimated to be between 40 cc and 600 cc
in an adult under normal circumstances)

S/S: dry sticky mucous membrane, tongue, red dry

swollen, weakness
 "Sensible" loss is loss that can be perceived by the
senses and can be measured. If you've lost it, you know
you've lost it!
e.g. urine, vomitus, increased sensible fluid loss thru
diarrhea

Chloride
The element Chlorine is a poisonous gas. When chlorine
reacts with sodium or hydrogen, however, it forms the
negative chloride ion. Chloride is an essential nutrient,
required in the diet.

Functions:
1.Major anion of the ECF, where it occurs mostly in
association w/ sodium
2.Helps maintain fluids and electrolyte balance
3.Chloride is a part of hydrochloric acid and its is
necessary for proper digestion

Sources:
table salt seafood tomatoes rye olives
RDA:
Chloride is abundant in processed food
The proportion of chloride in salt is greater than sodium,
whereby its recommendations are slightly higher than
sodium
Salt (Sodium chloride) is about 60% chloride
5g salt = 1tsp
1tsp salt contributes 3000mg chloride

Adults : 19-50y/o = 2300mg/day

51-70y/o= 2000mg/day
Above 70 y/o = 1800mg/day

Upper Level
Adults:3600 mg/day

Deficiency and toxicity. Diets rarely lack chloride

Deficiency occurs during Chloride losses.
High blood chloride concentration is caused by
dehydration due to water deficiency
Toxicity symptom – vomiting

Potassium

Like a sodium, potassium is a positively charged ion. In

contrast to sodium, potassium is the body’s principal cation
inside the body cells.

Functions:
1. Essential part of every cell in the body and required for
normal growth.
2. Also involved in the release of energy from food,
3. For the synthesis of protein
4. For the regulation of water balance in the body,
5. For proper nerve impulse transmission
6. For skeletal and smooth muscle contraction,
7. For regulation of blood pressure and for steady heartbeat.
Sources:
potassium rich fruits and veg appears to reduce the risk of
stroke
Potatoes peaches
avocado spinach
banana mushrooms
tomato dried fruits
peach adzuki and lima beans
raisins wheat bran
dairy products

Deficiency
● Potassium deficiency is the most common electrolyte
imbalance due to excessive losses than by deficient
intakes.
● Conditions such as diabetic acidosis, dehydration, or
prolonged vomiting or diarrhea can cause deficiency
 ● And even in taking diuretics, steroids and strong
laxatives
● Hypokalemia- Earliest symptom deficiency is muscle
weakness
Other symptoms – fatigue, muscle spasm, abnormal
heart rhythm.
Toxicity
● It can result from over consumption of K salts,
supplements ( including some energy fitness shakes)
● Given more potassium than the body needs, the kidneys
accelerate their excretion.
● Hyperkalemia - Technically, hyperkalemia means an
abnormally elevated level of potassium in the blood
The normal potassium level in the blood is 3.5-5.0
milliequivalents per liter (mEq/L).
● Potassium levels between 5.1 mEq/L to 6.0 mEq/L
reflect mild hyperkalemia.
● Potassium levels of 6.1 mEq/L to 7.0 mEq/L are
moderate hyperkalemia,
● and levels above 7 mEq/L are severe hyperkalemia.
● Symptoms – asymptomatic until the level reaches
7.0mEq/L
- Nausea, fatigue, muscle weakness, tigling sensation
- Serious symptoms – slow heartbeat and weak
Pulse or heart stoppage for severe cases.

The concentration of K+ in plasma is influenced by the pH of

the blood (physiological pH 7,4 ± 0,04).
 Alkalosis (pH > 7.44) causes hypokalemia → transient
shifting of K+ into cells, presumably by stimulation of the
Na-K-ATPase.
Acidosis (pH < 7,36) causes hyperkalemia → transient
shifting of K+ from cells at the expense of H+

RDA:
K is abundant in all living cells, both plants and animals.
AI : need to increase intake of fruits and veg. to 5-9
servings/exchanges daily.

Phosphorus
- Second most abundant minerals in the body. And a
major mineral found mostly in bones and teeth. About
85% of it is found in combination w/ calcium in the
hydroxyapatite crystals of bones and teeth.
Functions:

1. main role is in binding with calcium to form healthy

bones and teeth
2. needed for metabolism of carbohydrates and fats to
produce energy
3. important for production of ATP (Adenosine Tri
Phosphate), the molecule that the body uses to carry
energy
4. required for synthesis of protein for growth and repair
of cells and tissues, including nucleic acids (DNA and
RNA)
5. needed to make phospholipids, such as
phosphatidylcholine, that are structural components of
cell membranes
6. helps the body utilize the B-complex vitamins
7. needed for heart muscle contraction and to regulate
heartbeat
8. supports proper muscle and nerve function
9. helps maintain normal acid-base (pH) balance in the
body by acting as an important buffer
10. maintains calcium balance and helps prevent
hypercalcemia (high blood calcium levels)
11. maintains kidney function
12. potassium and sodium phosphate taken orally are
FDA-approved for use to help prevent or treat
calcium-based kidney stones in people with
hypercalciuria (high urine calcium levels) or those with
calcium oxalate stones; avoid if stones are
phosphate-based
13. FDA-approved for treating occasional constipation,
and to restore bowel function after surgery
Sources:
meat poultry
fish eggs
milk milk products
nuts legumes
cereals grains
chocolate lettuce
tomato
RDA:
Diets that provide enough energy and protein also supply
adequate phosphorus.
Adult: 700mg/day
UL: 19-70y/0= 4000mg/day
Deficiency:
 A reduced concentration of phosphate in the blood serum is
a disorder known as hypophosphatemia.
Phosphorus deficiency may cause bone diseases such
as rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults. An
improper balance of phosphorus and calcium may cause.
Toxicity:
1.Excess phosphorus can cause hyperphosphatemia or
high blood phosphate levels.

A common reason for this is, over-consumption of foods

high in phosphorus, such as canned, processed, or fast
foods, or soft drinks.  Many of these have phosphates
added to extend shelf life or enhance flavors, especially
in baked products, cheeses, meats, and drinks.
 A deficiency in calcium or magnesium may lead to
excess blood phosphate.

2.At the same time, high levels of phosphorus interfere

with calcium uptake, which, if coupled with a low calcium
diet over a long period, increases the risks of bone
density loss, hypertension, and bowel cancer.

Hyperphosphatemia can also occur in people with

impaired kidney function.
3. Too much phosphorus can cause serious electrolyte
imbalances.  It draws calcium out of bones and weakens
them, leading to brittle bones.  
Excess calcium and phosphorus together may result in
harmful calcium deposits or calcification, in soft tissues such
as the lungs, heart, muscles, eyes, blood vessels, and
especially the kidneys.

Calcium
Calcium is the most plentiful mineral found in the human
body. The teeth and bones contain the most calcium. Nerve
cells, body tissues, blood, and other body fluids contain the
rest of the calcium.
Adults absorb about 25% of the calcium they ingest.
Pregnant about 50% and growing children 50-60%.
 Vitamin D helps in the absorption of calcium, deficiency
of this may impair its absorption also the fiber, in general,
and the binders phytate and oxalate interfere with its
absorption.
The stomach’s acidity helps to keep calcium soluble, and
vitamin D helps to make calcium-binding protein needed for
absorption(This explains why milk is the best food for
Vitamin D fortification)
Function
1. Calcium helps form and maintain healthy teeth and bones.
2. Proper levels of calcium over a lifetime can help
prevent osteoporosis.

3. Clotting blood

4. Sending and receiving nerve signals

5. muscle relaxation and contraction

6. Releasing hormones and other chemicals

7. Keeping a normal heartbeat

Sources:
milk
milk products
calcium fortified orange juice
part-skim ricotta cheese
yogurt cocoa
sardines clams
oysters turnip greens
mustard greens broccoli
legumes dried fruit

RDA:
A cup of milk provides abt. 300mg of calcium
Adults need between 1000 and 1200 mg/day or 3-4 cups of
milk
1000mg÷300mg/cup= 3 ½ cups
1200mg÷300mg/cup= 4 cups
14-18 y/o pregnant & lactating- 1300mg/day
19-50y/o pregnant & lactating – 1000mg
Deficiency:
A low calcium intake during the growing years limits the
bone’s ability to reach their optimal mass and density
Most people achieve a peak bone mass by their late 20’s
Adults lose bone as they grow older, beginning between
the ages of 30-40
Deficiency:
- may result to Osteoporosis-
 - Hypocalcemia – low levels of calcium in the blood. It
can cause by vit. D deficiency and magnesium.
- And with problems in their parathyroid glands - , diet
and kidney disorders & drugs such as rifampin,
anticonvulsants, corticosteroids.

- Symptoms –
Calcium Tetany- char. By uncontrolled muscle
contraction, caused by lack of vitamin D and abnormal
secretion of the regulatory hormones.
Chronic deficiency is caused by poor absorption over
the years, depletes the savings account in the bones.
Toxicity:
Too much calcium supplements intake for a long period
of time raises the risk of kidney stones
Getting too much calcium can cause constipation. It
might also interfere with the body's ability to absorb iron and
zinc. 
Hypercalcemia - Hypercalcemia is a condition in which
the calcium level in your blood is above normal.
Hypercalcemia most commonly results from overactive
parathyroid glands. These four tiny glands are each about
the size of a grain of rice and are located on or near the
thyroid gland.
Magnesium

Sources:
nuts and seeds legumes
green vegetables tofu
wheat germ cereal grains
soybeans chocolate
blackstrap molasses corn
peas carrots
seafood brown rice
parsley lima beans
spinach
Functions:
1. Essential in hundreds of biochemical reactions and a wide
range of metabolic activities including the use of energy and
the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and
genetic material.
2. Together with calcium it is necessary for proper nerve
transmission, contraction of muscle, blood clotting, BP
regulation
3. For the conversion of Vitamin D to its active form.
4. Helps prevent dental caries by holding calcium in tooth
enamel
5. for functioning of the lungs and normal functioning of the
immune system.
RDA:
Adult men 19-30 y/o – 400mg/day
Women 19-30 y/o – 310mg/day

DEFICIENCY:
Mg deficiency may result from alcohol abuse, PEM,
kidney disorders and prolonged vomiting and diarrhea.
Deficiency may cause tetany similar to the calcium
tetany and may impair CNS activity and may be responsible
to the hallucinations experienced during alcohol withdrawal.

TOXICITY:
It is rare but it can be fatal
The Upper Level is applied only to nonfood sources such
as supplements/ magnesium salts
Symptoms – diarrhea, alkalosis and dehydration.

SULFUR

The body does not use sulfur as nutrient. It is a

major mineral that occurs in essential nutrients
such as B vitamin thiamin and the amino acids
methionine and cysteine.
Sulfur plays a well-known role in determining the
contour of protein molecules.
Skin, hair and nails contain some of the body’s rigid
proteins, which have a high content of sulfur.
There is no RDA for sulfur and no deficiencies are known.
Only when people has a severe protein deficiency will they
lack the sulfur-containing amino acids.
 TRACE MINERALS

Are so named bec. they are present and needed in

relatively small amounts in the body. Altogether, they would
produce only a bit of dust, hardly enough to fill a teaspoon.
Deficiency and excess is equally fatal/deadly. People’s diet
normally supply enough of these minerals to maintain health.
Iron
Exemplifies the principle that both too little and too much
of a nutrient in the body can be harmful.
To support health optimally, one should eat enough iron
containing food.
It has Two (2) Ionic state:
1. Ferrous iron (reduced) fe++
2. Ferric iron (oxidized) fe+++
FUNCTIONS
1.Because ferrous iron can be oxidized to ferric iron and
ferric iron can be reduced to ferrous iron, iron can serve as a
cofactor to enzymes involved in oxidation-reduction
reactions.
Cofactor = a subs that works w/ an enzyme to facilitate
chemical reaction.
2. It is also required by enzymes involved in the making of
amino acids, collagen, hormones and neurotransmitters.
3. Critical in making new red blood cells, immune defense
cells, white blood cells, and normal brain function.
Iron is found in two (2) proteins
1. Hemoglobin in the red blood cells- it is the
oxygen-carrying protein that transport oxygen from the lungs
to the tissues throughout the body. It accounts for 80% of the
body’s iron.
2. Myglobin in the muscle cells – the oxygen-holding
protein of the muscle cells
Iron Absorption and Metabolism
The body conserves iron. More iron is absorbed when
stores are empty and less is absorbed when stores are full.
 A Protein called mucosal ferritin helps in the absorption
of iron from food and stores it in the mucosal cells of the
small intestines. When the body needs iron, mucosal ferritin
releases some iron to another protein called mucosal
transferring- it transfers the iron to another protein called
blood tranferrin that transports iron to the rest of the body.
If the body does not need iron, it is carried out when the
intestinal cells are shed and excreted in the feces.Intestinal
cells are being replaced every after three days.
Iron absorption depends partly on its source.
Iron occurs in 2 Forms:
Sources:
1. Heme Iron – found in food. From the flesh of animals such
as meat, fish, poultry
-it has an iron about 10% from food/day but it is
absorbed well that accounts abt 25% of heme iron.
2. Nonheme Iron – found in both plant-derived and
animal-derived foods.17% is absorbed by the body as
nonheme iron.
MFP factor (meat,fish,poultry)- not only as well-absorbed
heme iron but also a factor that promotes absorption of
nonheme iron from other foods eaten at the same meal.
HEME – the iron-holding part of the hemoglobin and
myoglobin proteins. About 40% of the iron in meat ,fish,
poultry is bound into heme, the other 60% is nonheme iron.
Factors that enhance Nonheme iron absorption:
1. MFP factor
2. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
3. Citric acid and lactic acid from foods and Hcl acid from
stomach
4. Sugars (including sugars in wine)

Factors that inhibit Nonheme iron absorption:

1. Phytates and fibers (grains and veg.)
2. Oxalates ( spinach, beets, rhubard)
3. Calcium and phosphorus (milk)
4. EDTA (food additives)
5. Tannic Acid (and other polyphenols in tea and coffee.)
Sources:
meat (provides iron in the heme form which is the easiest for
the body to absorb)
blackstrap molasses
clams
oysters
tofu
legumes
nuts and seeds
red meats
dark green leafy vegetables (Vegetables provide iron in the
non-heme form, which is harder for the body to absorb.
Consuming vitamin C with iron rich foods will help increase
absorption)
soybeans
pumpkin seeds
dried fruits
enriched and/or whole-grain breads and cereals

Iron Deficiency: most common nutrient deficiency affecting

1.2 billion people.
Stages of life that are prone or high risk to IDA –
1. Women in their reproductive years
2. Pregnancy –
3. Infants and young children

Stages of Iron Deficiency:

1. iron stores diminish
2. transport iron decreases
3. hemoglobin production declines.

TOXICITY:
Hemochromatosis- iron overload, caused by a genetic
disorder that enhances iron absorption
Hemosiderosis – excess iron that characterized by large
deposits of the iron storage protein hemosiderin in the liver
and other tissues.
S/S – apathy, lethargy and fatigue, GI distress, joint pain,
organ damage, skin pigmentation, infections.
RDA:
Adult male 8mg/day
Women 19-50 y/o – 18mg/day
51 + - 8 mg/day
UL for adults 45mg/day
Zinc

Sources:
Significant sources – protein-containig foods: red meats,
shellfish, whole grains
oysters
wheat germ
beef
liver
dark meat of turkey and chicken
peanuts
whole grains
miso
legumes
sunflower seeds
blackstrap molasses
green peas
spinach
broccoli
Functions:
1.Essential for proper growth of skin, hair, and nails, healing
wounds, and a healthy immune system.
2. Necessary in many chemical reactions and for a normal
sense of taste and smell.
3. Also functions as a detoxifier of the body
4. and plays a role in the metabolism of carbohydrates.
DEFICIENCY:
1. Severe growth retardation and arrested sexual maturation
are the char. Of zinc deficiency
2. Hinders digestion and absorption causing diarrhea that
worsens malnutrition
3. Impairs immune response making infections likely ( GI)
4. Damages CNS and brain lead to poor motor dev’t. and
cognitive performance
5. Impairs vit . A metabolism – vit. A deficiency appear.
6. Distubs thyroid function and metabolic rate
7. It alters taste, causes loss of appetite and slows would
healing
8. snake like rash

TOXICITY:
High dose (50-450mg) may cause vomiting, diarrhea,
exhaustion and other symptoms

RDA:
Adults Men – 11mg/day
 Women – 8 mg/day
UL – adults – 40mg/day

Iodine

Traces of the iodine ion (called iodide). Are

indispensable for life.
It is called as iodine when it is referred to the nutrient in
foods and iodide when referring to it in the body.
FUNCTIONS:
1. Iodide is an integral part of the thyroid hormones that
regulate body temp, metabolic rate, reproduction, growth,
blood cell production, nerve and muscle function.
DEFICIENCY:
Simple Goiter – an enlargement of the thyroid gland due to
an iodine deficiency, malfunction of the gland or
overconsumption of a goitrogen.
- The earliest and most obvious sign of iodine deficiency
- Causes poor performance in the school for children
- A severe deficiency during pregnancy causes extreme
and irreversible mental and physical retardation is
known as Cretinism.
Examples of Goitrogen-containing Foods:
1. cabbage, spinach, radishes, rutabagas
 2.soybeans, peanuts
3.peaches,strawberries

TOXICITY:
1. Can enlarge the thyroid gland
2. Can damage the developing infant – esp from
supplements.
- An infant exosed to toxic amounts during gestation may
develop a goiter so severe as to block the airways and
cause suffocation.

Sources:
Iodized salt saltwater seafood
sunflower seeds mushrooms
eggs beef liver
peanuts spinach
pumpkin broccoli
chocolate kelp

RDA:
Adult – 150 mcg/day
UL – 1000mcg/day

Copper
– the body contains about 100mg of copper. It is found in
variety of cells and tissues
Functions:
1. Critical component of the outer coating of nerve fibers,
collagen, and used in the production of skin pigments.
2. Also works with iron to make healthy red blood cells.
3. Two copper and –zinc containing enzymes participate in
the body’s natural defense against free-radicals
Sources:
liver shellfish
whole grains mushrooms
cherries legumes
cocoa nuts
eggs muscle meats fish poultry

DEFICIENCY:
- Is rare but in Menkes Disease, the intestinal cells
absorb copper but can not release it into circulation,
causing a life-threatening deficiency.
- S/S anemia, bone abnormalities

TOXICITY:
- May cause liver damage

RDA:
Adult -900mcg/day
UL – 10,000 mcg/day (10mg/day)
Selenium

Functions:
Important antioxidant that works with vitamin E to protect the
body from free-radical damage. It is also associated with fat
metabolism, a healthy immune system, and important to
male fertility.
DEFICIENCY:
Is associated with heart disease that is prevalent in the
regions of CHINA where the soil and food lack of selenium.
Cause by virus, but selenium deficiency appears to
predispose people to it and adequate selenium seems to
prevent it.
It is called the Keshan Disease – char by enlargement
and insufficiency; fibrous tissue replaces the muscle tissue
that normally composes the middle layer of the walls of the
heart.

TOXICITY:
-Causes loss and brittleness of hair and nails, garlic
breath odor, and nervous system abnormalities, fatigue,
irritability, CNS disorders

Sources:
grains seeds
potatoes meat
poultry fish
garlic brewer's yeast
wheat germ

RDA: Adults – 55 mcg/day

UL – Adults 400 mcg/day

Chromium
Functions:
1. Necessary for blood sugar regulation and enhances
insulin action
2. for metabolism of fats and carbohydrates.
Sources:
wheat germ brewer's yeast
peas chicken
corn oil mushrooms
prunes nuts
asparagus organ meats
whole-grain bread and cereals

Deficiency : diabeteslike condition

Toxicity : none reported
RDA: Men 35 mcg/day
Women 25 mcg/day
Manganese
The human body contains a tiny 20mg of manganese. Most
of it can be found in the bones and metabolically active
organs such as liver, kidneys and pancreas.

Functions:
Needed for normal utilization of several other vitamins, and a
variety of other biochemical roles in the body. It also aids in
proper fat metabolism, skeletal and connective tissues,
production of energy, making cholesterol and DNA, proper
brain function, and processing blood sugar.
Sources:
wheat bran legumes
nuts lettuce
leafy green vegetables blueberries
pineapple seafood
poultry meat
tea

Deficiency: Rare
Toxicity: CNS disorders
RDA: Men 2.3mg/day Women – 1.8mg/day
Molybdenum
Sources:
milk and milk products
soybeans
lentils
pasta
buckwheat
oats
rice
wheat germ
sunflower seeds

Functions:
Important in many biochemical reactions, aids in the
metabolism of iron, helps prevent gout by removing uric acid
from the body, and helps the body burn fat. It is also part of
healthy bones, teeth, kidney, and liver, and helps the body
use its iron reserves.
AI: 45 mcg, fulfilled with balanced diet

Fluoride

Functions:
1. Involved in the formation of bones and teeth
2. Reduces dental caries and may minimize bone loss by
helping the body retain calcium.
Sources: water is the best source (fluoridated water)
mackerel sardines
salt pork salmon
shrimp meat
sunflower seeds
kale potatoes
watercress honey
wheat tea

Deficiency : dental caries

Toxicity : Flourosis – discoloration and pitting of

tooth enamel caused by excess fluoride during
tooth development
RDA: men 3.8mg/day women 3.1mg/day
UL adults 10mg/day

Nickel
Sources:
nuts
legumes
shellfish
cocoa products
green beans
spinach
rice
tea

Functions:
Important in many biochemical reactions, and thought to play
a role in the metabolism of fats and blood sugar regulation.

Silicon
Sources:
whole grains
root vegetables
unrefined cereal products

Functions:
Needed for healthy body tissues.

Vanadium
Sources:
shellfish
spinach
parsley
mushrooms
whole grains
dill seeds
black pepper
parsley
soy
corn
olives

Functions:
Research has not documented exactly what vanadium does
for the body. It is likely that it plays a role in energy
production, biochemical reactions, blood sugar and fat
metabolism, and bone and teeth strength.

Arsenic
Sources:
most foods contain less than 0.3ug/g
seafood is the richest source

Functions:
Precise function in the body is still unknown, but it is likely
that it plays a role in the metabolism of phospholipids.
Boron
Sources:
fruits
vegetables
legumes
nuts

Functions:
Required for normal bone integrity.
FATS
- Fats belongs to a group of substances called lipids that
include fats and oils (chemically called triglycerides),
Lecithin (phospholipids), and cholesterol ( a sterol)
- Of the lipids in foods, 95% are fats and oils, and 55 are
other lipids.
- Of the lipids stored in the body, 99% are triglycerides.
- Coming from greek word LIPOS(are greasy substances
that are not soluble in water. They are soluble in ether,
benzene and chloroform
- They provide a more concentrated source of energy
than carbohydrates,each gram of fat is equivalent to 9
calories.
- Like carbohydrates, fats are composed of carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen but w/ a substantially lower
proportion of oxygen.
- In plants, fats in the form of oil are found in the stems,
seeds and fruits
- Lipids that are solid at room temperature (70 degrees F/
25 degrees centigrades) are called FATS
- Lipids that are liquid at room temperature (70 F/ 25 C)
are calle OILS
FUNCTIONS:
1.Fats provide energy.The body burn fats for fuel and
stores extra fuel in adipose tissue so that it always have
a reserves to draw from.
Adipose Tissue is the most efficient way for the
body to store energy. It is specialized connective tissue
that functions as the major storage site for fat in the
form of triglycerides.
Each gram of fat provides 9 calories of energy for
the body, compared w/ 4 calories per gram of CHO and
Proteins.

Principal sites of Adipose Body Fats

a.Sub Q tissue – 50%
b.Surrounding organs in the abdominal cavity – 45%
c. Intramuscular tissue – 5%

2.Fats build healthy cells – fats are a vital part of the

membrane that surrounds each cell of the body. w/ o a
healthy cell membrane, the rest of the cell couldn’t
function.
3.Fats build brains. – fat provides the structural
components not only of cell membranes in the brain,
but also of myelin, the fatty insulating sheath that
surrounds each nerve fiber, enabling it to carry
messages faster.
4.Fats help the body use vitamins – vitamins A, D, E ,K are
fat-soluble vitamins, meaning that the fat in foods help
the intestines absorb these vitamins into the body.
5. Fats make hormones – fats are structural components
of some of the most important substances in the body,
including prostaglandins, hormone-like substances that
regulate many of the body’s functions
6. Fats regulate the production of sex hormones(
estrogen, progesterone and testosterone for males)
7.Fats provide healthier skin – one of the more obvious
signs of fatty acid deficiency is dry, flaky skin.
8.Fat forms a protective cushion for your organs – many
of the vital organs, esp the kidneys, heart and intestines
are cushioned by fat that helps protect them from
jarring and hold them in place.
9.Fats are pleasurable – besides being a nutritious energy
source, fat adds to the appealing taste, texture and
appearance of food. Fats carry flavor.
10. Fats stimulate the flow of bile and emptying of the
gallbladder. Bile is important in the body’s elimination
of the waste products.
FOOD SOURCES:
A. Animal Sources
- Meats – fatty meats such as sausage, bacon and
luncheon meats
 - Lard-is a pig fat
- Butter
- Cheese
- Cream
- Whole milk
- Egg yolk

B.Plant Sources
- Vegetable oils
- Nuts
- Chocolates
- Avocados
- Olives
- Margarine

CLASSIFICATION
Fats come in liquid or solid form and some are visible
while others are hidden
All fats are combinations of saturated and unsaturated
fatty acids.
Fats can be called very saturated or highly unsaturated
depending on their proportions.
VISIBLE FATS - include butter, oils, mayonnaise, fat
attached to meat, are obvious fats that are plain to see.
INVISIBLE FATS – are present in avocado, peanuts, milk,
sausages, cheese, eggyolk, seeds and even lean meats
(about 6% of the total fat remains)
 The fat in foods is a combination of three different fatty
acids, namely SATURATED, MONOUNSATURATED and
POLYUNSATURATED fatty acids. A balanced intake of the
three is encouraged for good health.

GROUPS OF FATS:
1.TRIGLYCERIDES – the chief form of fat in the diet and
the major storage form of fat in the body.
- composed of a molecule of glycerol w/ 3 Fatty acids
attached.
Gycerol – an alcohol composed of 3 carbon cahin w/c
can serve as the backbone for a triglyceride
● derived from water-soluble CHO
Fatty Acids – are organic compounds of carbon atoms to
w/c hydrogen atoms are attached.
2 Classifications:
a.Essential Fatty Acids – are necessary fats that human
cannot synthesize
● Must be obtain through diet
● Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids derived from
Linoleic(omega-6),Linolenic(omega 3) and oleic
acid(omega-9)
Omega 3, Omega 6, Omega 9, Plus Phytosterol and
Antioxidants:
● Help strengthen cell membrane integrity
 ● Help repair cellular and tissue damage
● Help optimize neurological transmission and brain
function
● Help improve heart and circulatory function
● Help produce supple, moist skin

Linoleic Acid(omega-6) – the word linoleic comes from the

Greek word linon (flax).
● A polyunsaturated FA used in the biosynthesis of
prostaglandins.
● It is found in the lipids of cell membtanes. It is
abundant in many veg.oils, esp. safflower/sunflower,
corn and soybean oils.
● It is a colorless liquid.
● Arachidonic acid (AA), Gamma linolenic acid
(GLA) and linolenic acid (LA) are three forms of
Omega 6 fatty acids.
● Linoleic acid is converted to gamma-linolenic acid in
the body and then further broken down to AA.
● Omega 6 fatty acid in the form of Arachidonic Acid
can be found in egg yolks, meats (organs in
particular), and other animal based food items.
The other two forms GLA and LA can be found in
evening primrose oil, black currant seed oil,
fungal oil
borage oil(from borago officinalis plant with
blue star-shaped flowers from europe and
 north to treat rheumatoid arthritis and eczema)

Linolenic Acid(omega 3)
● a colorless liquid also
● A polyunsaturated FA used in the biosynthesis of
prostaglandins.
● It is found in the cell membranes
● Abundant in many veg oils, soybean and canola oils,
flaxseed and walnuts.
● Used in making soaps, emulsifier and quick drying
oils
● SOURCES: salmon, tuna, sardines, herring

3 Forms of Omega-3 Fatty acid:

1. Alpha Linolenic acid (ALA)
2. Ecosapentonoic Acid (EPA)
3. Docosahexanoic acid (DHA)

Oleic Acid(omega 9)- a monounsaturated FA found in

various animal & veg. sources
● The saturated form of this acid is Stearic Acid
● Used in Lorenzo’s oil
● Oleic acid makes up 55-80% of olive oil
● Sources: olive oil, canola oil
Omega-9-oleic acid – thought to be essential. Can be
synthesized by the body when EFA are present.
b. Nonessential FA- can be synthesized by the body.
Ex. Cholesterol

Triglyceride Level Classification

Less than 150 mg/dl Normal
150-199 mg/dl Borderline High
200-499 mg/dl High
500mg/dl and above Very high
Sources of Triglycerides – Adipose Tissue, butterfat,
cream. Olive oil, cottonseed oil, corn, peanut oil, lard,
bacon, chicken fat, fish oils.

2.PHOSPHOLIPIDS – the best known phospholipid is the

LECITHIN
● The FA make phospholipids soluble in fat and water
● Food industry use it as emulsifier=used to make food
products smooth ,such products as mayonnaise
● Is an integral part of cell membranes and can be
totally metabolized, so it is virtually non-toxic to
humans.
● Found in both plants and animals – eggs, liver,
soybeans, wheat germ, peanuts.
● A natural emulsifier that helps transport fats in the
bloodstream .
 3.STEROLS – The most famost sterol is cholesterol
● Many vitally impt. Body compounds are sterol.
Among them are Bile Acids, The sex Hormones (such
as testosterone, progesterone. The adrenal
hormones such as Cortisol D and Vit. D as well as
cholesterol itself.
● A waxy material present in the blood and tissues,
particularly in the brain
● Cholesterol is the structural component of cell
membranes – more than 90% of all the body’s
cholesterol resides in the cells
● Your liver manufacturing cholesterol from fragments
of CHO, CHON, FAT. The liver makes abt.
800-1500mg/day. Thus contributing much more
total than does the diet.
● SOURCES: nerve tissue, bile, gallstones, spleen,
kidney, brain, sweetbreads, liver, egg yolk, whole
milk, butter, fish roe, cheese, ice cream, meats.

COMPOSITION/TYPES OF FATS
Most fats contain a mixture of saturated and
unsaturated fatty acids but in widely varying proportions.
1.SATURATED FATS – have FA that holding all the hydrogen
possible and tends to be solid at room temp.like butter
o Saturated FA have no double bond s bet. Carbon
atoms of the FA chain; hence , they are fully
saturated w/ hydrogen atoms.
 o What is hydrogen atom?

Some common examples of Saturated FA are:

● Butyric Acid (contained in butter)
● Lauric acid (contained in breast milk, coconut oil,
palm oil)
● myristic Acid (contained in cow’s milk and dairy
products)
● palmitic Acid (contained in palm oil and meat) and
● stearic Acid (also used in meat and cocoa butter)

SOURCES: butter, lard, coconut oil, cottonseed oil and palm,

kernel oil, dairy products (esp. cream and hard yellow
cheeses), meat (beef)and some prepared foods(luncheon
meats), eggyolks, wholemilk, chocolate.

Saturated fats are solid at room temperature, while

unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature. This is
because saturated and unsaturated fats differ in their
chemical structures.
Saturated fats have no double bond between molecules,
which means there are no gaps and the fat is saturated with
hydrogen molecules.
On the other hand, unsaturated fats have double bonds,
which break up the chain of hydrogen molecules and create
gaps, allowing the fats to liquefy at room temperature,
according to registered dietitian Anne VanBeber, Ph.D,
professor and chair of nutritional sciences at Texas Christian
University.

Saturated Fat Examples

Saturated fat is found mainly in animal foods -- meat and
dairy products are often high in saturated fat. Examples
include fatty beef, lamb, pork, chicken with skin, whole milk,
cream, butter, cheese and ice cream. Certain plant foods –
coconut oil, palm oil and palm kernel oil – contain saturated
fat, but no cholesterol.

Unsaturated Fat Examples

Unsaturated fats are found in plant foods and fish --
monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats are unsaturated
fats. These good fats are found in liquid vegetable oils, but
not tropical oils, Oily fish – salmon, tuna, mackerel, herring
and trout – contain a type of unsaturated fat called omega-3
fatty acids, while most nuts and seeds contain a type of
unsaturated fat called omega-6 fatty acids.

Health Effects
Saturated fats raise levels of cholesterol in your blood,
which clogs your arteries over time, increasing your risk of
having a heart attack or stroke.
Plus, many foods high in saturated fats are also high in
dietary cholesterol, which raises levels of artery-clogging
cholesterol even higher, warns the American Heart
Association.
Replacing saturated fat with unsaturated fat may protect
your heart, especially when accompanied by other
heart-healthy lifestyle measures.
The type of unsaturated fat found in fish will also help keep
your brain healthy
The American Heart Association recommends limiting
saturated fat to 7 percent of your total calories. If you
consume 2,000 calories a day, this means that fewer than
140 calories should come from foods with saturated fats.

2.UNSATURATED FATS – Have FA w/ less hydrogen than

they can hold.
● lack of the extra hydrogen atom causes the melting
point of the compound to be significantly lower.
● These fats are liquid at room temp, and are called
Oils.
● Examples: palmitoleic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid
and arachidonic acid
● Sources: avocado, nuts, soybeans, canola and olive
oils, some meat products(contain both saturated
and unsaturated fats)

2 CLASSIFICATIONS OF UNSATURATED FATS

 a. Monounsaturated Fats- have one place among the
carbon atoms where there are fewer hydrogen atoms
attached than in saturated fats
● Found in natural foods like, nuts and avocados,
grape seed oil, ground nut oil, peanut oil, flaxseed
oil, sesame oil and corn oil, canola oil and olive oil.
● Main component of canola oil-57%-60% mono, olive
oil abt. 75% mono, Tea-oil Camellia over 80%
monounsaturated fat.
● Oleic acid or omega-9
b. Polyunsaturated Fats – tend to help your body get
rid of newly formed cholesterol. They keep the bld.
Cholesterol level down and reduce cholesterol deposits
in artery wall.
Poly along w/ mono fat are “healthy fats”. The amnt of w/c
in one’s daily diet shld be near 25g (in a 2000cal/day diet)
● SOURCES: grain products, fish and sea foods
(herring, salmon, mackerel and halibut), soybeans
and fish oil. Almond ,corn oil, cottonseed oil,
safflower oil, soft margarine and mayonnaise, but
nutritional facts may vary by style and brand, peanut
oil, peanuts and poultry
● Omega-3 and omega-9 or the linolenic and linoleic
acid
“Hydrogenation” means to add hydrogen to MUFA and
PUFA. It Changes a liquid oil, naturally high in unsaturated
FA, to a more solid and more saturated form.
 ● The greater the degree of hydrogenation, the more
saturated the fat becomes.
● It makes margarine spreadable, pie crust flaky and
pudding creamy.
● used in commercial baked goods and for cooking in
most restaurants and fast-food chains.
Ex.: cookies, crackers, and other commercial baked
goods made w/ partially hydrogenated veg.
oils may be high in trans fat.
: French fies, donuts, deep fried foods, fried
onion rings
Hydrogenation produces trans-fatty acids
● It offers 2 Advantages –
1. It protects against oxidation (thereby prolonging
shelf life) by making polyunsaturated fats more
saturated
● 2. It alters the texture of foods by making liquid veg
oil more solid ( as in margarine or shortening)
Trans fats are more similar to saturated fats and they
● solidify at a lower temp.
● they can raise total cholesterol and LDL and lower
HDL cholesterol.

What happens if we don't have enough fat?

● Dry, scaly skin
● Hair loss
 ● Low body weight
● Cold intolerance
● Bruising
● Poor growth
● Lower resistance to infection
● Poor wound healing
● Loss of menstruation
● Prone to Alzheimer disease
Essential Fatty Acid deficiencies can lead to:
● reduced growth
● inability to fight infections
● and infertility.
Omega 6 or Arachidonic acid deficiencies are not as
common in the United States.
A typical American diet contains 11 to 30 times more
Omega 6 than Omega 3 fatty acids.
The general balance between Omega 6 and Omega 3
should be 1:1 or 4:1 according to University of
Maryland Medicine.
Arachidonic acid can be consumed directly from meat
but in excess it can be unhealthy because it
promotes inflammation and therefore leading to
several diseases such as those mentioned diseases.

Diets high in saturated fats contributes to:

 ● high blood cholesterol (total cholesterol and
LDL)
● and heart disease
● the association b/n fat and some types of
cancer- dietary fat seems not to initiate cancer
dev’t. but to promote cancer once it has arisen.

RDA FOR FATS:

How much total dietary fat do I need?
The Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010 recommend
that Americans:
● Consume less than 10% of calories from saturated
fats.
● Replace solid fats with oils when possible.
● Limit foods that contain synthetic sources
of trans fatty acids (such as hydrogenated oils), and
keep total trans fatty acid consumption as low as
possible.
● Eat fewer than 300 mg of dietary cholesterol per
day.
● Reduce intake of calories from solid fats.
Age Group Total Fat Limits
Children ages 2 to 3 30% to 40% of total calories
Children and adolescents ages 4 to 25% to 35% of total calories
18
Adults, ages 19 and older 20% to 35% of total calories
CARBOHYDRATE
⚫A carbohydrates= are the
main energy source for the human
body. Chemically, carbohydrates
are organic molecules in which carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen bond together.
⚫ is an organic compound with a synonym
of saccharide.
⚫ are commonly referred to as sugars.
⚫ The word saccharide comes from
the Greek word sákkharon, meaning "sugar".
⚫ In food science and in many informal contexts,
the term carbohydrate often means
any food that is particularly rich in starch (such
as cereals, bread and pasta) or sugar (such
as candy, jams and desserts).
⚫ Animals (including humans) break down
carbohydrates during the process of
metabolism to release energy.
CLASSIFICATION
The dietary carbohydrate family includes :
A. Simple carbohydrate (the sugars) and
B. Complex carbohydrates (the starch and
fiber).
 The Simple carbohydrates are those that
chemist describe as:
1. Monosaccharides- single sugar such as:
Glucose
Fructose
Maltose
2. Disaccharides – sugar composed of pairs of
monosaccharides, they are the
Maltose (glucose + glucose)
Sucrose ( glucose + fructose)
Lactose ( glucose + galactose)

Monosaccharides
⚫ contain only one sugar unit.
⚫ Simple sugars are sweet in taste and are broken
down quickly in the body to release energy.
⚫ Or can be absorbed directly into the
bloodstream from the small intestine.
⚫ Two of the most common monosaccharides are
glucose and fructose.
1. Glucose - is the primary form of sugar stored
in the human body for energy.
⚫ The central nervous system, red blood cells
and brain use only glucose as fuel
⚫ Simplest form of CHO
⚫ It is found naturally in corn syrup and some
fruits and vegs.
⚫ And sometimes known as “blood sugar” or
dextrose
2. Fructose – is the sweetest of the sugar.
⚫ It occurs naturally in fruits , saps and honey.
⚫ Other sources include products such as soft
drinks, ready-to-eat cereals, and desserts that
have been sweetened with high-fructose corn
syrup.
⚫ Sometimes known as “fruit sugar” or levulose
⚫ . Galactose – a monosaccharide part of the
disaccharide lactose. Rarely occurs naturally as a
single sugar. And it is less sweet than glucose.
⚫ Glycemic index (glycemic load per gram
carbohydrate) is a measure of how
carbohydrates affect blood glucose
concentrations.
⚫ Or a measure of the power of foods (or
specifically the carbohydrate in a food) to raise
blood sugar (glucose) levels after being eaten.
The GI values of foods must be measured
using valid scientific methods. It cannot be
guessed by looking at the composition of the
food.
⚫ When foods high in sugar are eaten, blood
sugar rises rapidly to a peak. The higher the
rise the greater the fall, which then quickly
results in a dip below normal blood sugar
levels, and may arouse appetite. Some
 Disaccharide – pairs of monosaccharides linked
together.
1. Maltose – consist of two glucose units.
⚫It is produced whenever starch breakdown – as it
happens during CHO digestion.
⚫It is only a minor constituent of a few foods, most
notably barley.
2. Sucrose – Fructose and glucose together form
sucrose.
⚫ Commonly known as “table sugar” or “beet sugar “or
“cane sugar”.
⚫It tastes sweet.
3. Lactose – a disaccharide composed of glucose
and galactose, commonly known as “milk
sugar”.
⚫ The principal CHO of milk.
 COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES
- Contain many glucose units .

1. Polysaccharides – compounds composed of many monosaccharides linked

together.
Types:
1.glycogen- is sometimes called animal starch.
- a polysaccharides composed of glucose units manufactured and
stored in the liver and muscles as storage form of glucose.
- is found to only limited extent in meats and not at all in plants.
- the amount of glycogen in the body at any one time is equivalent to about 4,000
kilocalories—3,000 in muscle tissue and 1,000 in the liver.
2. Starches – just as the human body stores
glucose as glycogen, plant cells store glucose as
starch.
- vegetable contain less starch than grains
bec of higher moisture contents. They are more
complex than mono and disaccharides. Its takes
the body longer to digest them, thus they supply
energy over a long period of time.
Sources: wheat or rice, root crops tubers such
as yams and potatoes
and in legumes such as peas and beans
Grains – are the richest food source
- The starch in grain is found in the endosperm
(center part of the grain), this is the part w/c flour is
made.
- Bran – the tough covering of a grain kernel. It is
used in coarse cereals and whole wheat flour.
Contains impt. Antioxidant, B vits. and fiber.
- Germ- is the smallest part of the grain and it is
rich source of B vits. Vit. E and minerals. Wheat
germ is included in products made of whole wheat.
3. Fiber
- are the structural parts of plants and thus are
found in all plants-derived foods
e.gs. Fruits, grains, vegetables and legumes
- most fibers are polysaccharides
- fibers that have been extracted from plants or
manufactures and have been beneficial health effects
are called Functional Fiber
 - Characteristics of Fiber
A. Insoluble fiber – does not
readily dissolve in water. And they do
not form gels and are less readily
fermented.
- it has binders, the phytic
acid/phytate (found in the outer
covering of grains and veg.)
- Phytic acid/phytate can prevent
the absorption of minerals such as
calcium, iron, zinc and magnesium.
 1. Cellulose – it is a primary source of
dietary fiber.
- a primary constituent of plant cell
walls and occurs naturally in the skin of
fruits, leaves, stem of veg and legumes.
- it can be extracted from wood
pulp or cotton and added to foods as an
anticaking, thickening and texturizing
agent during processing
2. Hemicellulose – found mainly in
whole grain cereal. Some are soluble and
some are not.
 3. Lignins – are the woody part of
veg such as carrots and
asparagus and the seeds of
straberry – they are not CHO.
B. Soluble Fibers
- indigestible food components
that dissolve in water to form a
gel.
- easily digested by bacteria in the
colon.
 1. Pectins - commonly found in
veg and fruits (esp. citrus fruits and
apples)
- bec of their function to form a
gel in water, they are used by the food
industry to thicken jelly, keep salad
dressings from separating and it
controls texture and consistency.
2. Gums and mucillages – are
soluble in water and form gel that
helps provide bulk in the colon.
Gum such as guar gum arabic
Mucillages similar to gums in
 - prevents colon cancer bec waste material are
being move faster than the usual, wherein exposure of
the colon to carcinogens decreased.
- prevents constipation, hemorrhoids and
diverticular disease by softening in increasing the size
of the stool.
RDA : 10% of energy to come from simple sugar
50-100g/day to spare protein
In healthy adult, half of one’s energy reqmt. Should
comes from complex CHO
E.g. 2000 kcal / 2 = 1000 kcal/4 kcal/gram =
250g/day ( CHO reqmt/day
Deficiency
Weight loss and fatigue
Malnutrition
Excess
Obesity
Dental carries , tooth decay, irritate the
lining of stomach or cause flatulence
Too much Fiber can cause: (reqmt 20-35g/day)
Flatulence, diarrhea.
Eating more than 50g of insoluble fiber prevents
absorption of calcium, iron, zinc and magnesium
FUNCTIONS OF
CARBOHYDRATE
⚫ 1. PROVIDE ENERGY - The primary function of
carbohydrates is to provide energy for the body,
especially the brain and the nervous system. An
enzyme called amylase helps break down
carbohydrates into glucose (blood sugar), which
is used for energy by the body.
⚫ If the body already has enough energy to support
its functions, the excess glucose is stored as
glycogen (the majority of which is stored in the
muscle and liver).
⚫ The amount of glycogen in the body at any
one time is equivalent to about 4,000
kilocalories—3,000 in muscle tissue and 1,000
in the liver. Prolonged muscle use (such as
exercise for longer than a few hours) can
deplete the glycogen energy reserve.
2. Sparing Protein
⚫ In a situation where there is not enough glucose
to meet the body’s needs, glucose is synthesized
from amino acids. Because there is no storage
molecule of amino acids, this process requires
the destruction of proteins, primarily from muscle
tissue. The presence of adequate glucose
basically spares the breakdown of proteins from
being used to make glucose needed by the body.
3.For Normal Lipid Metabolism
⚫ As blood-glucose levels rise, the use of lipids as
an energy source is inhibited. Thus, glucose
additionally has a “fat-sparing” effect. This is
because an increase in blood glucose stimulates
release of the hormone insulin, which tells cells to
use glucose (instead of lipids) to make energy.
Adequate glucose levels in the blood also
prevent the development of ketosis or when it
doesn't have enough carbohydrates from food for
your cells to burn for energy, it burns fat instead.
As part of this process, it makes ketones.
⚫ Ketosis is a metabolic condition resulting from
an elevation of ketone bodies in the blood.
Ketone bodies are an alternative energy source
that cells can use when glucose supply is
insufficient, such as during fasting. Ketone bodies
are acidic and high elevations in the blood can
cause it to become too acidic
⚫ This is rare in healthy adults, but can occur in
alcoholics, people who are malnourished, and
in individuals who have Type 1 diabetes. The
minimum amount of carbohydrate in the diet
required to inhibit ketosis in adults is 50 grams
per day.
4. Providing Fiber
- dietary fiber is found in grains, vegetables and
fruits.
- recommended intake is 20-35g/day
- fiber lowers blood glucose levels; may
prevent some colon cancers and help
prevents constipation, hemorrhoids and
diverticular disease softening of stool.
GYCEMIC INDEX
- A method of classifying foods according to
their potential to raise blood glucose .
- Different foods have diff effects on blood
glucose.
- The rate of absorption is particularly important
to people with diabetes mellitus.
The Glycemic Response – refers to how
quickly glucose is absorbed after a persons eats,
how high blood glucose rises and how quickly it
returns to normal
High Glycemic Response - fast absorption, a surge
in blood glucose and an overreaction that plunges
glucose below normal.
Low Glycemic Response - slow absorption, a
modest rise and a smooth return to normal
Glycemic Index of Selected
LOW MODERATE HIGH

APPLE, APRICOT, BANANA, CORN BAGEL, CARROTS,

BRAN CEREALS, ICE CREAM GRAHAM
CHOCOLATE, POPCORN , RICE CRACKERS,
MILK YOGURT POTATO HONEY, SOFT
DRINKS, WHITE
BREAD
Classification of Nutrients as to:
● Funtions – Cho-provide energy
Protein- for growth repair and maintenance of the body.
Fats – provide energy
Minerals – it regulates body processes
Vitamins – vital helpers in many body processes
Water – it is a food as well as nutrient. It helps regulate the various
processes such as circulation, digestion and elimination
and respiration.
Each Nutrient is important but none works alone
Ex. CHO, CHON, fats are necessary for energy but to provide it,
vitamins, minerals and water are needed.
● Chemical Properties:
a. Organic nutrients – it contain hydrogen, oxygen and carbon( an
element found in all living things).
Organic – meaning “literally alive”
- Before the body can use organic nutrients, it must be broken down into
their smallest components.
- Ex. CHO, CHON, fats and vitamins
- CHON and vits. contain nitrogen.
b. Inorganic nutrients – they contain no carbon.
- They are already in their simplest form when the body ingest them.
- Minerals are the simplest nutrient. Each mineral is a chemical element,
its atom are alike. As a result, its identity never changes. The next
simplest nutrient is water, a compound made of 2 elements – hydrogen
and oxygen
- Ex. Minerals – sodium, calcium, potassium, chloride, sulphate and
phosphate.
● Essentiality: refers to the important contribution to the body’s
physiological functioning.
a. Essential nutrients – nutrients a person must obtain from
food bec the body cannot make them for itself in sufficient
quantity to meet physiological needs
-it is also called as “indispensable nutrients”. And essential
means more than just “necessary”.
-it includes many amino acids, some fatty acids, many
vitamins and some minerals and trace elements.
-these nutrients are required for life.
-ex. Amino acids = phenylalanine, tryptophan, lysine,
leucine, isoleucine, valine, threonine, methionine.
-ex. Fatty acids – linoleic and linolenic acids.
 b. Nonessential nutrients - are those nutrients that can be
made by the body, they may often also be absorbed from
consumed food.
E.g. cholesterol
● Concentration: - some nutrients are needed in large amount than
others.
- CHO, CHON, fats and water are collectively known as Macronutrients
bec they are needed by our body in relatively large amounts bec they are
essential to provide energy and to regulate and control the different
functions of the body.
- In contrast to vits and minerals are called as Micronutrients as the
body needs them in smaller amount or quantity.

CALORIE = represents the energy measurement of nutrients that foods

provide.
= the energy released from CHO, fats and proteins can be measured in
calories.
= energy is expressed in 1000 – calorie metric units known as kilocalories
(shortended to kcalories/kcal, but commonly called “calories”
= when you read in popular books or magazines that an apple provides 100
calories, understand that it means 100 kcalories.
Kilojoules (kj)- It is the international unit of work energy.
- 1 kcal is equal to 4.2 kj.
● When cho, fats and proteins completely broken down in the body:(by the
process of metabolism):
The fuel factor of CHO- is 4 kcalories/gram.
Protein – also yields 4 kcal/gram
Fat -yields 9 kcal/gram.
Alcohol – yields 7 kcal/gram
Fat therefore, has a greater energy density than either CHO or CHON.
Energy Density – is a measure of the energy a food provide relative to the
amount of food. (kcalories per gram).
-Foods high in energy density help w/ wt.gain, whereas those w/ a low
energy density help w/ wt. Loss.
Alcohol is not considered a nutrient bec it can interferes w/ growth,
maintenance and repair of the body but it does yield 7 kcal per gram
when metabolized in the body.
 ● Energy in the body – the body uses the energy-yielding nutrients to fuel
all its activities. – sends electrical impulses thru the brain and nerves, to
synthesize body compounds and to move muscles.
● If the body does not use these nutrients to fuel its current activities, it
rearranges them into storage compounds (such as body fat), to be used
between meals and overnight when fresh energy supplies run low
● If more energy is consumed than expended, the result is an increase in
energy stores and weight gain.
● If less energy is consumed than expended, the result is a decrease in
energy stores and weight loss
● If alcohol can be consumed in excess can be converted to body fat and
stored.
To calculate the energy available from food, multiply the number of
grams of CHO, CHON and fat by 4, 4 and 9, respectively. Then add the
results together.
1 slice of bread w/ 1 tbsp of peanut butter, it contains 16 grms CHO, 7
grms CHON and 9 gms fat:
16gms cho x 4 = 64kcal
7gms chon x 4 = 28
9gms fat x 9 = 81
Total = 173 kcal
From this you can calculate the percentage of kcal each of the energy
nutrients contributes to total. To determine the kcal from fat, for example,
divide the 81kcal by the total 173 kcal:
81 fat kcal / 173 total kcal = 0.468 / rounded to 0.47)
Then multiply by 100 to get the percentage:
0.47 x 100 = 47%
Dietary recommendations that urge people to limit fat intake to 20-35 % of
kcal refer to the day’s total energy intake, not to individual foods.

HOUSEHOLD MEASURES
- Cups, quarts and teaspoons
METRIC MEASURES
- Millilitres, liters, and grams
NUTRIENT DENSITY – refers to the concentration of nutrients in a given
amount of food source relative to its caloric content.
- consider calories, CHO, fats, protein, vits and minerals and water. The higher
the nutrient density, the greater the nutritional value in a small amount of
food.
- foods that are high in nutrient provide more nutrients per kcal and are used
to improve the diet for clients @ risk for nutritional deficiencies.
- foods that are low nutrient density provide fewer nutrients per kcal and thus
a higher calorie intake is needed to obtain needed nutrients.
-Ex. Of Low nutrient density foods – chips, candies, jam, cakes, soda
-Ex of high nutrient density food, fruits and veg, meat (not fatty), cereals,
legumes...etc...