Laboratory Experiment

Cite This: J. Chem. Educ. 2019, 96, 1453−1457 pubs.acs.org/jchemeduc

Reaction of FD&C Blue 1 with Sodium Percarbonate: Multiple

Kinetics Methods Using an Inexpensive Light Meter
Ruth E. Nalliah*
Department of Chemistry, Huntington University, 2303 College Avenue, Huntington, Indiana 46750, United States
*
S Supporting Information

ABSTRACT: In selecting from a repertoire of traditional kinetics experi-

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ments, an instructor often has to choose among having students gain

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experience with the graphical method, the method of initial rates, or a

temperature-dependent experiment in which students construct an Arrhenius
plot. This paper presents an environmentally friendly bleaching reaction
between the dye FD&C Blue 1 and a nonchlorinated bleach alternative,
sodium percarbonate, which goes to completion within 15 min and can be
monitored with an inexpensive light meter. The fast time scale of the reaction
allows students to use the graphical method along with the method of initial
rates to determine the overall rate law, as well as collect data for an Arrhenius
plot, potentially within a 3 h laboratory period. Students can generate an
Arrhenius plot quickly and inexpensively by detecting the extent of reaction in
a beaker using a desk lamp, filter, and light meter, eliminating the need for
spectrophotometer access, a jacketed cell, and a heated circulating bath. Performing all three types of kinetics experiments with
one simple reaction in one or two laboratory periods allows students to see how the methods are interrelated and
complementary.
KEYWORDS: First-Year Undergraduate/General, High School/Introductory Chemistry, Laboratory Instruction,
Hands-On Learning/Manipulatives, Consumer Chemistry, Dyes/Pigments, Laboratory Equipment/Apparatus, Oxidation/Reduction,
Rate Law, UV−Vis Spectroscopy

■ INTRODUCTION
Previous student kinetics experiments have been developed
which involve the degradation of food dyes with hypochlor-
ite,1,2 while this paper describes a kinetics experiment using a
nonchlorinated bleaching agent, sodium percarbonate,
Na2CO3·1.5 H2O2, to degrade the food dye FD&C Blue 1
(Blue 1). The mixing of hydrogen peroxide alone with Blue 1
does not result in significant bleaching within an appreciable
time scale; however, sodium percarbonate simultaneously
creates basic solution conditions and releases hydrogen
peroxide, which bleaches the dye as reported for similar
chromophores.3−5 The experiment is of value in discussing
nonchlorinated bleach alternatives, as well as their usage in the
oxidative degradation of pollutants such as more toxic dyes and
pharmaceuticals.6 The bleaching reaction with sodium
percarbonate gives a definite first-order kinetics plot with
respect to Blue 1 and goes to completion in about 15 min
under the conditions that we use here. The reaction is quick,
convenient, environmentally friendly, inexpensive, visually
appealing, and ideal for maximizing the use of laboratory time.
The reaction can be used for students to experience three
major types of kinetics experiments in one or two laboratory
periods: the graphical method, the method of initial rates, and
the construction of an Arrhenius plot. The value for students
using all three types of methods to investigate one reaction is
that they are more apt to observe how these methods relate to
© 2019 American Chemical Society and
Division of Chemical Education, Inc.
each other in characterizing the rate of a reaction. An
integrated kinetics experiment has also been developed for
the dissociation of ferroin,7 but with more extensive reliance
on a spectrophotometer.
Inexpensive colorimeter circuits as well as smartphone
setups have been described previously as economical ways to
measure solution concentrations without commercial spec-
trophotometers.8−11 The experiment described in this paper
involves measuring the degradation of the dye using
inexpensive light meters with 50 mL solution quantities,
which offer the advantage of greater simplicity as well as
eliminate the need for water baths, circulators, and jacketed
cells for temperature-dependent measurements. Other creative
methods which have been used for student measurement of
activation energies as documented in this Journal range from
gravity-powered flow systems, to magnetic levitation, to water
displacement.12−19 The development of efficient, simple, and
inexpensive methods for students to measure activation
energies continues to be a challenge, and instructors may
find our method useful.
The rate of this reaction is expressed as
Received: July 23, 2018
Revised: May 30, 2019
Published: June 19, 2019
1453 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00589
J. Chem. Educ. 2019, 96, 1453−1457
Journal of Chemical Education
rate = k[Blue 1]x [H 2O2 ] y (1)
in which k is the rate constant, concentrations of each species
are indicated by brackets, x is the order of reaction with respect
to Blue 1, and y is the order of reaction with respect to the
H2O2 released from sodium percarbonate. Previous kinetics
literature in this Journal stresses the importance of students
learning several different experimental methods for determin-
ing the orders of reaction, including the advantages and
drawbacks of each method. Students should realize that the
method of initial rates is useful for determining the order of
previously uncharacterized reactions, due to possible side
reactions and other effects that can become more pronounced
as the reaction proceeds.20,21 The graphical method of plotting
concentration data as a function of time using the integrated
rate equations can be used to confirm the order of reaction and
to get a reliable determination of the rate constant.20 In order
to characterize the reaction between Blue 1 and hydrogen
peroxide, we use the graphical method to determine the
reaction order with respect to the Blue 1 dye (expressed as x in
eq 1), and the method of initial rates to determine the reaction
order with respect to the hydrogen peroxide released from the
sodium percarbonate (expressed as y in eq 1).
With the graphical determination of the reaction order with
respect to Blue 1, concentrations are such that the hydrogen
peroxide produced from the sodium percarbonate is over 1000
times in excess of the Blue 1 concentration, so that the
hydrogen peroxide concentration can be considered approx-
imately constant over the course of the reaction. When the
graphical method is used, collecting data for 4−5 half-lives is
recommended in order to be able to reliably determine the
order of reaction.20 For the reaction described here, collection
of data for approximately 5 half-lives can be completed within
15 min.
In this experiment, the order of reaction with respect to
hydrogen peroxide is measured by approximating the method
of initial rates. For the design of student kinetics experiments,
the method of initial rates should be designed to measure the
initial rate of the reaction, rather than the time required for
completion.21 With more precise measurement methods, the
method of initial rates may involve calculating the initial slope
of concentration data obtained during the first 10% of the
reaction.21 In this reaction, we approximate the method of
initial rates by measuring the time required for the reaction to
go 20% to completion, in order for students to obtain a more
measurable difference in the intensity of red light transmitted
by the dye in solution as measured by an inexpensive light
meter.
Finally, the method of initial rates is used to measure the
initial rates of the reaction at different temperatures, in order to
estimate the activation energy of the reaction using the
Arrhenius equation.
■ EXPERIMENTAL OVERVIEW
Items needed for this experiment beyond routine labware
include light meters (under $20 each, ideally one per student
pair), commercial desk lamps with appropriate bulbs, red
plastic filters, and either hot plates or laboratory-grade
microwave ovens. Digital spectrophotometers are a plus for
the graphical method but are not required. Chemicals needed
include FD&C Blue 1 dye and sodium percarbonate. Although
the reaction can also be done with commercial food coloring
solutions and commercial sodium percarbonate containing
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Laboratory Experiment
cleaning agents such as powdered stain removers, calculating
the exact concentrations of the reactants becomes a challenge
with commercial substances.
It should be noted that a pocket light meter which is
manufactured with a white translucent dome over the detector,
which helps diffuse the incoming light, gives more reproducible
results for this experiment than a light meter without a diffuser
dome, or an app using a smartphone without a diffuser. In
addition, the apparatus could not be used to calculate the
correct absorbances unless the filter were to pass a more
narrow wavelength range than the absorption band of the
solution; otherwise, calculated absorbances will be too low.
Regardless, the apparatus can be calibrated with a reference
solution to determine the transmitted light intensity corre-
sponding to a given percentage of dye degradation, and it also
allows students to observe that greater amounts of red light
pass through less concentrated blue solutions.
Part 1: Graphical Method: Analysis of the Reaction Order
with Respect to Blue 1
If spectrophotometers are available, students mix a small
amount of sodium percarbonate solution with Blue 1 solution
directly in the cuvette and obtain the absorbance at
approximately 630 nm as a function of time for up to 15
min, or until the absorbance goes to zero. The data can be
collected automatically in kinetics mode with digital
spectrophotometers. If spectrophotometers are not available,
students can use the light meters (Figure 1) to measure the
Figure 1. Diagram of the apparatus used to measure the red light
transmitted through the solution. The solution is tested in the beaker,
which can also be insulated with bubble wrap if needed for
temperature-dependent experiments.
light intensities transmitted through calibration solutions (such
as 100%, 80%, 60%, 40%, 20%, 10%, and 5% of the original
concentration of the Blue 1 stock solution) and monitor the
time it takes for the transmitted light intensity to increase to
each of those benchmark levels during the reaction.
Part 2: Method of Initial Rates: Analysis of the Reaction
Order with Respect to Hydrogen Peroxide
After the concept of absorbance is discussed, students set up
the light meter apparatus as shown in Figure 1. To obtain a
reference intensity for determining when the reaction has gone
20% to completion, the students dilute a Blue 1 stock solution
to 80% of its original concentration and measure the light
intensity transmitted through 50 mL of the solution in a
beaker. To begin the reaction, students add sodium
percarbonate solution to 50 mL of undiluted Blue 1 stock
solution in an identical beaker and determine how long it takes
for 20% of the Blue 1 dye to react, as measured by how long it
DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00589
J. Chem. Educ. 2019, 96, 1453−1457
Journal of Chemical Education
Figure 2. Zero-order, first-order, and second-order plots for the reaction between Blue 1 and sodium percarbonate which show first-order kinetics
with respect to the Blue 1 dye. The first row of plots shows student data collected by measuring the absorbance of Blue 1 at 628.5 nm with a
spectrophotometer in kinetics mode; the second row of plots shows student data obtained using a light meter. The concentration of sodium
percarbonate was approximately 0.024 M, giving a hydrogen peroxide concentration of approximately 0.036 M.
takes for the transmitted light intensity to increase to the level
observed for the diluted stock solution. The procedure is
repeated with varying initial concentrations of sodium
percarbonate to determine the order of reaction with respect
to the hydrogen peroxide released from the sodium
percarbonate.
Part 3: Data Collection for an Arrhenius Plot
Students measure initial rates as described in Part 2 at room
temperature and three additional temperatures, under identical
concentration conditions, to obtain a total of four data points
for an Arrhenius plot. Placing a beaker of 50 mL of dye
solution in an ice bath or heating it on a hot plate for several
minutes quickly generates temperature ranges from about 15
to 32 °C prior to addition of sodium percarbonate solution. If
desired, heat gain or loss can be minimized by using bubble
wrap to insulate the cylindrical part of the beaker, although
during the time scale of the initial rate measurement for this
reaction, heat gain or loss is minimal, even in uninsulated
beakers. At temperatures higher than 45 °C, the reaction
becomes too fast for students to monitor reliably with respect
to the initial rate.
■
HAZARDS AND PRECAUTIONS
Students should be warned to notify the instructor of any food
coloring allergies. The sodium percarbonate may cause
irritation. More importantly, the hydrogen peroxide vapors
given off from concentrated sodium percarbonate solutions
may cause mild respiratory irritation in the days following the
experiment, which may not be noticed during the experiment
itself. This is especially pronounced when sodium percarbonate
1455
Laboratory Experiment
solutions are mixed with heated solutions. Students should
make and keep their sodium percarbonate stock solutions in a
fume hood. All mixing and analysis of heated solutions need to
be done in a fume hood, including analysis with the light
meter. For this particular reaction, this precaution may limit
the scope of the experiment for laboratories not equipped with
fume hoods, or for online laboratories done in home settings.
■ RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figure 2 compares concentration data in zero-, first-, and
second-order plots used to determine the order of the reaction
with respect to Blue 1, as measured with spectrophotometers
and with light meters. In each case, the linearity of the plot of
the natural log of Blue 1 concentration vs time gives a clear
indication of a first-order reaction with respect to Blue 1 (the
average R2 value for a first-order plot was 0.997 with a standard
deviation of 0.003 for 7 student pairs using spectrophotom-
eters, and 0.988 with a standard deviation of 0.019 for 8
student pairs using light meters).
Table 1 shows data for the method of initial rates used to
determine the reaction order with respect to the hydrogen
peroxide released from the sodium percarbonate. When the
initial concentration of Blue 1 is held constant, the rate is
directly proportional to the initial concentration of hydrogen
peroxide, indicating that the reaction is first-order with respect
to hydrogen peroxide; data collected by 19 pairs of students in
our laboratory has generated an average order of 1.1 with a
standard deviation of 0.3. A first-order reaction both with
respect to the dye and with respect to the hydrogen peroxide
released from the sodium percarbonate is consistent with that
DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00589
J. Chem. Educ. 2019, 96, 1453−1457
Journal of Chemical Education Laboratory Experiment

Table 1. Student-Generated Data from the Method of Initial first week, and Parts 2 and 3 in the second week, with some
Rates Using Light Meters, 20.9 °C laboratory time devoted to students processing their data,
Calculated
checking the sensibility of their calculations, and commenting
Time for 20% Order with on the outcomes. The method of initial rates, especially when
Molarity Molarity of of Blue 1 to Initial Rate Respect to performed at temperatures other than room temperature, has
of H2O2a Blue 1 React (s) (M/s) H2O2b
several time-sensitive procedures which students must choreo-
0.0425 1.88 × 10−5 78 4.82 × 10−8
graph and rehearse, because they cannot stop to think about
0.0212 1.88 × 10−5 146 2.57 × 10−8 0.904
what to do next. The process can be an exciting challenge,
0.0106 1.88 × 10−5 308 1.22 × 10−8 0.990
a especially for premedical students thinking about scenarios
The molarity of hydrogen peroxide in solution was calculated from
that of the sodium percarbonate. bEach order shown here was
such as critical surgeries, which must also be rehearsed.
calculated by using the data for two different H2O2 concentrations. At our institution, the format of this experiment had been
The order can also be calculated by plotting ln(initial rate) vs under development for a number of years before the light
ln([H2O2]) and taking the slope. meters were found to be an ideal tool to measure the color
fading for the bleaching reaction at different temperatures. In a
reported in the literature for the bleaching of other dyes with second semester principles of chemistry course for science
hydrogen peroxide under alkaline conditions.3,4 majors, students performed the experiment during a single 3 h
Figure 3 and Table 2 show student Arrhenius data for this laboratory period for two years, with 9 and 14 students,
reaction. The data are nearly consistent with the general rule of respectively, working in pairs, after having done similar kinetics
problems in the lecture portion of the course. In the third year,
a group of 15 students completed Part 1 with light meters in a
3 h laboratory period in week 1, and Parts 2 and 3 in a 3 h
laboratory period in week 2. With this format, they seemed to
be less overwhelmed when processing the data, and lab report
scores improved (see Supporting Information).
The student laboratory reports included an introduction; a
zero-order, first-order, and second-order plot; the method of
initial rates calculations; and an Arrhenius plot, as well as
answers to experiment questions and conclusions. As a result
of the experiment, students were able to compare practical
advantages and disadvantages of the method of initial rates vs
the graphical method of analysis. Most students indicated that
Figure 3. Student-generated Arrhenius plot for the reaction between they preferred the graphical method because, in this experi-
Blue 1 and sodium percarbonate, obtained by measuring the initial
ment, they felt that it was less susceptible to multiple sources
rates using a light meter at temperatures between 16.6 and 30.9 °C.
of experimental error. While becoming aware of the
Table 2. Student Arrhenius Data from the Method of Initial importance of experimental consistency in using the method
Rates Using Light Meters of initial rates, students can typically be proud of the fact that
their initial rate data indicates a reaction order that is close to
Temperature (°C) Estimated k (M−1 s−1) first-order, and that their reaction rates clearly speed up with
16.6 0.0533 increasing temperature, allowing them to calculate an
21.9 0.0802 activation energy. After monitoring the color disappearance
25.0 0.111 under carefully controlled conditions in this experiment,
30.9 0.171
students were able to make connections between the rate
law determination methods used in most textbooks and their
thumb that many reaction rates double with a 10 °C increase
practical importance in addressing research problems such as
in temperature. The student data shown in Figure 3 and Table
2 give an estimated activation energy of 61 kJ/mol; student determining the most efficient conditions for degrading
data sets collected thus far with an R2 value greater than 0.81 organic pollutants.
have given an average activation energy of 59 with a standard
deviation of 15 kJ/mol (n = 16, average R2 = 0.94), which is
within range of the activation energies reported for the
■ CONCLUSIONS
A kinetics experiment has been developed using a quick
oxidation of phenolphthalein, alizarin, and crocetin by reaction, simple and inexpensive equipment, minimal solution
hydrogen peroxide under basic conditions (43.3, 68.8, and
preparation, and minimal hazards, in which students use the
69.9 kJ/mol, respectively).3,4
method of initial rates and the graphical method to determine
If laboratory-grade microwave ovens are available, we find
that students can finish all parts of the experiment within a 3 h the complete rate law and activation energy of a reaction
laboratory period which includes 20 min of briefing at the within one or two laboratory periods. The experiment tends to
beginning; however, this procedure leaves very little time for be well-received by students and allows them to make
students to begin processing their data during the laboratory connections to environmental applications of kinetic measure-
period. The experiment leaves students with an abundance of ments. The light meter method of monitoring a reaction rate at
kinetic data which may be overwhelming. For this reason, it various temperatures can be extended to other reactions
may be most beneficial to have students complete Part 1 in the containing a chromophore.
1456 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00589
J. Chem. Educ. 2019, 96, 1453−1457
Journal of Chemical Education

■
Laboratory Experiment

ASSOCIATED CONTENT
*
S Supporting Information
The Supporting Information is available on the ACS
Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00589.
Instructor information including purchasing information,
preparation and briefing recommendations, answers to
questions, experiment extensions, and other experiment
information (PDF, DOCX)
Student assessment (PDF, DOCX)
Student instructions for laboratories with spectropho-
tometers (PDF, DOCX)
Student instructions for laboratories with no spectro-
photometers (PDF, DOCX)
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This work was supported by the Emeriti Fellows Research and
Artistic Creation Fund of Huntington University. The author
would like to thank the undergraduate chemistry students at
Huntington University for their eager participation in the
development of this experiment.

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J. Chem. Educ. 2019, 96, 1453−1457