Heat Transfer SI Units K. A. GAVHANE www.pragationline.com 8 NONIBALI CEMEN FE www-facebook.com/niralibooksHEAT TRANSFER [SI UNITS ] For Degree Courses in Chemical, Petro-Chemical, Petroleum and Polymer Engineering OF ALL UNIVERSITIES IN INDIA K. A. GAVHANE Ex. Vice-Principal and Head of Chemical Engg. Dept. S.E. Society's Satara Polytechnic, Satara. Price = : 415.00 ae SONIR L PRAKASHAN [N1007]|CONTENTS MTN Modes of heat transfer Laws of heat transfer Law of conservation of mass Newton's law of motion First law of thermodynamics Second law of thermodynamics Fourier's law of heat conduction Newton's law of cooling Steafan-Boltzmann law Dimensional formulae Dimensionless equations Dimensional analysis Application of dimensional analysis for a forced convection equation Application of dimensional analysis for a natural convection equation Buckingham’s x theorem Unit systems Basic SI units Conversion factors to SI units 12._ CONDUCTION Fourier's law Steady state conduction through plane wall Heat flow through composite plane wall Heat flow through a hollow cylinder Heat flow through a sphere Electrical analogy of heat conduction Systems with variable thermal conductivity Plane wall with variable k Flat plane with variable k Hollow cylinder with variable k Hollow sphere with variable k Hollow cylinder with variable k ‘Temperature distribution through plane wall ‘Thermal resistance of a composite wall (bounded by fluids) Thermal resistance of a composite cylinder (bounded by fluids) Thermal insulation Optimum thickness of insulation 1.3 13 15 15 16 2.10 212 2.12 2.13 214 2.15 2.15 2.16 2.42 2.43 2.57 2.58Critical radius of insulation for pipe (cylinder) pee Critical radius of insulation for insulated sphere 2.60 * Differential equation for one-dimensional heat conduction 2.63 + Differential heat conduction equation in Cartesian coordinates 2.65 + Difforent forms of the differential equation 2.66 + Differential heat conduction equation in cylindrical coordinates 2.68 + Internal temperature gradient 2.72 + Systems with negligible ITG/Lumped heat capacity analysis 2.72 ++ Biot and Fourier's number 2.74 + Physical significance of Biot and Fourier’s numbers 2.15 + Varying surrounding fluid temperature 2.76 + Response time of a temperature measuring instrument 2.82 + Extended surfacés-fins 2.85 + Classification of extended surfaces 2.86 + Effectiveness of fin 2.87 + Efficiency of fin , 2.87 + Analysis of rectangular fin of uniform cross section 2.87 + Infinitely long fin 2.89 + Fin with insulated end 2.90 + Fin with convection off the end 2.92 + Pin fin of uniform cross section 2.94 2.94 + Heat flow through finned system Solved Examples [51 3. CONVECTION 3 (A) Classification of convection Examples of natural convection and forced convection Individual and overall heat transfer coefficients + Fouling factor Resistance form of overall coefficient Magnitude of film heat transfer coefficients | “Approximate range of values of overall heat transfor coefficients, U Classification of heat transfer coefficients at exchanger + Flow arrangement in hei ~ Counter-current flow v/s co-current flow 3.11 + Energy balances 3.13 + Sensible heat 3.14 3.14 + Latent heatHeat flux Log mean temperature difference Application of dimensional analysis to heat transfer by cunvection Hydrodynamic/velocity boundary layer Boundary layer formation in straight pipes ‘The differential equation of continuity in Cartesian coordinates Forced convection Laminar boundary layer over a flat plate The differential equation of heat convection in Cartesian coordinates ‘The thermal boundary layer Heat transfer in laminar flow over a flat plate Analogy between heat and momentum heat transfer Turbulent boundary layer calculations Heat transfer in turbulent flow over a flat plate Empirical correlations for flow across cylinders and spheres Cylinders Non-cireular cylinders Spheres Film coefficients-in pipes-laminar flow Film coefficients-in pipes-turbulent flow The Colburn analogy, Colburn j factor The film coefficients in pipes-in transition region Wilson plot Natural convection Empirical correlations for natural convection Vertical plates and vertical cylinders Horizontal cylinders Horizontal plates Spheres 3 (B) HEAT TRANSFER TO BOILING LIQUIDS Saturated pool boiling definition Pool boiling of saturated liquid Nucleate boiling Film boiling Correlations in pool boiling heat transfer () _ Nucleate saturated pool boiling (ii) Peak heat flux in nucleate pool boiling (ii) Stable film boiling. Simplified relations for boiling heat transfer for water 3.14 3.14 3.16 3.19 3.21 3.22 3.24 3.24 3.30 3.32 3.33 3.41 3.42 3.42 3.43 3.43 3.43, 3.44 3.57 3.59 3.62 3.62 3.63 3.80 3.82 3.82 3.82 3.82 3.83 3.96 3.96 3.97 3.98 3.98 3.99 3.99 3.99 3.100 3.102SSS 4 3 (C) HEAT TRANSFER IN CONDENSATION OF VAPOURS +_Arop-wise condensation *~-Fllm-wise condensation + Effect of non-condensable gases + Difference between drop-wise and film-wise condensation \+~ Average values of film coefficients for condensation of pure saturated vapour on horizontal tubes \+~ Condensation on a vertical plate Correlation for condensation on a vertical surface Correlation for condensation on a horizontal tube + Dimensionless form of the Nusselt equation Solved Example: PRY + Introduction to radiation + Absorptivity, reflectivity, transmissitivity + Black body + Kirchhoff’s law + Emissive power and emissivity + Monochromatic emissive power Total emissive power + Monochromatic emissivity Grey body Steafan-Boltzmann law + Planck's law + Wien's displacement law + Concept of a black body + Exchange of energy between two parallel planes (Multiple Reflection method) + Radiation shields + Radiation shape factor + Blectrical network analogy and radiation systems Radiosity-Irradiation approach + Radiosity, Irradiation + Radiation network for two surfaces which see each other and nothing else Radiation network for three surfaces Radiation network for two parallel surfaces separated by one radiation shield : Radiation network for cylinders separated by cylindrical radiation shield + Solved Examples [24 3.104 3.104 3.104 3.106 3.106 3.106 3.106 3.107 3.111 3.111 4.16 4.22 4.25 4.25 4.25 4.27 4.27 4.28 4.31ERs eaar Eu Definitions of cooler, condenser, chiller, evaporator, vaporiser and reboiler heat exchanger ce + Double pipe heat exchanger 52 + Shell and tube heat exchanger 53 + Tubes 5.3 + Tube pitch 5.4 + Clearance 5.4 * Baffles 54 Tube sheet 5.5 + Shell side and tube side passes 55 Difference between single pass and multipass heat exchanger 5.6 * Classification of shell and tube heat exchangers 5.7 Fixed tube sheet exchanger 58 Fixed tube sheet 1-2 shell and tube heat exchanger 59 Removable-bundle heat exchanger 59 + Internal floating head heat exchanger 5.10 + U-tube heat exchanger 5.1L + Kettler reboilers/Reboiler exchanger 5.11 + Fined tube heat exchanger. 5.18 + Plate type heat exchanger 5.14 + Scrapped surface heat exchanger 5.15 + Graphite block heat exchanger 5.16 + Heat transfer in agitated vessel 5.16 + Calculation of a double pipe heat exchanger 5.19 Calculation of shell and tube heat exchanger 5.21 Effectiveness - NTU method 5.33 + Effectiveness 5.34 * Capacity ratio 5.34 + NTU 5.34 + Solved Examples [26] * Objective of evaporation 61 + Properties of evaporating fluids influencing process of evaporation 61 + Performance of tubular evaporators 62 + Capacity 62 + Steam economy 63 + Methods of increasing economy 63 + Boiling point elevation 63Material and enthalpy balances for single effect evaporators Evaporator types Open pan / jacketed pan evaporator Horizontal tube evaporator Standard vertical tube evaporator Long tube vertical evaporator Forced circulation evaporators Multiple effect evaporation Forward feed Backward feed Mixed feed Comparison of forward feed and backward feed Vapour recompression Mechanical recompression ‘Thermal recompression Choice of steam pressure Pressure in the vapour space Condensers Calculation of multiple effect evaporators Solve Examples [16 Appendix | - Steam tables Appendix Il - Thermal conductivities of various materials Appendix Ill Additional Solved Examples [50] AI-AT AI-AA A1-A70 aqggCHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION ey Chemical Engineering is the branch of engineering which is concerned with the design and operation -of industrial chemical plants. A chemical plant is required to carry out the transformation of raw materials into desired products efficiently, economically and safely. Chemical Engineering is that branch of engineering which deals with the production of bulk materials from basic raw materials in a most economical way by chemical means. A chemical process is a collection of individual treatment steps (physical and chemical) which, when completed, produce a desired product from few basic materials. ‘A chemical engineer is the one who develops, designs, constructs, operates and controls any physical and/or chemical or biochemical changing process. Chemical engineers work in four main divisions of the chemical process industries such as development, design, manufacturing (production) and sales. Chemical reactions are usually endothermic or exothermic and thus to maintain temperatures at the desired levels (in the reactors), it is required either to supply heat or to remove heat from the reaction zone, This is necessary from a point of view of rates of reactions, equilibrium, occurrence of side reactions, safety, etc. Preparation of the reactants for a chemical reaction, separation of the products from a reactor exit stream and purification of the products to the desired specifications involve a number of mass transfer operations, which in turn, involve/require/necessitate transfer of heat. For example, in distillation, we have to supply heat to the reboilers to vapourise liquid mixtures (using steam as a heating medium) and remove heat in the overhead condensers (using chilled water or cooling tower water as a cooling medium). To dry a wet material (obtained from the centrifuge), we have to supply heat. To concentrate dilute solutions, we have to supply heat (usually steam heat) for evaporating water, for pipelines carrying process fluids and utilities, and for process equipments such as reactors, dryers, columns, etc. we have to provide insulation to reduce heat (or cold) losses. We have to make use of intercoolers in case of multi-stage compressors used to compress gases from a low to moderate or high pressures. Therefore, heat transfer is an inevitable part of chemical processing. Heating of water in a gas geyser, heating of a room in winter (using a heat pump), cooling of a room in summer, cooling of water and beverages and preservation of foods (using a refrigerator), cooling of automobile engines and the generation of power/electricity in thermal power plants (heat produced by the combustion of fuels is used to generate a high pressure steam which, in turn, used to drive turbines) are some more examples of heat transfer. In fact, life on the earth would be unsustainable without transfer of heat from the sun (through solar radiation). (1)i Introduction t Transfer 1.2 In the chemical process industries, we come across situations where heat is cae given out or absorbed, fluids are either heated or cooled and where it is necessary to eat he loss of heat from a hot vessel or a steam pipe. Therefore, in evaporators, dryers, a lation units, furnaces, and reactors, one of the major problems is that of transfer of heat at the desired rate, The control of heat flow in the desired manner forms one of the most important sectors of chemical engineering. Heat transfer is the science that deals with the study of rates of exchange of heat between hot and cold bodies. The hot and cold bodies are called the source and receiver respectively, Process heat transfer deals with the rates of exchange of heat as they occur in the heat-transfer equipments of chemical processes. In all such cases, the temperature difference between a source and a receiver acts as a driving force for heat transfer. The major difference between thermodynamics and heat transfer is that the former deals with the relation between heat and other forms of energy, whereas the latter deals with the analysis of the rate of heat transfer. Consider the cooling of a hot steel bar that is placed in a jar of water. Thermodynamics may be used to predict the final equilibrium temperature of the steel bar-water system, but will not tell us how long it will take to reach the equilibrium condition or what the temperature of the bar will be- after a certain time period before the attainment of equilibrium condition; whereas heat transfer may be used to predict the temperature of both, bar and water, as a function of time. Modes of Heat Transfer : There are three distinct modes of heat transfer from a source to a receiver : (1) conduction, (2) convection, and (3) radiation. 1. Conduction : It is the flow of heat that occurs either due to the exchange of energy from ‘one molecule to another without appreciable motion of the molecules or due to the motion of free electrons if they are present. Conduction occurs on the molecular scale, molecules with a relatively higher energy imparting energy to adjacent molecules at lower energy levels. For example, the heat flow through the brick wall of a furnace or the metal wall of a heat exchanger tube occurs by conduction. 2. Convection : It is the transfer of heat between relatively hot and cold portions of a fluid by mixing (convection occurs through actual physical movement of warmer portions of the fluid towards cooler portions of the same fluid). Convection is thus restricted to the flow of heat in fluids. Ifthe fluid motions (ie. circulation within the fluid medium) is caused by difference in the density resulting from the temperature difference in a fluid, the heat transfer is said to be free or natural convection. If the fluid motion is artificially created by like a pump, blower or agitator, the heat transfer is termed as fo water in a cooking pan isan example of heat transfer mainly by Y means of an external agency reed convection. The heating of convection.Heat Transfer 13 Introduction — 3. Radiation : It refers to the transfer of energy through space by electromagnetic waves. The transfer of heat from the sun to the earth is the most important example of heat transfer by radiation. No medium is required for its propagation. In many of the applications of heat transfer in chemical engineering, heat will be transferred by combination of two or three of the basic mechanisms / modes of heat transfer. Consider a double pipe heat exchanger in which a hot fluid flows through the inside pipe and a cold fluid flows through the annular space. In this case, heat will flow by combination of conduction and convection from the hot fluid to the cold fluid. Here heat flows by conduction through the metal wall of the inner pipe and deposits on both sides of the inner pipe, and by convection through the fluid films. In the case of an insulated steam pipe, heat flows by convection through the steam film on the inside of the pipe, by conduction through the layer of scale and the metal wall of the pipe, and the layer of the insulation, and finally by convection and radiation from the outside insulation to the ambien/surrounding air. Hence, in this case, heat transfer involves all the three modes of heat transfer. This is also true with almost all heat transfer applications in the process industries. In a large number of practical cases, one of the mode could be dominant, whereas in several cases it is required to deal with more than one mode of heat transfer, owing to the significant impact of these modes on the overall heat transfer rates, ‘The Laws of Heat Transfer : The foundation of heat transfer rests on a number of fundamental and subsidiary laws. A fundamental law is the one of which validity rests on the fact that it has not been proved to be wrong or false in the broad area of application of the subject under consideration. Therefore, these laws must be satisfied in solving any problem. On the other hand, a subsidiary law may be empirical in nature, i.c., a statement based on the experimental evidence and intuition. These may be a consequence of and derivable from the fundamental laws. The fundamental laws used in heat transfer are : 1. Law of conservation of mass. 2. Newton's laws of motion. 3. Laws of thermodynamics. The subsidiary laws generally used are : 1. Fourier's law of heat conduction. 2. Newton's law of cooling / Newton's law of heat flow between a solid surface and a fluid. 3. Laws of thermal radiation and 4. Equation of state. 1. The Law of Conservation of Mass : It states that the total mass of various components involved during an unit operation or a unit process remains constant or simply the total mass of the materials taking part in any process is constant (mass can neither be created nor destroyed during a process. The law is not valid for substances undergoing nuclear reactions as under this circumstance, energy and mass are interconvertible.Introduc Heat Transter 14 ction i is ss must either accumu! Conservation of mass requires that the materials entering any proce: late and / or leave the process. There can be neither loss nor gain. Thus, for any unit operation or unit process : Input = Output + Accumulation or Disappearance es (L) 4 Fig. 1.1 : Flow of water through tank Consider a water tank containing some water initially as shown in Fig, 1.1. Water enters the tank at a rate of rm, kg/h and leaves the tank at a rate of m; kg/h and accumulates at a rate of dmi/dt. Then, according to the law of conservation of mass, (ae at which [Ret atwhich be ee water enters ti = | water leaves of water in tank m, = m, + dm/dt m, m, + p.A. dhidt If m, > my, water gets accumulated in the tank and if ta, < ri , water gets depleted. For a steady state operation, when accumulation is constant or nil, Equation (1.1) reduces to Input = Output +++ (12) m, =m Uy Pt Up, Pp Ay Fig. 1.2 __ Consider a stream tube (control volume) as shown in Fig. 1.2. Assume that a fluid enters at a point where the area of cross-section of the tube is A, and leaves where the area of cross-section is Ay. Let u, and uz be the velocities of the fluid at entrance and exit. Let p, and p, be the densities of the fluid at entrance and exit. Assume density in a single cross-section is constant and u, is constant across area A, and u, is constant across area Aa, For steady-state conditions, the rate of ‘mass entering the control volume equals that leaving, 7 PrtyAy = pyty Ay puA = constant (1.3) This is the equation of continuity, “_Heat Transfer 15 Introduction 2, Newton's Second Law of Motion : It states that the resultant of all forces acting on a body of mass 'm' is proportional to the time rate of momentum change of the body in the direction of resultant force. F =k 4 ow) (14) where F is the resultant of all forces acting on the body, m is mass and u is velocity. For the control volume shown in Fig. 1.2, assuming flow to be steady and unidirectional in the x-direction, according to Newton's second law of motion, the sum of all forces acting on the fluid in the x-direction is equal to the increase in the time rate of change of momentum of the flowing fluid, i.e., sum of all forces acting in the x-direction equals the difference between the momentum leaving with the fluid per unit time and that brought in per unit time by the fluid. DF =z [M; -M)] vil 5) where M-=mu, mis the mass flow rate of fluid and u is the linear velocity of fluid. For a one-dimensional flow in the x-direction, we have ZF = P\Ai-P2Ag - Fy - Fg +++ (1.6) where P, and P, are pressures at entrance and exit, A, and Aj are cross-section area at entrance and exit, Fy is the net force of wall of channel on fluid and F, is the component of force of gravity (for flow in upward direction). 3. First Law of Thermodynamics : It states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed during a process, although it may be converted from one form to another. The law can also be stated in the alternative way as — the total energy of an isolated system remains constant. When system gains or loses energy, it must be exactly equal to the loss or gain of energy by the surroundings. Hence, the first law of thermodynamics is concerned with the conservation of energy. Let the initial state of a system be A. Let the quantity of heat Q be absorbed by the system. The result of absorption of heat is both to increase the internal energy and also to produce some mechanical work. __ [Increase in fork done »] Heat absorbed by system = es all * eee Q =AU+W AU = Q-W (LI) This is the mathematical expression/statement of the first law of thermodynamics. In words, Equation (1.7) states that the change in internal energy of a system is equal to the heat added to the system minus the work done by the system.Introducti Heat 1.6 on Heal ianeie¢ ee heat absorbed by the system). Wis +ve when Qs +ve when heat is added to the system work is done by the system on surroundings. Equation (1.7) applies to the processes differential changes, this equation can be written as 5 involving finite changes in the system. For “(1 dU = dQ-dW (1.8) Taking the derivatives with respect to time, av _ dQ_ dW + (19) dt = dt ~ dt that the rate of increase of internal energy of the system is Fromm Eom i) we Be the system and the rate at which the equal to the difference between the rate at which heat enters system does work on the surroundings. Second Law of Thermodynamics : When two bodies are at different temperatures, it is known that heat flows from a hot body to a relatively cold body (second law of thermodynamics). Hence, heat is defined as a form of energy that is in transit between a hot source and a cold receiver. The transfer of heat depends upon the temperature of two bodies/substances. In-other words, temperature can be referred as the level of thermal energy. Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction : ‘A physical law governing the transfer of heat through a fixed material (whenever a temperature difference exist) was given by Fourier according to which the rate of heat flow by conduction is proportional 10 the area normal to the direction of heat flow, and to the temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow. = 2k a «.. (1.10) = Distance measured normal to the surface length of conduction path, m Heat transfer surface, i., area normal to the direction of heat flow, m? = Temperature gradient, K/m = Rate of heat flow or heat transfer, J/s = W = Proportionality constant and is a property of the material. The constant k is called thermal conductivity. It is the ability of a material to conduct heat. The unit of k in the SI system is W/(m-K). In rectangular co-ordinates, Fourier's law can be written as : (Qx = -kAaTIAx (Qy = -kA aay atin (Qz = —kA dT/az . : (113) The partial derivative in Equation (1.10) calls attention to the fi ; i ; fact that the temperature is a function of both location and time, i.e., it may vary with location and time, The negative sign is introduced in Equation (1.10) because the heat flows in the direction of decreasing temperature and it serves to make the heat flow positive in the positive direction x " (1.1)Heat Transter 17 Introduction ‘The quantity of heat transferred per unit time per unit area of isothermal surface is defined as the heat flux (Q/A). Conduction under the condition of constant temperature distribution is called as steady-state conduction. Under steady-state condition, temperature is a function of position only, i.e., temperature varies with location, but is constant at any particular location. Thus, for a steady one-dimensional heat flow, equation (1.10) may be written as Q = -kA @T/én) w+ (1.14) For x-direction, we can write Q =-kA & . vs (115) The ordinary differential being used because T = f (x) only. Newton's Law of Cooling : The heat flow by convection is given by Newton's law of cooling and is analogous to Fourier’s law of heat conduction, For the heat flow between a solid surface and a fluid, it states that : the heat flux from a solid surface to a fluid is proportional to the temperature difference between the surface and the fluid. Thus, if the fluid with a mean temperature of T.. is in contact with the solid surface at a temperature of Ty and if Ty>T., then Q = h(Ty -T.) +++ (1.16) Q = hA(Ty-T.) vos (LIT The constant of proportionality in Equation (1.17) is called as the film heat transfer coefficient. If the heat flux is specified in W/m? and temperature in K, then ‘h' has units of Wi(n?-K). Free Fluid Us Te Fig. 1.3 : Temperature and velocity profile in fluid near wall (Tw >T.) Consider a heated plate as shown in Fig. 1.3. The plate is at T, and the temperature of a fluid flowing over the surface is T... The velocity of the flow at the plate is zero. As the velocity of the fluid layer at the wall will be zero, the heat must be transferred by conduction over there. Apart from this, we consider convection heat transfer to be conduction heat transfer in this layerHeat Transfer 1.8 Introduetion wn ane pe of thermal conductivity of the fluid and the fluid temperature gradient at the way) which i temperature gradient depends on the rate at which the fluid carries the heat away in tum depends upon the velocity and thermal properties of the fluid. A high fluid velociy, Produces a large temperature gradient. uv ‘Comparing Equations (1.10) and (1.17) at the wall gives k @T/An)ws (eet) + (1.18) &).. is the temperature gradient in the solid at the interface (.c., at the wall) in the direction normal to the interface. Equation (1.18) is used to determine the heat transfer coefficient (hy experimentally. Steafan-Boltzmann Law : This is most commonly used law of thermal radiation. It states that the thermal radiation heat flux (i.e., the. radiant energy) emitted from a black surface is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of the surface. @ . or Q = oATt += (119) where o is a constant of proportionality and is called the Steafan-Boltzmann constant, In the ST units, it has a value of 5.67 10% W/(m?K*). Planck's law, Wien’s law and Kirchoff's law are also used and are given in Chapter Four. Equations of State : ‘These are the relations between the properties of a substance. Of these, widely used. The ideal gas law is given as PV = oRT where P, V, T and n are pressure, volume, temperature and moles of gas. R is the gas cot (R = 8.31451 m’-kPa/kmol-K). the ideal gas law is w+ (1.20) mnstant, m : _m PV = RT eM = Per m But pay . p = PMRT oe (121) where p is the density of gas. For a gas mixture, we have _ PMavg. Pp = "RT where Mave, = Average molecular weight of a gas mixture = Mi Xi