Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Ident ifying t he Reading Abilit y of Class Four St udent s of English in Government Primary Scho…
Muhammad Salahuddin
T he Ident ificat ion of Assessment Resources t o Support Children Learning t o Read in t he Early Years …
Grace Oakley
Assessment and Inst ruct ion for Phonemic Awareness and Word Recognit ion Skills
Marcia Kosanovich
Volume46 • Number1 • 2010
NewEnglandReadingAssociation
EDITORIAL
iii Children’s response to literature
HelenR.Abadiano,Central Connecticut State University, CT
JesseP.Turner,Central Connecticut State University, CT
LyndaM.Valerie,Central Connecticut State University, CT
FEATURE ARTICLES
1 First things first: Why good books and time to respond to them matter
LeeGalda,University of Minnesota, Minnesota
31 Eliciting picture book responses up and down the grade level ladder, and back and forth across the curriculum
PegiDeitzShea,Author
38 Leading, learning and literacy: Implementing a Response to Intervention approach in the Riverside Elementary School
KatharineShepherd,University of Vermont, Vermont
GeorgeSalembier,University of Vermont, Vermont
55 The reading strategies used by male and female English language learners: A study of Colombian high school students
AlexPoole,Western Kentucky University, Kentucky
65 From lecture-based to discussion-based instructional approach: The pedagogical journey of a Chinese professor
WenMa,La Moyne College, New York
85 BOOK BEAT
Response to literature: Perspectives, voices, discovery, and identity
SandipL.Wilson,Husson University, Maine
LauraDunbar,Belgrade Central School, Maine
BarbaraS.Lovley,Fort Kent Elementary School, Maine
ii |
Children’sresponsetoliterature
HelenR.Abadiano
JesseP.Turner
LyndaM.Valerie
Central Connecticut State University, Connecticut
EXPERIENCE.
I
n this issue of NERAJ we celebrate two themes. or nonfiction—these allow them to not only relate
First is “Children’s response to literature”. meaningfully to the text, but more importantly, help
We salute teachers, who, recognizing them to understand and to make sense of their own
the critical role literature plays in the lives of lives. Such is the power of literature!
children and young adolescents, use culturally Second, we further explore in depth the theme of
and globally diverse literature in their classrooms our fall 2009 issue: “Transforming disengaged readers
and encourage students to approach literature as an into engaged readers in our classroom”. What do we
experience to live through—inviting them to respond to understand about motivation and how do we motivate
literature in many different ways that they know how or all our students into becoming good readers, particularly
choose to; thus, inspiring readers of all ages to generate our English learners?
powerful response to literature. When children and We are excited to have articles by experts in
young adolescent readers make connections between children’s and young adolescent literature starting
their own experiences and prior knowledge and those with Lee Galda who invites us to think deeply about
they come to experience and learn in stories, novels, the importance of reading and responding to books by
iv | Editorial
Firstthingsirst:
Whygoodbooksandtimetorespond
tothemmatter
LeeGalda
University of Minnesota, Minnesota
I
was just 21 when I began teaching and now I more than 35 each. The smaller, eighth-grade classes
am nearing retirement. In the intervening 40 were marginally easier to manage. I struggled, as most
years, I have watched the careful selection and first year teachers do, and so I attempted to rescue
systematic use of children’s books ebb and flow myself, and my career, with the best lifesaving device I
in schools as short-sighted educational mandates knew—books. I established a library in my classroom,
and ill-conceived “scientific” studies have pushed books, filling shelves with cheap paperbacks from the book
and time to read and respond to them, out of the school club that was available, books from library sales, books
day; as “time on task” has come to mean time on test, from my own library. Some students contributed books
or worksheet, instead of time engaged in reading real as well. I also established Wednesday as our sustained
books. Yet the achievement gap keeps growing, with silent reading day, and it turned out to be the best day of
many of our young people graduating from high school the week. Everyone read, even those who didn’t like to.
not only not reading well, but not reading at all. For So did I, even when my principal asked me if I “didn’t
those of us who feel that engagement with books and have any work to do.” My response, that I didn’t see
the development of literate lives is important for our how I could ask kids who didn’t like to read to sit and
students, and that literate citizens are important for our read a book while I did something else, surprised him,
world, this is troubling. but he said okay, shook his head, and left me to it. After
To make my argument that children’s and just a few months, something interesting happened; my
adolescent books, and time to respond to them, are students began exchanging opinions about the books
important, I begin with “anecdotal evidence” of the they were reading, sometimes writing their comments
power of literature (Galda & Cullinan, 2003), and then on note cards that we kept in a box on the bookshelf,
move to a consideration of some of the many reports sometimes in oral exchanges. Then other students, kids
of systematic data-based research on response, and who were not in my classes, began dropping by before
reading in literature-based classrooms. While I focus and after school to borrow books. We had created
on my own work in this area, I contextualize it within a community of readers without lesson plans, book
the larger research community. Finally, because of the reports, tests, or mandates. We got our other work done
retrospective nature of this article, I consider both early Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, and Friday; Wednesdays
and current research. But first, the anecdotal evidence. were for books. Most of my behavior management
I began my teaching career as a middle school problems disappeared, at least on Wednesdays. That
English teacher with a B.A. in English and minimal year I learned the “communalizing” nature of the
preparation to teach, not particularly well-equipped language of books as they drew my students and others
to teach the diverse group of students in my classes, in the school into a reading community.
especially the seventh graders in those three classes of Several years later, after adding a master’s degree
2 | FeatureArticles
the publication of Louise Rosenblatt’s ground-breaking effective readings. Poetry and literary fiction are most
look at the place of literature in the school lives of young effectively read and understood when readers begin
adult students—and in the lives of all of us (Rosenblatt, from a primarily aesthetic stance, experiencing a text by
1938/1976), but her influence on teaching and learning creating mental images, interacting or identifying with
began in earnest in the late 1960s. In the subsequent 50 characters, actively accepting or questioning the ideas
years of research we have learned a great deal about the being presented (Benton, 1992), or entering the world
complex nature of response (Galda & Beach, 2004). of the text, before stepping back to discuss the author’s
Transactional theory posits an active reader craft. A primarily efferent stance is most appropriate for
engaged in making meaning with, not from, a text. nonfiction, although successful readers often respond to
Meaning, then, is constructed transactionally between the aesthetic qualities of well-crafted nonfiction texts
reader and text (think of a two-way arrow), and thus is as well. Understanding the different processes and
fluid, dynamic, a dialogue between text and reader over outcomes that these stances generate is important for
time and in particular contexts. Readers bring the sum understanding why and how readers respond as they do;
of who they are to the act of reading. Predispositions, it is also important for understanding why time to read
experiences, beliefs, values, abilities, attitudes, and respond to good books is so important for young
knowledge all contribute to a reader’s construction of readers, and how to shape effective use of literature in
meaning with a text. Texts, as Rosenblatt describes, classrooms.
guide and constrain (1978) a reader, with the author’s While studies of adolescent and adult readers
deliberate choice of words and structure shaping a responding to literature began in the 1960s, studies that
reader’s response, even as the reader selects what words specifically examined children’s responses began almost
and structures to pay the closest attention to. Together, twenty years later (Galda, 1982; Hickman, 1981). For
text and reader act upon each other to shape meaning. the past 30 years, researchers have explored how readers
Langer’s (1995) description of how reading make connections between books and their lives or
unfolds underscores the temporal nature of reading and other books (Cochran-Smith, 1984; Short, 1992; Sipe,
responding. Her extensive think-aloud protocol data 1998). Research has also focused on individual styles of
demonstrates how readers begin books by “stepping response (Galda, 1982; Hancock, 1993; McGinley and
in” to a text, proceed by “moving through” the text, Kamberelis, 1996; Sipe, 1998), exploring how response
sometimes “step out” to think, and then, when finished styles are developed through readers’ experiences both
reading, step out to think about the reading experience. in and outside of the classroom, thus situating the act
This process happens regardless of a reader’s stance, or of reading within the sociocultural context of authors,
how a reader approaches text. texts, readers, and reading events. How readers resist or
Rosenblatt (1938/1976, 1978), Britton (1970), and accept texts (Enciso, 1994; Galda, 1982), or the social
Langer (1995) describe two primary ways to approach norms in either text or classroom (Enciso, 1997; Lewis,
a text, using different terms but coming to generally 1997) have received increasing attention in the research
the same conclusion. To use Rosenblatt’s terms, literature. These and the hundreds of other studies that
readers read either aesthetically, for the experience have been published, have underscored the complexity of
that the act of reading can provide, or efferently, for response to literature and how it is enacted in classroom
the knowledge that they can gain from a text to use in and community. The “multifaceted sociocultural nature
the world. Reading aesthetically or, in Langer’s (1995) of response and what that means for instruction” (Galda
words, “towards a horizon of possibilities,” provides & Beach, 2004, p. 856), is still being explored, but we do
opportunities for readers to enter the world of the book, know, from research on response and on literature-based
to participate in the virtual experience that reading instruction, what practices are potentially successful and
the book provides, or, as a ten-year-old once explained what practices are not. In many cases, success depends
to me, to be “inhaled” by a book. Aesthetic reading entirely on a knowledgeable teacher creating situations
offers readers an opportunity to think about the book, in which young readers have time to read, some choice
themselves, and their worlds, to consider the lives of about what to read, and the opportunity to engage
others and to build their own values. At the other end in either primarily aesthetic or efferent experiences,
of the aesthetic-efferent continuum, reading efferently, whichever is most appropriate.
or toward a particular point (Langer, 1995), involves
reading for information. These stances are rarely “pure,” Literature-based instruction and reading
as most reading is done somewhere near the middle of When stories and poems are read from a primarily
the continuum as a reader’s attention focuses on different aesthetic stance, young readers enter the story world in
aspects of the text. Stances also change over time as a a manner that allows them to do just what Rosenblatt
reader progresses through a text. (1938/1976) postulated: They think about what the
These stances are in a reader, not in a text, characters thought and did, about what they, themselves
yet they interact with text to produce more or less might think and do, and about the connections between
4 | FeatureArticles
of words in books than they do in conversation or in the 57), nicely summarizing the different experiences that
media. Since literature contains the carefully crafted nonfiction and fictional narratives like Arthur offer.
language of poetry and prose, readers also encounter a Readers use stories to confirm their own feelings as well
wide variety of language patterns and structures. The as to experience new emotions, situations, and ideas as
vocabulary, patterns, and structures that young readers they step into another’s shoes for the duration of the
encounter in books become a resource upon which to story.
draw in their own language use. Whether nonfiction, fiction, or poetry, “literature
Recognizing and understanding how text enables young people to explore and understand
structures work enhance young readers’ understanding their world. It enriches their lives and widens their
of how various types of text (for example, narrative, horizons… They increase their knowledge, explore
expository, poetic) are organized, and this in turn helps their own feelings, shape their own values, and imagine
them learn how to read these various types of texts with lives beyond the ones they live” (Galda, Cullinan,
increasing comprehension. Thus, experience with and & Sipe, 2010, p. 34). When this happens, reading
discussion of well-written books enrich the storehouse becomes transformational (Galda, 1998), as through
of language possibilities from which students can draw books, readers alter the way they view their world. This
as they read new texts as well as create their own. is perhaps the ultimate power of literature, to open
Students who read a lot and talk about language in new worlds and provoke readers to think in new ways.
books come to understand that authors make deliberate Today, as our world becomes both more complex and
choices as they craft their books; they learn to notice more interrelated, it is increasingly important to offer
what writers do and to draw upon this knowledge in all young readers the experience of being engaged
their own writing. Frank Smith called this “reading like with good books. What better resource for educating
a writer” (1985). We have known for years that even quite our children to become contributing members of our
young children “borrow” structures that they encounter world.
in books for their own speaking and writing; they
effectively use their reading to scaffold their language References
production. The variety of structures that are inherent Benton, M. (1992). Secondary worlds: Literature
in the vast array of literature for young readers offers teaching and the visual arts. Buckingham, UK: Open
students a rich foundation upon which to build their University Press.
own language proficiency. This attention to language Britton, J. (1970). Language and learning. London:
is apparent in young readers’ spontaneous responses to Penguin.
books (Sipe, 2008), and in their discussions of how their Cochran-Smith, M. (1984). The making of a reader.
own responses were affected by the author’s craft (Galda, Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Rayburn, & Stanzi, 2000). Reading and responding to Cunningham, A.E., & Stanovitch, K.E. (1998).
quality literature result in young readers developing an What reading does for the mind. American Educator,
increasingly sophisticated literary understanding. Spring/Summer, 8-15.
Children who read widely and deeply also learn to Eastman, P.D. (1961). Go, dog, go. New York:
think of books as a source of information, inspiration, Random.
and enlightenment as they make books an important Eeds, M., & Wells, D. (1989). Grand conversa-
part of their lives. Young readers turn to nonfiction to tions: An exploration of meaning construction in lit-
gather information about their world. More information erature study groups. Research in the Teaching of English,
is available in the many rich nonfiction texts of all types 23, 4-29.
than could possibly be available in single textbooks or Enciso, P. (1994). Cultural identity and response
brief encyclopedia entries, and this range of information to literature: Running lessons from Maniac McGee.
is enhanced by the correspondingly wide range of reading Language Arts, 71, 524-533.
levels across these texts. In short, information about Enciso, P. (1997). Negotiating the meaning of
virtually endless topics is available for all readers and in difference: Talking back to multicultural literature. In
a variety of enticing formats. Nonfiction literature for T. Rogers & A.O. Soter (Eds.), Reading across cultures:
children and young adults feed young people’s curiosity Teaching literature in a diverse society (pp. 13-41). New
about their worlds; everything one needs to know, up to York: Teachers College Press.
a certain point, could be learned from children’s books! Galda, L. (1982). Assuming the spectator stance:
Poetry and narrative fiction offer a different kind of An examination of the responses of three young readers.
knowing to young readers when read from an aesthetic Research in the Teaching of English, 16, 1-20.
stance. As eight-year-old Chris explained, “if you read Galda, L. (1990). A longitudinal study of the
a book like Arthur, for the Very First Time, you kind of spectator stance as a function of age and genre. Research
understand life better. If you read a book about weather, in the Teaching of English, 24, 261-278.
you get smarter” (Galda, Rayburn, & Stanzi, 2000, p. Galda, L. (1998). Mirrors and windows: Reading
6 | FeatureArticles
poverty classrooms: The influence of teacher practices and breadth of their reading. Journal of Educational
that encourage cognitive engagement in literacy Psychology, 89, 420-432.
learning. Elementary School Journal, 104, 3-28. Wiseman, D.L., Many, J., & Altieri, J. (1992).
Taylor, B.M., & Peterson, D.S. (2006). Year Enabling complex aesthetic responses: An examination
3 Report of the Minnesota Reading First Cohort 1 of three literary discussion approaches. In C. Kinzer &
School Change Project. St. Paul, MN: University of D.J. Leu (Eds.), Literacy research, theory, and practice:
Minnesota, Center for Reading Research. Views from many perspectives (pp. 283-289). Chicago:
Wigfield, A., & Guthrie, J.T. (1997). Relations National Reading Conference.
of children’s motivation for reading to the amount
SAVETHEDATE
NewEnglandReadingAssociation
62ndAnnualConference
Striving and Thriving:
The classroom is abuzz with the productive noise that emanates from students working together. Groups
of 4 are huddled around chart paper on which they are writing a character analysis. The teacher circulates and
points to the posters with adjectives and adverbs, providing a resource for their writing. The English learners
who are working in the groups are supported through scaffolding, including interaction with other students and
the teacher.
In a class across the hall, the teacher is reading a story with the class as they follow along. Some students
have their heads down on their desks, a couple have their sweatshirt hoods pulled over their heads. A few
students in the back are acting up. When the teacher gives instructions for the follow up task, the English
learners seem lost, unsure what they are supposed to do. The teacher notices and repeats the explanation of how
to complete the worksheet.
eaching literacy skills to an increasingly students are active participants in learning and are
8 | FeatureArticles
country, it is primarily intended as a model of sheltered native-English speakers result in English proficiency
instruction for all content classrooms (pre-K-12) where gains when the interactions focus on negotiating meaning
the language of instruction is English. Through our and eliciting understanding, such as in instructional
work and that of others, we have found that when conversations (August & Shanahan, 2008; Saunders
teachers implement the SIOP teaching techniques to & Goldenberg, in press). To be beneficial for English
a high degree, the academic achievement of English learners, interactive activities need to be carefully
learners (and other students) is increased (Echevarria, designed to maximize student engagement and more
Short, & Powers, 2006; Echevarria, Richards, Chan & proficient English-speaking students should be taught
Ratleff, 2009; Honigsfeld & Cohan, 2008; McIntyre, how to interact with youngsters who are developing
Kyle & Moore, 2006; Short, Lougit, & Fidelman, English as a second or additional language.
2009). Opportunities for authentic discussion and expres-
There are eight components in the SIOP Model sion of ideas is important for language development,
that include thirty features of effective instruction and sentence frames are also effective for providing
for English learners. The components are Lesson language models for both English learners and native-
Preparation, Building Background, Comprehensible English speakers. These frames serve as a scaffold for
Input, Strategies, Interaction, Practice & Application, using complete sentences. For example, when you plan
Lesson Delivery, and Review & Assessment for your students to engage in a structured discussion,
(Echevarria, Vogt, & Short, 2008; 2010a; 2010b). the following sentence frames will help English learners
Among the thirty features of the SIOP Model is one practice subject-verb agreement, while enabling them to
that focuses specifically on student engagement, which participate more fully (Vogt & Echevarria, 2008, pp.
we define as: “Students pay attention and are on task, 104, 116):
follow the lesson, respond to teacher direction, and
perform the activities as expected” (Echevarria, Vogt, “ ______________ was important to this
& Short, 2008, p. 155). For English learners to make story because it ______________________.”
academic progress, the expectation is that they must be “______________ were important to this
highly engaged 90-100% of the time during each lesson. story because they ____________________.”
Adhering to the following principles of instruction
will lead to higher levels of student engagement and, Another example of a sentence frame for older stu-
in turn, in higher academic achievement for English dents that models appropriate agreement and disagree-
learners. ment with someone’s ideas is:
10 | FeatureArticles
• Provide opportunities for students to engage in accessibility to content, you may have noticed that many
role-plays, improvisation, and simulations; involve scaffolds, such as, modeling, using illustrations
• Use visuals and supplementary materials, such or photos, adapting your speech, and using graphic
as pictures, real objects, illustrations, charts, organizers. Without these and other scaffolds, and
adapted texts, audiotapes or CDs, and graphic multiple opportunities to practice, apply, and transfer
organizers, perhaps in the native language, if new learning through meaningful activities (Jensen,
needed and available (Scarcella, 2003); 2005; Goldenberg, 2008; Marzano, Pickering &
• Consistently use restatement, paraphrasing, Pollock, 2001; Vogt & Shearer, in press), it will be
repetition, and written records of key points; difficult, if not impossible, for English learners (and
• Preview and review key information and struggling readers) to tackle challenging questions
language structures; and tasks (August, Beck, Calderón, Francis, Lesaux,
• Provide hands-on, experiential, and discovery & Shanahan, 2008). These activities for ELs should
activities; combine both direct and indirect instruction that
• For beginning English speakers, speak slowly includes a give-and-take between teacher and students
and somewhat deliberately, with clear vocabu- that encourages higher levels of thinking, speaking,
lary and diction, using pictures, other objects, and reading (Genesee, Lindholm-Leary, Saunders, &
and movements to illustrate the content being Christian, 2006).
taught (Goldenberg, 2008); and
• Judiciously reduce the complexity of language. Assess English learners frequently, before, during,
Oversimplifying language limits exposure to and after lessons, and plan purposefully, based on
varied sentence constructions and language the assessment data.
forms (Crossley, McCarthy, Louwerse, & Assessment and instruction are inextricably linked
McNamara, 2007). and are reciprocal processes. Data are used for making
instructional decisions during lesson planning in order
Stimulate English learners’ thinking and provide to meet students’ assessed needs. Assessments are then
meaningful activities for students used to determine how well students have learned
to demonstrate their learning. what has been taught, and the cycle then continues.
One of our favorite adages is, “Just because a student Assessment includes both formal and informal formative
doesn’t speak English proficiently, doesn’t mean he and summative measures, such as those included in
(or she) can’t THINK.” Therefore, as you plan lessons basal reading programs, and other curriculum-based
for English learners, just as with all students, it is of measurement (CBM) that are integral to determining
critical importance that you consistently plan for a which students may require re-teaching or intervention
range of questions and tasks that promote strategic, for under-developed skills. For English learners, it
critical thinking (Chamot & O’Malley, 1994; Dole, is of critical importance to include an assessment of
Duffy, Roehler, & Pearson, 1991; Afflerbach, Pearson, English proficiency, and if possible, primary language
& Paris, 2008). It is far easier to ask simple, factual and literacy assessments that provide invaluable
questions—and too often, this constitutes “regular” information. Certainly, your state’s standardized annual
instruction for English learners. Although ELs may be testing provides needed information about students’
limited in the way they can express their thinking, they academic growth over time. Your own teacher-created
can still be asked higher order questions. For example, assessments are certainly important to include, and these
“In comparing the North’s and the South’s conflicting may involve teacher observation, note-taking, end-of-
positions on slavery, why do you think the South refused theme or unit tests, student writing samples, reading
to change?” The answer may be expressed in few words fluency measures, and any other informal assessments
but the higher level thinking required to answer can still you find helpful.
come through. It is important to provide instruction While all students benefit from well-designed,
in how to use a variety of learning strategies to aid appropriately paced instruction, English learners must
students in thinking critically (Echevarria & Graves, have this type of teaching. They need much richer
2010; Vaughn, Gersten, & Chard, 2000). Also, create and more extensive teaching procedures than those
assignments that require your students to think more that are generally recommended in core curricular
critically and apply their language skills in a more programs (August, Carlo, Dressler, & Snow, 2005;
extended way. Blachowicz, Fisher, Ogle, & Watts-Taffe, 2006). This
Not surprisingly, this means that teachers must includes frequent and specific academic and/or behav-
incorporate scaffolding techniques throughout each ioral feedback so ELs can understand what they are
lesson for English learners (and struggling readers). doing well and what may need some correction (Au-
As you reviewed the techniques recommended in the gust & Shannon, 2006; Gersten, et al., 2007). For
previous section for providing comprehensibility and example, a familiar comment that many teachers use
12 | FeatureArticles
to what students know. However, when
you provide lessons that are based on rich, Figure1.
interesting materials, involve related hands- ResponsetoIntervention:ARecursiveProcess
on tasks, provide opportunities for students to
grapple with ideas, have authentic discussions
with their peers, and explicitly connect to
students’ lives and experiences, learning is fun,
engaging, and meaningful. In these kinds of
classrooms, even the most reluctant learners
thrive.
14 | FeatureArticles
learners: A synthesis of research evidence. New York: Improving Education for English learners: Research-based
Cambridge University Press. approaches. Sacramento, CA: CDE Press.
Gersten, R., Baker, S.K., Shanahan, T., Linan- Scarcella, R. (2003). Academic English: A conceptual
Thompson, S., Collins, P., & Scarcella, R. (2007). framework (Technical report 2003-1). Santa Barbara,
Effective literacy and English language instruction for ELs CA: Linguistic Minority Research Institute.
in the elementary grades: A practice guide (NCEE 2007- Short, D., & Fitzsimmons, S. (2006). Double the
4011). Washington, DC: National Center for Education work: Challenges and solutions to acquiring language and
Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of academic literacy for adolescent English language learners.
Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. A Report to the Carnegie Corporation. New York:
Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee. Alliance for Education.
Goldenberg, C. (2008). Teaching English Short, D., Fidelman, C., & Louguit, M. (2009).
language learners: What the research does—and does The effects of SIOP Model instruction on the academic
not—say. The American Educator, 32(2), 8-23. language development of English language learners.
Honigsfeld, A., & Cohen, A. (2008). The power Manuscript submitted for publication.
of two: Lesson study and SIOP help teachers instruct Suarez-Orozco, C., Suarez-Orozco, M., & Todo-
ELLs. Journal of Staff Development, 29 (1), p. 24-28. rova, I. (2008). Learning a new land: Immigrant students
Jensen, E. (2005) Teaching with the brain in in American society. Boston: The Belknep Press of Har-
mind, second edition. Alexandria, VA: Association for vard University Press.
Supervision and Curriculum Development. Vaughn, S., Gersten, R., & Chard, D. (2000).
Jiménez, R.T., Garcia, G.E., & Pearson, P.D. (1996). The underlying message in LD intervention research:
The reading strategies of bilingual Latina/o students Findings from research syntheses. Exceptional Children,
who are successful English readers: Opportunities and 67, 99-114.
obstacles. Reading Research Quarterly, 57(6), 576-578. Villegas, A.M., & Lucas, T. (2007). The
Lesaux, N., & Geva, E. (2006). Synthesis: culturally responsive teacher. Educational Leadership,
Development of literacy in language-minority students. 64(6), 28-33.
In D. August & T. Shanahan (Eds.), Developing literacy Vogt, M.E. (2005). Improving achievement
in second language learners. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence for ELLs through sheltered instruction. Language
Erlbaum. Learner,1(1), 22-25.
Lyster, R. (2007). Learning and teaching languages Vogt, M.E., & Echevarria, J. (2008). 99 ideas
through content: A counterbalanced approach. Philadelphia, and activities for teaching English learners with the SIOP
PA: John Benjamin. Model. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
McIntyre, E., Kyle, D., & Moore, G. (2006) A Vogt, M.E., Echevarria, J., & Short, D. (2010).
primary-grade teacher’s guidance toward small-group The SIOP Model for teaching English-language arts to
dialogue. Reading Research Quarterly, 41(1). English learners. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Saunders, W., & Goldenberg, C. (in press) Re- Vogt, M.E., & Shearer, B.A. (2011). Reading
search to guide English language development instruc- specialists and literacy coaches in the real world (3rd Ed.).
tion. In California Department of Education (Ed). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
ou can certainly ignore motivation if you can do it. We discuss each of these in this essay with an
16 | FeatureArticles
meaning something we do for its own sake. On a rainy Confidence as a reader
day, we might rather read our favorite mystery than do Belief in yourself is more closely linked to achievement
anything else. We are not trying to get a reward when than any other motivation throughout school. The
falling into a novel. reason is that confidence, which refers to belief in your
Motivation also brings to mind the reward for capacity, is tied intimately to success. This link occurs
success. Who doesn’t like to win a trinket for hitting the for simple, daily reading tasks. A student who reads
target with a dart at the State Fair? Who doesn’t want to one page fluently thinks he can read the next page in
earn serious money for working hard in a career? These the same book proficiently. The link is also forged for
are extrinsic rewards because someone gives them to us. reading in general. A student who reads fluently and
We do not give them to ourselves, and these rewards do understands well is also sure of himself as a reader. In
propel us to put out effort, focus energy, and get up in and out of school, people like the things they do well.
the morning. Conversely, students who struggle begin to doubt
Yet, extrinsic rewards do not motivate reading their abilities. They expect to do poorly in reading,
achievement in the long term. Students who read only writing, and talking about text. The real dilemma is
for the reward of money, a grade, or a future job are that lower-achieving students often exaggerate their
not the best readers. The reason is that if you read for limitations. Believing they are worse than they really
the reward of a good quiz score, what happens after the are, they stop trying completely. Retreating from all
quiz is that you stop reading. If the test score is the only text interactions, they reduce their own opportunity to
thing that matters, it is OK to take shortcuts, not really do what they want to do more than anything—to be
understand, or cheat. It encourages students to become a good reader. Their low confidence undermines them
more interested in the reward than the learning. None even further in a cycle of doubt and failure. By middle
of these generate long-term achievement. Sometimes a school, breaking this cycle is a formidable challenge for
reward, such as candy or early recess, will jump-start teachers.
a group of students to read in this moment for this Partly due to their long history of difficulty,
purpose. But if the motivation is not intrinsic, it will middle school students need a safe environment. As
not increase achievement in the long term. Nicole Connolly, a middle school teacher, said about
For some individuals, grades represent their quality her struggling readers:
as a student and a reader. Being a high achiever is a
symbol of how they are doing. A high grade is an icon I know from a teacher’s perspective, the first
of success and these students strive to feel successful. thing that you do in the classroom is that you
One student told us that he read as practice to improve have to create a safe environment, an environment
as a reader and get better grades. He said, “Reading a where they feel comfortable, they feel safe, they
lot helps you read better ‘cuz at first I wasn’t a very good feel respected and they feel heard. Absolutely
reader but now I’m doing real good.” This point came under no circumstances is any child ever going
up again and again. Another boy said, “If I keep reading to be laughed at for saying anything wrong or
then like you can do better in high school and then that seems off the mark. Especially teaching
you’ll get good, better grades.” Readers who identify Reading/Language arts, sometimes the poetry
with school see grades as an emblem of their success can be a little deep and for example, today the
and a reason to have confidence. poem was about suicide and you know there are
Interest comes in two forms—situational and raw feelings that start to come out so you have
enduring. Situational interest is fascination with a to set that environment. By this point, I am a
detail in the here and now: a picture in a book, a link quarter of the way through the school year so that
in a Website, a funny comment by a character, or an environment is set in my room. It’s very trusting
amazing fact about animals will all excite situational right now, but that’s the first thing you have to
interest. This does not last until tomorrow or next week. do is just make it a safe environment. When the
Situational interest does not generate achievement relationships start to build, you are really giving
because it is locked into the local event. Situational each child a voice that only comes from confident
interest can become enduring if it recurs with teacher (or relationships. It’s not easy.
other) continuing support. If a student finds one type of
novel he likes, such as realistic fiction, and is helped to For many students, a trusting relationship with
find more and to understand them fully, he may, over their teacher makes all the difference in building
time, grow an enduring motivation for reading fiction. confidence.
But the situational motivation is not sufficient to assure
the full maturation of intrinsic motivation. One of our Dedication
goals in schools is to foster intrinsic motivation, the Although intrinsic motivation is desirable because it
enjoyment and fulfillment in reading. is gratifying for the student, and because it energizes
18 | FeatureArticles
Interviewer: Do you learn anything from Some students have career goals that they link to
information books in school? school subjects. Here is a dedicated female:
Student: It actually teaches you things and
makes you really think about life Interviewer: Can you think of some examples of
that’s going on on this earth. reading assignments that you had
Interviewer: Can you think of some reading to do and you believed those will
assignments that you had to do help you in the future?
where you actually learned some- Student: I sort of want to be a vet when I get
thing new? Something you didn’t older, so readings in science and
know before? learning about chemicals help me.
Student: In science [we read about] this Learning how to write things and
bacteria that I didn’t know about all that stuff will help me later on.
and it’s called hiking disease. Interviewer: And how long have you felt that
When you’re hiking and you get reading things like that will help
some water from the pond and it’s you in the future?
this little bug that if it hits you too Student: For a while cuz my parents said
long it can make you very sick. they will.
Interviewer: Okay. How about another class
where you learned something We can all learn from a page out of the book
new? written about Whitney High School in Cerritos,
Student: In social studies because we had to California. After languishing for years in poverty and
talk about South Africa and coun- low achievement, this school was transformed by a
tries. charismatic principal into the highest achieving school
Interviewer: How long have you felt that you (highest SAT scores) in California. Every student
can learn something new from graduated into college. Celia, a veteran of three years
reading assignments? in the school, expressed the motivations of students at
Student: Before middle school. Whitney High. Asked to comment on the “best about
life and learning at Whitney” she replied:
Values for the future. Dedicated high school students
think about their future. Here is one example: Basically, all the academic courses themselves?
Unimportant. While they do play [some] part in
Interviewer: Why do you think it’s important academics in college I suppose, they won’t stick
for you to be a good reader? with you the rest of your life. What is the most
Student: Well I guess if you are a good important, I think, is the discipline you have to
student and get a good education learn when your teachers force you to do this
then you can go somewhere in life. assignment or read that book; it’s the fact that
Interviewer: Can you tell me why – why do you you’ve had to do it that will be most important in
say it’s very important for you to college because when mom and dad aren’t there
read? strangling you and chaining you to your text, you
Student: Because by being a good student will get the lock and chain out and force yourself
you get in good colleges, and that’s to work (Humes, 2003, p. 139).
what I’m trying to do.
Celia went on to talk about the sources of her self-
Another dedicated, high-achieving student discipline when she was asked about what she thought
reported: influenced her:
Interviewer: Can you tell me more about why I guess it comes out of knowing what your
you said being a good reader will parents want and striving to please them, yet also
help you in the future at school? knowing what you want and trying to stay true
Student: Being a good reader will help you to yourself… In Whitney it was possible to find
in the future because like if you got people who were like me, and liked me, rather
a job, you read a lot, like, even if than merely tolerated me. People who were
you didn’t like it. If you didn’t read interested in who I was… They were there when
in school, you wouldn’t know the home life was rough, and held my hand walking
meaning of it. forward in my life (Humes, 2003, p.141).
20 | FeatureArticles
own value system. Therefore, reading for enjoyment do these students read conscientiously, but they seek
and reading for dedication are two different things. deeper meanings and relish the challenge of complexity
Students can be one but not the other. One student in books. Students who retreat from mastery goals and
could be dedicated but not interested, whereas another seek only to avoid getting low grades will obviously be
could be interested but not dedicated. A few students the lower achievers.
may be both dedicated and interested. Researchers have Across the grade levels, confidence in one’s ability
found that in the elementary grades, students who are to read is a key attribute of success. Overwhelmingly,
both dedicated and interested, achieve far higher, and at all grade levels, the lowest achievers believe that it
read more proficiently than students who do not have is futile to hope that they can read like many of their
both of these motivations working for them (Guthrie, classmates. They feel helpless. In their overwhelming
Coddington, & Wigfield, 2009). sense of incompetence, these students cannot put forth
effort even when it is possible to succeed. Thus, resil-
Dedication impacts achievement ience is pervasive for achievers, and discouragement is
in grades K to 12. the hallmark of low achievers across the grade span of
When children enter school some are more interested K to 12.
in reading than others. Whether their parents read
to them daily, they acquired a curiosity by being ex- Motivational practices
posed to attractive books, or reading came easily to in the elementary classroom—CORI
them. Motivated first graders gain rapidly in reading There are five motivation practices that are well
achievement. In this case, motivation is usually interest supported in research. These practices foster all of
and enjoyment in reading. It is not a one-way street. the motivations we mentioned including interest,
Children who grow rapidly in learning to read during dedication, and confidence. Found in the classrooms of
the primary grades also grow in motivation. So skill in many outstanding teachers in primary and intermediate
reading and motivation to reading are hand in glove and classrooms, these practices are not revolutionary, yet
operate reciprocally in the primary grades (Morgan & they are all too rare. To investigate how to generate
Fuchs, 2007). and sustain motivation, we developed Concept-
As students enter the intermediate grades of three Oriented Reading Instruction focused on grades three
to five, some students become dedicated as well as to five. Over 10 years, we performed 11 experiments
interested. They see reading as a contributor to who they with 75 statistical comparisons of experimental and
will become. It has been shown that interest alone does control groups (Guthrie, McRae, & Klauda, 2007),
not assure that a student will be a high achiever in the and other researchers have also documented their
intermediate elementary grades; however, dedication effectiveness (Guthrie & Humenick, 2004). Currently,
alone does not assure high achievement either. When we are documenting the impacts of CORI in middle
outstanding students can integrate their interest (reading school. These practices are not restricted to special
what they like) and dedication (reading what they events or grand occasions in which students have rare
must), their test scores and grades show positive effects opportunities, such as a field trip to a museum. These
(Guthrie, Coddington, & Wigfield, 2009). As students are daily actions that motivate long-term achievement
enter middle school, their dedication to reading takes including the following: success, thematic units,
the form of identity as a student. During grades six to choice, relevance, and collaboration or teacher-student
nine, students who believe that being a good student interaction. We next address each of these.
is part of who they are and those who embrace the
goals of learning through text are the highest achievers. Success
Dedication takes over as the most reliable motivation In some schools with some curricula, some adminis-
to fuel achievement. Some of these students may also trators claim that they support struggling readers by
be intrinsically motivated and enjoy reading (Otis, giving them special instruction or collaboration with
Grouzet, & Pelletier, 2005), but that is not the primary peers to help them decipher the texts. But this is not
driver of their achievement across subject matters and sufficient. Texts have to be user friendly to the student.
through time. By user friendly, we mean that students can read a text
At the high school level, dedication to reading aloud with 90% accuracy. Another standard for read-
may take the form of attempting to understand texts as able text is summarizing. Students should be able to
deeply as possible. This aspiration to comprehend fully write a coherent summary of a paragraph or a page in
is termed mastery goals by Pintrich and his colleagues the text used for instruction. Selecting readable texts
(Pintrich, 2000). These students want to piece together is a challenge and often means that multiple texts are
the different sections of a text and integrate them fully needed in the classroom. In CORI, we provide a class
with what they already know about the topic in the book for whole class instruction in a reading strategy;
information or the character in literature. Not only however, for guided reading, text-based writing, and
22 | FeatureArticles
totally vivid way. After this 20-minute experience, stu- accountability, for individual work as well as for group
dents read avidly for 5 to 10 days about how animals products.
live, find food, and defend themselves from predators. In both primary and intermediate levels, research
Providing the owl pellet experience is providing rel- supports the power of motivational and emotional sup-
evance for reading. Not only do books about owls and port for building motivation. A nationwide observa-
mice come to life, but the broader issues of predation, tional study of primary classrooms showed that when
competition, and food webs are suddenly interesting. teachers were sensitive to student interests, invited stu-
A student has looked at his own owl pellet, has had dent input into classroom decisions, and avoided harsh
a personal experience of excitement. This excitement criticism, students gained in reading achievement. The
transfers to a text with photographs of plants, animals, effect was strongest for at-risk students and low income
and predation. In middle school CORI, we are provid- populations (Hamre & Pianta, 2006). For example,
ing similar relevance through videos of hunting in the Mrs. Warren has morning meetings in her elementary
Serengeti or symbiosis on a coral reef. For these middle classroom. She allows students to have friendly inter-
school students, the video experience generates intense actions and she greets each one by name daily. They
interest in reading. share recent experiences and build a repertoire of songs,
Practices of relevance in the classroom can take games, and poems that encourage a sense of belonging
many forms. For example, providing historical narra- (McTigue, Washburn, & Liew, 2009).
tives about Central American Indians for Hispanic stu- This collaborative emphasis may be especially
dents from Central America is generating relevance for valuable for African American students. In a study
text reading. Some forms of culturally relevant teaching of 10- to 11-year old African American students,
may generate relevance, but not all of them do. Hav- Dill and Boykin (2000) showed that collaborative
ing African American students read biographies of learning environments had advantages over individual
Booker T. Washington and Harriet Tubman does not learning environments. A collaborative (or communal)
automatically generate relevance simply because the learning setting increased the recall of stories that
texts are about African Americans. If the students do were read during collaborative interactions compared
not feel connected to those African Americans in the to individual reading. More centrally, enjoyment of
biographies, relevance will not be generated. Cultural the learning activity, and the desire to participate in
relevance can be an especially powerful motivational similar activities in the future, were accelerated by
practice for minority students if they frequently feel the collaborative learning structures for the African
little kinship and possess little background experience American students. One source of such a benefit may
with traditional texts peopled with European American be elaborated discussion.
populations (Tatum, 2005). Evidence suggests that African American students
Beyond locating books that students can connect respond to collaborative learning opportunities by
to, teachers can create tasks that enable students to build discussing text in relatively elaborate ways. In an
relevance for text. For example, in the “bubble project” experimental study, Webb and Farivar (1994) showed
for fourth graders, teachers encouraged students to that African American students who were taught
provide a social critique of advertisements (Gainer, communication and helping skills in small group
Valdez-Gainer, & Kinard, 2009). After locating ads for work during the reading of story problems had more
clothing to perfume to sports events, students studied elaborative and rich discussions than comparison groups.
the texts. They questioned the meanings, authors’ On the other hand, European American students
intentions, and gender biases in the text. They wrote did not benefit from the training in communication
replies to the ads in the form of a bubble spoken by a skills. Thus, African Americans were more cognitively
character. The students experienced humor, social responsive in social interactions around text, and thus,
critique, and sheer enjoyment in this literacy event. gained cognitive competencies in these settings.
Students saw that the text was relevant not only to their Further evidence that teacher-student relationships
material interest, but to their thoughts and attitudes in the classroom may be important to engagement and
about popular culture. Such activities enable students achievement in literacy was presented by Decker, Dona,
to see that reading is important to their interests and and Christenson (2007). They examined the associations
their interactions with others. between the teacher-student relationship and outcomes for
African American students who were behaviorally at-risk
Collaboration and relationship-building for referral to special education. Students were identified
At the elementary school level, social relationships are by their teachers as having behavior problems. Participants
paramount for students’ development as readers. In were 44 students and 25 teachers from two suburban
CORI, we provide partner reading, team summarizing, and three urban elementary schools in a mid-western
group posters, and peer conferencing. Each is state. A multi-rater, multi-method approach was used.
carefully orchestrated to assure full participation and As both teacher and student reports of teacher-student
24 | FeatureArticles
to be working hard to gain skill. That may be true for Gettin’ Through Thursday by Cooper because “They go
high-achieving, confident readers. However, students through almost the same thing we go through. That’s
with a history of not being able to read the texts in why I chose this story instead of the other one. It’s a
the classroom have lost their confidence, have little good book to me because they had to pretend they were
resilience, and may have developed many strategies of having a party because the mom didn’t have any money”
avoidance, like procrastination. (Gray, 2009, p. 477). It was not the genre nor having
The single largest factor contributing to low African American characters in the book nor having a
reading achievement is avoidance of books, especially particular theme that mattered. It was connecting to the
information texts, in all subject matters of literature, character that was the most important criterion used by
science, social studies, math, and others. Students who students to select books.
initially find reading a little tough tend to avoid the Making reading relevant for your students can be
book whenever possible and put in minimum effort. a challenging task. As Cheryl Nuhfer, a middle school
Obviously, this prevents them from gaining skill and teacher, said:
they enter a cycle of failure to read and avoidance. The
most powerful way to break this cycle is to locate books It’s hard to take a child whose parent has been a
that are within the readability level of the learner. farmer all his life and that’s what they are going
Before students will try and try again to tackle to do. Why do they have to know Shakespeare?
new challenges, they need to believe in themselves. Why do they have to know Chaucer? Why do
This belief in oneself propels students toward higher they have to know literature? There isn’t a real
achievement because they expect to succeed. Putting strong connection there. They have to know how
forth effort in reading depends mainly on whether you to read a bill of sale and more functional types
have succeeded in reading tasks in the past. A volume of reading. I think there is a disconnect between
of research shows that teachers who enable students to ‘the curriculum with the classics’ and the need
succeed grow the confidence of their readers (Schunk, to know.
2003). Teachers can promote this confidence building
by providing small steps for success. First, teachers can As this teacher continued, “The irrelevance is
set goals for reading words, sentences, or paragraphs, probably the biggest factor in students’ avoidance of
and then students take the role of setting their own reading.”
goals. But many students do not quite know whether One poignant way to make books relevant in the
they achieved a goal, such as understanding a paragraph, classroom is through videos. For example, a brief video
or not. Accurate feedback from the teacher is crucial. of 2 to 10 minutes can set the historical scene for a novel
The feedback should be specific to the students’ task set at the turn of the 19th century in Europe. If the
achievement rather than a general “good job.” A teacher topic of global warming is the subject of an information
might say, “Wow! You put yourself in the character’s text that students will be reading, a brief video of
situation and figured out how he may feel,” which is icebergs melting in the Arctic or glaciers disappearing
more effective than simply saying “nice reading.” from high mountains will galvanize students’ attention.
As students learn to set goals and recognize their As a resource for relevance, The Discovery Channel has
achievements, their resilience expands. They bounce more than 50,000 1 to 30 minute videos that can be
back from failure. They sustain their concentration viewed in any classroom in which the district has an
for longer times. Becoming actively persistent is the “inexpensive” subscription. When students observe a
essence of becoming dedicated in reading. However, video, they have had a vivid, personal encounter which
this persistence cannot come from a void. It is grounded they can take to text, bringing the print to life. When
in the belief that reading is important. students candidly say that the text connects to them,
they recognize the benefit of literacy and value its role
Assuring relevance in their lives.
Students do not become dedicated to reading unless it
is important to them. Obviously it is not the sounding Fostering awareness
out of words or the piecing together of paragraphs For many students, the benefits of reading to their
that creates relevance. It is the content and substance reading today or in the future are simply not obvious. As
of books that they must value to grow in dedication. one teacher said, “It’s difficult for a middle school child
Students’ first reason for being a dedicated reader is that to think too much past Friday’s next dance.” However,
the texts are relevant to them. teachers can help students create an awareness of the
In one survey, teachers found that African contribution of reading to their lives through a range
American students overwhelmingly selected literary of activities. In middle school, students are seeking
texts in which they could connect to the characters. freedom and are keen to read about people’s experiences
For example, one student stated that he liked the book of freedom. In secondary school, students can explore
26 | FeatureArticles
comprehension through questioning, and (6) synthesize of the lesson was not compromised. Teacher planning
information across texts. With these tools, students will time was minimal. In other words, the benefits were
read for understanding and their effort at comprehen- palpable in the classroom. The costs were minimal
sion will pay off for them. to the teacher. Our nagging quandary is this: Why
Too many teachers think of motivation for don’t more teachers make more use of mini-choices in
reading and strategies for reading as opposites. Either teaching reading?
we are teaching hard, academic strategies or we are
having a motivational day. Students benefit most when Arranging social goals
motivations and strategies are fused together. If students Just as a student will work hard to maintain a good
become excited about a book or a topic, they need relationship with a teacher, students seek to win the
strategies for learning from the book or enjoying it fully. respect of their friends and classmates. In this light,
Conversely, if students have a few effective strategies students will be dedicated to their reading when reading
they will never use them if they are bored, avoidant, or has a role in their social interactions with classmates.
otherwise unmotivated for reading. Therefore, teaching One way to set up social goals among students is to
students to be dedicated readers requires helping them create a project that will call for a student’s organization
to work smart as they put forth high effort. and persistence in reading. For example, one of the
teachers we interviewed told us that she “will try to
Affording choices buddy them up so they will share the novels they are
More popular than any motivational support is reading in a literature circle sort of thing, or even a book
affording choices, which is widely supported in the sharing recommendation.” For example, in CORI,
professional literature (O’Brien & Dillon, 2008). students work cooperatively to build a group poster.
However, misconceptions abound. For example, many The group selects a theme related to survival in nature,
teachers provide “sustained silent reading” time to give such as mutualism or predation. Each student reads
students a chance at self-selection. Yet, this technique and writes to create a contribution to the poster. They
is often misunderstood as the only way to give choice. organize their work, create a timeline, and share their
Myriad little choices can be given during any lesson, work with each other building toward the culminating
which enable students to express small preferences that point of explaining their poster to another team or to
spur their reading. In a middle school classroom, one the class. This gives each student a social framework
of us asked a small group of struggling readers, “What in which their dedication to reading will bring positive
choices did your teacher give you today?” Students social interactions with their teammate.
replied: When students see that teachers are supporting
• “We could read with a partner or not.” their active collaboration, they become more cooperative
• “We could take notes or not.” and dedicate themselves to reading more conscientiously
• “We got to choose which color card to write than if they are continually required to toil in isolation.
our question on.” Many partnerships, team efforts, group projects,
• “We could choose the word we thought was and peer cooperatives have been shown to motivate
the key word in the paragraph.” students, and some have been shown to increase reading
comprehension directly (Murphy, Wilkenson, Soter,
Then we asked the $64 million dollar question: Hennessey, & Alexander, 2009).
“How did having a choice help you read?” Students
erupted with sublime self-reflections, such as: Professional development
• “Having a choice whether to partner read made Teaching to the second side of reading, the will to read,
me feel better.” like teaching to the first side, is a matter of teacher
• “I could read alone, which helps me concen- expertise. There is no formula or off-the-shelf program
trate.” for motivating students. The good news is that teachers
• “I could read by myself, which is faster for can rapidly learn to be more effective at encouraging
me.” engagement. With a short amount of professional
• “I liked finding my own key word on the development, teachers can learn to give choices that
page.” lend students a sense of empowerment (Reeve, 1996). In
a slightly longer, but realistic amount of time, teachers
Remarkably, these struggling readers were aware can gain a grip on implementing all the CORI teaching
of how choice helped them think during reading. These practices for elementary school mentioned here. For
mini-choices lent students a bit more investment into secondary level, a book and guide for self-reflection
the hard work of learning to write good summaries. about engagement is available (Guthrie, 2008). Our
The total time for the choices was 2 minutes out of message for teachers and administrators is that a
a 45-minute period, which was not excessive. Content manageable amount of reading, thinking, and sharing
28 | FeatureArticles
achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 544- Handbook of motivation at school. New York: Routledge.
555. Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J.S. (2000). Expectancy–
Reeve, J. (1996). Motivating others: Nurturing inner value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary
motivational resources. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Educational Psychology, Special Issue: Motivation and the
Santa, C.M. (2006). A vision for adolescent Educational Process, 25, 68-81.
literacy: Ours or theirs? Journal of Adolescent and Adult Wigfield, A., Klauda. S.L., & Cambria, J. (in press).
Literacy, 49, 466–476. Development of self-regulatory processes. In D.H. Sc-
Schunk, D.H. (2003). Self-efficacy for reading and hunk & B.J. Zimmerman (Eds.), Handbook of self-regu-
writing: Influence of modeling, goal setting, and self- lation of learning and performance. New York: Routledge.
evaluation. Reading & Writing Quarterly: Overcoming
Learning Difficulties, 19, 159-172. Children’s book references
Tatum, A. (2005). Teaching reading to black adoles- Caduto, M.J., & Bruchac, J. (1997). Keeper of the
cent males: Closing the achievement gap. Stenhouse pub- animals: Native American stories and wildlife activities for
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Tangney, J.P., Baumeister, R.F., & Boone, A.L. Cooper, M. (1998). Getting’ through Thursday.
(2004). High self-control predicts good adjustment, New York: Lee and Low Books.
less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. Ellis, D. (2000). The breadwinner. Berkeley, CA:
Journal of Personality, 72, 271-322. Publisher Group West.
Webb, N.M., & Farivar, S. (1994). Promoting George, J.C. (1972). Julie of the wolves. New York:
helping behavior in cooperative small groups in middle Harper Collins.
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Secondary
Childhood
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Elementary
Specialists
Literacy
Middle
Leaders
30 | FeatureArticles
Elicitingpicturebookresponses
upanddownthegradelevelladder,
andbackandforthacrossthecurriculum
Pegi Deitz Shea
Author
32 | FeatureArticles
with its applications in middle and high school history narratives and representations have been paramount
curriculum. Teachers tell me they use it like a short story in the recording of a culture’s survival. Mai’s story
to illustrate and personalize the consequences of war. cloth can be connected with Chilean arpilleras of the
Older students can explore the attempts by European “disappeared,” South African quilts showing Apartheid,
countries to colonize Asia and results. After reviewing even the Bayeux Tapestry which illustrates William
historical critical theory, high school teachers can use the Conqueror’s defeat of England in 1066. In awe, I
picture books or excerpts of war-related chapter books actually viewed this 230-foot long, embroidered history,
and novels as springboards to discussing the roles of a testament to the power of pictures enduring from the
politics and religion in world events. These two realms very first cave drawings. Today, we have picture books.
are responsible for generating a good percentage of Today, we also have an abundance of languages in the
adult nonfiction and fiction. They have inspired a good classroom. But pictures can be universal and specific at
chunk of children’s literature as well. The brilliant the same time. A practice many teachers already employ
books, Letters from Rifka by Karen Hesse and Milkweed in all grades is covering the text in picture books and
by Jerry Spinelli offer many compelling passages from asking students to supply the story.
the point of view of a child. The War by Anais Vaugelade
and L’il Dan the Drummer Boy: A Civil War Story by Worlds of metaphor
Romare Bearden are illuminating. In language arts, middle and high school populations
The persecution, displacement and dispersion can use “New Criticism” theory, i.e., “close reading,”
the Hmong have endured over the past three centuries to appreciate Mai’s unique world of metaphor. Similes
can be compared to that of many populations, e.g., such as “snug as a banana in a bunch” and “homes as
indigenous tribes of the Western hemisphere, Jews, big as mahogany trees” would probably not occur to
Kurds, Roma, etc. High schoolers can discuss the American children. But to a deprived child who’s only
composition of “identity” and the costs of losing it. seen nature beyond a barbed wire fence, these images
They are old enough to appreciate the irony in Baseball and vocabulary are all Mai has. By contrast, in The
Saved Us by Ken Mochizuki. During WWII, American Boy and the Spell, Thomas’s world is so immense and
soldiers are helping to liberate European, African, and daunting that he feels assaulted by the vocabulary of
Asian peoples, while disenfranchising and detaining math, music, literature and science. Sound familiar?
Japanese-Americans in internment camps on our own English teachers can lead students to examine
soil. In The Whispering Cloth, Mai’s creation of the their own worlds of metaphors and come up with
pa’ndau serves many purposes. One is to stem the loss unique similes. “Snug as a bud in my ear?” (Can you
of identity, by connecting not only with her deceased hear the playful reference to “snug as a bug in a rug”?) A
family, but also with her people’s identity represented by more challenging exercise would have students step into
the traditional art form. Other picture book examples a contemporary crisis such as Haiti, and create worlds of
are Polacco’s The Keeping Quilt, The Always Prayer metaphors for people living in such conditions.
Shawl by Sheldon Oberman, and Silent Music (about a In my state of Connecticut, the fiction writing of
young artist’s passion for Arabic calligraphy) by James third graders is tested. The structure of The Whispering
Rumford. Cloth is interesting because Mai is writing/stitching
The importance of intra-cultural communication her own story. So the story-within-a-story element
is magnified in history. Think about it: the first gives students a double shot. Mai must generate ideas,
thing an attacker tries to do is de-stabilize its foe’s create the images, and even “revise” when Grandma
communication system. The British attempted to wipe tells her that her story isn’t finished. And just like a
out the Irish language (often referred to as Gaelic), typical student, Mai whines and storms back to work.
which is making its comeback as a mandatory course Of course, her extra effort—note, the third spread of
in Ireland’s schools. The Chinese forbade the Hmong pa’ndau—produces a powerful conclusion to both the
from using their language, and the Hmong eventually inner and the frame stories. It took me 10 drafts to get
lost their written alphabet. (Missionaries devised that perfect ending, and it involved peer critique (my
a new one in the 1950’s.) Americans stole “Indian” weekly writers group), content expert critique (Hmong
children and sent them to American schools to learn friends) and “teacher” critique (my editor).
English. In America’s first Gulf War, who can forget My book would also lend itself to explorations in
the televised night scenes of American bombs blowing science. I use meteorology to show the passage of time,
up the communication center in Baghdad? Today’s say, from hot season to rainy season. Again—Mai’s
version of de-stabilizing communication: hacking into world of metaphor. One can study the geography of
computers, which are becoming our indispensable Southeast Asia, Thailand in particular, from the steep
mode of communication. For tomorrow’s version, read limestone karsts of the north through tropical rainforest
Feed by M.T. Anderson. down to shrub land and watery deltas. A sociological
Throughout history, when language fails, pictorial approach could examine Mai’s life of captivity, and
34 | FeatureArticles
book is not only about a sibling relationship, which of supply and demand, gentrification and
is always one of power; it is more about the power of material possession.
language acquisition. At the end of the story, “moon
was the only word in the sky.” Even simple concept books can climb grade levels.
New Criticism or close reading, which is perhaps Falwell’s Feast for 10 shows a contemporary African-
most successful with poetry, can be applied to very American family shopping, cooking and entertaining.
simple picture books. It was, after all, with close Lois Ehlert’s The Snowman invites ecological mapping.
reading in college (circa 1980) that I initially got the My book, Ten Mice for Tet, co-authored with Cynthia
idea for New Moon. In the poem, “Dejection: An Ode”, Wiell, is set in Vietnam, but can lead to explorations of
Samuel Coleridge alluded to the centuries-old ballad of belief systems around the world. Concept books are only
Sir Patrick Spens, by using the bad omen of the new the youngest form of children’s nonfiction picture books,
moon with the old moon in its arms. A structuralist would which have enjoyed a renaissance over the past ten years.
say my story references not only this poem and ballad, The boring names, dates and places of wars such as the
but also other tales, poems and nursery rhymes. Rightly American Revolution can be animated with biographies
so: teachers report their students connect my book to such as the quirky Patience Wright: America’s First Sculptor
other texts about the moon—even at the youngest level & Revolutionary Spy. Mathematics and physics come
in Pre-K. A feminist (such as myself) would say I am clear in the amazing books of David MacAuley. Music,
remaking the language of the new moon with the old civil rights and feminism wail with joy in Sweethearts of
moon in its arms into a positive image. Rightly so, too. Rhythm by Marilyn Nelson. Visuals and narrative help
But it was close reading that got me there, plus a little students retain the facts they need to know.
research on Coleridge’s allusion.
For intermediate students, close reading reveals Other critical resources to elicit response
the poetic tools I use in New Moon such as assonance, Until now, I have only been talking about literary
alliteration and metaphor. For readers of all ages, close critical approaches, because that’s part of my “world of
reading of the pictures reveals even more. My editor metaphor”. But teachers have a variety of worlds to tap.
had me get rid of a few other food metaphors. (I fought Explore picture books through music, dance, and art
to keep “peach ice cream”, which readers of all ages have theories and enjoy the discoveries you and your students
told me is so memorable.) But the illustrator, Cathryn will make.
Falwell, liked the other food metaphors so much that Here are two additional resources I use in my
she inserted them as pictures. You’ll see a half-eaten Children’s Literature class to help students connect
cookie and a “spilled grape juice” sky, as well as many texts and to read visuals in picture books.
other visual references to the moon in the illustrations.
Other simple books that work up and down the The seven universal themes in literature
grade levels include: Adapted from: Against Borders: Promoting Books for a
• Margaret Wise Brown’s The Runaway Bunny Multicultural World by Hazel Rochman
for its feminine domination, psycho-analytical These themes echo back to the earliest Greek dra-
maneuvering, and language manipulation. A mas and epics. The themes can combine in one story, or
high schooler could trace the origin of Mother dominate one whole story. They work across genre such
Bunny’s stichomythia from ancient Greek as mystery, romance, adventure, etc. Students can use
drama and Shakespeare’s Richard III, to ethnic them to make connections between texts.
call-and-response chanting to today’s political
debates. (Democratics: “Republicans are the 1. The Perilous Journey. In an adventure, vision quest,
party of ‘no.’” Republicans: “We’re the party of quest, exodus, the main character will first feel
‘know.’”) “stuck” somehow—literally, emotionally, develop-
• Bill Grossman’s Tommy at the Grocery Store mentally, etc. She/he will have an escape, which
(especially in these organic food days!) for close could be a fantasy or real journey. In Where the Wild
readings of its delightful malapropisms, double Things Are, Max explores his personality.
entendres, refrains and rhymes. In high school 2. The Hero and the Monster. The “monster” can be
economics or marketing, teachers can use it to internal and/or external, an individual, or a mon-
jumpstart discussions of purchase power and strous force or group. In Baseball Saved Us, the mon-
dubious sales techniques. ster is the American government and some of its
• Jane Yolen’s Owl Moon and Lois Lowry’s citizenry.
new picture book, Crow Call, for gender and 3. Outsiders. The main character is the outsider com-
ecological examinations. ing into a new situation; or a new person could be
• Jan Brett’s The Mitten for ecological discussion introduced into an established group. In Crow Call,
of habitats, and for socio-economic exploration Dad comes home from war to his children who
36 | FeatureArticles
Ibatoulline. Crow call. Scholastic. New York. The whispering cloth. Illustrated by Anita Riggio,
Mochizuki, Ken. (1993). Illustrated by Dom Lee. Stitched by You Yang. Boyds Mills Press. Honesdale.
Baseball saved us. Lee & Low. New York. 1995.
Nelson, Marilyn. (2009). Illustrated by Jerry New moon. Illustrated by Cathryn Falwell. Boyds
Pinkney. Sweethearts of rhythm. Dail. New York. Mills Press. Honesdale. 1997.
Oberman, Sheldon. (1994). The always prayer Ten mice for Tet. Co-author, Cynthia Weill.
shawl. Boyds Mills Press. Honesdale, PA. Illustrated by To Ngoc Trang, Embroidered by Pham
Pfister, Marcus. (1992). Rainbow fish. North South Viet Dinh. Chronicle. San Francisco. 2003.
Books. New York. The carpet boy’s gift. Illustrated by Leane Morin.
Polacco, Patricia. (1998). The keeping quilt. Simon Tilbury House. Gardiner. 2003.
& Schuster. New York. The boy and the spell. Illustrated by Serena Riglietti.
Rumford, James. (2008). Silent music. Roaring Pumpkin House. 2006.
Brook. New York.
Sendak, Maurice. (1963). Where the wild things are. Nonfiction picture books
HarperCollins. New York. Liberty rising. Illustrated by Wade Zahares. Henry
Smith, Lane. (1993). The happy hocky family. Holt. New York. 2006.
Viking. New York. Patience Wright: America’s first sculptor &
Spinelli, Jerry. (2003). Milkweed. Knopf. New revolutionary spy. Illustrated by Bethanne Anderson.
York. Henry Holt. New York. 2007
Tolkien, J.R.R. (1954). Lord of the rings. Allen & Noah Webster: Weaver of words. Illustrated
Unwin. London. by Monica Vachula. Boyds Mills/Calkins Creek.
Vaugelade, Anais. (2007). The war. Carolrhoda. Honesdale. 2009.
Minneapolis. The taxing case of the cows: A true story about suffrage.
Yolen, Jane. (1987). Illustrated by John Schoen- Co-author Iris Van Rynbach. Illustrated by Emily
herr. Owl moon. Philomel. New York. Arnold McCully.Clarion. New York. 2010.
BRIEF & VERY GENERAL DESCRIPTIONS OF LITERARY CRITICISMS (Compiled by Pegi Deitz Shea)
These are extremely encapsulated descriptions of some theories and viewpoints scholars have used to study literature. Notice how some theories
overlap, and how some theories are a response to earlier ones. Having a basic understanding of these approaches can help you open new avenues
of discussion with students at all grade levels.
ECO-CRITICISM explore how the natural world of the author or that of the characters impacts the language, actions, thoughts, images.
What is the author’s, narrators’ and characters’ “World of Metaphor”?
FEMINIST recognizes that women and their voices have been suppressed until the late 1900’s in America, and are still suppressed
in other parts of the world. Feminist criticism considers women’s writing as a response to those restrictions and societal
views, most likely established by males.
HISTORICAL posits that the literature is necessarily a product of the era in which the work was written. One cannot separate the work
from the author’s biography.
MARXIST examines the material or economic conditions of the characters, and of the author. It explores class struggle, and generally
roots for the downtrodden.
NEW CRITICISM or treats the text as a separate entity from its author, and from any historical and cultural contexts. It looks at relationships
CLOSE READING between words, for instance—the often playful tension created by a poem’s line breaks, the evocative power of ambigu-
ity.
POST-COLONIAL studies the literature of formerly and currently repressed populations, e.g Native Americans, some African tribes, and
how literature is a response to oppression; it also probes how literature can be a tool or weapon of the oppressors.
POST-MODERN looks for ways texts thwart readers’ expectations with tools such as irony, satire, unreliable narrators, nonsense, nihil-
ism.
PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL searches for deep struggles between life and death, depictions of childhood, family influences, and expressions of id, ego
or FREUDIAN and superego.
READER RESPONSE looks at how the readers’ background, age, ethnicity, etc. affect their understanding of the work. Accepts plurality and
ambiguity of the work’s meanings.
STRUCTURALISM rejects the existence of individual or unique expressions in literature, stating that most literature is based on archetypes
and ancient plots. Encourages connections between texts.
O
ver the years, the Riverside Elementary and used following its adoption as a provision of the
School has been committed to ensuring federal government’s 2004 re-authorization of the
that all students meet local, state and Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement
national standards in literacy. Today, Act (IDEIA, 2004; Yell & Drasgow, 2007).
however, efforts to ensure the success of For the most part, the literature pertaining to
all students are guided by school wide implementation RtI has focused on particular aspects of the model,
of a Response to Intervention (RtI) approach (Bender including its theoretical constructs and practical
& Shores, 2007; Fuchs & Fuchs, 2005; Kame’enui, applications (e.g., Bender & Shores, 2007) and the
2007). In 2007, the state department of education accuracy of the approach as a method for identifying
selected the Riverside Elementary School to participate students with reading and learning disabilities (Burns
as one of four pilot sites in a project designed to promote & Senesac, 2007; Case, Speece, & Malloy, 2003;
implementation of RtI. Each of the pilot sites was Fuchs, 2003; Fuchs & Deschler, 2007; Kavale, 2005;
provided with professional development around RtI Shinn, 2007; Vaughn, Linan-Thompson, & Hickman,
and literacy through on-site delivery of a three credit 2003; Vaughn & Fuchs, 2004). Researchers have also
course taught by an educational consultant from the examined the predictability and validity of related
state department of education and a consultant with assessment measures (Catts, Petscher, Schatschneider,
expertise in psychology and psychometric assessment. Bridges, & Mendoza, 2009; Jenkins, Hudson, &
In addition, the consultants provided sites with ongoing Johnson, 2007; Walker-Dalhouse, Risko, Esworthy,
technical assistance and professional development for a Grasley, Kaisler, McIlvain, & Stephan, 2009 ), the
year following initial implementation. effectiveness of particular interventions (Coyne,
As defined in the literature, RtI is a multi-tiered Kame’enui, Simmons, & Harn, 2004), and the degree
approach to assessing, instructing and monitoring the to which the model is being implemented with fidelity
progress of all students; providing interventions to within specific classrooms (Daly, Martens, Barnett,
students who are not meeting grade level standards; Witt, & Olsen, 2007). While findings from these and
and identifying students who may be eligible to other studies have served to highlight specific benefits
receive special education services under the category of and challenges associated with the RtI model, less has
learning disabilities (Batsche, Elliot, Graden, Grimes, been written about actual implementation within a
Kovaleski, Prasse, Reschly, Schrag, & Tilly, 2006; general education context (Hollenbeck, 2007; Johnson
Mesmer & Mesmer, 2008). Originally conceived as an & Smith, 2008; Kovaleski, 2007) and the role of
alternative to the “severe discrepancy model” that has professional development in supporting implementation
historically been used to identify students as learning and sustainability (Kratochwill, Volpiansky, Clements,
disabled, the RtI approach became more widely known & Ball, 2007; McEneaney, Lose, & Schwartz, 2006;
38 | FeatureArticles
Richards, Parvi, Golez, Canges, & Murphy, 2007). during a five day site visit to Riverside and three days of
The opportunity to view RtI from an applied off-site work. Prior to the site visits, the research team
perspective presented itself to the authors one year met on five occasions to review and revise interview
following initiation of the state department’s RtI pilot and observation protocols, and to develop consistent
project. Using qualitative research methods and a case techniques for conducting interviews, observations, and
study approach (Glesne, 2005; Maxwell, 2005; Patton, document reviews. The interview protocols consisted of
2002), we conducted in-depth site visits to each of the 15 – 18 questions and were designed to elicit participants’
four pilot sites, following which we conducted a cross- perspectives on the nature of the RtI approach, related
case analysis to explore emerging themes and challenges changes in practice at the classroom and school levels,
(Miles & Huberman, 1994). While each of the schools and other local and contextual factors that appeared to
made significant strides with respect to implementation, enhance or inhibit implementation.
we were struck with the fact that of the four, the Riverside Along with interviews, we attended a “community
School offered the most consistent and potentially night” in which classroom teachers described their
sustainable picture of school wide implementation. As use of the RtI approach. We observed six classrooms
such, the purpose of this article is to describe the benefits engaged in various aspects of RtI implementation, and
and realities of the implementation of the RtI approach conducted two observations of building-based support
in the Riverside School in a way that helps to illuminate teams for the purpose of triangulating information
future change efforts. Riverside’s story illustrates the obtained through the interviews. Classroom observation
potential for RtI to serve as a framework for aligning protocols were used to record detailed descriptions
assessment and instructional practices, enhancing of instructional activities and the roles of classroom
student performance, increasing collaboration among teachers, special educators, paraprofessionals and others
general and special educators, and developing a school involved in implementing the RtI approach. Protocols
wide learning community. The discussion that follows used during observations of Riverside’s building-based
provides a brief outline of our research methods, a support team, known as the Educational Support Team
description of the RtI approach as it was implemented (EST), elicited descriptions of the processes used in
at Riverside, and a thematic analysis of the factors that data-based decision-making, planning, and follow-
contributed to Riverside’s success in implementing the up for students requiring individual interventions and
initiative. (Note that all names used in this report are supports. We also reviewed a number of relevant written
psudonyms.) documents, including a brochure describing RtI to
families, a description of the EST’s role and processes,
Research methods and related school policies and procedures detailing
Site characteristics implementation of RtI.
Riverside is a small K–6 school located in one of the
most rural areas in the Northeast. At the time of the Data analysis
site visit, the school’s enrollment was approximately 140 Following completion of the site visits, we used
students. Of these students, at least 49% of students procedures associated with qualitative inquiry to code
were eligible for free and reduced lunch, compared to and conduct a thematic analysis of approximately 400
the statewide average of 29%. Approximately 9% of pages of interview transcripts, observation notes, and
the students were eligible for special education services, notes on document reviews (Glesne, 2005; Patton,
compared to a statewide average of almost 15%. 2002). A coding scheme consisting of 15 categories was
used to code all interviews, observations and document
Data collection reviews, with reliability checks indicating at least 85%
The school’s principal, Liz Black, assisted us in agreement among raters. A final coded data set was then
identifying and scheduling the 23 individuals who entered into a data management system and analyzed
participated as interview participants. Given the small to identify emerging themes that captured the story of
size of the school, we were able to interview all 14 of Riverside’s implementation of RtI.
the school’s professional staff, including the principal,
all general and special education teachers, the guidance Findings
counselor, the speech and language pathologist, and the Our presentation of findings begins with a description
Title I teacher. In addition, we interviewed regional of the basic elements of the RtI approach as it was
administrators and selected paraprofessionals, parents, defined by the state consultants and adopted at the
and school board members with varying opinions and Riverside School. Following this, we discuss six themes
experiences related to the implementation of RtI who that capture the interviewees’ perspectives on changes
had been identified with Black’s assistance. occurring as a result of implementation. These include:
A research team of five individuals, including 1. Changing classroom practices through ongoing and
the two co-authors of this manuscript, collected data systematic assessment of student learning;
40 | FeatureArticles
management systems available through the They cited the use of universal screenings and
AIMSweb program (2008). ongoing progress monitoring as critical aspects
• Decision-making through an Educational of the RtI approach that had fundamentally
SupportTeam. Well before the implementation changed their understanding of the concept of
of RtI, the Riverside School had established an data-based instruction. One teacher noted how
interdisciplinary team known as an Educational “With RtI, it’s all about what the data says
Support Team (EST) that was charged with and research based curriculum,” while another
assisting teachers in supporting students who commented that within a short period of time,
were struggling to meet standards but were not teachers’ instructional practices had changed
eligible to receive special education services. because of “the actual paying attention to the
The state consultants used the RtI course as an data and examining the data.” A third grade
opportunity to help the school’s principal and teacher noted how both she and her students
teachers re-visit their EST membership and had benefitted from these changes in assessment
streamline their decision-making processes to practices:
ensure that the team was prepared to analyze
and use data collected through the AIMSweb We’re seeing better scores in fluency and
assessments for the purpose of identifying accuracy because we do it more often and we’re
and developing plans for students in need of more purposeful in how we do it. I think the
additional supports and interventions. The kids get excited because they kind of keep track
literature has identified both “standard protocol” of their scores and they see that and I think that’s
and “problem-solving” approaches to discussing exciting for them more so than it had been in the
and responding to student progress, with some past. They love just the aspect of working against
researchers and practitioners advocating for the clock, which they now think of as more of a
one approach over another (Bender & Shores, game than a horrible challenge.
2007; McEneaney et al., 2006). Members of
the Riverside EST reported that their process • Movingtoanewviewofteachingandlearning.
combined the two approaches for improved Liz Black’s observation that “Kids’ lack of
team processing and effectiveness. They used a progress is an instructional problem, not a kid
problem-solving process to identify a student’s problem” was at the heart of teachers’ renewed
specific areas of strength and need, and selected focus on using assessment data to examine and
from among a set of scientifically-based alter their instruction in accordance with student
intervention programs to provide individual or needs. She and a number of other interviewees
small group instruction. acknowledged that the use of consistent
assessment measures promoted a higher level
Theme #1: Changing classroom practices through of discussion around student progress. One
ongoing and systematic assessment teacher noted the transformation that occurred
of student learning in the school as teachers began to develop a
Riverside’s principal, Liz Black, maintained that common language around assessment and the
the challenge to enhance literacy success among all expectations that they held for students:
students “starts with the key concept that every student
gets classroom instruction that is evidence-based… Before RtI, we weren’t using same measures,
this takes away the idea that some classrooms are so number one, RtI ensured that we all started
better than others… It’s Marzano’s guaranteed viable using the same base line measures. Now when
curriculum.” The three credit course delivered by the we say something like “Gregory is low”, we
state consultants reinforced the idea among Black and know that we are speaking about his low
her teachers that all students needed to have access to achievement according to a standard, instead of
a high quality curriculum tailored to meet their needs low achievement “in my view”.
through differentiation of instruction and valid and
reliable assessment practices. As such, they embraced Other teachers noted that the use of RtI had
an important component of RtI: the link between created a shift in their thinking about their individual
assessment, instruction, and curriculum. and collective roles as teachers. The RtI brought new
• Linkingassessmentandclassroominstruction. assessment practices, instructional techniques, and
When asked to reflect on the most powerful student-specific interventions to their classrooms, and it
elements of the RtI approach, most teachers also brought a new way of thinking about accountability
reported that their teaching had become and responsibility. A teacher who had only recently
more intentional, purposeful and thorough. begun her career in education commented:
42 | FeatureArticles
Black and her teachers decided to hold one set of EST Theme #4: Creating a common focus on literacy
meetings in the fall of each year to review, on a class through initial and ongoing
by class basis, student performance data on universal professional development
screening measures. Using teacher input as well as data The interviewees described a number of ways in which
from other assessment measures, the team determined the initial course provided by the state consultants
which students were in need of accommodations and/ was a powerful and critical approach to successful
or more intensive levels of instruction. Outside of these implementation. First, the fact that the course took
two regularly scheduled reviews of student achievement place at the school and began prior to adoption of
data, teachers were encouraged to refer students to the the approach helped to establish a common base of
EST at any time during the school year, so that the team knowledge, language, and community throughout the
could determine whether or not the student needed school. Liz Black and a majority of the school’s teachers
increasingly intensive interventions and/or referral for participated in the course, creating momentum for
a special education evaluation. initial implementation as well as a “critical mass” of
A number of the interviewees reported major people with the skills and knowledge to support the
differences between EST functioning prior to and handful of teachers who were not able to participate
following the implementation of RtI. One teacher in the course and/or came to Riverside following the
noted that “Our EST meetings happen more frequently course. Second, the fact that Liz Black participated in
and with more players”, while others commented on the course sent a powerful message to teachers that in
the power of having more current and accurate data turn helped to solidify “buy-in” for the RtI approach.
available for monitoring student progress. Another One teacher noted how the principal had been at the
teacher commented: forefront of the instructional leadership.
…organization has become key. Before RtI, we She volunteered us for being a pilot. It was just
might walk in and sit down and start talking one of those things where she said “We’re going
about a student not performing well and talk to do this, it’s coming down the pike, let’s do
about how bad their home life was and how they it.” And she has been right there all the way
didn’t look rested, and we really weren’t basing showing interest, helping to make sure we’re all
any of our conversations much on the data… It comfortable with this and that we’re all on the
was pretty generic all occasion hand wringing same page.
and holding and now it is very specific. Every-
thing is tied in to data. And you know who is on The interviewees also noted that Liz Black’s very
the agenda before you get there so you come to presence in the course sent a powerful message to her
the meeting prepared. teachers. Prior to implementation of RtI, Black was
considered to have great expertise in mathematics, but
Liz Black reported that the implementation of less in the area of literacy. Her willingness to reveal
RtI helped the EST to “sharpen its saw on data-based what she knew less about, to ask questions, and to act
decision-making”. “If kids are not moving,” she noted, on her new knowledge of literacy affirmed her role as
“we need to change what we’re doing—either the an instructional leader who was seriously interested in
medicine or the dosage.” creating a school wide learning community. As one
Outside of EST meetings, Riverside also relied teacher commented:
heavily on the use of regularly scheduled grade level
teams and an RtI Steering Committee to provide Liz was part of the course with us. She’s learned
time for teachers to share information about students, more about phonemic awareness and phonology
discuss changes that need to be made to the system, and those areas that she was not so confident in
and identify relevant professional development or didn’t have the knowledge in, and she’s gone
opportunities. Teachers on the 5th and 6th grade team, and she’s extended her knowledge so that she
for example, used weekly grade level team meetings to can come in and really, during an observation,
determine “who needs what the most” and to organize know what she’s looking for…Liz’s becoming
differentiated instruction and activities that occurred more aware, her taking it on, and seeing that as
daily for all students during a 30 minute time period important, is very important to us.
following lunch. The RtI Steering Committee was
a representative group that met weekly to discuss the Third, Riverside’s approach to professional devel-
systemic issues related to RtI, including the need for opment around RtI did not end with the initial course.
additional professional development, challenges around While the course was viewed as a necessary starting
scheduling, and dissemination of the model to the point, many of the interviewees noted the importance
community. of being able to continue in a variety of planned and
44 | FeatureArticles
does. Everybody takes a turn and so I think everyone screening and progress monitoring were too
is leading something that they believe in.” Teachers focused on reading fluency and needed to be
who participated in external professional development complemented by more in-depth measures of
related to RtI were expected to share new knowledge reading comprehension.
with the entire faculty, and several were encouraged to Finally, a number of teachers voiced a need
travel to other districts to share Riverside’s success and to have a more systematic way of analyzing
challenges related to implementing RtI. individual student performance across a variety
In short, Liz Black’s leadership supported the of measures, especially when different measures
development of a school wide learning community in indicated different results for the same student.
which every member of the school community had the These ongoing conversations about assessment
opportunity to participate in learning, decision making practices encouraged a healthy debate that kept
and problem solving. Central to this was the sense that the interviewees engaged in thinking about the
all school wide efforts—including implementation purpose and nature of the RtI approach. They
of RtI— needed to be based on the needs of students reflected the school’s overall commitment to
and the ongoing quest to ensure that changes in school using assessment results to inform instruction
practice resulted in positive changes for all students. and to seeking ways to create an integrated,
One teacher commented on the school’s child-focused systemic and holistic approach to analyzing
approach, noting its link to Black’s leadership: student performance.
• Eligibility. The interviewees acknowledged
I think one of the key things about this school that the RtI process allowed for earlier
is that we as a faculty put kids first and that’s intervention for students who were performing
because Liz puts kids first…She doesn’t just below standards in the area of literacy and
come up with an idea because it will make her lessened the possibility that students would
look good, unless it’s going to be the best thing need to “wait to fail” before becoming eligible
for kids. And I think that’s something that she to receive interventions and support through
imparts to us and so she gets you willing to do special education. While implementation
things. of the RtI model had helped to inform and
clarify the eligibility process, the interviewees
Theme #6: Addressing issues for sustainability reported that special education evaluation and
The interviewees at the Riverside School were proud planning teams were still identifying students
of their accomplishments, but they recognized that a with learning disabilities by administering
key aspect of implementation would be the ability to standardized measures in order to determine a
continually improve and sustain RtI practices over “severe discrepancy” between a student’s ability
time. Our final theme presents questions and areas for and achievement. This situation fell short
future growth that were identified by the interviewees of full implementation of the RtI model, in
and may have implications for implementation in other which failure to respond to scientifically- based
settings. instruction and interventions could be used to
• Assessment. While the AIMSweb assessment document the presence of a learning disability.
system received positive reviews from most of While this issue was not of serious concern to
the interviewees, a number of teachers also most interviewees, it was acknowledged as an
reflected critically on potential challenges area for future development and growth.
with respect to Riverside’s approach to the • Professionaldevelopment.As described earli-
assessment of literacy. Many teachers noted er, the interviewees were generally enthusiastic
that in addition to RtI assessments, the school about the course that was provided to them as
engaged in yearly state-mandated standardized part of the state’s RtI pilot process. Still, a few
testing, as well as additional local assessments offered suggestions for improving the course
of reading. Some teachers were concerned that in the future, including an earlier introduction
the amount of time devoted to assessment to the use of the AIMSweb assessments, and
activities might be detracting from, rather than more differentiation of instruction around the
contributing to, instruction. Others believed information provided on literacy. Of greater
that multiple assessment measures were valuable concern to many was degree to which inten-
because they provided a range of ways to view sive professional development appeared to be
student progress and to gain a holistic view a necessary condition for implementation and
of individual and collective performance. A sustainability of the RtI approach. Liz Black
number of these teachers were in fact concerned and a number of teachers identified a need for
that the assessment measures used in universal pre-service programs to increase their atten-
46 | FeatureArticles
and organizational capacity that teams needed to School Psychology Review, 36, 562-581.
grow and thrive over time (e.g., regular opportunities Fuchs, L.S. (2003). Assessing intervention re-
to meet, resources, training, etc.), and developed and sponsiveness: Conceptual and technical issues. Learn-
supported teacher leaders in their ongoing reflection ing Disabilities Research and Practice, 18(3), 172-187.
and actions related to continuous improvement around Fuchs, D., & Deshler, D.D. (2007). What we
student learning. need to know about responsiveness to intervention (and
Riverside has embraced the RtI framework be- shouldn’t be afraid to ask). Learning Disabilities Research
cause it has allowed the school to refine approaches to & Practice, 22(2), 129–136.
ensuring student success in literacy in a way that honors Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L.S. (2005). Responsiveness-
the individuality of each student. Black and her teachers to-intervention: A blueprint for practitioners, policy-
have worked continuously to address challenges at the makers, and parents. Teaching Exceptional Children, 38,
student and systemic levels. They demonstrate a tireless 57–61.
ethic and commitment to making things better, because Glesne, C. (2005). Becoming qualitative researchers:
at the root of it all, they care about making the school An introduction (3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
a place where all students’ needs are addressed. “When Hollenbeck, A.F. (2007). From IDEA to imple-
asked to meet a kids’ challenges,” Black says, “we always mentation: A discussion of foundational and future
ask ‘How can we’ ?”. responsiveness-to-intervention research. Learning Dis-
abilities Research and Practice, 22(2), 137–146.
References Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
AIMSweb (2008). Retrieved from www.aimsweb. Amendments of 2004. (2004). U.S.C. sec. 1400 et seq
com. Pearson Education, Inc. (2004).
Batsche, G., Elliot, J., Graden, Grimes, J., Jenkins, J.R., Hudson, R.F., & Johnson, E.S.
Kovaleski, J., Prasse, D., Reschly, D., Schrag, J., & (2007). Screening for at-risk readers in a response to
Tilly, W.D. (2006). Response to intervention: Policy intervention framework. School Psychology Review, 36,
considerations and implementation. Alexandria, VA: 582–600.
National Association of State Directors of Special Kame’enui, E. (2007). A new paradigm: Response
Education. to Intervention. Teaching Exceptional Children, 39(5),
Bender, W.N., & Shores, C. (2007). Response to 6–7.
intervention: A practical guide for every teacher. Thousand Kavale, K.A. (2005). Identifying specific learning
Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. disability: Is responsiveness to intervention the answer?
Bender, W.N., & Shores, C. (2007). Response to Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38(6), 553-562.
intervention: A practical guide for every teacher. Thousand Kovaleski, J.F. (2007). Response to intervention:
Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Considerations of research and systems change. School
Burns, M.K., & Senesac, B.V. (2005). Comparison Psychology Review, 638-646.
of dual discrepancy criteria to assess response to Kratchowill, T.R., Volpiansky, P., Clements, M., &
intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 43, 393- Ball, C. (2007). Professional development in implementing
406. and sustaining multitier prevention models: Implications for
Case, L.P., Speece, D.L., & Molloy, D.E. (2003). responsiveness to intervention. School Psychology Review,
The validity of a response-to-instruction paradigm to 36(4), 618-631.
identify reading disabilities: A longitudinal analysis Maxwell, J.A. (2005). Qualitative research design:
of individual differences and contextual factors. School An interactive approach (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Psychology Review, 32 (4), 557-582. Sage Publications.
Catts, H.W., Petscher, Y., Schatschneider, C., McEneaney, J.E., Lose, M.K., & Schwartz,
Bridges, M.S., & Mendoza, K. (2009). Floor effects R.M. (2006) A transactional perspective on reading
associated with universal screening and their impact on difficulties and response to intervention. Reading
early identification. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42, Research Quarterly, 41 (1), 117 – 128.
163-176. Mesmer, E.M., & Mesmer, H.E. (2008). Response
Coyne, M.D., Kame’enui, E. J., Simmons, D.C., & to Intervention (RtI): What teachers of reading need to
Harn, B. A. (2004). Beginning reading as inoculation know. The Reading Teacher, 62(4), 280-290.
or insulin: First-grade reading performance of strong Miles, M., & Huberman, A.M. (1994). Qualitative
responders to kindergarten intervention. Journal of data analysis (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Learning Disabilities, 37(2), 90-104. Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative evaluation and
Daly, E.J., Martens, B.K., Barnett, D., Witt, J.C., research methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
& Olsen, S.C. (2007). Varying intervention delivery Richards, C., Parvis, S., Golez, F. Canges, R.,
in response to intervention: Confronting and resolving & Murphy, J. (2007). Response to intervention:
challenges with measurement, instruction, and intensity. Building the capacity of teachers to serve students
48 | FeatureArticles
Usingleveledgraphicorganizers
todifferentiateresponsestochildren’sliterature
Mary McMackin
Lesley University, Massachusetts
Nancy Witherell
Bridgewater State College, Massachusetts
n an ideal world, all children would come into directions they provide. Are the directions simple, one-
50 | FeatureArticles
burning it to a hard crisp. Each level of brownie baking
increases in complexity, but everyone comes out with Title
brownies (we hope). So, when matching students to a
graphic organizer, it is very important to stay within the Alistoftimeslotsinchronologicalorder
zone of his or her proximal development, otherwise—
burnt chocolate. Topicinformationateachtimeslot
One of the most difficult pieces of teaching is
figuring out when students are ready to go forward and Supporting information at specific time slots
if it is time to challenge them with more complex tasks. whichmayinclude:
Teachers, by disposition, are basically very nice people, What to see
and nice people do not like to see anyone struggle. In What to do
this frame of mind, it seems that children are sometimes Highlights of the area
not moved soon enough, and as time passes they get Historical information
further behind. At times a slight struggle is necessary
to foster growth. Realistictimesforactivities
52 | FeatureArticles
Books for Older Readers: (These itineraries Although teachers can’t create an ideal world,
may be done by putting a “stop” at different and probably wouldn’t want to even if they could, they
chapters.) can ensure that every learner progresses at a pace that’s
Grimes, N.(2006) The road to Paris. New both rigorous and comfortable for the learner. Tiered
York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons. graphic organizers are one of many tools that can help
Korman, G. (2007) Schooled. New York: teachers and students achieve this goal. We wish you
Hyperion Books for Children. and your students many happy stops in the itinerary of
Snicket, L. (2001) A series of unfortunate life and much success with the itineraries you use to
events. (Any book in this series). New help students comprehend and respond to texts.
York: Scholastic.
Interesting Itinerary
Fascinating Itinerary
Time In this space write the topic: what will be seen or what the stop will be. Then write
one sentence explaining the stop. (Picture boxes should represent the details written
nearby.)
Example: Cedar’s Junction: Get a light snack here and be sure to check out the carved totem
pole.
Time On this side you are to write: (1) What there is to do and see.
(2) Interesting facts about what there is to do and see and (3) include at least one
adjective that will intrigue the visitor.
Example: Dinosaur Alley: See dinosaur prints from prehistoric days. As you walk the trail
that leads down Dinosaur Alley be careful on the perilous rope bridge that crosses the bottomless
gully. We want you to make it back. (Put a topic picture in the picture box.)
54 | FeatureArticles
Thereadingstrategiesused
bymaleandfemaleEnglishlanguagelearners:
AstudyofColombianhighschoolstudents
Alex Poole
Western Kentucky University, Kentucky
E
nglish has exploded as a world-wide knowledge can be made by reading comprehensible and
language in recent years. Crystal (2006) pleasurable materials such as books, magazines, and
estimates that there are close to a billion comic books both inside and outside the classroom.
and a half speakers of English in the
world, only about half of whom are native Review of literature
speakers. One of the countries in which English is not Reading strategies
spoken as a first language, yet is widely studied as a and English language literacy development
foreign language, is Colombia. Recently, the Colombian However, in order to become highly proficient readers,
government has embarked on the ambitious goal Colombian English language learners (ELLs) will need
of having all high school graduates possess a level of to actively use a wide-range of reading strategies, which
English sufficient enough to economically and culturally are the “deliberate, goal-directed attempts to control and
compete on a global level (“Bilingüismo en Colombia”, modify the reader’s efforts to decode text, understand
2005), something that is currently only plausible for words, and construct meaning out of text” (Afflerbach,
graduates of elite private schools (de Mejia, 2004). Pearson & Paris, 2008). According to Mokhtari and
More specifically, by 2019 the Colombian government Sheorey (2002), skilled ELLs frequently and creatively
wants to establish a rigorous system of English language use strategies, while their unskilled counterparts
teaching, learning, and assessment modeled after the tend to use only a few strategies and in ways that are
Common European Framework (CEF), in spite of inappropriate.
the significant socioeconomic and political differences Several studies confirm the relationship between
between Colombia and the European Union (Sánchez reading strategy use and reading proficiency. Baker
Solarte & Obando Guerrero, 2008). and Boonkit (2004), for example, analyzed the reading
Inevitably, one of the crucial components of such strategies of Thai college students majoring in English.
a goal will be a high level of reading proficiency, which One hundred forty-nine participants filled out a strategy
is necessary if students want to study and work in survey, 17 of whom were later interviewed about their
English-speaking environments. In addition, reading responses. In addition, 12 participants kept language
will most likely be one of students’ main sources of learning journals. Significant overall differences
English since interpersonal experiences with native were not observed between high and low-proficiency
speakers are relatively rare for the average Colombian participants; nevertheless, significant differences were
(presumably because of a precarious security situation observed between high and low-proficiency participants
due to the country’s ongoing civil war) (Velez-Rendon, on several individual strategies.
2003), and many teachers lack the proficiency to Instead of studying Thai first language ELLs,
conduct their classes in English (Sánchez Solarte & Yang (2002) analyzed the strategies used by six skilled
Obando Guerrero, 2008). Fortunately, Krashen (2003, and six unskilled Chinese college readers while they
2004a, 2004b,) and Poole (in press) have shown that carried out think-aloud protocols and were exposed to
significant gains in grammar, vocabulary, and cultural strategy instruction. The findings showed that unskilled
56 | FeatureArticles
gender and ELLs’ reading proficiency, most studies sociocultural and political contexts within which English
show more strategy utilization by females. Poole language learning takes place, it seems doubtful that
(2005a), for example, conducted a study of mainland consistent gender-based patterns in reading strategy use
Chinese university students—217 females and 111 will be discovered. However, precisely because of the
males, using the SORS. The results showed that sociocultural and political differences of the settings
females employed significantly more strategies overall in which gender-based studies take place, Yoder and
and on all three subscales. Notably, females utilized 18 Kahn (2003) suggest that future research focus on
of the 30 individual strategies more than males. gender within specific environments rather than as a
Sheorey (2006) also used the SORS and again static trait. In the case of Colombia, the one study that
found an advantage for females. The participants focused on gender found that females were significantly
consisted of 276 male and 323 female university students more active strategy users than males. Nevertheless, the
from India. Overall and on two of the three subscales, participants in that study were college students. Since
females reported using more strategies than males. more English language proficiency will be expected of
A third study conducted using the SORS was high school graduates than in the past, it is imperative
carried out by Sheorey and Baboczky (2008). The that gender differences in reading strategy use be
participants consisted of 411 female and 134 Hungarian investigated, and if significant differences are found,
university students. Overall, on the three SORS steps be taken to minimize them.
subscales, and 13 of the 30 individual strategies, females
reported incorporating more strategies than males. The current study
A fourth study which found that females used The following study sought to answer two questions:
more strategies than males was carried out by Poole (1) What academic reading strategies do Colombian
(2009), who used the SORS with 117 male and 235 high school English language learners report using? (2)
female Colombian university students. Overall, on two Do males and females report using different academic
of the three SORS subscales, and on eight individual reading strategies? By investigating these areas, this
strategies, females reported using significantly more study represents a first step in discovering whether
strategies than males. or not both male and female Colombian high school
While most studies demonstrate an advantage students are nearing the goal of advanced English
for females, some have shown an advantage for males. language literacy.
Phakiti (2003), for example, studied the differences
between 211 female and 173 male Thai university Method
students. The participants completed a reading Participants
examination and then filled out a questionnaire that The participants in this study were 199 Colombian
asked them to report the cognitive and metacognitive ELLs (males=103; females=96) studying in three private
strategies they used on the exam. The results showed Colombian high schools in the country’s capital, Bogotá.
that while there were no significant differences in These schools generally serve students from middle to
cognitive strategy use, males used significantly more low-income families. Participants ranged from ages 12
metacognitive strategies than females. to 18 (M=14), and represented grades 8 to 11, which
Finally, some studies show very few differences are the normal years of Colombian secondary education.
between males and females. Using an early version of Males had studied English for an average of 6.45 years,
the SORS, Sheorey and Mokhtari (2001) studied 60 while females had studied for an average of 8.02 years.
female and 92 male ESL students at a US university. Even though all teachers were licensed to teach English,
No significant differences were found overall or on any instruction was generally not very intense, ranging from
of the three SORS subscales. On individual strategies, 3 to 5 hours per week. In addition, students reported
there were no differences except on one strategy, which reading academic materials in English an average of only
females reported using more than males. 3.35 (males=3.23; females=3.48) hours a week. Finally,
Poole (2005b) also studied ESL university students on a scale of 1 to 10, the average self-rated proficiency
using the SORS and found few gender differences. for males was 5.58, while it was 5.57 for females.
The participants consisted of 110 female and 138 male
ESL students from various first languages. The results Instrument
showed no differences overall or on any of the three The means used to measure academic reading strategies
SORS subscales. On individual strategies, there were was the Spanish version of the Survey of Reading
only differences on two strategies, with females scoring Strategies (SORS). As mentioned in the review of
higher on one, and males scoring higher on the other. literature, the SORS is a 30-item quantitative inventory
In sum, even though most studies show that consisting of global strategies (13 items), problem-
females use more strategies than males, such results solving strategies (8 items), and support strategies (9
have not been found in all studies. Given the diverse items). Global strategies are steps learners take to plan
Table1.
StrategiesUsedbyColombianELLsinAscendingOrder
Strategy Mean
1. PROB 7 I read slowly and carefully to make sure I understand what I am reading. 4.05
2. PROB 9 I try to get back on track when I lose concentration. 3.94
3. PROB 14 When text becomes difficult, I pay closer attention to what I am reading. 3.93
4. PROB 25 When text becomes difficult, I re-read it to increase my understanding. 3.90
5. GLOB 3 I think about what I know to help me understand what I read. 3.83
6. SUP 29 When reading, I translate from English into my native language. 3.75
7. SUP 13 I use reference materials (e.g., a dictionary) to help me understand what I read. 3.75
8. SUP 18 I paraphrase (restate ideas in my own words) to better understand what I read. 3.65
9. GLOB 4 I take an overall view of the text to see what it is about before reading it. 3.64
10. GLOB 23 I check my understanding when I come across new information. 3.58
11. GLOB 1 I have a purpose in mind when I read. 3.57
12. SUP 30 When reading, I think about information in both English and my mother tongue. 3.54
13. SUP 18 I paraphrase (restate ideas in my own words) to better understand what I read. 3.41
14. GLOB 15 I use tables, figures, and pictures in text to increase my understanding. 3.29
15. PROB 11 I adjust my reading speed according to what I am reading. 3.28
16. PROB 16 I stop from time to time and think about what I am reading 3.25
17. SUP 26 I ask myself questions I like to have answered in the text. 3.18
18. GLOB 27 I check to see if my guesses about the text are right or wrong. 3.15
19. GLOB 21 I critically analyze and evaluate the information presented in the text. 3.13
20. SUP 22 I go back and forth in the text to find relationships among ideas in it. 3.12
21. GLOB 17 I use context clues to help me better understand what I am reading. 3.10
58 | FeatureArticles
22. GLOB 6 I think about whether the content of the text fits my reading purpose. 3.07
23. PROB 19 I try to picture or visualize information to help remember what I read. 3.06
24. GLOB 24 I try to guess what the content of the text is about when I read. 2.94
25. SUP 5 When text becomes difficult, I read aloud to help me understand what I read. 2.90
26. SUP 2 I take notes while reading to help me understand what I read 2.89
27. PROB 28 When I read, I guess the meaning of unknown words or phrases. 2.88
28. GLOB 20 I use typographical features like bold face and italics to identify key information. 2.83
29. GLOB 12 When reading, I decide what to read closely and what to ignore. 2.80
30. SUP 10 I underline or circle information in the text to help me remember it. 2.79
Gender differences in reading strategy use differences between males and females. As Table 2
The second question concerned gender differences in shows, there were significant differences on 9 of 30
reported reading strategy use. While females (M=3.47) strategies, with females scoring higher on all of them. In
had a higher overall mean than males (M=3.22), both fact, on 27 of 30 strategies, females scored higher than
had moderate strategy use. However, the difference males. The exceptions were strategies 17 (“I use context
between males and females was statistically significant to help me better understand what I am reading”) and
(t[197]= -3.05; p<.05). As Table 2 indicates, global 30 (“When reading, I think about information in both
strategy use was also moderate for both males (M=3.14) English and my mother tongue.”), in which males scored
and females (M=3.38), although females use of global higher, and strategy 19 (“I try to picture or visualize
strategy was significantly higher than males (t[197]= information to help remember what I read.”), in which
-2.65; p<.05). In terms of problem-solving strategies, males and females had the same average. Males used 9
females (M=3.63) used them with high frequency, and strategies frequently (#3, 4, 7, 9, 13, 14, 25, 29, 30), 20
males (M=3.45) used them with moderate frequency, moderately (#1, 2, 5, 6, 8, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,
although the differences were not significant (p>.05). 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28), and 1 with low frequency
Finally, both males (M=3.12) and females (M=3.47) (#10). Females used 12 strategies frequently (#1, 3, 4, 7,
used support strategies with moderate frequency, with 8, 9, 13, 14, 18, 23, 25, 29) and 18 moderately (#2, 5, 6,
females using them significantly more than males 10, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, 30)
(t[197]= -3.52; p<.05). and none with low frequency.
On individual strategies, there were also notable
Table2.
DifferencesinOnlineStrategyUsebyGender
60 | FeatureArticles
in English. Thus, in order to get a more accurate Thus, they could have had more opportunities to
picture of learner strategy use—whether in Colombia utilize certain strategies. Future studies should use
or elsewhere—future studies should do the following: the previously discussed qualitative methods (i.e.,
First, they should investigate whether reported use interviews, observations, and think-aloud protocols) to
correlates with actual use. This can be done by using investigate why females tend to use certain strategies
qualitative techniques such as think-aloud protocols, more than males. In addition, such studies should
observations, and interviews (Mokhtari, Sheorey, & investigate how male and female reading strategy use
Reichard, 2008). Problematically, the labor-intensive differs according to proficiency level. It is possible that
character of qualitative research would make it difficult gender is not a significant variable when learners are at
to get an overall picture of any population’s reading the same proficiency level. Alternatively, gender could
strategy use. be a significant variable at certain proficiency levels, but
Second, future studies should examine how not at others.
successfully learners implement specific strategies and Regardless of the results of future studies, the
compare them with their reported use of such strategies. central issue in the current one is whether or not the
Doing this would show whether or not learners’ gender gap in strategy use is cause for concern. Even
reported use of strategies is effective or inappropriate. though females often times reported using significantly
For instance, if students report using reference materials more strategies than males, both were, in general,
with high frequency, yet fail to decode lexical items and moderate strategy users. In fact, both males and females
contextualize them during an exam or think-aloud used most individual strategies with moderate frequency
protocol, then they probably are unaware of when and (males=20; females=18). In addition, males used only
how to use this strategy. one strategy with low frequency (“I underline or circle
Third, investigators should study how patterns information in the text to help me remember it.”). Such
of reading strategy use vary according to proficiency results are probably not cause for great concern.
level. Proficiency levels can be established by using
standardized tests such as the TOEFL or national Teaching reading strategies to ELLs using the SORS:
college entrance exams. Such studies could reveal which Some recommendations
strategies underperforming learners are overusing or While the present study shows that both male and
incorrectly applying. In Zhang and Wu’s (2009) study, female Colombian high school students are aware of
for example, the results showed that more proficient the importance of reading strategies, these results may
readers used more global and problem-solving strategies not be indicative of all ELLs in Colombia and other
than less proficient readers. However, less proficient countries. Fortunately, classroom teachers can use the
readers used more support strategies that more proficient SORS to both assess students’ strategy use and teach
readers. specific strategies. In terms of assessing strategy use,
Mokhtari, Sheorey, and Reichard (2008) suggest that
Gender differences in reading strategy use teachers use the SORS as a pre-test to determine what
Based on the results of this study, future studies of strategies students lack awareness of or overuse, and
Colombian ELLs should also include gender as a therefore need instruction on how to properly use. The
variable, for it is obvious that there is a gender gap in SORS can then be used as a post-test to assess the
reading strategy use. As seen, females reported using effectiveness of instruction.
significantly more strategies overall and on the global The SORS can also be used to assess the types of
and support subcategories than males. In addition, they strategies learners use when they read specific genres
reported using nine individual strategies significantly (e.g., fiction, poetry, instructional manuals, textbooks)
more than males. These results are similar to several for specific purposes (e.g., general overview, in-depth
other gender-based studies using the SORS (Poole, research, exam questions) (Mokhtari, Sheorey, &
2005a, 2009; Sheorey & Mokhtari, 2001; Sheorey, Reichard, 2008). Mokhtari and Reichard (2008)
2006; Sheorey & Baboczky, 2008; Zhang & Wu, showed that such factors can significantly affect strategy
2009), which show females to be more active strategy usage.
users than males. The 65 high school students who participated in
However, the reasons for these gender differences their study reported using significantly more strategies
in strategy use are not clear. It could be that females overall and on the global and support subscales when
are more proficient readers, for as reported in the they read for academic purposes than when they read
methodology section, females had studied English for for entertainment.
more time than males (females=8.02 years; males=6.45) In terms of how to teach specific strategies using the
on average. Likewise, they reported reading academic SORS, there are a variety of methods that can be used.
materials more than males (females=3.48 hours One option suggested by Mokhtari and Sheorey (2008)
per week; males=3.23 hours per week) on average. is for teachers to inform students about what strategies
62 | FeatureArticles
learners. Balanced Reading Instruction, 12, 55-70. of first-and second-language learners (pp. 175-184).
Poole, A. (2009). The reading strategies used by Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon.
male and female Colombian university students. Profile, Sheorey, R., & Mokhtari, K. (2001). Differences
11, 29-40. in the metacognitive awareness of reading strategies
Sánchez Solarte, A., & Obando Guerrero, G. among native and non-native speakers. System, 29(4),
(2008). Is Colombia ready for “bilingualism”? Profile, 431-449.
9, 181-195. Velez-Rendon, G. (2003). English in Colombia: A
Schoonen, R., Hulstijn, J., & Bossers, B. (1998). sociolinguistic profile. World Englishes, 22(2), 185-193.
Metacognitive and language-specific knowledge in Yang, Y. (2002). Reassessing readers’ comprehen-
native and foreign language reading comprehension: sion monitoring. Reading in a Foreign Language, 14(1),
An empirical study among Dutch students in grades 6, 18-42.
8, and 10. Language Learning, 48, 71-106. Yoder, J., & Kahn, A. (2003). Making gender
Sheorey, R. (2006). Learning and teaching of English comparisons more meaningful: A call for more attention
in India. New Delhi: Sage Publications. to social context. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 27, 281-
Sheorey, R., & Baboczky, E. (2008). Metacogni- 290.
tive awareness of reading strategies among Hungarian Zhang, L. (2001). Awareness in reading: EFL
college students. In K. Mokhtari & R. Sheorey (Eds.), students’ metacognitive knowledge of reading strategies
Reading strategies of first-and second-language learners in an acquisition-poor environment. Language Aware-
(pp. 161-173). Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon. ness, 10(4), 268-288.
Sheorey, R., Kamimura, Y., & Freiermuth, M. Zhang, L., & Wu, A. (2009). Chinese senior high
(2008). Reading strategies of users of English as a school EFL students’ metacognitive awareness and
library language: The case of Japanese ESP students. reading strategy use. Reading in a Foreign Language,
In K. Mokhtari & R. Sheorey (Eds.), Reading strategies 21(1), 37-59.
Students, teachers, specialists or administrators who are current members of
WHO? NERA may submit one proposal per deadline date. Individuals or teams of
educatorsmayapplyaslongasonepersonisacurrentNERAmember.
Submit:
HOW? √ Two(2)copiesoftheproposal
√ Aresumefromeachmemberoftheteam
√ Aletterofsupportfromyourbuildingprincipal
orimmediatesupervisor
DEADLINE: SUBMITTEDBYAPRIL1ST
TO BE AWARDED: inJUNE
GotoNERAwebsiteforproposalforms.
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64 | FeatureArticles
Fromlecture-basedtodiscussion-based
instructionalapproach:
ThepedagogicaljourneyofaChineseprofessor
WenMa
La Moyne College, New York
n a Chinese educational context, the teacher is my role in the classroom. This action research explored
Theoretical framework
This research is informed by the sociocultural perspec-
listen to lectures attentively. While students are required tive of learning (Vygotsky, 1978, 1987). To depict the
to be actively engaged with the academic content, few social and cultural influences on the child’s learning
opportunities are offered for using verbal responses to and understanding mediated through language and
externalize their thoughts (Ma, 2007), or what John- other cultural artifacts, Vygotsky (1978) conceptual-
Steiner called “the external footprint of the internal ized the notion of “the zone of proximal development,”
thought” (personal communication, April 2003). This a virtual continuum comparing what one can already
instructional approach contrasts sharply with the social do with what one can potentially do with the help of
constructivist model prevalent in American education, others. This comparison corresponds with the learning
which views the classroom as a site where the teacher potential of an individual in any social context. What
supports students to interact as competent learners, and one can do and cannot do needs to be considered in
where understanding may be explored, negotiated and terms of the interaction between one’s ever-changing
constructed through participatory dialogues (Applebee, cognitive conditions and a wide range of interrelated
Langer, Nystrand & Gamoran, 2003; Brookfield & social, cultural and institutional situations in which the
Preskill, 2005). individual lives. These unceasing interactions across
As a native of China, I had been influenced both the inter-personal and the intra-psychological domains
as a learner and as a teacher in a Chinese educational- provide the material conditions for one to learn within
cultural milieu. After I became a teacher educator his or her cognitively allowable developmental levels in
at a small liberal arts college in the United States, I a given socio-historical context. The social and indi-
struggled to respond to the U.S.-born undergraduate vidual domains are thus dynamically united (Bodrova
and graduate students’ participation and response styles & Leong, 1996; Wertsch, 1991).
in my methods classes. For example, in both formal According to this sociocultural viewpoint, inter-
course evaluations and informal conversations with me, acting with others (peers, teachers, or any other knowl-
my students indicated that they preferred participatory edgeable person) provides many opportunities for a
discussions and project-based learning activities, and learner not only to grasp and refine his or her literacy
did not appreciate the substantive lectures that I took skills, but also to cultivate his or her higher order think-
painstaking efforts to prepare and deliver. ing (Miller, 2003). As such, social interactions are criti-
These challenges prompted me to look critically at cally important for students to use language to make
66 | FeatureArticles
Situated within such a broad conceptual backdrop, this particular attention to how my instructional styles
study explored the pedagogical journey I traveled as evolved over the years. In particular, I identified what
a teacher educator of Chinese decent from a lecture- I call “crisis moments,” such as student complaints and
based approach to discussion-oriented approach. Then unsuccessful classes/units, my searches for and experiments
I described one model of participatory discussion devel- with new approaches, and important feedback from students
oped through my teaching, transactional presentation. and colleagues. Meanwhile, I drew on other data sources
Clearly, such critical pedagogical research is important to further substantiate and triangulate these events and
because it is not only meaningful for my teaching effec- experiences. All these recursive analytical procedures
tiveness, but may help other diverse educators similarly led me to the identification of four major themes as I
wrestle with the interplay of their prior educational and have gradually shifted from a lecture-based approach to
cultural backgrounds and current classroom practices as a more student-centered approach to instruction.
well. Finally, these are the steps I followed to develop
the transactional presentation model. Firstly, I used the
Method first few classes to model for the class how to summarize
Research design and use key information from the reading as the basis
This research follows the action research tradition for substantive discussions. Secondly, I participated in
(Creswell, 2008; Johnson, 2008; Tomal, 2003), which the discussions as a facilitator, asking questions to direct
allowed me to reflect on and describe the qualitative the class’ attention to critical issues or providing key
dimensions of my lived experiences holistically. As information for better understanding. Thirdly, at the
I continued to learn from my teaching and gathered end of each discussion, I made constructive feedback
more data over the years, I came to focus on how about what went well and what could be further worked
my instructional style has evolved in response to my on. Lastly, I asked students to complete two written
students’ preferences and needs. evaluations (one mid-term, one final) and compared
their participatory learning experiences.
Researcher’s role
Naturally, my teaching practices are influenced by who I Findings
am. Since I was born and educated in China, and taught In the following, I chronicle each of the four major
at both secondary and university levels there for more phases of change with a brief description. I then discuss
than ten years, this background gave me personal insight the procedures of transactional presentation and the
to the Chinese educational practices that I explained educator’s role in the next section. I end by suggesting the
earlier. Equally importantly, my doctoral coursework potential of integrating the educator’s prior experiences
in the United States had already introduced me to class and current practices as a direction for future research.
discussions. My current position as a teacher educator
further allowed me to understand what the teaching and Phase I: I talk, you listen
learning practices are, how my students have been taught, Of the major phases of change that I have experienced,
and how they are expected to teach at American schools. the first phase borders the Chinese practices with
Still, while tapping my knowledge of both educational which I was familiar. It frequently involves presenting
contexts as my strength, I am aware (as readers should knowledge and information I gleaned from the texts and
be) that these prior backgrounds might affect what was other sources, which I felt the students should know.
experienced and described in this research. This phase, which may be characterized as “I talk, you
listen,” occurred primarily during the first semester.
Data collection and analysis procedures Although I spent a lot of time preparing detailed lecture
Just as Schenul, Schenul and LeCompte (1999) notes and background information related to the course
suggested that “in ethnographic research, the researcher material, my students seemed unmotivated.
is the primary instrument of data collection” (p. 273), At the end of the first semester I received poor
my constant reflection as a qualitative researcher was evaluations for my teaching. A majority of my students
the primary data of this action research. To triangulate reported that they were dissatisfied that “the professor
my findings, I also collected a variety of secondary data lectured too much,” and “had too few class discussions
sources, including student surveys, my teaching notes, and hands-on learning activities”. In retrospection, it
email communication with students and colleagues, was a difficult beginning as I made the transition from
informal conversations with students, and formal a student to a professor status and from a Chinese to an
student evaluations. American context.
For data analysis, I used the constant comparison
method (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; LeCompte & Phase II: First listen to me, then do it yourself
Schensul, 1999). Specifically, I critically reflected Having learned that my students preferred more
on and self-examined my teaching practices, paying hands-on opportunities, I revised the course syllabi
68 | FeatureArticles
students are noticeably more motivated to read the as- Chinese pedagogical practices emphasize teacher-
signed reading, bring substantive issues to the in-class directed instruction, strict discipline, meaningful
discussions, and are thus drawn into the learning process memorization, and careful listening, and how Chinese
as they wrestle with and act on the course content more students often turn out to have a good command of
actively. On the other hand, my role to teach and guide foundational knowledge in their coursework (Ma,
is not diminishing; in these peer-directed presentations 2010; Watkins & Biggs, 1997). In contrast, the
and discussions, the educator’s role just shifts to a more dialogic practices in an American classroom offer
facilitating one (Applebee, 2003; Brookfield & Preskill, more opportunities for personal exploration and active
2005). For example, prior to a transactional presenta- engagement with the learning process (Applebee et al.,
tion, I often give some concise overview of the content, 2003; Ma, 2008). Given these differences, perhaps I can
in connection with the larger curricular issues, trying to draw on complimentary Chinese thinking and practices
frame the ensuing presentation and discussion. During to enrich my current students’ learning experience,
each collaborative presentation, I listen to the informa- especially in terms of cultivating their attitudes and
tion presented, ask questions, and participate equally in skills for remembering essential information and
the discussions and learning activities, just as other peers reflective listening. Their prospective students, in turn,
do. Following each transactional presentation, I provide may benefit more.
a debriefing or summary of the discussions, sometimes In a real sense, this research has generated more
with more relevant information or learning activities. questions than it answered. I have journeyed from
Occasionally, I also accept invitations to team up with searching for an appropriate instructional approach
more quiet students or those from diverse backgrounds to for my methods classes, to examining the effectiveness
prepare and co-present the information and engage the of my teaching, to reflecting on my underlying
class in substantive discussions. In my experience, these epistemological transformation. Treading into some of
measures are useful to encourage the class community to the unplanned domains, I have come to realize that a
bring personal experience and prior experience to ques- willingness to search external data critically, as well as
tion, confirm, elaborate, and extend the content of my to look hard internally, is truly imperative for reflective
courses. As this model integrates the educator’s responsi- action research. My lived experience has taught me
bility to teach and the student’s creative engagement with that as educators, we need to critically reflect on and
the academic content, it helps my American students bet- expand our thinking and practices to better respond to
ter comprehend and learn the course materials. our students’ learning needs in the new socio-cultural
This research also has implications for other realities in which we teach and live.
educators who come from non-native cultural, Finally, while this research provides important
educational or linguistic backgrounds and who are evidence about my pedagogical journey, some
similarly going through difficult periods of adjustment limitations must be acknowledged. For example, I have
and transformation. On my pedagogical journey, I not systematically gathered the student discussion data
have learned to employ discussion as an instructional and analyzed them since so far I focus primarily on
tool in response to my American students’ learning looking at my own transitional moves. Yet my teaching
and participation styles and preferences. However, and my students’ learning cannot, and should not,
considering that faculty members who come from be viewed separate from each other. Moreover, as I
non-mainstream backgrounds make up 16.5%, or continue with my exploration, I realize that the specific
109,964 (National Center for Education Statistics, content of my courses and my concrete instructional
2007), perhaps they do not have to abandon their prior practices should be examined together. Lastly, now that
educational cultural perspectives in order to fit in a I have passed the initial “fit-in and survival mode” as
mainstream classroom. After all, our students should a new non-native educator, I need to sustain my own
be exposed to diverse educational perspectives and professional development and to diversify my students’
practices in order to broaden the spectrum of their learning experience by drawing more strategically on
learning experience. Clearly, if our dinner table is made my unique educational and cultural strengths. All these
more colorful because of all the dishes originated from issues require further exploration in future research.
different ethnic and cultural groups and geographic
regions, then educators from diverse backgrounds may References
similarly contribute to our collective profession, and the Applebee, A.N. (1996). Curriculum as conversa-
American educational enterprise may be enriched by tion: Transforming traditions of teaching and learning.
the unparalleled diversity in our society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
In light of this thought, I plan to further explore Applebee, A.N. (2003). Balancing the curriculum
the potential of integrating useful elements in Chinese in the English language arts: Exploring the components
and American education during the next stage of my of effective teaching and learning. In J. Flood, D. Lapp,
action research. One area that intrigues me is how J.R. Squire, & J.M. Jensen (Eds.), Handbook of research
70 | FeatureArticles
Theeffectofnurseryrhymes
onEFLchildren’sreadingability
SasanBaleghizadeh
ZeinabDargahi
Shahid Beheshti University, G.C., Iran
A
ccording to certain misconceptions about
language learning, some language learn- children find them motivating and fun. Nursery rhymes
ers still think that the ultimate goal of can help them develop positive attitudes towards the
language learning is to master language target language and language learning. Children can
rules to meet exam requirements. Such create a desire to continue learning. Wright (1995) ar-
misconceptions have prevented many students from gues that “… the children want to find meaning in the
looking at language as a life-long educational endeavor. songs and stories they hear, so they listen with a pur-
In order to overcome such misconceptions, students pose. If they find meaning, they are rewarded though
have to be provided with frameworks to help them have their ability to understand the foreign language. If they
an emotional engagement with language and to nourish do not understand they are motivated to try to improve
their capacity for using language imaginatively and ex- their ability to understand” (p. 4).
pressively. As nursery rhymes are connected to an imag- Another reason is that using nursery rhymes creates
inary world, it would definitely be beneficial to include a possibility for children to internalize the language and
them in the language instruction curriculum. reinforce points previously learned. “When people learn
The use of nursery rhymes with young children their native language, they are not taught the rules of
promotes language acquisition. In most second language grammar and the meaning of words, they work out
classrooms when children sing nursery rhymes they how the language works from what they hear… and
become emotionally engaged with the language, which so internalize or construct mentally their knowledge of
in turn nourishes their capacity for the creative and language…” (Hill, 1996, p. 7).
expressive use of that language. Specifically, nursery Foreign learners must have a large body of authentic
rhymes can also lead to different classroom activities and understandable material to work on. Krashen (1985)
that call for the exchange of feelings and opinions. calls it “comprehensible input” and believes that an
Such activities can trigger various response potential exposure to large amounts of authentic materials will,
in children (Lazar, 1993). When children find the moreover, reinforce what the students have previously
activities and the context they are engaged in absorbing, studied as an academic exercise. Making children work
they enjoy the risk of getting involved with the target with interesting songs as authentic materials is exposing
language. them to comprehensible input. For example, children
Therefore, we realize the beneficial effect of using enjoy listening to nursery rhymes over and over again.
nursery rhymes in our language classes as a means of This frequent repetition allows certain language items
enhancing the language learning of children. Various to be acquired while others are overtly reinforced.
studies demonstrate that introducing nursery rhymes to Children can also improve aspects of phonetics
children can be a useful way to help them improve their such as sounds and stress through nursery rhymes which
language skills. When children listen to their favorite will help them in different language skills, especially
nursery rhymes, sing them with joy, and also participate their reading ability. The reason is that through songs
in related activities—all these can definitely facilitate children get familiar with different sound patterns in a
and support the development of their language skills. rich context and using pictures and contexts are clues
72 | FeatureArticles
knowledge of nursery rhymes specifically related to letter in the first term and in Primer 2, they dealt with
their more abstract phonological awareness. Researchers the long vowel sounds, for example, long “a” (/a/) and
further acknowledge that engaging children in the choral long “e” (/i/).
reading of rhymes allows them to associate sounds with In the control group, the children were taught the
written symbols, thus paving the way for their successful two sounds of letter “a” (/a/, /æ/) using a traditional
reading (MacLean, Bryant, & Bradley, 1987). approach, which was teaching sounds in isolation.
Another study by Ehri & Robbins (1992) indicates Thus they were explicitly taught that the letter has two
similar results related to increasing the phonemic different sounds and various examples were provided
knowledge of children through nursery rhymes that for them to become familiar with the two new sounds.
leads to reading success. They reported that children They also practiced by using words with these sounds.
who are phonemically aware can think about and For example, the pictures of words with the target
manipulate sounds in words. Children know when sounds were put on the board and after the teacher’s
words do or do not rhyme. They also know when words modeling the children were asked to read them chorally
begin or end with the same sound. They recognize that and individually several times.
a word like /c/ /a/ /t/ is composed of three sounds and In the experimental group, the children were taught
these sounds can be blended into a word. As children the sounds of the same letter using nursery rhymes. By
get familiar with the word and its sound patterns in this practicing the nursery rhyme several times, the children
way, they would be able to pronounce and read the word became familiar with the target words and their sound
in any written text. patterns. Pictures were also provided for the rhyming
The ability to recite nursery rhymes has also been words in order to make the children focus on them. To
found to be one of the best indicators of future reading provide the right input for the experimental group, we
success. Through reciting a nursery rhyme, the rhymes had to find suitable nursery rhymes. Considering the
become more familiar to children, and are easier for proficiency level of the students and their age, we did
them to learn and understand. Working on a particular not have access to a large body of resources. Besides,
rhyme and providing opportunities for children to use we couldn’t use just any nursery rhyme since we needed
it repeatedly would help them remember the rhyme and nursery rhymes that contained examples of the target
the words related to it. For example, the rhyme /at/ in vowel sounds.
fat and cat would familiarize children with its sound Once we identified an appropriate nursery rhyme,
pattern and use in other words. Thus, they would more some pictures were provided related to the main
likely be able to recognize this particular rhyme in writ- character of the song and its events to ensure that the
ten texts and would have fewer problems in reading the children would become familiar with the context of
words with the same rhyme, as they have worked on it the nursery rhyme completely. To illustrate, Figure 1
before, through a song. reinforces for the children the nursery rhyme:
Research in the field of early childhood develop-
ment and reading has shown that children who struggle Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall,
to recognize words that rhyme often have difficulty in Humpty Dumpty had a great fall,
learning to read (Lyon, 1998). Hence we realize the im- All the king’s horses and all the king’s men,
portance of familiarizing children with rhymes through Couldn’t put Humpty together again.
certain songs in order to develop their reading ability.
Figure 1.
The study: Humpty Dumpty
Nursery rhymes and children as readers
The purpose of this study was to determine the impact
of using nursery rhymes on teaching sounds to second
language learners of English and their ability to read.
We selected 20 beginning learners, aged 7 to 9, in
Primer 2 (which means they were at the very first steps of
learning English) at the Iran Language Institute (ILI),
divided into two groups—control and experimental.
Altogether, the courses at the children’s department
consist of 14 terms called: PRIMER, STEP, MOVE
and JUMP; the first two terms are called Primer 1 and
Primer 2, followed by 4 terms in each mentioned level,
that is Step 1, Step 2, Step 3, Step 4 and the same 4
terms for other levels, too. The participants had learned
the alphabet completely with the short sounds for each
74 | FeatureArticles
of children’s love of songs and rhymes to expose them Hill, J. (1996). Using literature in language teaching.
to language in use and benefit from informal implicit London: Macmillan.
learning rather than formal explicit teaching. Krashen, S.D. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues
As seen in this study, using nursery rhymes in and implications. Harlow: Longman.
teaching sounds to beginning learners of English Lazar, H. (1993). Nursery rhymes and children.
achieved the desired effect on the improvement of their London: Methuen & Co. Ltd.
reading ability. Lyon, G.R. (1998). Overview of reading & literacy
initiatives. Washington DC: National Institute of Child
References and Human Development.
Bradley, L., & Bryant, P.E. (1983). Categorizing MacLean, M., Bryant, P. E., & Bradley, L. (1987).
sounds and learning to read: A casual connection. Rymes, nursery rhymes, and reading in early childhood.
Nature, 30, 419-421. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 33, 255-282.
Bradley, L., & Bryant, P.E. (1985). Rhyme and Manzo, A. (1995). Teaching children to be literate.
reason in reading and spelling. Anne Arbor: University of London: Harcourt Brace College.
Michigan Press. NAEYC, National Association for the Education
Bryant, P.E., MacLean, M., Bradley, L., & Cross- of Young Children. (2008). Learning to read and write.
land, J. (1997). Rhyme, alliteration, phoneme detec- Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
tion, and learning to read. Developmental Psychology, 26, Snow, C.E., Burns, M.S., & Griffin, P. (eds.)
429-438. (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children.
Carter, R., & Nunan, D. (2001). Teaching English Washington DC: National Academy Press.
to speakers of other languages. Cambridge: Cambridge Strickland, D.S., & Schickedanz, J. (2004).
University Press. Learning about print in preschool: Working with letters,
Clay, M. (2001). Change over time in children’s words, and beginning links with phonemic awareness.
literacy development. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Eckenstein, L. (1906). Comparative studies in nurs- Tomlinson, B. (2005). The future for ELT
ery rhymes. London: Duckworth & Co. materials in Asia. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language
Ehri, L.C., & Robbins, C. (1992). Beginners need Teaching, 2, 5-13.
some decoding skills to read by analogy. Reading Re- Wright, A. (1995). Storytelling with children.
search Quarterly, 27, 13-26. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
SandipL.Wilson JaneE.Kelley
Husson University, Maine Washington State University, Washington
JaneEllenBrady KaraTripp
Washington State University, Washington Husson University, Maine
JanetHill JaneWellman-Little
Delaware State University, Delaware University of Maine, Maine
JenniferJohnson TerrellA.Young
Washington State University, Washington Washington State University, Washington
W
hen we talked about the theme for and Learning: Literary Study Across the Curriculum, the
this issue of the journal we wanted close observations of children’s responses to picture
to explore children’s response to books in Sipe’s Storytime: Young Children’s Literary
literature examining the schol- Understanding in the Classroom, and the examination
arship related to analyzing and of ourselves as readers as well as the books we select
selecting books and teachers’ experiences with young in Botelho and Rudman’s book, Critical Multicultural
readers. We wondered how scholars and teachers viewed Analysis of Children’s Literature: Mirrors, Windows, and
the social and cultural shifts in reading that have been Doors. Chapters in Hadaway’s and McKenna’s Breaking
influenced by increasing access to technology and me- Boundaries with Global Literature: Celebrating Diversity
dia and changing priorities in school reading programs. in K-12 Classrooms and Wooten and Cullinan’s Children’s
In this collection of books we have found both a wealth Literature in the Reading Program: An Invitation to
of practices that brings books and children together Read challenge how we look at the genres of children’s
and powerful arguments for the role of literature in the literature and the world of publishing. One quality
lives of children in and out of the classroom, connecting that weaves through many of the books, exemplified in
family, friends, and classroom with home and school. Vasquez’s Getting Beyond “I like the book:” Creating Space
A number of the books present perspectives for Critical Literacy in K-6 Classrooms is the central place
that the journal’s readers can think about as they of the child, the reader, and the relationship between
expand their understanding of children’s and young children, the adults in their lives, the authors of the
adult literature, such as the combination of literature books they read, and the characters and stories of the
and literacy in Lehman’s book, Children’s Literature books children and adults share. All the books in this
76 | ReviewofProfessionalBooks
collection show readers of the journal how to enrich the and literacy skill development. One teaching idea
learning and lives of young people while supporting for upper elementary students helps them recognize
their engagement with books and with the world. universal themes and understand story structure by
reviewing stories with which they are familiar. Lehman
Lehman, B.A. (2007). Children’s literature and gives an example in reading Holes by Louis Sachar
learning: Literary study across the curriculum. New (1998), considered a modern fairy tale, during which
York, NY: Teachers College Press. 160 pp. ISBN students examine how stories “deal with human nature,
978-0-8077-4823-7 the sometimes harsh realities of life, and the struggle
between good and evil” (p. 31) that nonetheless can have
In this highly readable book Lehman focuses on happy endings. Using their prior knowledge of fairy
building support for using “good books throughout the tales, “students can generate a list of characteristics of
curriculum to make good readers” (p. 26). In achieving fairy tales, then an analogous list of the characteristics
this goal the author argues that sharing quality children’s of Holes, and compare the two” (p. 31). The objective
books with children from pre-kindergarten to sixth of such a lesson is to encourage students to “use
grade and older “offers many benefits to not only literacy comparison to draw conclusions about the nature and
skill development but literary development” (p. 46). The purpose of fairy tales and the role of modern stories in
book focuses on just that, connecting quality literature this tradition” (p. 31). Such a lesson serves to foster the
with literary and literacy skill development and is divided construction of literary connections and knowledge of
into eight chapters. The content of the chapters explore literature.
a range of topics including literary theory, instructional Woven throughout the discussion of theory,
methods, classroom environment, and the role of the the presentation of classroom research, and the many
teacher. Of particular note is Lehman’s discussion of the practical teaching ideas is the author’s passion for
role literary criticism has when talking about children’s children’s literature and creating life long readers. After
books and its role in engaging children in talking about reading this book, I am eager to place books in the
books as she questions the dichotomy between literary hands of children and share literature and lesson ideas
and literacy development. Drawing upon theoretical with future teachers in an effort to make literature and
knowledge and her literacy teaching experience, Lehman literacy programs come alive. The emphasis on children’s
argues that the separation between literary and literacy literature and its role in the classroom makes this book
development is counterproductive. The two should be a valuable resource for content area reading courses
taught concurrently rather than exclusively. To support and for pre-service and in-service teachers interested
the argument Lehman presents an array of ideas and in creating a literacy program that builds reading skills
learning experiences that simultaneously promote and love of reading. The back matter includes a glossary
literacy skills and nurture reading for pleasure. of literary terms and an annotated list of the children’s
The greatest strength of this book are the books cited with interest/grade level and brief synopsis
pedagogical practices that infuse skills instruction of each book.
with children’s literature while also fostering literary
knowledge development. The author features 149 Wooten, D.A., & Cullinan, B.E. (Eds.). (2009).
children’s picture books and novels, some featured Children’s literature in the reading program: An
individually and others presented as a collection of books. invitation to read. Newark, DE: International
In both cases the books are highlighted in connection to Reading Association. 180 pp. ISBN 978-0-
a variety of learning experiences. The specific teaching 87207-699-0
ideas and methods discussed take two directions. One
path is “enhancing literary development through literacy Wooten and Cullinan invite teachers and pre-service
instruction” (p. 47) which includes sense of story, story teachers to consider children’s literature titles and
language, prior literary knowledge, characterization, and accompanying teaching ideas. Page after page the
themes. The other path centers on the “contributions of chapters they have edited illustrate their hope is to
literature to literacy development” (p. 52) with specific promote reading and a love of literature among all
attention to oral language, concepts of print, alphabetic students. Specifically, this book is designed to “identify
knowledge, phonological and phonemic awareness, children’s and young adult books, promote critical
orthography, visual discrimination, and writing. The thinking, cultivate deeper understanding of text, and
two directions work in tandem to provide a useful guide create better understanding of and appreciation for
for classroom teachers interested in creating a quality diversity” (p. xviii). This book is divided into three
literacy program. sections. The variety of genres is discussed in the
Lehman argues that pedagogical practices such first section and section two focuses on the roles of
as read alouds, book talks, and literature circles are children’s literature in the classroom. Reaching beyond
essential to building a link between literature, children, the classroom walls to support literacy, specifically
78 | ReviewofProfessionalBooks
critical conversations about issues that matter to them. chapter prompt teachers to consider how they might
Critical literacy advocates argue that texts are never find a space for critical literacy in their own classrooms.
neutral, but are socially constructed, and the perspectives For instance, Vasquez suggests that teachers consider
students bring to their talk about books are important. how specific cultures are depicted in the literature used
Adherents of critical literacy, a term not easily defined, in their classrooms after making note of the cultural
are concerned with understanding the points of view background of students in the class. The reflection
from which texts are told and challenging assumptions questions encourage teachers to find spaces for critical
of the book and the author while working for change. literacy in their classrooms and encourage them to
More than a set of skills to be mastered, literacy is, by consider roadblocks to making these changes. By
nature, social and occurs during interactions with books examining the way books and other texts impose their
and with others and critical literacy provides spaces for own thinking on a topic is useful to students.
students “to imagine how existing social practices could Vasquez never shies away from incidents that do not
be otherwise” (p. 103). The point of critical literacy, end successfully. For instance, the efforts of fifth and sixth
discussing various issues from different perspectives, is graders to convince their principal and superintendent
to examine topics in ways that encourage students to that they would learn many mathematical concepts on a
take action in response to their reading. field trip to a theme park were ultimately unsuccessful.
Teachers will find this text easy to understand Despite their failure to change school policy even with
because the author has filled it with lively classroom evidence from their own research and math investigation
examples from kindergarten through sixth grade and journals, Vasquez points out that the students learned
has blended the theoretical underpinnings of pedagogy about math and how to question existing policies. Even
throughout its pages. Books, as Vasquez reminds us, their teacher learned to question the choices he provided
“…are useful as tools to do critical literacy work only to his students. For Vasquez, what matters in today’s
insofar as they can be vehicles for discussing issues of literacy and content area learning should be affording
power and control” (p. 19). The topics the students opportunities for children to raise issues of their own as
explore with Vasquez and her colleagues vary widely, well as the chance for teachers to reconsider the role that
from marginalization, gender, and racism to weather children’s literature can play in their classroom.
and school policies on field trips, yet all topics encourage For teachers having to integrate literature with
students to take action of some sort. Although much of benchmarks, standards, and test preparation, Vasquez
the material from the first edition is included, this book provides specific examples of how critical conversations
is fresh and new, brimming with ways to incorporate address content area standards. Text sets with conflicting
literacy practices. The second edition adds three new points of view foster critical literacy and books paired
critical literacy chapters that focus on science, social with other texts and technologies foster integration of
studies, and new technologies and social media. Each genre and multi-media. The book’s back matter includes
chapter invludes classroom dialogue and examples of a reference list for additional reading and an index.
student work. The classroom anecdotes show the use
of such materials as posters, films, advertisements, and Sipe, L.R. (2008). Storytime: Young children’s lit-
podcasts. The list of children’s books, useful in initiating erary understanding in the classroom. New York,
critical conversations, has been updated, an important NY: Teachers College Press. 305 pp. ISBN 978-
concern when teachers are selecting new books. 0-8077-4828-2
While the first chapter establishes a context for
critical literacy and points out that critical literacy If the book’s cover art by Chris Rashka doesn’t draw
provides perspectives in how children’s literature is you into this book, or P. David Pearson’s eloquent and
shared with children, the preponderance of the book pointed treatise detailing exactly who should read this
highlights classroom experiences. One chapter shows book and why in the book’s Foreword, then let Sipe’s
classroom events in which students talk about books own words do the convincing. He writes:
to analyze social issues in the community and explore
social issues by bringing the outside world into the Literary understanding is not a matter of being
classroom. In other chapters students study the “what able to parrot back details from the story, or
if ” and “why” in mathematical investigations and the being able to answer a barrage of questions from
weather in the Science Curriculum. They re-examine the teacher, or a test. It’s a matter of engaging
a national holiday, Arbor Day, and the social studies in literary meaning-making, of passionately
curriculum, and investigate new technologies with “A interpreting stories with increasing sophistication,
Podcast Is Born.” cognitive power, and delight. (p.3)
Vasquez discusses the challenge teachers and
students encounter as they explore issues they considered Sipe is a leading researcher in how young children
important. Reflection questions at the end of each construct their literary understanding through interac-
80 | ReviewofProfessionalBooks
The book is organized in three sections: the guide, any teacher may be interested in the suggested
introductory section, Craft Elements, followed by professional readings that are provided.
Selected Craft Study Lessons, and finally, Mentor Texts
to Demonstrate Craft Elements. In the introductory Hadaway, N., & McKenna, M. (Eds.). (2007).
section, Ehmann and Gayer discuss such elements as Breaking boundaries with global literature: Cel-
alliteration, descriptive language, lists, and hyperbole. ebrating diversity in K-12 classrooms. Newark,
They list examples of children’s literature that can be used DE: International Reading Association. 206 pp.
to demonstrate these elements. In the more engaging ISBN: 978-0-87207-616-7
section on selected craft study lessons the authors have
provided specific activities in pairing children’s literature Teachers often feel a responsibility to their students
with the elements. The lessons are detailed enough that to broaden their worldviews and, in turn, extend their
when they are included in the classroom students are capacity for empathy beyond the familiar. Literature
empowered in their response to literature encouraging has a way of connecting us with our own humanity
their desire to experiment with different writing styles and evoking empathy for others by strengthening our
and techniques to become better writers. connections to the world yet, for teachers, keeping up
Ehmann and Gayer have designed the book so with current children’s literature is often a challenge in
that all of the elements discussed are included in easy- light of all that teachers do. Consulting booklists such
to-read tables with a list of children’s books. One table as the Notable Books for a Global Society (NBGS)
has children’s books ordered by title, while the other helps teachers meet the challenge. Sponsored by the
table has children’s books listed by author. The tables Children’s Literature and Reading Special Interest
streamline teachers’ search for children’s books that Group of the International Reading Association, a
demonstrate one or more of the elements. Following the committee of nine members selects twenty-five books
tables the authors have created an annotated bibliography that they believe represents the best of multicultural
for all the books in which they include a summary and and global literature published in the United States
examples of craft elements for each book. Although the each year.
tables and lessons are tailored for writing workshop, In the chapters of their book Hadaway and
they are practical in reading workshop. Because writing McKenna have brought together authors who integrate
and reading go hand in hand, many of the elements that the first ten years of the NBGS book lists into teaching
the book’s readers see in the tables can be discussed and from a perspective of global understanding and
evaluated for children’s books during a reading workshop suggest ways that teachers can incorporate books into
and, among teachers, during professional study groups. their curricula. From the “call to action” issued in the
Veteran teachers may be interested in using the tables introduction to its inspirational conclusion, this book
and annotated bibliography as reminders of children’s offers teachers of any grade level (K- college) a wealth of
books that serve as effective mentor texts and. pre- material to help them transform their curriculum into
service and new teachers who may not have experience one that supports cultural understanding and social
with children’s literature can use the tables as a guide action.
while introducing the elements to students. The book is divided into three parts: Part I is
Ehmann and Gayer included additional informa- designed to build knowledge of global literature and
tion and material in their appendices. Appendix A con- provide a foundation for the more practical parts to
sists of reproducible student recording sheets pertaining follow and Parts II and III discuss themes that surface
to descriptive language, hyperbole, leads, onomatopoe- in global literature and teaching strategies for sharing
ia, and print features and layout. These sheets would and discussing books in the classroom. In Part I
be useful in a classroom to help students organize their Hadaway presents an historical perspective of the terms
thoughts while they respond to literature. Appendix multicultural and global literature and in the following
B contains additional reading lists: Children’s Books chapter Freeman, Lehman, and Scharer address
About Writing, and Suggested Professional Readings. publishing trends in international children’s literature,
The authors have shown how children’s books can be the problems of access to international literature
used to demonstrate writing craft elements. They have in the United States, cultural authenticity, and the
presented charts that may be beneficial to teachers at “Americanization” of books originally published in
any level. Using children’s books as models while teach- other countries. In their suggesting how teachers can
ing writing allows children to connect the scenarios in include more international literature in their curricula
the books to their own lives, encouraging a rich re- they suggest professional discussions during which
sponse. Certainly, the book is a resource for students teachers can explore implications of their choices of
to explore elements as they read and consider how the books and become familiar multicultural books.
reader and the reading are influenced. To gain a bet- The themes of Part II offer many perspectives on
ter understanding of writing workshop, or to use as a topics in literature that influence global understanding.
82 | ReviewofProfessionalBooks
turalist theory as they elaborate on the context of their power of the books they read” (p. 27) and illustrates
perspectives historically and discursively. “Our past and how reading books have influenced children and adults
present social locations and aspirations for the future story telling in the extended family became story telling
have implications for where and how we might take ac- through reading. The book serves as a journey into and
tion in challenging existing power relations” (xiv). The through literature and presents sometimes startling, but
authors provide candid details about their own back- consistently engaging, explorations into reading, yet
grounds and their own experiences. They consider how she notes in her introduction that observing children’s
these perspectives influence their book and the work responses is not always straightforward when the words
they do with children and teacher educators. The au- are few and delayed and expressions appear distracted.
thors urges the book’s readers to critically examine ev- Tatar inquires into how and why the social practice of
ery aspect of how texts are produced, the historical and bedtime reading developed and explains that bedtime
sociopolitical contexts, including books reviews them- is an in-between state on the threshold of waking and
selves. Their book should appeal to publishers encour- sleeping, sociability and solitude and notes that children
aging them to critically examine their role and respon- have a hard time making the transition. On the one
sibility as promulgators of children’s literature. hand bedtime reading was, and is, an opportunity for
True to their word, Botelho and Rudman conclude bonding, but Tatar notes that parents resorted to harsh
their book by exemplifying a dialogue about their book. measures to get children to bed, sometimes a potion
“From the first pages of this book, we invited you, the such as a “boiled poppy mixture,” or other cordial, or a
reader, to critically read our work” (p. 277). They invite warning of the imminence of a monster. “Nineteenth-
well-known scholars of multicultural literature and century parents… invoked the bogeyman, the sandman,
literacy teaching to participate in a two-week email and other fiends” (p. 45). She notes literature, such as
correspondence by responding to chapters 4 and 5 of “All the Pretty Horses,” an American cradle song urging
their book. The dialogue presented at the end of the babies to sleep so they do not suffer what happened to the
book exemplifies the essence of critical multicultural lamb whose eyes were pecked out by bees, and authors,
analysis, that is, to discuss, and examine discourses and such as Charles Dickens’ account of his memories of
consider the multifaceted practices inherent in texts. nursery reading. On the other hand Tatar notes that
Their book is opening the door to a dialogue. Botelho adults “are also eager to settle in with [children] and
and Rudman want their readers to see in that door, read stories that will help them face down their anxieties
a chance to use their own voices, to take part in the in a safe setting and ignite their imaginations” invoking
conversation, to deconstruct texts, to reconstruct texts, such figures as Wee Willie Winkie and a more benign
to examine the power relations in texts and to consider sandman. Tatar traces the focus on mortality and
this process as a positive step forward in social change. brushes with death of the period before the nineteenth
century and the emphasis on imagination, creativity,
Tatar, M. (2009). Enchanted Hunters: The Power and playfulness since the late 1800’s.
of Stories in Childhood. New York, NY: W.W. Fascinated by story readers transform words into
Norton. 296 pp. ISBN 978-0-393-06601-2 worlds, Tatar argues, and words can be charged with
meaning and Tatar refers to C.S. Lewis point that they
The title of the book is central to Tatar’s argument that, are “sometimes terrifying and sometimes lovely” (p.
in an age where people are surrounded by media, when 73). She discusses “The Emperor’s New Clothes” which
we read, “we fall under the spell of the words but also she notes has global currency in part because it enacts
remain hunters, active seekers of those glittering portals innocence speaking truth to power but notes that the
to forbidden and enchanted lands” (p. 27). She pursues tale is memorable not just because words work wonders
an inquiry into how literature lures children into the but because it outlines a strategy for making that
world of words and “the notion of reading as a process happen. Tatar does not use the term critical literacy, but
of discovery and explore how that process engages three suggests the perspective in her explaining the roles of
dominant features boredom, wonder, and curiosity” the different characters in the story.
(p. 32). In the process she discusses individual authors She argues that adults do not mind a representation
and their books to illustrate her points, among them, of beauty in stories but horror is another matter, and
L. Frank Baum’s Wizard of Oz, Maurice Sendak’s In horror has the power to frighten and fascinate. In her
the Night Kitchen, J.M. Barrie’s Peter Pan, stories of the discussion of how much horror we want to expose
Grimm Brothers, Hans Christian Anderson, and C.S. children to and when she discusses a collection of fairy
Lewis, Norton Justers’s The Phantom Tollbooth, Margaret tales and traditional literature and suggests that bedtime
Wise Brown’s Goodnight Moon and E.B. White’s reading is an opportunity to process both beauty and
Charlotte’s Web. Tatar notes, “I want to reclaim the term horror. Books have what she calls “ignition power,”
enchanted hunters for children, using it to describe beauty combined with jolts of horror, and explains that
what happens to them through the transformative readers are explorers, not passive readers. “We invent
SAVETHEDATE
NewEnglandReadingAssociation
63rdAnnualConference
Teaming for Literacy
84 | ReviewofProfessionalBooks
Responsetoliterature:
Perspectives,voices,discovery,andidentity
SandipL.Wilson
Husson University, Maine
Laura Dunbar
Belgrade Central School, Maine
Barbara S. Lovley
Fort Kent Elementary School, Maine
I
n responding to literature readers mine books for Secret Writings of the MEOW Society by Betsy Byars,
events, information, detail that stand out for them, Betsy Duffey, and Laurie Myers (2010), we discover
that has connection to their lives, other reading, more about ourselves in our responding to story.
and their understanding of the world. Writing Response to literature is an opportunity for individuals
reviews of books is a similar process. Short of to rethink their experiences and lives through a book
retelling all the information of a nonfiction book and the and articulate new understanding expressed in the
events of a narrative, certain details of characterization, voice of each reader. Response stimulates readers to
themes or topics, arguments and illustrative points stand take action or to reconsider actions as individuals in the
out that capture the quality of the book, in the eyes of one books here have done, such as Alfie in Alfie Runs Away
who introduces the book. Teachers experience a response by Kenneth Cadow (2010), Derek in My Life as a Book
to literature when they share a book talk with students. (2010), and Charles Darwin in the biography Charles
Not everything in a book is conveyed, and each book Darwin and the Mystery of Mysteries by Niles Eldredge
talk is different in the focus and details that are shared. and Susan Pearson (2010). Readers learn more about
Readers add their own response discovering other details themselves and explore their identity as Mina in My
when they pick up the book for themselves. Life with the Lincolns by Gayle Brandeis (2010), and
The books in this collection are those that have women working together, in Sweethearts of Rhythm: The
engaged students, on the one hand, and that address Story of the Greatest All-girl Band in the World by Marilyn
the theme of this issue, on the other. Some of the Nelson (2009) have done. Response to literature is not
books include the response to literature as part of their constant but changes and makes a difference in people’s
content but other books suggest aspects of response, for understanding as they talk together.
instance, response as multiple perspectives. Different
readers bring their experience of reading, the world, Seeger, Laura Vaccaro. (2009). What if? New
genres of literature, and their interests to their response York, NY: Roaring Brook Press/Neal Porter
to a book. Readers capture such different qualities of a Books. Gr 2-5. ISBN 978-1-59643-398-4
book that someone who has not read the book might
think they were talking about different books. As one In responding to literature, readers explore different
character noted in a book reviewed, The Cat Diaries: details, characters, courses of action to such a degree,
86 | BookBeat
into the world of imagination with a mouse named Sam
whose home is the hole in the wall behind the children’s
reference books. For the librarian or teacher who is
looking for a book that will inspire discussions about
discovering the possibilities in reading and writing,
this book is the one. Sam sleeps all day and at night
he reads and reads all genres, including cookbooks.
Once Sam is filled with knowledge and satisfied by how
much “his imagination is brimmed over with wonder
and fantasy,” (unpaged) he responds to all the literature
by deciding that he should write his own book. And
then the adventure of how reading can lead to writing
really begins.
As Sam introduces children to what kinds of
books can be found in the library to what makes an
author, children will be engaged with Sam’s creativity.
The detailed illustrations are as bright and as lively as
Sam. In one illustration the reader can search for where
Sam is hiding in the bookshelves. A blend of key-hole
and full-bleed illustrations expand from a single page at the library. In rhyming text and a style that has a sense
to a page-and-a-half to double page spreads as though of humor Lies tell a story in which the bats float, hang
suggesting Sam’s expanding world of experience and when they rest, even play a game. And they read. Story
image. A librarian or teacher will duplicate the Meet time is just the thing for bats at rest in the evening. The
the Author activity that will encourage children to tell bats, young and old, flit and fly across the pages as they
and write stories as they haven’s before. respond to the books on the library shelves by acting out
scenes and characters. Lies’ book-loving bats shed a new
light on reading in the library in which readers follow
the pages of a book together, adventuring through the
stories and language.
The text, full of adjectives and adverbs that are
matched to engaging illustrations, will take children
and adults on an exploration of how books and libraries
can entertain, enlighten, and enrich their minds’ eyes.
The illustrations are full-page bleeds with white text
on the dark enticing night scenes. The book includes a
bibliography on the back flap demonstrating to readers
that fiction includes information and writers of fiction
do research so the characters, settings, and plots of their
stories have accurate details.
88 | BookBeat
the beach. He needs to find out more and his parents do
not want to talk about it.
Through a series of arguments he convinces his
parents to take a vacation and to visit the New England
beach noted in the newspaper article, yet, only after he
learns the truth of the story of his being rescued do the
twists and turns and unexpected conflicts and lessons in
self-understanding of the novel begin. Written in first
person Derek discovers he can visualize what he reads
which transforms his relationship to books and he makes
flip-o-rama drawings that keep him reading. Printed in
sans serif font with wide margins that accommodate the
vocabulary words and sketches, the action of the book is
fast paced and Derek learns more than he bargained for
yet finds out what is more valuable than he realized.
90 | BookBeat
in their school, Lydia and Julie undertake a research find that they cannot ignore the lines of hand written
project in which they observe the girls and the boys who text and colored pencil and pen and ink drawings as
they consider popular in the hopes of discerning what they follow the events unfolding in and out of school
qualities and actions make people so sought after. The through the perspective of observations and research
text of the book, printed in two-color handwritten font, which becomes a challenge as the girls become more
introduced on the title page, serves as both their journal involved in the events they had planned to observe.
of observations and commentary, their notes to one
another, and a place for their illustrations of the cool Nelson, Scott Reynolds., & Aronson, Marc.
people and depictions of action and setting. Readers (2008). Ain’t nothing but a man: My quest to find
are introduced to the fifth-grade characters early in the real John Henry. Washington, D.C.: National
the novel, yet the intrigue of multiple and shifting Geographic. 64 pp. Gr 4-8 and up. ISBN 978-1-
relationships among them and the multiple subplots that 42630001-1
spread out through the pages, a challenge for younger
readers, will engage older readers. The opening pages of this nonfiction book capture
the multiple topics that thread through it, the archival
record of the building of the railroads in the Eastern
U.S. after the Civil War, the tale of John Henry, the
steel driving man, and the questions and searches of an
historian. Readers open to a full-page photograph of a
steam engine. On the facing page is an illustration from
a 1943 publication of a version of the folktale. The text
with headings and in large font engages the reader in
the historian’s quest.
92 | BookBeat
come to care for her and discover that her life becomes with the community bully, Tracy Leader, who negotiates
her own as she navigates the family and political crises goods for carbon rations, rehearses with her rock band,
swirling around her. for which she plays bass, and longs for the attentions
of Ravi Datta, whose values conflict with those of his
Lloyd, Saci. (2008). The carbon diaries 2015. New parents.
York, NY: Holiday House. 330 pp. Gr 8-12 and The novel, written as a year long diary includes
up. ISBN 978-0-8234-2190-9 email messages between Laura and her cousin, Amy,
in Washington, DC, who wants information on what
Laura and her family are awaiting their carbon cards, living with carbon rationing is like. Laura is thrifty
the most recent effort of the government to ration energy and at the end of the month gets an electronic message
to the residents of London. Everyone has a ration of that she has not used all her points so has more for the
carbon uses, driving, taking the bus, using electricity, next month while friends and family are using their
yet the whole family has ideas of what they want on their ration points up. The government rations electricity so
wish lists, a new car, ipod, cosmetics, peace and quiet at the people of London face multiple blackouts and less
home, once the temporary period of rationing ends and and less heat while the weather shifts and rain falls for
life can get back to normal. As the story unfolds the months during the summer, causing the sewers to fill.
members of the disgruntled family change their lives. In late fall, in a climactic part of the book, the incessant
Father loses his job and builds a garden in the backyard wet weather is compounded by a major storm and a
complete with a pig, Larkin. Mother leaves the family surge, flooding the city, and Laura sets out to help a
because she sees herself as destructive and becomes a woman stuck in her car. The novel includes facsimiles
member of a women’s action group, Laura’s sister Kim of electronic messages, photographs, and maps, and
locks herself in her room, and Laura maintains her life with the many discouraging moments, all the characters
at school where she has to “Write an informal personal introduced are transformed in unexpected ways. The
review of an aspect of your home-life environment in the characters and their lives, whether readers like them or
light of the new carbon-rationing system” (p. 15), reckon not, are engaging and believable, and readers will want
to find out what happens to them and their city.
94 | BookBeat
greenish birds” (p. 75) until long after his trip. He kept but the work is intensive and outcomes are not clear.
good notes on the origins of each bird and when he In reading this book students will be introduced to
returned home and consulted an ornithologist colleague scientists who have influenced modern thinking about
he learned that the significance of the differences. the natural world such as botanist John Hooker, who
His work and this book show students that scientists became Darwin’s friend, Alfred Wallace who had ideas
ask questions and puzzle over information they have similar to Darwin’s, and John Herschel who mapped
gathered in observations to make plausible explanations, planets of Uranus and Saturn and experimented with
come up with tentative answers, and find new questions, color photography, a term he invented.
WHO? Students, teachers, specialists or administrators who are current members of NERA
may submit one proposal. Teams of educators may apply as long as one person is a
current NERA member.
HOW? Include:
√ Two (2) copies of the complete proposal
√ A resume from each member of the team
√ A letter of support from your immediate supervisor
or advisor
“I am not under the illusion that the schools alone can change society. However,
I can rea irm the belief uttered so many years ago: We teachers of language
A
s I write this Review of Research in the • Two columnists share different viewpoints on
Classroom column, my local newspaper these issues. Bob Kerr (2010) shares the view-
The Providence Journal, which I read points of two Central Falls High School grad-
either online and in print daily, has uates, and Julia Steiny (2010) discusses how
been covering history-making education tempers may flare as worst performing schools
events here in New England and nationally. Here’s a here in Rhode Island and nationally.
highlight of some of the news: • Sports columnist Bill Reynolds (2010) quotes
• The entire high school faculty and staff at Central Falls High School basketball player
Central Falls High School in Rhode Island is Robert Alers, “I want a good education and a
fired after the school superintendent chooses good job” (C1). In addition, a video of Rob and
the “turn-around” reform model for this ‘failing his teammates winning the Rhode Island Di-
school’ (Jordan, 2010). vision III Boys Basketball championship, for
• President Obama proposes abandoning No the first time in 22 years, appears in the news
Child Left Behind law and plans that by 2020, (Szydiowski, 2010). Coach Brian Crookes is
all students graduating from high school would also featured in the video.
need to be ready for college or a career (Turner,
2010). Louise Rosenblatt, who I quote to open this
• The American Federation of Teachers Central column, first advanced reader response theory in the
Falls, RI, Teachers Union, Local 1567, has a late 1930s in her seminal book Literature as Exploration
full-page message which begins: “Because we (1938). Her message—that teachers, like us, can play a
are teachers…” and includes a website to visit crucial role in the educational lives of our students—
for more information (American Federation of seems particularly relevant as we read and view the
Teachers, 2010). educational news of today.
96 | ReviewofResearchintheClassroom
Transactional theory when reading a wide variety of texts—videos, columns
Rosenblatt also suggested that teachers must think in a newspaper, books, advertisements, or a news article
constantly about the transaction between the reader with hyperlinks. Wayne Booth, author of the foreword
and the text, which was seen as a revolutionary in Rosenblatt’s most recent edition of Literature as
way to teach literature. In the time when this was Exploration (1995) states, “Can we hope that some young
written, and perhaps still in some classrooms today, reader of her [Rosenblatt’s] work will take it in, fully,
good readers gleaned the right meaning from the and then be tempted to address its diverse and complex
literature, which often was the teacher’s interpretation. implications for our TV and video generation?” In this
As we now understand, each reader brings a variety column, we turn to three such ‘young readers’ of reader
of life experiences, background knowledge, cultural response theory to gain research-based insight into
influences and context to each reading experience. For teaching reader response in 21st century classrooms.
example, as I read about the news of the mass firing of In the first study, Donna Sayers Adomat (2009)
teachers in Central Falls, I recall the three years that shares ways to actively engage young readers in stories
I worked successfully with the school superintendent. through drama. Next, Wendy Glenn (2008) addresses
In addition, I remember the exemplary teaching I ways to engage readers of young adult literature with a
witnessed as my English language arts middle and high critical lens. Last, we’ll see how reader response theory
school student teachers worked in this urban district. intersects with new literacies in a fifth grade classroom
Middle school language arts teacher in Central Falls (Larson, 2009).
and championship winning coach Brian Crookes was
a student in my Language Arts Methods seminar, was Drama as response to literature
the opposing coach of my son’s high school basketball Adomat (2009), an elementary reading specialist,
team, and was my student teacher Alex’s cooperating was concerned with the growing emphasis on explicit
teacher this semester. My transaction with the texts phonics instruction for primary students who qualified
above surely must be different than yours, yet in for Title I funded reading support in her district. She
many way may be the same. Perhaps one of your local wanted the young readers she worked with to not only
schools is ‘failing’ or a district near you—even your learn to decode but also to engage in active meaning
own—is making deep cuts in teaching personnel and making. In this study, Adomat shares case study data
student programs during these difficult economic and on two first grade students, who along with 8 other
education times. children in her reading classroom, engaged in response
to read-alouds through drama.
Efferent and aesthetic stances Nathan was a struggling first grade reader who
As I did, you might read the article about President had trouble learning the correspondence between letters
Obama’s goal to prepare all students for college or a and sounds, according to his kindergarten teacher. He
career by 2020 (Turner, 2010) to learn how this law will experienced difficulties writing stories and reading
affect your students and your school. Rosenblatt calls common first grade three-letter words. Nathan began
this reading with an efferent stance or reading to gain to show signs of frustration through avoiding reading
information. You may have also reacted with pleasure situations or pretending to read during silent reading
when you viewed the Central Falls High School time. In contrast, Nathan loved to be the leader of the
basketball team’s video or filled with tears when you class and enjoyed the story dramatizations his teacher
learned that Rob Alers, one of the senior star players, had led.
describes his mother as a woman who has struggled all Adomat provided supports for Nathan’s grapho-
her life, yet doesn’t really ask for anything. He then says, phonic needs as well as opportunities to develop his
“That’s where I get it from” (The Providence Journal, interest in responding to stories. She treated Nathan
March 14, 2010, C3). Rosenblatt calls this reading with as ‘ a competent meaning maker’ (p. 630) and through
an aesthetic stance or reading to gain emotional meaning drama provided a “way to approach texts in an imagina-
or connection. All responses to literature occur along tive way and create personalized meaning for story be-
this continuum between aesthetic and efferent stances fore he turned into the kind of disengaged reader who
while reading. focused only on the words (Wilhelm, 2007)” (Adomat,
p. 630). For example, Adomat allowed Nathan to ‘take
Reading in the 21st century the spotlight’ in a drama based activity based on Owen
When Rosenblatt first posited her transactional reader (Henkes, 1993), interpret texts with friends, and en-
response theory, she did not know that today our gage in language play with quality children’s literature,
students would be reading the news both online and in such as Thunder Cake (Polacco, 1990). Nathan grew
print, as we have done in the opening of this column. more hopeful and engaged as an early reader.
Such major cultural changes require us to reexamination In the second case study, Adomat describes Tommy
how we—our students and ourselves—make meaning as a new student in first grade who was an emergent
98 | ReviewofResearchintheClassroom
• Cognitive prompts—these prompts, initiated cause we are teachers… (advertisement). The Providence
by the students, required peers to use Journal, pp. B8.
comprehension strategies, such as making Appleman, D. (2000). Critical encounters in high
predictions or inferences school English: Teaching literary theory to adolescents. New
• Interpretive prompts—these prompts called for York: Teachers College Press.
higher-level thinking, such as thinking about Bowles-Reyer, A. (1998). Our secret garden: Ameri-
the life lessons learned or the moral dilemmas can popular young adult literature in the 1970s and the
presented in the text. transmission of sexual and gender ideology to adolescent
• Clarification prompts—this type of prompt girls. Unpublished dissertation, George Washington
was initiated when a student was confused University, Washington, DC.
or needed clarification for a specific question Glenn, W. (2008). Gossiping girls, insider boys,
related to the discussion. A-list achievement: Examining and exposing young
This study has several important implications adult novels consumed by conspicuous consumption.
for practice in our own classrooms. While traditional Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 52(1), 34-42.
classrooms, like those in Rosenblatt’s time, tend to Jordan, J. (2010, February 24). Termination let-
require students to determine a fixed set of knowledge ters sent to Central Falls teaching staff. The Provi-
about the texts read in class, the use of the message board dence Journal. Retrieved from http://newsblog.projo.
technology allowed students to discuss their reading, com/2010/02/termination-letters-sent-to-ce.html
without interruption and actively. Students were asked Kerr, B. (2010, March 14). Two Central Falls
to create their own discussion prompts, which enhanced graduates step up for their school. The Providence Jour-
students’ ability to generate questions and to motivated nal, pp. A7.
students to actively engage in meaningful discussion Larson, L.C. (2009). Reader response meets
on the questions they found important. The message new literacies: Empowering readers in online learning
board also provided equitable opportunity for students communities. The Reading Teacher, 62(8), 638-648.
to share responses. This practice ultimately promoted a Reynolds, B. (2010, March 14). Looking forward
socially constructed learning environment in which all to independence day. The Providence Journal, pp. C1.
students became members of a ‘community of learners.’ Rosenblatt, L.M. (1995). Literature as exploration
(5th ed.). New York: The Modern Language Association
No illusions, yet hope of America.
The notion that we, as teachers of reading and Seiny, J. (2010, March 14). Tempers may flare as
language arts, can play a crucial role in the education worst-performing schools named. The Providence Jour-
and citizenship of our students is indeed invigorating nal, pp. A9.
as Rosenblatt (1995) exclaims in the final chapter Szydiowski, S. (2010, March 15). Central Falls
of Literature as Exploration. In these times of ‘failing basketball champions: 1,2,3, Hard work! Every day, in
schools,’ high stakes testing, and ever-increasing literacy the classroom and on the court. The Providence Journal.
demands on students, teachers can make a difference Retrieved from http://www.projo.com/video/hsgt-
in whether or not a student loves to read and to learn. index.html?nvid=413394
Justyna Szulc, a recent graduate of Central Falls High Turner, D. (2010, March 14). Obama offers
School—the school you will recall from the opening schools revamp. The Providence Journal, pp. B3.
of this column where all of the teachers were recently Wilhelm, J. D. (2007). “You gotta BE the book”:
fired--is a senior at Boston College who is now looking Teaching engaged and reflective reading with adolescents.
forward to law school. She tells Bob Kerr (2010), a local (2nd ed.). Ne York: Teachers College Press.
reporter, “If not for the teachers at the high school,
I would not be where I am now” (p. A7). While we Literature cited
teachers do not have any illusions that schools alone can Curtis, C.P. (1999). Bud, not Buddy. New York:
change society, we have hope, even in these challenging Delacorte Books for Young Readers.
times in the education profession, that teachers can and Curtis, C.P. (1995). The Watsons go to Birming-
do make a positive difference in the lives of the children ham—1963. New York: Delacorte Books for Young
we teach. Readers.
Dean, Z. (2003). The A-list. Boston: Little-Brown.
References Henkes, K. (1993). Owen. New York: Greenwil-
Adomat, D.S. (2009). Actively engaging with low.
stories through drama: Portraits of two young readers. Minter, J. (2004). The insiders. New York: Blooms-
The Reading Teacher, 62(8), 628-636. bury.
American Federation of Teachers, Central Falls Polacco, P. (1990). Thunder cake. New York: Scho-
Teachers’ Union, Local 1567. (2010, March 14). Be- lastic.
JuliaKara-Soteriou
Central Connecticut State University, Connecticut
I
n this age of globalization and increasing di- reflecting our own lives and experiences as part of the
versity in the United States, it is essential that larger human experience” (p.ix). All students, Harris
teachers of literacy prepare their students about (1997) writes, feel welcome in school to the extent that
the world around us (Banks & Banks, 2006; Fer- they find themselves and their experiences represented
kany, 2008; Hall, 2008; Hollingsworth, 2009; in the books teachers use in the classroom. However
Ladson-Billing, 1999; Morgan, 2009; Terrill & Mark, good this may be, it means more than giving students
2000; Webster & Walters, 2008). As teachers quality literature; it means doing authentic ac-
facilitate their own development as tivities (reading, writing, sharing,
“It is our responsibility as educators to
culturally responsive literacy talking and thinking) with
educators, they must be- the literature that will
gin to carefully select take charge of the selection and choices of texts be beneficial for all
global literature writers and read-
that can bring all to be used in our classrooms… Our students cannot know ers. The teachers’
the world in which they live without the perspectives of the
cultures together. role is one of plan-
Global literature, ning and support-
as defined by Had- people who populate it… All voices must be heard.” ing these authentic
away and McKenna experiences for their
(2007), “is a compre- —M. J. McKenna (cited in Hadaway & McKenna, 2007, p.183) students to ensure that
hensive and inclusive one, they are able to read with
representing literature that meaning as they respond to the
honors and celebrates diversity, both text.
within and outside the United States…. [It] includes The term “response to literature” is used in a va-
both multicultural and international literature” (p. 5). riety of ways. It may refer to what happens in the mind
When teachers incorporate global literature into the of the reader or listener as a story or poem unfolds. Or
curriculum throughout the school year, this can aid a “response” may be something said or done that reveals
in transcending cultural barriers within the world in thoughts and feelings about literature. The reader’s re-
which we live. sponse to literature is a central aspect of criticism and
Sims-Bishop (1990) argues that “books are win- may take many forms. It can be both free and guided,
dows offering views of our world that may be real or but, in any case, the purpose is to help readers gain a
imagined, familiar or strange, and when lighting con- greater insight into and appreciation of literary work
ditions are just right, a window can also be a mirror and literature as a whole. Rosenblatt (1978) argues that
100 | ComputersintheClassroom
readers must play an active role in the process of con- viewers who use special software, known as podcatcher
structing meaning, responding both aesthetically and (Podcast, 2010) to access a podcast distributor’s site/
efferently as their interpretations unfold. When tak- web feed, check for updates, and download any new
ing an efferent stance, readers focus on remembering podcasts in the series.
information that will be carried away after reading. In In the case of a classroom, these digital files would
contrast, readers who assume an aesthetic stance focus contain students’ written responses to global literature
on their inner experiences when reading. This could that can be shared as a weekly or biweekly radio show.
be through association where the reader relates to the Students can work on these responses individually, in
characters or story events. In addition, responding to pairs, or in small groups. We provide the reader with
literature promotes students’ ability to connect their instructions for producing podcasts in the form of
prior knowledge and experiences with the text. For ex- digital audio, PowerPoint, and Digital Storytelling.
ample, in the story Sophie and the City by Karima Grant Each of these forms can be used to promote and extend
(2006), the young girl, Sophie, recently moved to New written responses to literature. In each of the following
York from the country of Senegal, West Africa, and was sections, we describe these publishing tools and then
unhappy with the move until she found a new friend. provide examples of response activities to specific titles
Many students may have gone through this same ex- of global children’s literature. If these titles do not
perience of moving or may know someone who shares align with your curriculum you might want to choose
this experience. other titles from Appendix A, where we provide a more
Using Rosenblatt principles of reader response extensive list of global children’s literature organized by
theory students can read and respond to global geographic regions.
children’s literature. In this article, we will describe
a possible way teachers can draw upon their students’ Audio podcast
background knowledge (Anderson & Pearson, 1984) The ability to capture one’s voice is an amazing way
and experiences (Lee, 2005) to construct meaning to enhance students’ reading and writing skills as
(Piaget, 1963; Vygotsky, 1978), and respond to they prepare to report reading and writing for a larger
literature (Rosenblatt, 1978) while incorporating new audience through podcasts. In doing so, students can
technologies and teaching new literacies (Leu, Kinzer, use Audacity, a cross-platform digital audio editor and
Coiro, & Cammack, 2004). Given that learning could be recording application (Audacity, 2010) that can be
positively influenced when students use electronic tools downloaded for free from Audacity at http://audacity.
as they write for wider audiences (Boxie, 2004; Boxie sourceforge.net/. Because this software is simple
& Maring, 2001), we will focus mainly on extending and easy, students will spend less time acquiring the
written responses using multiple digital publishing tools. technological knowledge and more time focusing on
Finally, we share many titles our readers can explore as the quality of their written response that will later
they begin to diversify their selection of global literature be recorded with Audacity. Students can reread their
from various regions of the world and underrepresented written responses several times and receive feedback
ethnic communities of the United States to enhance the from the teacher or a member of the class before
core reading curriculum. recording the final response. Table 1 provides step-by-
step instructions on how to produce a simple three to
Digital publishing tools for creating five minute long podcast using Audacity.
and extending global literature response
Like the importance of teacher preparedness for Integrating audio podcasts and global literature
culturally and linguistically diverse populations, the In Leslie Bulion’s Fatuma’s New Cloth (2002), Fatuma
infusion of technology into the curriculum is increasingly goes to the market with her mother and meets many
important. Leu and Kinzer (2000) argue that the people who sell tea, spices, milk, and pans and who all
competition of global economics is driving the infusions claim that their goods will help make a better chai. But
of and change in technologies into the classroom. Due Fatuma wonders how Mama can make hers sweeter.
to these changes literacy is also changing. For instance, When they get to the kanga shop Fatuma looks for the
teachers and students are not only becoming users of perfect kanga for herself and, when she finds the right
the Internet but also producers. In this article, we invite color, she finds the answer to the perfect chai written
teachers and students to become producers by exploring on the cloth: “Don’t be fooled by the color. The good flavor
podcast. This is simply a digital media file, either audio of chai comes from the sugar.” Then Fatuma realizes that
or video (usually MP3 or MP4) that is made available you cannot always see the good thing because it is in the
on the Internet with a news feed, such as really simple inside, and this is not only real for sugar but for people,
syndication (RSS), instead of direct download. This as well.
means that the podcast, which has a host and/or Ask the students what they know about Kenya,
theme, is released episodically to interested listeners or East Africa, where the story takes place. List responses
Detailsareprovidedhereforasimplethreetoiveminutelongpodcast.
If you have not created a podcast before, complete a podcast tutorial at the following websites:
1. CreatingPodcastsinMacOSX
http://www.apple.com/quicktime/tutorials/podcasting.html
2. CreatingPodcastswithyourPC
http://www.windowsdevcenter.com/pub/a/windows/2005/04/05/create_podcasts_with_pc.html
Step1: Download/SecuretheNecessarySoftware
Audacity (http://audacity.sourceforge.net/download/)
FREE software for both Windows and Mac versions
Step2: Purchase/SecuretheNecessaryHardwareMicrophone
Buy an inexpensive (less than $10) USB microphone from an electronics retailer.
Step3: PrepareaScript
The script will be the original literature response that has been edited and revised
individually or in small groups.
Step4: PracticethePodcastBeforeRecording
Practice rereading the script several times before recording it.
Step5: CreateAudioFiles
Start your podcast with music and then read the script.
You’ll need to export your recordings as .wav files from within the software.
on the chart paper or type on your classroom com- can upload the podcasts on the classroom’s webpage for
puter and project for the whole class with the use of parents and other students to listen to and decide which
an LCD Projector. Then show the students how to use podcast is the most persuasive.
Google Earth (downloaded for free from http://earth. Another way of enhancing written responses
google.com/) to locate Kenya and calculate how far it through Audacity is with the book Rice is Life by Rita
is from the USA and their own state. A discussion on Gelman (2000). Gelman’s poetic structure and Choi’s
how people in Kenya live, the different types of things oil paintings portray the importance of rice for the
that might be sold at their market, and how prices could people in Bali, Indonesia, and how rice grows as the
be negotiable will lead to a comparison with living in animals take part in the lifecycle of rice. Before reading
the USA and shopping from a supermarket. The oral the book, teachers can ask students to share what they
discussion can then be followed by a technology-based know about Bali and then do a quick Internet Inquiry
activity where students use a Venn diagram from Read- (Leu, Leu, & Coiro, 2004) to collect information from
WriteThink.org (http://www.readwritethink.org/files/ a few websites, such as the website of the Bali Tourism
resources/interactives/venn/) to compare and contrast Board at http://www.balitourismboard.org/. A group
shopping at the market in Kenya vs. shopping at the su- of students can use Google Earth to locate Bali and an-
permarket in the USA. Have students print and display other group can search for images of Bali from Google
their Venn diagram in the classroom. Images at http://images.google.com/. With the devel-
All these activities will provide students with opment of background knowledge about Bali, students
content knowledge to prepare the script they will later will have a better understanding of the book and can
turn into a podcast. The students will work in small participate in after reading discussions about rice culti-
groups to write a persuasive paragraph, where they will vation in Bali, which is the main focus of Rice is Life.
pretend they are the owner of a shop in the market Given the focus of the book, students can then talk
and their purpose is to persuade Fatuma to buy cloth about the use of rice in their country and their homes
from their shop. Remind students that when they try and then research how rice is grown and used in different
to persuade someone, it means to get the other person parts of the world. In small groups students can then
to see things their way. When their paragraphs are write an expository essay explaining how rice is grown
complete, students can work in their groups as they in their chosen part of the world. The essay will follow
record their paragraphs using Audacity. The teacher the expository structure of description, even though
102 | ComputersintheClassroom
other structures, such as compare and contrast, can also and join in and show how roosters sing in their country.
be used, depending on the unit’s objectives. When the Excited that he learned lots of foreign words, he runs
students complete their essay, they can continue to work back to his father’s shop and, without realizing, he
in their groups to record the essay using Audacity. brings in all the tourists with him.
Finally, the story Jingle Dancer by Cynthia Smith The teacher can begin by asking the students what
(2000) can be used to integrate global literature and they know about Morocco and list responses on the chart
audio podcasting. In this story, Jenna, a member of the paper. Students can use the Internet to locate Morocco
Muscogee Nation and also of Ojibway descent, wants and find pictures and facts about the country to share
to jingle dance like her Grandma but doesn’t have the in a whole class discussion. Again, Google Image and
jingles to sew on her dress. Jenna goes on a search for Google Earth, as well as the website of the Moroccan
jingles and borrows from her relatives and friends who National Tourist Office (http://www.visitmorocco.com/
cannot perform in the powwow. Tell the students this index.php/eng/Home), are useful resources in creating
story is about a Muscogee girl who lives in a small town the necessary background knowledge for beginning to
in Oklahoma. Use the Internet, a map or globe to locate understand the story’s context.
Oklahoma. Next, ask the students to draw a picture To help students become familiar with the diverse
of Native Americans and/or write what they know languages found in the book, have the students return
about them. Research online and discuss the Muscogee to the story and identify the different ways roosters
(Creek) Indians’ culture. Tell students that Jenna wants crow “cock-a-doodle-doo” around the world. Have the
to honor her family’s tradition. Ask the students if they students make a word web with the different languages
have any family traditions. and then ask them to work in small groups to research
Students will then write a letter to Jenna or and create additional word webs by writing different
Grandma Wolfe and tell them about the tradition of languages from around the world. Google Translate at
their own family. Have the students read their individual http://translate.google.com offers free online translation
letters several times. Once they are comfortable with it, of English words and text to 34 different languages and
have each student record their letter using Audacity. vice versa. Students will begin this activity by placing
their target word in the middle of the word web; then,
PowerPoint with the use of this online translator, write the word in a
This is one of the most common ways of using a different language. Identifying the name of the country
publishing tool for producing multimedia projects. in which each word is originated will also be included.
Many teachers have had their students create stories Next have students create a picture book of foreign
published through PowerPoint for use in the classroom. words by inserting a picture of each word in a Power-
However, with podcasting teachers can assist their Point presentation. Pictures can be found on the Internet
students in sharing their written responses outside the and appropriate credits need to be given to their sources.
classroom with an audience that is interested in the Students should, therefore, be taught to access public
classroom’s podcasts. In this section, we provide ways domain pictures, while copyright issues are addressed as
in which PowerPoint can enhance reading and written part of integrating new literacies instruction. Students
response to literature by combining PowerPoint images can begin from the website Copyright Free and Public Do-
and sound within iMovie (http://www.apple.com/ main Media Sources at http://people.uwec.edu/korogh-
ilife/imovie/) or Windows Movie Maker (http://www. cm/ public_domain.htm where they can search through
microsoft.com/windowsxp/using/moviemaker/ default. thousands of images for their project. Once this step has
mspx) to create an enhanced podcast. In Table 2 we been completed, students will save the PowerPoint slides
provide step-by-step instructions on how to create this as jpg format and use Audacity to record the words and
kind of podcast that is three to five minutes long. say something interesting about them. Finally, students
will drag both images and audio into iMovie or Win-
Integrating PowerPoint podcasting dows Movie Maker. Students may choose to add music
with global literature before and/or at the end of the podcast.
In Satomi Ichikawa’s My Father’s Shop (2006) Mustafa’s Another book students can use to study a differ-
father sells beautiful rugs in his shop in Morocco where ent culture and present their understanding through a
tourists often visit. One day, when Mustafa finds a rug podcast is My Name Was Hussein by Hristo Kyuchukov
with a hole, his father gives it to him in exchange for a (2004), who shares a candid story about culture clash
promise that he will learn foreign words from his father. based on events experienced in his own life. As Islamic
Mustafa, however, runs out of the shop after one lesson citizens of Bulgaria, Kyuchukov and his family were
and visits his friends in the market when a rooster starts subject to the authority of their government and were
following him. When one of his friends asks him to expected to conform in much the same way that Hussein
make the rooster sing, he says, “Kho Kho Hou Houuu,” in the book is expected to conform. The book explores
the way roosters crow in Morocco. Then tourists come the meaning of a name and the importance that tradition
Detailsareprovidedhereforasimplethreetofiveminutelongpodcast.
If you have not created a podcast before, complete a podcast tutorial at the following websites:
1. CreatingPodcastsinMacOSX
http://www.apple.com/quicktime/tutorials/podcasting.html
2. CreatingPodcastswithyourPC
http://www.windowsdevcenter.com/pub/a/windows/2005/04/05/create_podcasts_with_pc.html
Step1: Download/Purchase/SecuretheNecessarySoftware
PowerPoint
Windows Movie Maker or iMovie
Audacity FREE (http://audacity.sourceforge.net/download/) -for PC and MAC
Jodix FREE (http://www.ipod-video-converter.org/ )-for PC only
Step2: Purchase/SecuretheNecessaryHardwareMicrophone
Buy an inexpensive (less than $10) USB microphone from an electronics retailer.
Step3: SecuretheNecessaryItemsYouWishtoIncludeinYourPodcast
• Locate photos or other images as needed to make your podcast attractive.
• Obtain music or other sounds you would like to include, if desired. To avoid copyright infringement
and possible incarceration, please avoid use of more than 20 seconds of copyrighted music. Search
for free-use music, if desired.
• Provide a PowerPoint of the contents of your podcast (minus the voice-over). When saving, use
the FILE SAVE AS option and choose jpeg as the format. A folder that contains each separate
PowerPoint slide as a picture (jpg format) will show on your computer screen. Afterwards you can
drop those pictures into Windows Movie Maker (PC) or iMovie (Mac) and make your movie
file.
Step4: PrepareaScript
The script will be the original literature response that has been edited and revised.
This response will be used to accompany the visual images of your podcast.
Step5: PracticethePodcastBeforeRecording
Practice rereading the script several times before recording it.
Then organize photos, images, and/or video. Keep in mind that you will coordinate the photos or
images/video with a script that shares the visual content you are presenting.
Step6: CreateAudioFiles
• It is recommended that you use Audacity (freeware software for both Mac and Windows) to
record each step of the desired activity as a .wav file. You’ll need to export your recordings as .wav
files from within the software.
• Save your audio files using names that correspond to steps from the text file (e.g., Sound1.wav is
the audio corresponding to Image01.tif, etc. NOTE: save in a folder on your desktop.
Step7: CombineAudioFilesandVideo/ImageFiles
• Drag all audio files into a video editing software (e.g., Windows Movie Maker or iMovie (Mac),
arranging the audio files in sequence. Do this first, before adding images.
• Next, drag images into the software. Resize the length of time that a particular screen is displayed
to fit the duration of the corresponding audio file. Add transitions and/or titles as desired.
Step8: ExporttoaniTunes-CompatibleoriPod-CompatibleFormat
• DO NOT SKIP THIS STEP! If using Windows Movie Maker, use the option that indicates
save the movie for use on your computer. In other words, use the FILE SAVE AS MOVIE
option: when prompted indicate you are saving for “use on computer.” DO NOT compress the
video or audio.
• Next, use Jodix (free Windows software) to convert the resulting movie file to an iTunes format
(i.e., an mp4 file). However, if using iMovie (Mac), select the “Share>Export movie>desktop”
option to export the podcast to a ready format (i.e., an mp4 file).
104 | ComputersintheClassroom
brings to individuals’ understanding of themselves, their Digital Storytelling
culture, and the world. The dreamlike quality of the il- Digital Storytelling is a process in which students
lustrations complements the eloquence of the writing. use multimedia to illustrate their stories with images,
Prepare the students for the book by telling them voice-over, video, and sound combined with text to
that the story they are about to read or listen to takes create a unique story. These digital stories are typically
place in Bulgaria and then ask them to point out the short and are often persuasive, historical, or reflective.
location of Bulgaria using Google Earth, a globe, or a They also show great respect for individuals, families,
map. Ask students if they have ever been asked to give up and cultures. Before you begin to create digital stories
something without their will. What was it? What did it with your students, spend a few days exploring the
feel like? Did they understand why this was happening website of The Center for Digital Storytelling (http://
to them? Then tell students the story is about a boy and www.storycenter.org), an international non-profit
his family who were forced to give up something. organization that has been helping people use digital
Like many cultures in Bulgaria, people are given media to tell meaningful stories from their lives.
names that have a meaning. Ask students to research Another useful website is The Educational Uses of
their names on the Internet to find the meaning(s) Digital Storytelling (http://digitalstorytelling.coe.
and origin(s) and share with the class. Websites like uh.edu), which is being maintained by the College of
Behind the Name (http://www.behindthename.com Education at the University of Houston and provides
and Meaning-of-Names.com (http://www.meaning-of- many resources to support teachers and students in their
names.com/) are some of the online sources students efforts to create Digital Storytelling. Students could
can use during a short Internet Workshop (Leu, 2002). watch digital stories from these and other websites
Then tell students to imagine they lived in a culture and discuss as a whole class what is needed in order for
where they had to give someone a new name against his someone to do Digital Storytelling. Students will then
or her will. Next, have the students create a podcast, using realize that technology is not the only skill required and
PowerPoint, informing the audience what that name that preparing a well-structured narrative or expository
would be and why. In their short PowerPoint students essay is also important.
should state the chosen name’s meaning and origin and In this section, we suggest Digital Storytelling as
include images the students think are appropriate for a way to enrich a learner’s skills in reading, writing, and
that name. After the students write a short explanation researching using online and offline resources. Before
of why they chose the particular name, have them use creating their Digital Storytelling, students will need to
Audacity to record their explanation and add voice to begin to think how their digital story will look like and
their presentation. Finally, students can merge audio what types of resources will be needed. Students will
and images into iMovie or Windows Movie Maker to then have to search and collect different types of artifacts,
complete their podcast. such as personal photos, online images, historical facts,
In Circles of Hope by Karen Williams (2005), Facile, music files, and short movies and then write a script to
a young Haitian boy attempts to plant a tree in honor go with the collected artifacts. All resources will need
of his new baby sister, just as his father planted a tree to be turned into digital files (audio and video) that will
for him when he was born. Saport’s use of charcoal and be imported in iMovie or Windows Movie Maker to
pastel creates a warm feeling that embraces the family create an enhanced podcast (see Table 2). The ultimate
bond that Karen conveys with his words. Have the objective is to tell a story from the heart. Before they do
students discuss about the kind of environment Facile is all that, however, we recommend that students have the
trying to plant the tree. Keep in mind the tree Facile’s experience of creating simpler podcasts, like the ones
father had planted for him when he was born was the that require only the creation of short audio files.
only tree on the whole dusty mountaintop. Why is it
so hard to plant trees in his environment? What do Integrating Digital Storytelling
seeds need to grow and what was missing? After many with global literature
unsuccessful attempts, Facile finally finds a solution. Edna Bercaw’s Halmoni’s Day (2000) is a story that
Tell students to pretend they are the host of a new focuses on family and culture and, with Hunt’s
Home and Garden show. Every evening they tell their realistic illustration, portrays the understandings across
audience how to grow and take the best care of plants. generations and cultures. The main character is a Korean
Ask students to form small groups to brainstorm what American girl, named Jennifer, who is worried when her
the name of their show would be. What type of plants grandmother visits from South Korea. Grandparents’
would they tell the audience about? Each student can Day at Jennifer’s school is the next day and the fact that
research and write a description about a different plant. her grandmother wears a traditional Korean dress and
After the students have written, revised and edited their speaks no English makes Jennifer nervous because she
work, allow them to podcast the show using PowerPoint believes her grandmother will embarrass her in front of
and Windows Movie Maker or iMovie. all of her friends.
106 | ComputersintheClassroom
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spective. In A. Iran-Nejad & D. Pearson (Eds.), Re-
view of Research in Education: Vol. 24 (pp. 221-248). Children’s books cited
Washington, DC: American Educational Research Bercaw, Edna (2000). Halmoni’s day. New York:
Association. Dial Books for Young Readers.
Lee, C.D. (2005). Intervention research based on Bulion, Leslie (2002). Fatuma’s new cloth. North
current cognitive views of learning. In Joyce E. King Kingstown, RI: Moon Mountain Publishing.
(Ed.), Black education: A transformative research and Gelman, Rita (2000). Rice is life. New York: Henry
action agenda for the new century (pp.73-114). Mahwah, Holt & Company.
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Grant, Karima (2006). Sophie and the city.
Leu, D.J., Jr. (2002). Internet Workshop: Making Honesdale, PA: Boyds Mills Press.
time for literacy. The Reading Teacher, 55, 466-472. Ichikawa, Satomi (2006). My father’s shop. LaJolla,
Leu, D.J., & Kinzer, C.K. (2000). The convergence CA: Kane/Miller Book Publisher.
of literacy instruction with networked technologies for Kyuchukov, Hristo (2004). My name was Hussein.
information and communication. Reading Research Honesdale, PA: Boyds Mills Press.
Quarterly, 35(1), 108-127. Nobisso, Josephine (2002). In English, of course.
Leu, D.J., Jr., Kinzer, C.K., Coiro, J., & Cammack, New York: Gingerbread House.
D. (2004). Toward a theory of new literacies emerging from Smith, Cynthia (2000). Jingle dancer. New York:
the Internet and other Information and Communication Morrow Junior Books.
Technologies. Retrieved February 26, 2005, from http:// Russell, Barbara (2004). The remembering stone.
w w w.readingonline.org/newliteracies /lit_index. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
asp?HREF=/newliteracies/leu Williams, Karen (2005). Circles of hope. Grand
Leu, D.J., Jr., Leu, D.D., & Coiro, J. (2004). Rapids, MI: Eerdmans Books for Young Readers.
This list is organized according to geographic regions. However, teachers may also choose to organize
according to the themes of the books. We encourage our readers to explore these titles as they begin to diversify
the selections in their own classrooms.
Bangladesh Literature:
Howard, Ginger (2002). Basket of bangles: How a business begins. Brookfield, CT: Millbrook Press.
Chinese Literature:
Cheng, Andrea (2003). Grandfather counts. New York: Lee & Low Books, Inc.
Mak, Kim (2002). My Chinatown: One year in poems. New York: HarperCollins Publishers.
Yee, Paul (2004). A song for Ba. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Groundwood Books Douglas & McIntyre.
Young, Ed (2006). My Mei Mei. New York: Philomel Books.
Filipino Literature:
Gilles, Almira (2001). Willie wins. New York: Lee & Low Books.
Haitian Literature:
Landowne, Youme (2004). Selavi, that is life: A Haitian story of hope. El Paso, TX: Cinco Puntos Press.
Japanese Literature:
Say, Allen (2005). Kamishibai man. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Uegaki, Chieru (2003). Suki’s kimono. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Kids Can Press.
Korean Literature:
Wong, Janet (2000). The trip back home. San Diego, CA: Harcourt.
Mexican Literature:
Andrews-Goebel, Nancy (2002). The pot that Juan built. New York: Lee & Low Books.
Pérez, Amada (2000). My very own room/ Mi propio cuartito. San Francisco: Children’s Book Press.
108 | ComputersintheClassroom
SASAN BALEGHIZADEH is Assistant Professor of years. A former professor at the University of Geor-
of TEFL at Shahid Beheshti University, G.C. of Iran, gia, she is now a professor at the University of Minne-
where he teaches applied linguistics, syllabus design, sota where she teaches courses in children’s and young
and materials development. He is also a member of adult literature. Lee is a member of the International
the Research and Planning Department at the Iran Reading Association, the American Library Associa-
Language Institute. His recent publications have tion, and the United States Board on Books for Young
appeared in TESL Reporter and ELT Journal. People, working on various committees related to lit-
erature. She was Children’s Books Department editor
JENNA CAMBRIA is a Ph.D. student in the De- for The Reading Teacher from 1989 to 1993, a member of
partment of Human Development at the University of the 2003 Newbery Committee, a member of the 2007-
Maryland. She received the B.A. in Psychology from 2008 and 2009-2009 International Reading Associa-
Rutgers University in 2006. She is a member of the tion Book Award Selection Committee, and will chair
American Educational Research Association and the the committee from 2010-2012. She was a member of
Society for Research on Adolescence and has presented the USBBY Bridge to Understanding Award Commit-
research on reading motivation at these conferences. tee in 2008 and 2009, chairing it in 2010. She sits on
She currently works on an NICHD-funded grant tar- the review boards of several professional journals and
geting adolescent reading engagement with John T. on the editorial boards of Children’s Literature in Educa-
Guthrie and Allan Wigfield and teaches a course on tion, Journal of Children’s Literature, and Language Arts.
child development at the University of Maryland. Author of numerous articles and book chapters about
children’s literature and response, she was first author
ZEINABDARGAHIis an MA student of TEFL at of the first chapter on children’s literature to appear in
Shahid Beheshti University, G.C. of Iran. Her special the Handbook of Reading Research (Volume III) and has
area of research is teaching English to young learners recently completed the seventh edition of Literature and
(TEYL). She has long experience of teaching English the Child (Galda, Sipe, and Cullinan, 2010).
to children at the Iran Language Institute.
GUESTCONTRIBUTORS
JANA ECHEVARRIA, Ph.D., is Professor Emerita Book Beat Column. LAURA DUNBAR is an
at California State University, Long Beach. She has elementary teacher at Belgrade Central School in
taught in elementary, middle, and high schools in Belgrade, Maine. BARBARA S. LOVLEY is
general education, special education, ESL, and bilingual a literacy coach at Fort Kent Elementary School
programs. She has lived in Taiwan, Spain and Mexico. in Fort Kent, Maine, and has served as a special
An internationally known expert on second language education teacher for 18 years and a high school
learners, Dr. Echevarría is a Fulbright Specialist. Her consumer economics teacher for 7 years.
research and publications focus on effective instruction
for English learners, including those with learning Computers in the Classroom Column.PAULASAINE
disabilities. Dr Echevarria and Dr. Vogt are co- is Professor in the Department of Teacher Educa-
developers of the SIOP Model. Currently, she is Co- tion at Miami University in Ohio. Her research
Principal Investigator with the Center for Research and publications have been preparing quality teach-
on the Educational Achievement and Teaching of ers of literacy to gain an understanding of literacy
English Language Learners (CREATE) funded by the pedagogy, identify, critically read, and interpret
U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education influential literacy research studies, and theories
Sciences (IES). In 2005, Dr. Echevarría was selected as to enhance teaching and learning. Her professional
Outstanding Professor at CSULB. work in the discipline of literacy is fundamentally
connected to three tenets: literacy theories, global
LEEGALDA received her Ph.D. in English Educa- society, and the use of technology in the classroom.
tion from New York University after having taught in Her work in these areas has led to an international
elementary and middle school classrooms for a number involvement in West Africa, particularly The Gam-
110 | NotesontheContributors
KATHARINE SHEPHERD is Associate Professor specialist, special education specialist, curriculum
in the Department of Education at the University of coordinator, and university teacher educator. She
Vermont, where she teaches courses in the historical received her doctorate from the University of California,
and legal foundations of special education; collaboration Berkeley, and is a co-author of fifteen books, including
and teaming; special education assessment; and Reading Specialists and Literacy Coaches in the Real World
inclusive approaches to educating students with and (3rd ed., 2011) and the SIOP® book series. Dr. Vogt
without disabilities. Over the years, her research and and Dr. Echevarria are co-developers of the SIOP
scholarship have focused on the implementation of Model. Her research interests include improving
policies and practices designed to improve outcomes for comprehension in the content areas, teacher change
students with disabilities and their families, including and development, and content literacy and language
models for equitable school funding, the development of acquisition for English learners. Dr. Vogt was inducted
leadership and collaboration skills among parents with into the California Reading Hall of Fame, received her
disabilities, school wide systems for supporting students university’s Distinguished Faculty Teaching Award,
at risk of academic failure, and emerging approaches to and served as President of the International Reading
implementing RtI at the elementary and secondary levels. Association in 2004–2005.
Nationally, Dr. Shepherd serves as a board member and
committee chair on the Division of Research within NANCYWITHERELL is Professor at Bridgewater
the Council for Exceptional Children, board member- State College, Bridgewater Massachusetts. She is on the
at large for the Higher Education Consortium for New England Reading Association’s Board of Directors
Special Education (HECSE), and faculty fellow with and is President-Elect of the Massachusetts Reading
the National Institute for Leadership, Disability, and Association. Nancy, a past classroom teacher, has
Students Placed at Risk (NILDSPAR). published numerous articles and presents nationally and
locally. Nancy, along with co-author Mary McMackin,
MARYELLENVOGT, Ed.D., is Professor Emerita has published six books by Scholastic in using graphic
of Education at California State University, Long organizers to differentiate instruction in the areas of
Beach. Dr. Vogt has been a classroom teacher, reading reading, writing and vocabulary.
In this issue we invite articles and research In this issue we invite articles and research re-
reports on topics related to frameworks, trends, ports that examine aspects (e.g., values, content
practices that bring focus to all that we know and/or skills; critical literacy; learning objec-
about teaching and supporting successful tives that should be targeted) of reading and
literacy instruction, and about accomplishing language arts (including content area reading)
change in the way schools create a literacy curriculum, that might have been subjected to
environment for students, including assessment “curriculum settlement”, “negotiated compro-
practices. mise”, or even “marginalized”.
What are the tried and true long-term,
successful literacy practices vs. the swinging
pendulum of narrow focused, tunnel-vision
trends?
Please send your (single spaced) manuscript Please send a print copy to:
via attachment for blind review to: ArleneM.Hawkins,ExecutiveDirector
HelenR.Abadiano P.O.Box1997
Editor,NERAJatabadiano@ccsu.edu Westerly,RI02891-0916
112 |
CRITERIA for MANUSCRIPTS
The New England Reading Association Journal (NER AJ), published in fall (deadline
February 15th) and in Spring (deadline September 15th), consists of invited articles and
peer reviewed pieces. The Editorial Board of the New England Reading Association
solicits original manuscripts of interest to educators focusing on themes on a broad
array of topics related to literacy and classroom practice. We welcome submissions in
a variety of writing formats such as articles, interviews, essays, and research reports.
Calls for Manuscripts are posted in each issue as well as on our website at http://www.
nereading.org
Full name(s) of author(s), address, telephone, email and affiliation should only appear
on the cover page. Please send manuscripts in a Word document via attachment by email
to abadiano@ccsu.edu or to guest editors as noted on the Call for Manuscripts.
Please send a print copy to Executive Director, Arlene M. Hawkins, P.O. Box 1997,
Westerly, RI 02891-0916.