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02 Coastal Processes, Winds and Currents

Ref: Coastal Engineering Manual, USACE, 2003

Shore Protection Manual, USACE, 1984
Basic Coastal Engineering, R.M. Sorensen, 1997
Applied Probability and Stochastic Processes, M.K. Ochi, 1990
Coastal Engineering Handbook, J.B. Herbich, 1991

Topics:
Processes in the Coastal Zone
Effects of Wind
Types of Wind Systems
Hurricanes and Wind Field Calculations
Currents

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Processes in the Coastal Zone

• Longshore Transport of Sediments (Longshore Drift)
o waves obliquely incident to the shore produce longshore currents (drift)
o longshore currents produce longshore transport of sediment
o results in beach erosion and accretion
• Seasonal cross-shore transport
o larger winter waves remove finer sediment from the beach
o sediment is deposited in offshore bars
o small summer waves allow the offshore to migrate shoreward and redeposit
sand on the beach
o similar effect for large storm waves

Dune

summer profile
longshore bar

winter profile

• Flood and ebb currents at inlets due to astronomical tides remove sediment from the
longshore transport and deposit it in flood and ebb shoals
o fills channels
o results in inlet migration
o causes down drift erosion of the beach due to removal of sediment from the
longshore system
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• Barrier Islands – dynamic systems, including inlets and inlet migration

• Harbors and Bays are semi-closed systems subject to trapped waves

Headland

Rocky
Area Spit

Barrier Island
Lagoon or
Bay
Ocean

Inlet

Rocky
Area

Coastal Structures are designed to prevent/control the results of these processes

• Prevent erosion
• train and protect inlets
• restore beach systems
• protect infrastructure

Waves
groin
Waves
island

bay
shoreline Jetty
island

• Structures can often solve one problem but cause or exasperate another problem
o A groin prevents erosion up-drift, but accelerates it down-drift.
o A jetty stabilizes an inlet, but erodes the beach down drift.
• The Coastal Engineer must understand the processes at the site and the conditions
producing them.
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Major concerns
1. Design wave (height, period, direction)
2. Storm surge - large water level fluctuation due to interaction of storm conditions
(wind, waves, pressure, etc.) over shallow nearshore coastal waters
3. Wind
a. Direct load
b. Water level setup
c. Increases wave motion
d. Induces currents
e. Storm surge
f. Long wave generation
4. Tides – produce oscillatory currents

Winds
• Possible to Hindcast winds with atmospheric pressure data
• Winds are seldom a direct loading problem for coastal structures, but winds are the
major generation source of waves
• Winds generate currents
o directly through surface stresses

wind

τw

o indirectly through setup

wind
Current Velocity

Circulating current

Basin
notes:
ƒ sediment transport (at the bottom) may be in a direction opposite to the wind
ƒ significant 3D characteristics
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• Winds may affect DUNES (which may be considered a coastal structure)

o vegetation – anchors dunes, changes boundary layer thickness
• Wind conditions are needed to predict wave loading on a structure
• Wind can be a factor in determining the rate of overtopping of a seawall

• Wind generated currents are 3D

• Depth averaged models do not work well with wind generated currents (e.g. the basin
example)
• 3D modeling may be too complicated and costly

Types of Wind Systems and their Effect on the Coastal Environment

(CEM Table II-2-2) Local Seas Generated by Various Meteorological Phenomena Type of Wind System
Wave Characteristics Characteristic Height and Period
Wind System Wave Characteristics Height & Period
Individual thunderstorm Very steep waves. Waves can become relatively H 0.5 - 1.5 m,
large if storm speed and group velocity of T 1.5 - 3 sec
No significant horizontal spectral peak are nearly equal. Can be a threat to
rotation. some operations in open-ocean, coastal, and
inland waters.
Size, 1-10 km

Supercell thunderstorms
Begins to exhibit some
rotation.
Size, 5-20 km
Very steep waves. Waves can become relatively H2-3m
large if storm speed and group velocity of T 3 - 6 sec
spectral peak are nearly equal. Can pose a serious
threat to some operations in open-ocean, coastal,
and inland waters.

Sea breeze Waves of intermediate steepness. Can modify H 0.5 - 1.5 m

local wave conditions when superposed on T 3 - 5 sec
Thermally driven near- synoptic systems. Can affect some coastal
coast winds. operations.

Size, 10-100 km
Coastal fronts Can modify local wave conditions near coasts. H 0.5 - 1.0 m
Results from juxtaposition Minimal effects on wave conditions due to T 3 - 4 sec
of cold air and warm water. orientation of winds and fetches.
Size, 10 km across and 100
km long
Lee waves Generates waves that can deviate significantly in H 0.5 - 1.5 m
direction from synoptic conditions. Can affect T 2 - 5 sec
“Spin-off” eddies due to coastal wave climates.
interactions between
synoptic winds and coastal
topography

Size, 10's of km
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Wind System Wave Characteristics Height & Period

Frontal squall lines
Organized lines of
thunderstorms moving
within a frontal area.
Size, 100's of km long and
10 km across
Can create severe hazards to coastal and offshore H1-5m
operations. Can generate extreme wave T 4 - 7 sec
conditions for inland waters. Waves can become
quite large if frontal area becomes stationary or if
rate of frontal movement matches wave velocity
of spectral peak. Can create significant addition
to existing synoptic scale waves.

Mesoscale Convective Important in interior regions of U.S. Can generate H fetch-limited

Complex (MCC) extreme waves for short-fetch and intermediate- T fetch-limited
fetch inland areas. U = 20 m/s
Large, almost circular
system of thunderstorms
with rotation around a
central point (2-3 form in
the U.S. per year).

Size, 100-400 km in
diameter

Tropical depression Squall lines superposed on background winds can H1-4m

produce confused, steep waves.
Weakly circulating tropical T 4 - 8 sec
system with winds under
45 mph.

Tropical storm Very steep seas. H5-8m

Circulating tropical system Highest waves in squall lines. T 5 - 9 sec

with winds over 45 mph
and less than 75 mph.

Hurricane Can produce large wave heights. Directions near Saffir Simpson Scale
storm center are very short-crested and confused. SS H(m) T(sec)
Intense circulating storm of Highest waves are typically found in the right 1 4-8 7-11
tropical origin with wind rear quadrant of a storm. Wave conditions are 2 6-10 9-12
speeds over 75 mph. primarily affected by storm intensity, size, and 3 8-12 11-13
forward speed, and in weaker storms by 4 10-14 12-15
5 12-17 13-17
Shape is usually roughly interactions with other synoptic scale and large-
circular. scale features.

Wind System
Extratropical cyclones
Low pressure system
formed outside of tropics.
Shapes are variable for
weak and moderate
strength storms, with
intense storms tending to
be elliptical or circular.
Migratory highs
Slowly moving high-
pressure systems.
Stationary highs
Permanent systems located
in subtropical ocean areas.
Southern portions
constitute the trade winds.
Monsoonal winds
Biannual outbursts of air
from continental land
masses
Long-wave generation
Gap winds
Wind acceleration due to
local topographic
funneling.
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Wave Characteristics Height & Period
Extreme waves in most open-ocean areas north of Weak:
35° are produced by these systems. Large waves H 3-5m T 5-10 sec
tend to lie in region of storm with winds parallel
to direction of storm movement. Predominant Moderate:
source of swell for most U.S. east coast and west H 5-8m T 9-13 sec
coast areas.
Intense:
H 8-12m T 12-17sec
Extreme:
H 13-18m T 15-20sec
Produce moderate storm conditions along U.S. H1-4m
east coast south of 30° latitude when pressure T 4 - 10 sec
gradients become steep.
Produce low swell-like waves due to long fetches. H1-3m
Can interact with synoptic-scale and large-scale T 5 -10
weather systems to produce moderately intense
wave generation.
Very persistent wave regime.
Episodic wave generation can generate large H4-7m
wave conditions. T 6 - 11 sec
Very important in the Indian Ocean, part of the
Gulf of Mexico, and some U.S. east coast areas.
Long waves can be generated by moving
pressure/wind anomalies (such as can be
associated with fronts and squall lines) and can
resonate with long waves if the speed of frontal
or squall line motion is approximately (gd)1/2.
Examples of this phenomenon have been linked
to inundations of piers and beach areas in Lake
Michigan and Daytona Beach in recent years.
These winds may be extremely important in U = 40 m/s
generating waves in many U.S. west coast areas
not exposed to open-ocean waves.
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Hurricanes and Wind Fields

Hurricane (typhoon, cyclone) -
• cyclonic storm having wind speeds in excess of 65 knots (120 kph, 75 mph)
• driving mechanism is warm moist air, must have water temp > 22C to form
• diameter generally < 300 nm (550 km, 345 mi)
• dissipate at higher latitudes and over land due to deficiency of warm moist air
• North Atlantic season June to November, most in August to October

Effects on Water Surface:

• atmospheric pressure causes a rise (several feet) at the central, low
pressure area of the hurricane Æ results in currents
• wind shear stress also produces currents
• forward motion of hurricane tends to push water in front of the system
• long waves produced by above effects shoal upon reaching shallow water
Æ Storm Surge
• wind wave on top of the storm surge break and cause setup (increased
surge height)

Saffir Simpson Hurricane Scale

Category Press, mb Winds, mph Surge, ft Effects

Tropical
-- < 39 -- --
Depression

Tropical Storm -- 39-73 -- --

Damage to unanchored shrubbery, and trees.

Hurricane 1 > 980 74-95 4-5
Coastal road flooding and minor pier damage.

Damage to roofs, doors, windows, vegetation and

Hurricane 2 965-980 96-110 6-8
piers. Small craft break moorings.

Structural damage to small buildings. Flooding

near the coast destroys smaller structures. Larger
Hurricane 3 945-965 111-130 9-12
structures damaged by floating debris. Inland
flooding.

Complete roof failure on homes, major erosion of

Hurricane 4 920-945 131-155 13-18 beach areas, major damage to lower floors of
structures near the shore. Inland flooding.

Complete roof failure homes and industrial

buildings, complete building failures, major damage
Hurricane 5 < 920 > 155 > 18
to lower floors of all structures near the shoreline.
Massive evacuation of residential areas.
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U.S. National Weather Service developed the Standard Project Hurricane (SPH) and the
Probable Maximum Hurricane (PMH) based on return interval analysis of
significant hurricane parameters

SPH has "a severe combination of values of meteorological parameters that will
give high sustained wind speeds reasonably characteristic of a specific
location." (return interval is several hundred years, usu. treated as 100 year
storm)
PMH has "a combination of values of meteorological parameters that will give
highest sustained wind speed that probably can occur at a specific
location." (design of coastal nuclear power plants)

wind direction
is parallel to
direction of
advance

Maximum Wind Line

SPM, Chapter 3, 1984

p −p
Pressure field: r c = e −R / r , (1979 NOAA formula)
pn − pc
pc = pressure at the center, lowest pressure (as low as 26 inHg recorded)
pr = pressure at radius r from center (units of Pa or psf)
pn = ambient pressure at periphery (standard atmos. 29.92 inHg)
R = radius of maximum wind (usu. 10 - 30 nm from eye)
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Gradient wind (i.e. velocity along a streamline, parallel to isobars)

Vgr2 1
+ fVgr = (p n − pc ) R2 e −R / r
r ρa r
Vgr = gradient wind velocity
ρa = air density (kg/m3 or lbm/ft3)
f = 2ωsinλ Æ Coriolis parameter, ω = earth rotation, λ = latitude
2
rf  rf  1 R
Solution: Vgr = − ±   + (p n − p c ) e −R / r
2  2  ρa r
2
Rf  Rf  1
at r = R: Vgm = − ±   + (p n − p c ) , e = 2.718, natural log base
2  2  ρa e

Rf 1
generally f and R are small values Æ Vgm ≈ − ± (p n − pc )e −1
2 ρa

Northern Hemisphere - maximum gradient wind speed is corrected to 10 meter

height (instrument level)
Metric units: [
Vgm ≈ 0.447 14.5(p n − p c ) 2 − 0.31fR
1
]
Vgm in m/s; pn, pc in mm Hg; f in rad/hr and R in km
[
English units: Vgm ≈ 0.868 73(p n − p c ) 2 − 0.575fR
1
]
Vgm in knots; pn, pc in in Hg; f in rad/hr and R in nautical
miles
Given
1. central pressure (po, pe, or CPI, Central Pressure Index)
2. radius of maximum wind
3. peripheral (ambient) pressure (pn) (1013 mb, 29.92 in Hg)
4. forward velocity (VF)
A 2D wind field can be constructed by substituting a variable distance from the
storm center (r) for the radius of maximum wind (R) in the Vgm equations, giving
Vg(r), or the gradient wind speed as a function of the radius.

Corrections for Maximum Sustained Wind and Storm Motion:

Maximum Sustained Wind Speed is defined as the maximum hourly-
averaged wind speed.
• Stationary Storm
Maximum sustained wind speed" (VR) at instrument height and radius R
VR = 0.865Vgm
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• Moving Storm and Wind Field

For a moving storm the wind field becomes skewed and the actual wind
speed is the vector sum of the rotational component (Vgr) and the forward
speed (VF). For a counterclockwise wind field (cyclonic wind in the
Northern Hemisphere) the wind field is stronger on the right side than on
the left (see hurricane diagram).
The actual angle where the maximum wind occurs is 15 to 165 degrees
from the forward velocity line. This is due to the fact that the wind is not
directed exactly tangential to the radius, but slightly inward, toward the
eye. Therefore, the wind and the direction of motion are parallel at a point
different from 90 degrees from the direction of motion. (see hurricane
diagram). Maximum velocity wind line is customarily set at 115 degrees.
Maximum sustained wind speed at instrument height is
VR = 0.865Vgm + 0.5VF

Wind velocity at radius R is

V(r, θ) = 0.865Vgr (r ) + 0.5VF cos θ
where θ is measured from the maximum velocity line.

CEM, Part II, Chapter 2, revised July 2003

Navier-Stokes equation for atmospheric motions reduces to the gradient balance
equation given by
2
1 dp Vgr
Vgr = +
ρa f dn frc
Vgr = gradient wind velocity (parallel to the local isobars)
ρa = air density (kg/m3 or lbm/ft3)
f = 2ωsinλ Æ Coriolis parameter, ω = earth rotation, λ = latitude
rc = radius of curvature of the isobars

"Holland (1980) model appears to provide a better fit to observed wind fields in early
stages of rapidly developing storms and appears to work as well as other models in
mature storms. Consequently, this model will be described in some detail here. In
presently available hurricane models, wind fields are assumed to have no memory and
thus can be determined by only a small set of parameters at a given instant."
CEM, pp. II-2-27 – II-2-28

(Holland, G. J. 1980. “An Analytic Model of the Wind and Pressure Profiles in
Hurricanes,” Mon. Wea. Rev.,Vol 108, pp 1212-1218.)

 A p −p c
Normalized Hurricane pressure: β = exp − B  =
 r  pn − pc
p = pressure at radius r from center (units of Pa or psf)
pc = pressure at the center, lowest pressure (as low as 26 inHg recorded)
pn = ambient pressure at periphery (standard atmos. 29.92 inHg)
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A = scaling parameter with units of length

B = dimensionless parameter that controls the peakedness of the wind
speed distribution; B ≥ 1, usu. B ~ 1.5 – 2.5

 A
Pressure profile: p = p c + (p n − p c ) exp − B 
 r 

1/ 2
 rf  2 AB(p n − p c )  A  rf
Gradient wind approx: Vgr =   + exp − B  −
 2  ρa r B  r  2

Radius to maximum wind (R): R = A1 / B Æ A = R B Æ

1/ 2
 rf  2 B(p − p )  R  B   R  B   rf
Vgr =   + n c
  exp −     −
 2  ρa r   r    2

1/ 2
 B 
Maximum wind speed (r = R): Vmax = (p n − pc ) (f is small)
 ρa e 

In applications, the choices of A and B can either be based on the best two-
parameter fit to observed pressure profiles or on the combination of an Rmax value
with the data shown in Figure II-2-16 (CEM).
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Correction for moving storm as in SPM:

"For a moving storm the wind field becomes skewed and the actual wind
speed is the vector sum of the rotational component (Vgr) and the forward
speed (VF)."

Example pressure gradient:

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Additional Corrections and Considerations

Elevation - frictional force as altitude approaches sea level (wind magnitude
decreases and direction spirals, Ekman Spiral)
Ekman Spiral applied to Wind Above the Sea Surface

Decreasing
Magnitude of
Wind Speed

Water's surface

Vz 1  z  τo
Logarithmic law: = ln  , Vτ =
Vτ k  z o  ρa

Approximation to change wind measured at height z to wind at 10 m:

1/ 7
 10 
V10 = Vz   (CEM, II-2)
 z

Duration - wind is unsteady Æ shorter averaging time gives higher peak speed,
differences in peak speed for various averaging times indicate "gustiness"
Offshore work - international convention to use 10 minute averaging time.
Structural design - use time corresponding to minimum structure response
time (seconds)
Apply "duration conversion" factor to convert
U10 min = (0.056 ln t + 0.64)U t (SPM, Ch 3)

Turbulence & Gustiness - requires spectral representation of wind speed

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Currents
Generation mechanisms:
• density gradients Æ significant in deep ocean currents
o gradients produced by differences in temperature, salinity and suspended
sediment (esp. mud)
• waves
o non-linear effects produce drift currents
o refraction effects near the shore produce longshore currents
• wind shear
o local, small scale effects
o geostrophic currents – deep ocean wind, upper layer effects (Ekman)
N
45o 45o
WIND

WIN

Ekman

Ekman Spiral for

upper layer ocean currents
due to surface wind stress Produces a net fluid transport
perpendicular to the wind

• elevation differences due to gravity (body) forces

o astronomical tides
o wave setup
o wind setup (meteorological tides)
o storm surge (may be 12 -18 ft high)

Velocity Profiles are significantly different between Wind generated currents and
currents generated due to body forces (gravity)
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Wind generated current

wind

Gravity generated current

open channel hydraulics equations: τ b = ρghS , S ≡ slope of energy grade line

τ b = ρl 2 (du dz ) , l ≡ mixing length
2
mixing length theory (Prandtl):

ghS  dy  τ b ρ  dy  u ∗  dy 
for y = (h-z) and l = κy (y + h ) h Æ du =  =  =  
κ  y  κ  y  κ  y 

1  y  y
integrating (for a fully developed flow): u ( y) = u ∗ ln  = 2.5u ∗ ln 
κ  z0   z0 
h
1
depth averaged velocity is defined as V = ∫ u (y )dy
h y0
h h
 y h h 
Vh = ∫ u ( y)dy = 2.5u ∗ ∫ ln dy = 2.5u ∗  ∫ ln (y )dy − ln(z 0 ) ∫ dy
z0 z0  z0  z 0 z0 
  h     h    h 
= 2.5u ∗ h ln  − h − z 0  ≈ 2.5u ∗ h ln  − 1 = 2.5u ∗ h ln 
  0 z  y
  0   2.72 y 0 

 h 
depth averaged velocity is determined by V = 2.5u ∗ ln 
 2.72z 0 
5 < Re smooth flow z 0 = ν 9u ∗ ,
5 ≤ Re < 70 transition flow, z0/ks = f(Re), Sleath (1984), fig 1.12
Re ≥ 70 rough flow z 0 = k s 30 .
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Sleath, fig 1.12

0.045

0.04

0.035
z 0/ks

0.03

0.025

0.02

0.015
1 10 100 1000

Re = u*ks /ν

h water depth
ks bed roughness
Re bed Reynolds number, Re = u*ks/ν
u* bed friction or shear velocity, u ∗ = τ b ρ
u(y) fluid velocity at height y above the bed
V depth averaged flow velocity
y height above the bed
z0 hypothetical zero velocity level
κ von Karman constant (~ 0.4)
τb bed shear stress, τ b = µ(du dy )
µ dynamic fluid viscosity
ν kinematic fluid viscosity, ν = µ/ρ