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Europ. J. Agronomy 28 (2008) 57–64

Effects of soil acidity amelioration by surface liming on no-till

corn, soybean, and wheat root growth and yield
E.F. Caires ∗ , F.J. Garbuio, S. Churka, G. Barth, J.C.L. Correˆa
Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa, Av. Gen. Carlos Cavalcanti
4748, CEP 84030-900, Ponta Grossa, PR, Brazil
Received 20 December 2006; received in revised form 10 April 2007; accepted 10 May
2007

Abstract
No-till management has rapidly increased the cultivated area in Brazil. To control soil acidity in no-till systems, lime is broadcast on the
surface without incorporation. The effectiveness of surface application of lime to soils under a no-till system, particularly with regard to sub-
soil acidity, is uncertain. Crop root growth and grain yield can be affected by chemical modifications in the soil profile due to surface lime
application. A 3-year field trial examined the effect of newly and previously surface-applied lime in a long-term no-till system on the root
growth and crop yield of corn (Zea mays L.), soybean (Glycine max L. Merrill), and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) on a loamy, kaolinitic, ther-
mic Typic Hapludox in Parana´ State, Brazil. The experiment consisted of four lime treatments: (i) no lime (control); (ii) liming at 3 t ha−1 in
2000; (iii) liming at 6 t ha −1 in 1993; (iv) liming in 1993 and re-liming in 2000. Corn was grown in 2000–2001 and soybeans were grown in 2001–
2002 and 2002–2003 without rainfall limitation. Wheat was grown in 2003 with a water deficit during the vegetative stage and soon after
flowering.
Liming in 2000 increased pH and the content of exchangeable Ca 2+, and decreased the exchangeable Al 3+ level mainly in the surface layer of
the soil (0–5 cm). Compared with the no lime control, liming in 1993 ameliorated soil acidity and decreased aluminum toxicity to a 60 cm depth.
Liming in 2000 on the previously limed plots compared with the liming in 1993 increased pH to a 10 cm depth about 1 year after application and
to a 60 cm depth 3 years after application, indicating that the surface-applied lime in 2000 moved deeper when the topsoil was only slightly acidic.
Root length density and grain yields of corn and soybean were not influenced by surface liming treatments. Liming in 2000 on the previously
limed
plots provided increases ≥100% in length density of wheat roots at 0–10 and 10–20 cm depths, and increased the wheat grain yield by over 210%.
A soil exchangeable Al3+ level of 3 mmol(+) dm−3 was considered critical for wheat root growth. Wheat grain yield was well correlated with root length
per soil surface area. The results suggest that aluminum toxicity is low in no-till systems during cropping seasons that have adequate and well-
distributed rainfall, but in unfavorable rainfall conditions, the toxicity of aluminum severely compromises root growth and yield.
© 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Subsoil acidity; Aluminum toxicity; Calcium; Dolomitic lime; Root length; Conservation tillage; Tropical soil

1. Introduction to improve the sustainability of agriculture, and to minimize soil

In many areas of the world, soil acidity limits agricultural
yield. The low content of base cations, especially calcium, and
aluminum toxicity affect root growth and the absorption of water
and nutrients by plants, usually causing a reduction in crop yields
on acid soils (Sumner et al., 1986; Marsh and Grove, 1992; Tang
et al., 2003).
In tropical and subtropical regions, a no-till system, with
diversified crop rotation, is one of the most effective strategies
∗
Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 42 32203091; fax: +55 42 32203072.
E-mail address: efcaires@uepg.br (E.F. Caires).
and nutrient losses by erosion. No-till management has rapidly
increased the cultivated area in Brazil—currently estimated at
some 20 million hectares. Most of the soils in Brazil on which
a no-till system has been practiced fall into the Oxisol and
Ultisol Orders in soil taxonomy. These soils contain mainly
kaolinite and sesquioxides, both of which are essentially
variable charge minerals.
Soil acidity problems are commonly corrected by applying
limestone. To control soil acidity in no-till systems, lime is
broadcast on the surface without incorporation. Surface lim-
ing ameliorates topsoil acidity in the relatively short term, but
is generally slow in ameliorating subsoil acidity, particularly
in variable charge soils (Ernani et al., 2004). The movement
of

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reserved. doi:10.1016/j.eja.2007.05.002
58 E.F. Caires et al. / Europ. J. Agronomy 28 (2008) 57–
64
lime to greater depths varies according to the timing and rate m.
of liming, soil type, surface soil pH, weather conditions,
manage- ment of acidic fertilizers, and cropping systems
(Moschler et al., 1973; Blevins et al., 1978; Oliveira and Pavan,
1996; Gascho and Parker, 2001; Conyers et al., 2003; Ernani et al.,
2004; Caires et al., 2005, 2006a). Subsoil acidity is an important
yield-limiting factor (Marsh and Grove, 1992; Sumner, 1995),
especially in regions that suffer from water stress (Tang et al.,
2002, 2003).
No-till systems affect some chemical characteristics related
to soil acidity, which may influence plant development. The veg-
etable materials that are left on the soil surface to serve as a
mulch (Miyazawa et al., 1993; Franchini et al., 1999) and
the higher organic matter content at the soil surface (Blevins
et al., 1978; Bayer et al., 2000; Rhoton, 2000) may reduce
aluminum toxic- ity. The rise in soil cation exchange capacity,
due to the higher content of organic matter, can provide
sufficient concentrations of exchangeable Ca2+, even in highly
acidic soils (Caires et al., 1998). Calcium ameliorates the
toxic effects of aluminum on root growth (Alva et al., 1986;
Brady et al., 1993). In addition, soil cover reduces water loss
by evaporation and provides more available moisture in the
surface layers, which may promote nutrient uptake under
adverse acidic soil conditions (Caires and Fonseca, 2000).
Field studies have attested high crop yield in acid soils under
no-till (Tissi et al., 2004; Caires et al., 2005, 2006a), but
the causes still remain unclear. Long-term field ver- ification
of the effects of amelioration of topsoil and subsoil acidity
by surface liming on root growth and grain yields of crops
under the no-till system in Brazilian acidic soils is limited. This
study reports a field trial that examined the effect of
amelioration of topsoil and subsoil acidity on the root growth
and crop grain yield of corn, soybean, and wheat on an acid
loamy soil.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Site description and soil

The experiment was performed in Ponta Grossa, PR, Brazil

(25◦10rS, 50◦05rW), on an Oxisol (loamy, kaolinitic, thermic
Typic Hapludox). Before the establishment of the experiment,
in May 1993, soil chemical and granulometric analyses of the
0–20 cm depth showed the following results: a pH (1:2.5 soil:
0.01 01 mol l−1 CaCl2 suspension) of 4.5; exchangeable Al3+,
Ca2+, Mg2+, and K+ contents of 6, 16, 10, and 1.4 mmol(+)
dm−3, respectively; total acidity pH 7.0 (H + + Al3+) 58 mmol(+)
dm−3; P (Mehlich-1) 9.0 mg dm−3; total organic matter 33
g dm−3; base saturation 32%; 295, 240, and 465 g kg−1 of clay,
silt, and sand, respectively. Considering the clay fraction, the
soil had
265.8 g kg−1 of kaolinite, 26.8 g kg −1 goethite, and 2.4 g kg −1
hematite. At the beginning of the experiment, the field site had
been used for grain cropping under the no-till system for 15
years.

2.2. Experimental design, treatments, and crop studies

A randomized complete block design was used and four treat-

ments were replicated three times. Plot size was 4.0 m × 6.3
 E.F. Caires et al. / Europ. J. Agronomy 28 (2008) 57– 59
The treatments consisted of dolomitic lime 64broadcast on
the soil surface at 0 or 6 t ha−1 in July 1993, and at 0 or
3 t ha−1 in June 2000 on plots previously unlimed or limed.
Before the liming in 2000, the plots without lime had soil
pH of 4.1–4.2 and 7–10 mmol(+) dm−3 of exchangeable Al3+
in the soil profile (0–60 cm); the plots with liming in 1993
had soil pH of 5.2, 4.7, and 4.4 at 0–5, 5–10, and 10–60 cm
depths, respectively, and presented low exchangeable Al3+
levels, which ranged from 0 to 5 mmolc dm−3 throughout
the soil profile (0–60 cm). There- fore, four soil acidity
profiles were created: (i) acid topsoil over acid subsoil (no
lime control); (ii) newly limed topsoil over acid subsoil
(lime 2000); (iii) slightly acidic topsoil and a little
ameliorated subsoil acidity (lime 1993); (iv) ameliorated
top- soil as well as subsoil acidity (lime 1993 + 2000). The
dolomitic lime used in 1993 contained 176 g kg−1 Ca, 136 g
kg−1 Mg, and 84% effective calcium carbonate equivalent
(ECCE), and that used in 2000 contained 196 g kg−1 Ca,
130 g kg−1 Mg, and 90% ECCE.
The crops, cultivars, and growing years were: corn (Zea
mays L.), hybrid AG 9090 (2000–2001); soybean (Glycine
max L. Merrill), cv. CD 206 (2001–2002 and 2002–2003);
wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), cv. CD 104 (2003). All
cultivars were moderately susceptible to aluminum. Corn
was sown during the spring (October) at a seeding rate of 5
seeds m−1, and row spacing of 0.90 m. Soybean was sown
each year during spring (November) at a seeding rate of 20
seeds m−1 (inoculated with Bradyrhizobium japonicum), and
row spacing of 0.45 m. Wheat was sown during winter
(June) at a seeding rate of 35 seeds m−1, and row spacing of
0.17 m. Black oat (Avena strigosa Schreb) was sown in May
2000, 2001, and 2002 and grown as a cover crop.
Fertilizer rates varied with crops and years, according
to soil test recommendations for the State of Parana´. For
the corn crop in 2000–2001, fertilizers were applied at
rates of 132 kg ha−1 N, 28 kg ha−1 P, and 82 kg ha−1 K.
Soybean received fertilizers at rates of 5 kg ha−1 N, 20 kg
ha−1 P, and 36 kg ha−1 K in 2001–2002, and of 23 kg ha−1
P and 46 kg ha−1 K in 2002–2003. Wheat in 2003 received
80 kg ha−1 N and 33 kg ha−1 K. Black oat was sown without
fertilizers. No-till involved no disturbance to the soil other
than the sowing operation. Grain was harvested from 13.5
m2, and grain yield was expressed at 130 g kg−1 mois- ture
content. Corn was harvested in March 2001, soybean was
harvested in April 2002 and 2003, and wheat was
harvested in October 2003. Plant residues were left on the
soil surface following grain harvest. Weeds were
controlled by appropriate herbicide treatments.
Seasonal rainfall data for the 3-year study are shown in
Table 1. Throughout the development period of the crops
grown during the spring-summer season (soybean and
corn), there was no water limitation. On the other hand,
there was an extended water deficit during the vegetative
stage and soon after the flow- ering of the wheat plants in
2003. Wheat plants flowered fully in September 2003 and
rainfall was only 25 mm in the period from the last fortnight
of July 2003 to 5 days before the plants flow- ered. There
was considerable rainfall just before the wheat plants
flowered (56 mm), but in the 14 days after flowering rainfall
was only 15 mm.
Table 1
Seasonal rainfall (mm) ering period of the crops by means of a sampling tube of 3.5 cm
diameter, at depths of 0–10, 10–20, 20–40, and 40–60 cm. Six
Month Year Long-term (45
sub-samples (three from the sowing row and three between rows)
years) average
were taken randomly in the plot to form a composite sample. The
2 2 2002 2003
0 0 roots were separated from the soil by dispersion in water through
0 0 a 0.5 mm mesh sieve. Root length was estimated by the method
0 1 of Tennant (1975).
January 12 17 217 169 188
8 5
February 18 33 239 146 155 2.4. Soil sampling and chemical analysis
4 8
March 97 17 136 94 136
4 Soil samples were taken from each plot at the following
April 18 67 39 110 105 depths: 0–5, 5–10, 10–20, 20–40, and 40–60 cm. Twelve soil
May 55 16 157 35 118 core samples per plot were taken by means of a soil probe
4 sam- pler to obtain a composite sample. The samples were
June 18 11 26 62 115
1 5 taken in April 2001 and May 2003, about 8 and 10 years after
July 89 14 54 131 95 the start of the liming treatments (lime 1993), and 1 and 3 years
7 after the new lime application (lime 2000), respectively. Soil
August 10 77 88 25 80
4 pH was deter- mined in a 0.01 mol l−1 CaCl2 suspension (1:2.5
Septembe 24 11 184 146 134 soil/solution, v/v). Exchangeable Al3+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ were
r 7 7
October 28 23 146 193 149 extracted with neutral 1 mol l−1 KCl, and K+ with double acid
6 7 (Mehlich-1), in a 1:10 (v/v) soil/solution ratio, according to
Novembe 11 13 225 193 120 standard methods used by the Agronomic Institute of the State
r 1 8
December 23 10 139 245 150
of Parana´ (Pavan et al., 1992). Exchangeable Al3+ (KCl-
4 1 exchangeable acidity) was determined by titrating with 0.025
Total 1 1 1650 1549 1545 mol l−1 NaOH; Ca2+ and
7 8
3 5
4 0

2.3. Root sampling and root length determination of

the crops

Samples of corn, soybean, and wheat roots were collected

75, 80, and 96 days after sowing, respectively, during the
flow-
Fig. 1. Soil pH (0.01 mol l−1 CaCl2), exchangeable Ca2+ and Al3+ concentrations, and Al3+ saturation in soil profiles of the no lime control (no lime, ●), and after
surface liming at 3 t ha −1 in 2000 (lime 2000, Ⓧ), surface liming at 6 t ha −1 in 1993 (lime 1993, u), and surface liming in 1993 and 2000 (lime 1993 + 2000, ).
Soils were sampled in April 2001. Horizontal bars represent the least significant difference by the Tukey test at P = 0.05.
Mg2+ by titrating with 0.025 mol l−1 EDTA; K+ by flame pho-
tometry. The effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) was
calculated by summation of exchangeable cations, and the alu-
minum saturation as: Al3+ saturation = 100 (Al3+/ECEC).
2.5. Statistical analysis
The effects of surface liming treatments on root length and
grain yields of the crops were analyzed by analysis of variance
using a randomized complete block design in SAS (Statistical
Analysis Systems Institute Inc., 1985). Data from soil chemi-
cal attributes were analysed as a split-plot design by analysis
of variance using liming treatments as main plots and depths
as subplots. Means were compared using the Tukey test with
significance at P = 0.05.
3. Results
3.1. Soil chemical attributes
Soil pH, exchangeable Ca2+, exchangeable Al3+, and Al3+
saturation were significantly influenced by the interaction
lime treatment versus depth for both soils sampled in 2001
(Fig. 1) and 2003 (Fig. 2). Surface application of lime provided
an acidity
Fig. 2. Soil pH (0.01 mol l−1 CaCl2), exchangeable Ca2+ and Al3+ concentrations, and Al3+ saturation in soil profiles of the no lime control (no lime, ●), and after
surface liming at 3 t ha −1 in 2000 (lime 2000, Ⓧ), surface liming at 6 t ha −1 in 1993 (lime 1993, u), and surface liming in 1993 and 2000 (lime 1993 + 2000, ).
Soils were sampled in May 2003. Horizontal bars represent the least significant difference by the Tukey test at P = 0.05.
amelioration gradient from the soil surface downward. Applying
lime at 3 t ha−1 in 2000 on the surface unlimed plots signif-
icantly increased pH and the content of exchangeable Ca2+,
and decreased the exchangeable Al3+ level and Al3+ saturation
mainly in the surface layer of the soil (0–5 cm). Liming in 2000
on the surface unlimed plots resulted in a slower reaction of
the neutralizing agent at 0–5 cm depth about 1 year [pH 5.0
(Fig. 1)] than 3 years [pH 5.3 (Fig. 2)] after application. Even
so, little lime had moved down below 5 cm up to 3 years after
this application. Surface liming at 6 t ha−1 in 1993 increased
the pH at 0–5 cm depth to 5.4 about 8 years after application
(Fig. 1) and to 5.3 about 10 years after application (Fig. 2).
However, pH was higher and exchangeable Al3+ levels and
Al3+ satura- tion were lower to a 40 or 60 cm depth with
liming in 1993, 8 (Fig. 1) or 10 (Fig. 2) years after
application, than in the no lime control. Liming in 1993
provided exchangeable Ca2+ levels higher than no lime control
to a 10 cm depth 8 years after appli- cation (Fig. 1), and to a 40
cm depth 10 years after application (Fig. 2). Compared with the
no lime control, applying 3 t ha−1 of lime in 2000 on the
previously surface limed plots significantly increased pH to a
60 cm depth and exchangeable Ca2+ levels to a 40 cm depth 1
or 3 years after application. Liming in 2000 on the previously
limed plots compared with the liming in 1993 significantly
increased pH to a 10 cm depth about 1 year after
 Table 2
Regression equations and coefficients of determination between wheat root
length density (yˆ , cm cm−3 ) and some soil chemical attributes (x) at 0–10
and 10–20 cm depths

x Unit of x Equation R2
0–10a
pH 0.01 mol l−1 – yˆ = −11.66 + 0.7
CaCl2 3.72x 2**
Exchangeable Ca2+ mmol(+) yˆ = 1.85 + 0.8
dm−3 0.19x 2**
Exchangeable Al3+ mmol(+) yˆ = 8.59 − 0.8
dm−3 0.50x 3**
Al3+ saturation % yˆ = 8.46 − 0.7
0.16x 9**
10–20a
pH 0.01 mol l−1 – yˆ = −7.43 + 0.7
CaCl2 1.92x 1**
Exchangeable Ca2+ mmol(+) yˆ = 0.21 + 0.6
dm−3 0.08x 9**
Exchangeable Al3+ mmol(+) yˆ = 1.93 − 0.6
dm−3 0.12x 3**
Al3+ saturation % yˆ = 1.86 − 0.6
0.03x 4**
a
Depth (cm).
**
P < 0.01.

previously surface limed plots significantly increased the

length density of wheat roots at 0–10 cm depth in 2003 compared
with the no lime control. Applying 3 t ha −1 of lime in 2000 on
the previously limed plots significantly increased the length
density of wheat roots at 10–20 cm depth in 2003 compared with
the no lime control, liming in 2000 on the unlimed plots, and
liming in 1993. Wheat root length density was favored by the
increase of pH and exchangeable Ca2+, and by the reduction of
exchange- able Al3+ and Al3+ saturation in the soil at 0–10 and
10–20 cm depths (Table 2), due to surface liming.

3.3. Crop grain yield and correlations between yield

and root growth

Fig. 3. Root length density of corn (2000–2001), soybean (2001–2002 and Grain yields of corn (2000–2001) and soybean (2001–2002
2002–2003), and wheat (2003) grown in soil profiles of the no lime control and 2002–2003) were not influenced by surface liming treat-
(no lime, ●), and after surface liming at 3 t ha −1 in 2000 (lime 2000, Ⓧ), ments (Table 3). Corn and soybean grain yields were not
surface liming at 6 t ha−1 in 1993 (lime 1993, u), and surface liming in 1993
and 2000 (lime 1993 + 2000, ). Horizontal bars represent the least significant
correlated with root growth (Fig. 4). The wheat yield in 2003
difference by the Tukey test at P = 0.05. ns, not significant. was significantly increased by liming treatments (Table 3). Com-
pared with the no lime control, liming at 3 t ha−1 in 2000
application (Fig. 1), and to a 60 cm depth 3 years after appli- provided an increase in wheat grain yield on the order of
cation (Fig. 2), indicating that the surface-applied lime in 2000 115%. Liming at 6 t ha−1 in 1993 increased the wheat grain
moved deeper when the topsoil was only slightly acidic. yield by 170%. Re-liming in 2000 on the previously limed plots
Apply- ing 3 t ha−1 of lime in 2000 on the previously limed increased
plots or applying 6 t ha−1 of lime in 1993 caused the lower
exchangeable Al3+ levels (≤5 mmol(+) dm−3) in all soil profiles Table 3
(0–60 cm). Influence of surface liming treatments on crop grain yield (t ha−1)
Treatment Corn Soybean Soybean W
he
3.2. Corn, soybean, and wheat root length density at
(2000– (2001– (2002– (20
Surface liming treatments did not cause significant alter- 2001) 2002) 2003) 03)
ations in the length density of corn (2000–2001) and soybean No lime 9.29 3.56 3.88 1.2
9
Liming at 3 t ha−1 9.72 3.74 3.84 2.7
in 9
2000
Liming at 6 t ha−1 9.35 3.81 3.64 3.5
in 1
1993
Liming in 1993 9.64 3.48 3.63 4.0
and 3
2000 *

(2001–2002 and 2002–2003) roots in the soil profile (Fig. 3).
Surface liming at 6 t ha−1 in 1993 or 3 t ha−1 in 2000 on the
Fig. 4. Crop grain yield of corn, soybean, and wheat as affected by root length
per unit soil surface area to a depth of 60 cm. **P < 0.01.
the wheat grain yield by over 210%. Wheat grain yield was
lin- early correlated with total root length per soil surface area
to a depth of 60 cm (Fig. 4). Although all studied depths
presented positive wheat yield–root length correlations, the 0–10
cm depth was the individual depth increment where root length
presented the strictest correlation with yield (Table 4).
Progressive sum- mation of root length by depth showed
improved correlation as depths were combined from 0 to 20 cm.
Addition of subsequent depths did not improve the correlation.
Table 4
Coefficients of correlation between wheat yield (t ha−1) and root length per unit soil surface area (cm cm−2) for different soil depth increments
Depth (cm) Depth code Correlation coefficient (r)
0–10 A 0.92**
10–20 B 0.80**
20–40 C 0.62*
LSD (P = 0.05) 1.34 0.92 0.95 1.22
*
Least-significant difference by Tukey test at P = 0.05.
4. Discussion
4.1. Effect of surface liming on soil chemical attributes
Changes in pH alter the surface chemistry of colloids because
of the variable pH nature of the surface charges in Brazilian soils
(Raij and Peech, 1972). Increasing inputs of acids in these soils
result in the depletion of exchangeable Ca 2+ and in the release
of exchangeable Al3+ (Figs. 1 and 2). On the other hand, the
ele- vation in soil pH through liming increases basic cation
(Ca2+) retention due to the increase in negative variable electric
charges that are generated on the surface of colloids by the
dissociation of H+ from hydroxyl groups. In order for lime
applied on the surface to have an influence on subsoil acidity,
alkalinity, usually in the form of HCO3− or OH−, must be
transported downwards by mass flow from the surface layers
(Sumner, 1995). It so hap- pens that the anions HCO3− and
OH−, originating from lime dissolution, react with acidic
cations from the soil solution (H+, Al3+, Mn2+, and Fe2+). As
long as these acidic cations exist, the acidity neutralization
reaction will be limited to the surface layer of the soil, slowing
the effect at the subsurface level (Caires et al., 2005).
Field research has shown seemingly discordant results as to
the movement of surface-applied lime in a no-till system,
which may be related to liming rates, time of sampling after
lime addition, soil type, climate conditions, management of
acidic
fertilizers, and cropping systems. In a long-term trial
conducted in Southeastern Australia, on a soil with 290 g kg−1
of clay and 22g kg−1 of organic matter, Conyers et al. (2003)
found that the application of 1.5 t ha−1 of high quality
limestone (98% CaCO3, 99.5% <250 µm diameter) on the
surface took from 2 to 4 years to reach a depth of 10 cm and
was not effective in raising pH below that depth for a period of
8 years. This greater resistance to alkaline movement in
Australian soil may be related to the low lime rate used
(enough to neutralize exchangeable Al3+ only in the 0–10 cm
soil layer) combined with an average rainfall of
only 570 mm per year. Surface liming at a relatively high rate can
ameliorate shallow subsoil acidity in the long term (Tang et
al., 2003). In the USA, the increase in soil pH at the 10–20 cm
depth after liming during 8 years was from 0.2 to 1.0 pH under
no-till (Moschler et al., 1973). Movement of lime to a depth of 30
cm was observed in a high-precipitation environment (>1000
mm per year) in Kentucky (USA), when lime was applied at a
rate of three times the lime requirement (Blevins et al., 1978).
In another trial conducted in Southern Brazil, under similar
cli- mate conditions to our study (Oliveira and Pavan, 1996),
on a soil with 620 g kg−1 of clay and 46 g kg−1 of organic
matter, cul-
Summation across depths Correlation
coefficient (r)
A 0.92**
A+B 0.93**
A+B+C 0.90**
40–60 D 0.76** A+B+C+D 0.90**
*
P < 0.05.
**
P < 0.01.
tivated for decades under the conventional tillage system
before the establishment of the study using a no-till system, a
signifi- cant reduction in exchangeable Al3+ and an increase in
pH and exchangeable Ca2+ was found to a depth of 40 cm
about 3 years after surface application of lime (5.5 t ha−1).
4.2. Root growth and crop grain yield
There was no aluminum toxicity to the root growth of corn
and soybean (Fig. 3) grown without water stress (Table 1). How-
ever, the increase in length density of wheat roots after the liming
treatments was ≥ 100% at 0–10 and 10–20 cm depths (Fig. 3).
Based on the regression equations obtained between wheat
root length density and exchangeable Al3+ levels (Table 2),
there was a decrease in wheat root length density of 5.8 and
6.2% at 0–10 and 10–20 cm depths, respectively, for each
increase of 1 mmol(+) dm−3 in exchangeable Al3+. So, a soil
exchangeable Al3+ level of 3 mmol(+) dm−3 should be
considered critical for wheat root growth because it provided a
decrease in root length density of the order of 20%. This
marked response of wheat root growth to liming was probably
related to rainfall distribu- tion during the development stages
of the crop. Although the rain episodes occurred in adequate
intensity soon after sowing and at the beginning of wheat
flowering, rainfall was irregular during the crop cycle—an
extended water deficit was observed during the vegetative
stage and soon after flowering (Table 1). Aluminum toxicity
has been identified as the major soil factor limiting wheat
growth in regions that suffer from water stress (Carr et al.,
1991; Tang et al., 2002). Since the wheat culti- vars have been
more tolerant to soil acidity than the soybean cultivars
(Muzilli et al., 1978) and because corn plants have been more
sensitive to acidity when there was less moisture in the soil
(Freire, 1984), probably the soybean or corn crops have also
shown some performance impact due to soil acidity if water
stress had occurred during the development of these crops.
In no-till systems, the vegetable materials that are left on
the
soil surface to serve as a mulch may reduce aluminum toxicity
through the formation of Al-organic complexes (Miyazawa et
al., 1993; Franchini et al., 1999). Many researchers have hypoth-
esized that plants will be less sensitive to acidification in the
upper few centimeters under no-till soil (Blevins et al., 1978;
Hargrove and Thomas, 1981) because of increased organic
mat- ter (Bayer et al., 2000; Rhoton, 2000). Some studies have
shown that the soil solution aluminum from no-till system is
largely associated with organic ligands (Anghinoni and Salet,
1998; Cambri et al., 2004). Because the formation of Al-organic
com- plexes decrease aluminum toxicity, soybean root growth
was not affected by aluminum concentrations in soil solution
from no- till system (Anghinoni and Salet, 1998). This
explains the low toxicity of aluminum to the root growth of
corn and soybean in our study (Fig. 3). It so happens that the
total soluble aluminum level has been also higher in soil
solution from no-till system (Anghinoni and Salet, 1998). So, a
lesser Al-organic complexes level in soil solution during
drought periods probably provided an increase in aluminum
toxicity to plants grown in no-till acid soil and severely
compromised the root growth of wheat (Fig. 3).
High grain yields of corn and soybean were obtained in the
plots without lime (Table 3) when there was no water
limitation during the development period of the crops (Table
1). The aver- age corn yield was 9.50 t ha−1 and the average
yield of the two soybean harvests during the trial was 3.70 t
ha−1. Similar results were described in other studies on the
surface application of lime under no-till systems on Brazilian
acidic soils (Tissi et al., 2004; Caires et al., 2005; Caires et al.,
2006a). The impressive increase in wheat grain yield after
surface liming (Table 3) was probably due to reduction in the
toxicity of aluminum to the root growth of the plants (Table 2)
when periods of water deficit occurred during the vegetative
stage and soon after flowering of the crop (Table 1). In another
trial using a range of wheat genotypes, the increase in wheat
grain yield was also related to the reduction in soil Al3+
saturation (Costa et al., 2003). Increases in yield and quality of
wheat grain caused by surface liming were reported by Caires
et al. (2006b). In the low-rainfall region of Western Australia,
wheat grain yield was positively related to water sup- ply and
negatively related to Al3+ concentrations in soil (Tang et al.,
2002).
Corn and soybean grain yields were not correlated with
root growth because soil acidity was not found to be the
growth-limiting factor when there was no rainfall limitation
(Fig. 4). The minimum total root length per soil surface area
to a depth of 60 cm achieved by corn (48 cm cm−2) and soy-
bean (60 cm cm−2) was certainly sufficient for water uptake.
No soybean yield–root growth correlation was found across
planting dates, row spacing, or P and K fertility (Silberbush
and Barber, 1985; Coale and Grove, 1990). Marsh and Grove
(1992) observed that soybean yield was well correlated with
root growth in a study with plentiful, well-distributed rainfall
during the growing season. However, in this study, soybean
yields plateaued as total root length to a depth of 90 cm reached
75 cm cm−2 of soil surface area. Other studies have related
root growth to other attributes but have not correlated root
growth parameters with yield (Cassman et al., 1980; Wright et
al., 1985; Tang et al., 2003; Caires et al., 2006b).
Wheat grain yield was well correlated with total root length
per soil surface area to a depth of 60 cm (Fig. 4). The importance
of the root growth to a depth of 20 cm was evident for wheat
grain yield under no-till (Table 4), considering the rainfall
limitation that occurred during the growing cycle of the plants
(Table 1). The need for deep root development to supply
plant-available water can be dependent on drought stress. In a
trial conducted in the low-rainfall region of Western Australia,
wheat grain yield correlated positively with water supply and
root length density in the 20–30 cm depth (Tang et al., 2002).
5. Conclusions
Surface application of lime under a no-till ameliorates subsoil
acidity as measured 8–10 years after application. Applying
lime on the previously surface limed plots – topsoil slightly
acidic – moves alkalinity into the soil and down the profile as
measured 1–3 years after application. The effects of soil
acidity ameliora- tion by surface liming on root growth and
crop yield in no-till systems seems to be more important when
water in the topsoil
is depleted. Aluminum toxicity is low in no-till systems dur- Conyers, M.K., Heenan, D.P., McGhie, W.J., Poile, G.P., 2003. Amelioration of
ing cropping seasons that have adequate and well-distributed acidity with time by limestone under contrasting tillage. Soil Till. Res. 72,
rainfall, but in unfavorable rainfall conditions, the toxicity of 85–94.
aluminum severely compromises root growth and yield. Alu- Costa, A., Campos, L.A.C., Riede, R.R., 2003. Reaction of wheat genotypes to
minum complexation with soil organic matter and toxicity of soil aluminum differential saturations. Braz. Arch. Biol. Technol. 46, 19–25.
Ernani, P.R., Ribeiro, M.F.S., Bayer, C., 2004. Chemical modifications caused
aluminum for the plants grown under no-till need to be further by liming below the limed layer in a predominantly variable charge acid soil.
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