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SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL TRENDS IN GROUNDWATER RESOURCES IN

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Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, 10 (1), 57-67 (2005)

(Regular Paper)

SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL TRENDS IN GROUNDWATER

RESOURCES IN BAHRAIN, 1992-2002

W. K. Zubari
Desert and Arid Zones Sciences Program, College of Graduate Studies, Arabian Gulf University,
P.O. Box: 26671, Bahrain, E-mail: waleed@agu.edu.bh

(Received February 2005 and accepted June 2005)

‫ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ اﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ اﻟﺠﻮﻓﻴﺔ ﻟﻤﻜﻤﻦ اﻟﺪﻣﺎم اﻟﻤﺎﺋﻲ اﻟﻤﺼﺪر اﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻲ اﻟﻮﺣﻴﺪ ﻟﻠﻤﻴﺎﻩ اﻟﻌﺬﺑﺔ ﻟﺘﻠﺒﻴﺔ اﻟﻄﻠﺐ اﻟﻤﺘﺰاﻳﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ وﻟﻘﺪ أدى اﻻﺳﺘﻐﻼل اﻟﻤﺘﻮاﺻﻞ وﻟﻔﺘﺮات ﻃﻮﻳﻠﺔ ﻟﻬﺬا اﻟﺨﺰان اﻟﻤﺎﺋﻲ إﻟﻰ اﻧﺨﻔﺎض ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮ ﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺗﻪ‬.‫ﻣﻤﻠﻜﺔ اﻟﺒﺤﺮﻳﻦ‬
‫ ﻣﺆدﻳًﺎ‬،‫اﻟﻤﺎﻟﺤﺔ اﻟﻤﺤﻴﻄﺔ ﺑﻪ‬-‫اﻟﻤﺎﺋﻴﺔ واﻧﻘﻼب اﻻﻧﺤﺪارات اﻟﻬﻴﺪروﻟﻴﻜﻴﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﻴﺎهﻪ اﻟﻌﺬﺑﺔ ﻧﺴﺒﻴًﺎ واﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ اﻟﻤﺎﻟﺤﺔ وﺷﺒﻪ‬
‫ ﺗﻢ اﻟﻘﻴﺎم ﺑﻤﺴﺢ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎت اﻟﻤﺎﺋﻴﺔ واﻟﻤﻠﺤﻴﺔ ﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ اﻟﺨﺰان‬،‫ وﻓﻲ هﺬﻩ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ‬.‫إﻟﻰ ﻏﺰوهﺎ ﻟﻪ وﺗﺪهﻮر ﻧﻮﻋﻴﺔ ﻣﻴﺎهﻪ‬
‫ وﻟﻘﺪ ﺑﻴﻨﺖ اﻟﺘﺤﺎﻟﻴﻞ اﻟﻤﻜﺎﻧﻴﺔ‬.‫ ﻟﺘﺤﺮي ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ اﻟﺘﺪهﻮر اﻟﻤﺎﺋﻲ ﺑﻪ‬2002-2001 ‫اﻟﻤﺎﺋﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻔﺘﺮة‬
‫ﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮات اﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ إﻟﻰ أن أﻏﻠﺒﻴﺔ اﻟﺴﻄﺢ اﻟﺒﻴﺰوﻣﺘﺮي ﻟﻠﺨﺰان ﻓﻲ اﻟﺒﺤﺮﻳﻦ ﻗﺪ اﻧﺤﺪر إﻟﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎت أﺳﻔﻞ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى ﺳﻄﺢ‬
‫ وﺑﺄن اﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻐﺬي ﺧﺰان اﻟﺪﻣﺎم ﻣﻦ اﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ اﻟﺸﺮﻗﻲ ﻟﻠﻤﻠﻜﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ اﻟﺴﻌﻮدﻳﺔ ﺗﺘﺄﺛﺮ ﻧﻮﻋﻴﺘﻬﺎ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ آﺒﻴﺮ‬،‫اﻟﺒﺤﺮ‬
‫ ﻣﺼﺪرهﺎ اﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻲ ﻣﻴﺎﻩ اﻟﺒﺤﺮ واﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺷﺒﻪ اﻟﻤﺎﻟﺤﺔ اﻟﻮاﻗﻌﺔ أﺳﻔﻞ اﻟﺨﺰان‬،‫ﺑﺴﺒﺐ اﺧﺘﻼﻃﻬﺎ ﺑﻤﻴﺎﻩ ذات ﻣﻠﻮﺣﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ‬
‫ ﺗﻢ ﺗﻘﺼﻲ اﻟﺘﻐﻴﺮات اﻟﺰﻣﺎﻧﻴﺔ‬،‫ وﺑﺎﻻﻋﺘﻤﺎد ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﻮﻓﺮة ﻣﻦ اﻟﺪراﺳﺎت اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ‬،‫ إﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻟﺬﻟﻚ‬.‫اﻟﻤﺎﺋﻲ‬
‫ وﻟﻘﺪ أﺷﺎرت اﻟﺘﺤﺎﻟﻴﻞ اﻟﺰﻣﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻟﻬﺬﻩ اﻟﻔﺘﺮة إﻟﻰ ﺣﺪوث هﺒﻮط‬،2002-1992 ‫ﻟﻤﺘﻐﻴﺮات اﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ ﺑﺨﺰان اﻟﺪﻣﺎم ﻟﻠﻔﺘﺮة‬
‫ وأن ﻣﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﻤﻠﻮﺣﺔ ﺑﻤﻴﺎﻩ اﻟﺨﺰان ﻓﻲ ﻋﻤﻮم ﻣﻨﺎﻃﻖ اﻟﺒﺤﺮﻳﻦ ﻗﺪ ازداد ﺑﻨﺴﺒﺔ‬،‫ﻋﺎم وﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎت اﻟﻤﺎﺋﻴﺔ‬
‫ وأن ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﺪهﻮر ﻧﻮﻋﻴﺔ اﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ اﻟﺠﻮﻓﻴﺔ ﻗﺪ أﺻﺒﺤﺖ أآﺜﺮ اﻧﺘﺸﺎرا ﺧﻼل ﻓﺘﺮة اﻟﺘﻘﻴﻴﻢ هﺬﻩ ﻋﻦ اﻟﻔﺘﺮات‬،%30
‫ ودﻟﻠﺖ اﻟﺘﺤﺎﻟﻴﻞ اﻟﻤﻜﺎﻧﻴﺔ واﻟﺰﻣﺎﻧﻴﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ أﺟﺮﻳﺖ ﻓﻲ هﺬﻩ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ أن ﻣﺨﻄﻄﺎت وﺟﻬﻮد اﻹدارة اﻟﻤﺎﺋﻴﺔ‬.‫اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻢ اﺗﺨﺎذهﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺸﺮ ﺳﻨﻮات اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻴﺔ ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ ﺳﻠﻄﺎت اﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺑﻬﺪف اﻟﺴﻴﻄﺮة ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺪهﻮر ﻧﻮﻋﻴﺔ‬
‫ وﺑﺄﻧﻪ إذا ﻟﻢ‬،‫ ﻟﻢ ﺗﻜﻦ ﻓﻌﺎﻟﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺤﺴﻴﻦ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ اﻟﺠﻮﻓﻴﺔ‬،‫ وﺗﺮآﺰت ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﺗﻌﻈﻴﻢ اﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ اﻟﻤﺘﺎﺣﺔ‬،‫اﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ اﻟﺠﻮﻓﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺨﻔﻴﺾ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎت ﺳﺤﺐ اﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ اﻟﺠﻮﻓﻴﺔ إﻟﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎت ﻣﻘﺎرﺑﺔ ﻟﻤﻌﺪل ﺗﻐﺬﻳﺘﻬﺎ ﻓﺈن ﻧﻮﻋﻴﺔ هﺬﻩ اﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺳﺘﺴﺘﻤﺮ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ وﻹﺣﺪاث ﺗﺨﻔﻴﺾ هﺎم وﻣﺆﺛﺮ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻌﺪﻻت ﺳﺤﺐ‬.‫اﻟﺘﺪهﻮر ﻣﺆدﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﻬﺎﻳﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺧﺴﺎرة هﺬا اﻟﻤﻮرد اﻟﻤﺎﺋﻲ ﺑﺎﻟﻜﺎﻣﻞ‬
‫ ﻓﺈﻧﻪ ﻳﻘﺘﺮح أن ﻳﺘﻢ اﻟﺘﻮﺟﻪ ﻧﺤﻮ اﻟﺘﺪﺧﻼت واﻹﺟﺮاءات اﻹدارﻳﺔ ذات اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﺠﺎﻧﺐ إدارة‬،‫اﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ اﻟﺠﻮﻓﻴﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ‬
.‫ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻖ اﻟﺤﺎﻓﺰ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي ﺑﻔﺮض ﺗﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻜﻤﻴﺎت اﻟﻤﺴﺤﻮﺑﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ اﻟﺠﻮﻓﻴﺔ‬،‫اﻟﻄﻠﺐ‬

In Bahrain, groundwater in the Dammam aquifer is the only natural source of fresh water to
meet the country's increasing water demands. Prolonged over-exploitation of the aquifer has led
to continuous water level decline, reversal of hydraulic gradients between the relatively fresh-
water aquifer and adjacent brackish- and saline- water bodies, and their encroachment and
salinization of the aquifer. In this study, a countrywide potentiometry and salinity survey has
been conducted in the year 2001/2002 to investigate the aquifer deterioration process. Spatial
analysis of the aquifer state variables indicated that most of the potentiometric surface of the
Dammam aquifer has declined to below sea level, and the quality of the aquifer recharge water,
received from eastern Saudi Arabia, has been significantly influenced by inland mixing with
higher concentration waters, mainly seawater and underlying brackish water. Furthermore,
temporal changes in the aquifer's state variables over the period 1992-2002 are examined using
salinity and potentiometry data from a previous survey. Temporal analysis indicated a general
water level decline, and that the salinity in most of the aquifer areas has exhibited an increase by
about 30%, and the deterioration process has become more widespread over the assessment
period. Analysis of the spatial and temporal changes of the Dammam aquifer indicated that
management schemes and efforts undertaken in the last 10 years by the water authorities have
not been effective in modifying the aquifer's conditions, and that unless the current levels of
abstraction from the aquifer are brought back closer to the level of renewable recharge,
groundwater quality would be completely ruined. In order to have significant reduction in
groundwater abstraction rates, it is suggested that a shift towards demand-side interventions is
made, such as employing the economic incentive of groundwater pricing.

57
W. K. Zubari

1. INTRODUCTION
N Muharraq

2905000
Bahrain consists of an archipelago of 33 islands Isl.
W E
located in the Arabian Gulf, about midway between W Manama

Saudi Arabia and Qatar (Figure 1). Like most of the S

Budayaa
Arabian Peninsula, the climate is characterized by high Mohamm-
temperatures, erratic often scanty, rainfall of less than adiyah Isl.

80 mm/yr, and high evapotranspiration rate mounting Jiddah Nabih Saleh

2895000
Isl.
Isl.
to more than 1800 mm/yr1. Under such arid Sitrah Isl.

conditions, Bahrain has no surface water, and Hamalah

groundwater is the only natural source of freshwater
supply. Umm Naasan
The country's fresh water demands, amounting to Isl.

2885000
about 310 Mm3/y in 2002, are met mainly by Malikiyah

groundwater abstraction (68.4%) and desalination Ras Abu Jarjur

UT M North, meters
plants (27.1%), and to a lesser extent (4.5%) by treated Zallaq
Aquifer
wastewater. However, heavy reliance on the Dammam rocks limit Ras Hayan

aquifer, the principal aquifer in Bahrain, to meet the Wasmiyah

country's ever-increasing water demands, particularly

2875000
during the last three decades, have resulted in a rapid
decline in its potentiometric levels and a reversal of
hydraulic gradients between the relatively freshwater
aquifer and adjacent brackish- and saline-water bodies.
Explanation
As a direct consequence, encroachment of these waters
2865000

into the aquifer has occurred, causing its salinization. Sampling site for
water level Kuwait
0 200
Iran
The deterioration of groundwater quality has restricted Sampling site with A
km

the use of this resource from the invaded parts of the full chemical analysis ra
bi
Bahrain an
aquifer, which are estimated in 1992 to be more than Sampling site with G
EC/TDS analysis ul
half of the original pre-development groundwater Saudi Qatar f Oman
reservoir in Bahrain2. If this trend continues, the only Areas where the Arabia
2855000

natural source of water in Bahrain may be lost, and
might dictate expensive remedies unless proper aquifer
management is considered.
Past and current groundwater management
measures undertaken by the water authorities in
Bahrain to control and reverse the deterioration of
groundwater quality generally aim at reducing
groundwater abstraction in the agricultural, municipal,
and the industrial sectors. These measures have
concentrated mainly on the supply augmentation side,
and were manifested by the construction of
desalination plants, reuse of treated wastewater, and
artificial recharge by storm runoff water. Demand
management efforts and measures were also made,
however only recently, and were represented in the
domestic sector (24% of total groundwater
consumption) by escalating tariff system, rationing
demand, pressure control, leak detection, installation
of household water saving equipment, and public
awareness campaigns. In the agricultural sector (main
groundwater consumer at 73%), these were manifested
by subsidizing modern irrigation systems, metering
groundwater wells, programs for changing crop type
to less water consuming crops, and agricultural
extension services. Furthermore, legislations were
issued to restrict groundwater use by the industrial
sector.
aquifer rocks
outcrop U. A. Emirates
440000 450000 460000 470000
UTM E ast, m eters
Figure 1. Location of Bahrain and groundwater sampling sites
The above management measures, undertaken by
the water authorities in Bahrain since the early 1980s,
aim primarily at reducing groundwater abstraction
from the Dammam aquifer and enhancing its storage.
The overall objective is to allow the aquifer's
potentiometric levels to recover and modify its water
quality, thus increasing its sustainability as a usable
water resource as well as a strategic reserve for the
country.
In this study, the spatial distribution of the
Dammam aquifer state variables (potentiometry and
salinity) are investigated through a countrywide
potentiometry and hydrochemical survey conducted in
2001/02. Furthermore, a countrywide potentiometry
and hydrochemical survey conducted in 1991/923 is
used as a baseline data to evaluate the effectiveness of
groundwater management efforts and schemes in
terms of temporal changes in the aquifer water level
and quality over the period 1992-2002. Accordingly,
further measures required to control future
deterioration in the groundwater quality are suggested.

58 Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, Vol. 10, No.1, 2005

 Spatial and Temporal Trends in Groundwater Resources in Bahrain, 1992-2002

16000
2. MATERIAL AND METHODS
In Bahrain, the Water Resources Directorate (WRD),
Ministry of Municipalities and Agriculture, has an 12000

established groundwater level monitoring network that TDS = 622 x EC - 52.8

R2 = 0.98
consists of 21 boreholes in the Dammam aquifer

TDS, mg/L
(Figure 1). All of these observation wells have 8000

continuous water-level data since 1980, and are

reported on a monthly basis. Annual average water
4000
level data were used for preparing the water level
contour map for the year 2002 for the spatial analysis
of the aquifer potentiometry. Furthermore, a previous
0
water level contour map for the period 19923 was used 0 5 10 15 20 25
for the preparation of a water-level difference map for EC, micromhos/cm

the period 1992-2002, to enable the analysis of the Figure 2. EC vs TDS relationship for Dammam aquifer
temporal trends in the aquifer potentiometry. hydrochemical survey, 2001/2002
The spatial analysis of groundwater quality was
made through the use of a detailed hydrochemical
x Mg atomic weight. Ca hardness used to calculate
survey for the Dammam aquifer at 283 wells across
Mg was determined by EDTA titrimetric method using
the country. The survey was carried out in the period
Murexide indicator. Finally the TDS was measured by
2001/2002. Groundwater samples were taken from
adding the total anions and cations values of the water
constructed piped wells covering all the Dammam
sample.
aquifer utilization areas in Bahrain (Figure 1).
Bahrain does not have an established regularly
Groundwater samples from the north-central parts of
monitored groundwater quality network, and
Bahrain were somewhat limited, because most
groundwater quality monitoring is not carried out on
productive wells in these parts have been abandoned;
regular basis6. However, in the past, groundwater
aquifer salinity had reached about 11,000 mg/L since
quality monitoring for the Dammam aquifer in Bahrain
late 1970s4. The sampling procedure involved
has been carried out in the form of major country-wide
collecting water samples in polyethylene bottles after
surveys every about 10 years. Three comprehensive
pumping the sampled well for at least 5 minutes and
groundwater hydrochemical surveys were conducted
then sampling the recovered water in clean 1.5 liter
in the past. These were made in 19707, 1978/794, and
polythene bottles. This was done in an attempt to
1991/923. The last hydrochemical survey (1991/92)
remove groundwater stored in well bore and to obtain
was used with the current survey to produce the
a representative sample. Collected samples were
salinity difference maps for the period 1991/92-
transported directly to the laboratory for chemical
2001/02. Furthermore, the 1978/79 survey4, which
analysis. Out of the total 283 water samples, 132
surveyed all producing wells in Bahrain at that time
samples were further analyzed for major cations (Na,
(854 wells), was used for the statistical comparisons
Ca, Mg, K) and major anions (Cl, SO4, HCO3), total
with the two other recent surveys as a base-line data
alkalinity (CaCO3), total hardness (CaCO3), pH,
for the temporal analysis.
Electrical Conductivity (EC), and Total Dissolved
Records of groundwater abstraction from the
Solids (TDS) . The rest of the water samples (151)
Dammam aquifer were obtained from the WRD
were only analyzed for EC, and their TDS was
records. Groundwater abstraction was monitored on
calculated from an established relationship between
an annual basis since 1980.
the TDS and EC measured in the 132 wells (Figure 2).
Standard methods were used for the determination
of the chemical characteristics of the water samples5. 3. HYDROGEOLOGIC SETTING
The pH and EC were measured using portable pH and The Dammam aquifer, a confined coastal aquifer, is
EC meters. The total alkalinity was measured by the developed in the Tertiary limestone and dolomite
acidimetry method using methyl orange as indicator, members of the Dammam Formation. The Dammam
while the total hardness was determined by EDTA aquifer in Bahrain forms only a small part of an
titrimetric method using black T indicator. Na and K extensive regional aquifer system, termed the Eastern
were determined by flame photometry. SO4 was Arabian Aquifer, which extends from central Saudi
determined using standard gravimetric method using Arabia, where the aquifer crops out and its main
Barium Chromate. Cl was measured by the recharge area is located, to the Arabian Gulf, including
orgenometric method against Silver Nitrate using Bahrain, Kuwait and southern Qatar. The Dammam
Potassium Chromate as indicator, and HCO3 by aquifer in Bahrain receives its water mainly by under-
calculation from total alkalinity. Mg was measured by flow from this regional aquifer, with additional,
calculation using the formula: Mg in mg/L = (total insignificant amounts by rainfall recharge, averaging
hardness ml titrant value-Ca hardness ml titrant value) about 0.5Mm3/y4. According to many researchers 3,8,4,9,

Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, Vol. 10, No.1, 2005 59

W. K. Zubari
the steady-state rate of underflow from eastern Saudi
Arabia to Bahrain ranges between from 100-112
Mm3/y.
The Dammam aquifer system in Bahrain islands,
which is an anticlinal structure, consists of two aquifer
zones, designated the ‘A’ and ‘B’ zones, developed in
the Alat (15-25 m thick) and Khobar (40-49 m thick)
limestone members of the Dammam Formation,
respectively (Figure 3). In the core of the anticline, at
the center of Bahrain main island, the rocks of the
Dammam Formation are completely eroded (Figure 1),
exposing the rocks of the underlying Rus Formation
(early Eocene). The Dammam aquifer system is
confined in most of Bahrain from above by the
claystones of the Neogene Formation (10-60 m thick),
and from the base by the shale beds of the Sharks
Tooth Shale Member (8-20 m thick) of the Dammam
Formation, in addition to the anhydrite and shale
deposits in the upperpart located in the top of the Rus
Formation. The two aquifer zones are separated by
the Orange Marl Member (9-15 m thick) of the same
formation. In the western part of Bahrain island, at the
locality of Hamalah, the Neogene claystones and parts
of the Alat limestone are eroded due to a structural
high that exists at that locality, and the aquifer is
unconfined (Figure 1).
The ‘A’ aquifer has limited hydraulic properties,
where it possesses an average transmissivity of about
350 m2/d. The ‘B’ aquifer zone, developed in highly
fractured limestones and dolomites, the principal
aquifer in Bahrain, where it provides more than 70%
of the total groundwater abstraction. This is due to the
high transmissive properties (average transmissivity is
about 10,000 m2/d) of the aquifer. Due to the presence
A Bahrain main island
0
20
40 A
60
80
B
100
meters below sea level
120
140
160
180
Limestone (Aquifer)
200
Shale and marl (Aquitard)
220
Anhydrite (Aquitard)
240
Underflow from Saudi Arabia
260 A Umm Er Radhuma
280 B Dammam aquifer zones
300
C Rus-Umm Er Radhuma aquifer
320
0 10
Distance, km
Figure 3. Hydrogeological cross section, Bahrain
60
of a semi-confining layer between the two zones and
improper well- completion practices, in which both
aquifers are tapped by most wells, little variation of
water chemistry exists between the ‘A’ and ‘B’ aquifer
zones4. Therefore, in this study, the two are considered
together to represent the Dammam aquifer.
A third aquifer zone, termed locally as ‘C’, is
developed in the Rus Formation and the upper parts of
the Umm Er Radhuma (UER) Formation (Paleocene to
early Eocene). The Rus Formation is composed of
fractured chalky dolomitic limestone, with subsidiary
shale and anhydrite intercalations in its upper section.
The Rus Formation in the central and eastern parts of
Bahrain has undergone extensive solution of its
anhydrite (Figure 3), which has led to the collapse of
the overlying rocks, and more importantly, has
reduced the effectiveness of its upper confining layer,
which causes a relatively easier migration of its water
into the Dammam aquifer in those areas10.
Groundwater in the 'C' aquifer zone occurs in the form
of brackish water lens (8000-15000 mg/L) in Bahrain
main island, with total reserves of about 10,000 Mm3.
The salinity of groundwater in the aquifer gradually
increases with depth. In central Bahrain island,
salinity increases from about 8000 mg/L at the water
table, at about 5 m elevation above mean sea level, to
about 15,000 mg/L at a depth of about 150 m below
mean sea level. The brackish water lens is underlain
by brine with a salinity of more than 40,000 mg/L.
Due to its high salinity, utilization of groundwater
from the 'C' aquifer is restricted to industrial purposes
in the north-central region and to supplying
desalination plants on the eastern coast of Bahrain
main island; total abstraction is about 30 Mm3/y.
Sitrah
A'
island
Geological Units
Neogene Formation
+ Recent deposits
Alat Member
Formation
Dammam
C Orange Marl Member
Khobar Member
Sharks Tooth Shale M.
Rus Formation
(+anhydrite & shales)
A
A'
Formation
20 30
Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, Vol. 10, No.1, 2005
 Spatial and Temporal Trends in Groundwater Resources in Bahrain, 1992-2002

4. GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT AND 300

MANAGEMNET 250
Wells Abstraction
Prior to 1925, Bahrain’s population depended entirely

Abstraction, Mm3
200
on the naturally flowing land and offshore springs, to
meet its domestic and agricultural needs. The 150
Aquifer Safe Yield
estimated natural springs (about 15 land and 20 100
offshore) discharge from the aquifer was about 95
Mm3/yr 11-13. Mechanized well drilling and abstraction 50 Natural Springs Discharge

was introduced to Bahrain Islands in 1925 along with 0

oil exploration activities. The oil discovery in 1932 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
and the sudden increase in the country’s oil revenues Year

in the early 1970s have resulted in a rapid population

growth, urban development, industrial and agricultural Figure 4. Dammam aquifer abstraction history in Bahrain, 1920-2002.
expansion, and was accompanied by a dramatic
increase in water demands and consumption. These
At present, all water management schemes
demands have been met mainly by abstraction from
concentrate principally on reducing groundwater
the Dammam aquifer and hence substituted the natural
abstraction from the Dammam aquifer in the
springs, which experienced a significant reduction in
agricultural and municipal sectors, which are the main
their discharge (53 Mm3 in 195215; 14.7 Mm3 in
groundwater consumers, at 73% and 24%, respectively.
197913; 5 Mm3 in 19903). At present, all springs have
Reduction of groundwater abstraction in the
ceased to flow14.
agricultural sector, currently (2001) at about 160
The total abstraction rate from the aquifer was
Mm3/y (73% of total groundwater withdrawal), is
about 65 Mm3/y in the early 1950s16, increased to
conceptualized through the gradual replacement of
about 112 Mm3/y in the mid-1960s12 and reached
groundwater used for irrigation by tertiary treated
about 138 Mm3/y in the late 1970s4. In the early
wastewater through an ambitious plan that would
1990s, the total abstraction from the aquifer reached
provide eventually about 73 Mm3/y of these waters by
about 205 Mm3/y3, and in 2001 it is estimated at about
the year 2010 17-19.
218 Mm3/y. Figure 4 displays the abstraction history
The expansion of the tertiary treated facilities in
from the Dammam aquifer in Bahrain. The figure also
Bahrain are still under planning and construction
indicates the Dammam aquifer safe yield, estimated at
phases. Bahrain has a major wastewater treatment
about 110 Mm3/y (equal to the aquifer’s recharge rate
plant (Tubli Wastewater Treatment Plant), currently
received at Bahrain by lateral under-flow from the up-
receives 160,000 m3/d (58.4 Mm3/y), but due to
gradient Saudi Arabia aquifers under steady-state
treatment capacity limitations only 40,000 (14.6
conditions), and it also shows the observed natural
Mm3/y) of which is tertiary treated and are used for
springs discharge rates. Total groundwater withdrawal
irrigation and landscaping. The rest receives secondary
(abstraction + natural springs discharge) in Bahrain
treatment and is disposed of into the sea. It is planned
have exceeded the suggested safe yield of the aquifer
that by the year 2010 the plant will be gradually
since the early 1960s, and presently is more than twice
expanded to receive and tertiary-treat about 200,000
that rate, indicating that a large proportion of the water
m3/d (73 Mm3/y), all of which all will be used for
abstracted is being taken from the aquifer’s storage.
irrigation.
The reduction of the Dammam aquifer storage and
Furthermore, at present, agricultural development
drop in its potentiometric surface has led to a marked
program emphasizing demand management and
quality deterioration and salinization of the aquifer’s
groundwater conservation has been initiated and is
water mainly by seawater intrusion and brackish water
being partially implemented along with the expansion
up-flow.
in the utilization of the tertiary treated wastewater in
Realizing the deteriorating conditions of groundwater
irrigation to substitute groundwater. This program is
resources and their limited capacity, the general policy of
represented by three major components aimed at
Bahrain water authorities with regard to water use is to
reducing groundwater consumption, its efficient
allocate groundwater exclusively for the agricultural
utilization, and minimizing groundwater wastage.
sector and to reduce groundwater dependency for the
These are: 1) metering of all groundwater wells; 2)
municipal sector by constructing additional desalination
groundwater pricing using an incremental tariff based
plants. Furthermore, tertiary treated wastewater is to
on volume used; and 3) changing crop types,
supplement groundwater used in irrigation, and to meet
particularly alfalfa, to less water consuming fodder
additional requirements for future agricultural
crops. The first component of the program (metering
development in the country. These supply augmentation
groundwater wells) has started in 1997 and was
efforts were supplemented rather recentlyby demand
implemented successfully, and had a positive impact on
management schemes to further reduce water use in
groundwater abstraction levels (Figure 4).
general and groundwater in particular.

Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, Vol. 10, No.1, 2005 61

W. K. Zubari
However, the second component of the program
(groundwater pricing) could not be implemented due
to socio-economical and political constraints, and is
still pending. The third component of the program
(changing crop type) is still in the experimental and
extension stage and also receives farmers resistant.
Currently (2001), domestic consumption in
Bahrain is about 143 Mm3, with about 90 Mm3/y
supplied by desalination, while the rest (53 Mm3) is
from groundwater abstraction, and represents about
24% of total groundwater withdrawal. Reduction of
groundwater abstraction in the municipal sector is
being planned through the construction of a major
desalination plant and rehabilitating and upgrading the
capacity of its existing three desalination plants. It is
expected that desalination capacity increases to about
176 Mm3/y by the year 2010. By this expansion, it is
anticipated that groundwater abstraction by the
municipal sector would be reduced significantly.
On the demand management side, there have been
considerable efforts and major achievements in
reducing and/or maintaining water consumption in
general and groundwater in particular, through a well-
planned schemes in the municipal sector. Unlike the
conditions in the agricultural sector, the presence of a
conducive environment, represented by a Bahrain in terms of spatial and temporal changes in
metering/billing system since the early 1980s and the
ability to control supply have facilitated the
implementation of these schemes. These programs
have started initially in 1986 and were enforced in the
early 1990s, and were represented by reviewing and
applying escalating tariffs system, rationing demand
during peak times, pressure control, leak detection,
economic incentives, advice and installation of
households' water saving equipment, and public
awareness campaigns20. The estimated total impact of
these programs was in lowering the annual increase in
municipal water demand from about 11% in the period
before implementing these programs to 4% in 1994 21.
Despite these continuing efforts, groundwater
production for municipal purposes has continued to
increase, due to the limited capacity of the country’s
desalination plants and increasing municipal water
requirements resulting from population growth and
urban expansion. This has prompted the issuance of a
prime ministerial order to maintain a ceiling for
groundwater production by the municipal sector to no
more than 54 Mm3/y in May 1994, until the
commissioning of a new desalination plant with a
capacity of about 50 Mm3/y. In April 2000, Al-Hidd
desalination plant was commissioned, and
groundwater production ceiling was left.
Another management measure was aimed at
reducing groundwater utilization by the industrial
sector, currently at about 5 Mm3/y (3% of total
groundwater withdrawal). Beginning from 1980, the
water authorities have issued a legislative order that
consisted of prohibiting the industrial sector from
using the Dammam aquifer water22 and to meet its
62
water demands from the underlying brackish water
zones (Rus-Umm Er Radhuma aquifer; TDS = 8,000 -
15,000 mg/L). The objectives of this scheme are to
control and decrease the abstraction rates from the
Dammam aquifer by the expanding industrial sector,
and to lower the potentiometric levels in the brackish
water zones and decrease the vertical hydraulic
gradients between the Dammam aquifer and its
underlying brackish water zones in order to reduce
their upward migration and salinization of the
aquifer4,10.
Moreover, in the early 1990s, artificial recharge
was considered by the water authorities in Bahrain to
augment depleting groundwater resources and to
improve their deteriorating quality. Two pilot projects
for rainfall collection into retention basins and its
recharge into the Dammam aquifer via gravity
recharge wells are being carried out and are still under
investigation and evaluation. However, rainfall
variability in space and time constrains the proper
evaluation of the effectiveness of these schemes23.
In the following section, the current potentiometry
and salinity surveys were used to assess the
effectiveness of the above management schemes in
modifying the deteriorating groundwater resources in
the aquifer's state variables.
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1. Spatial Trend Analysis
Potentiometry
Average potentiometric level contour map for the
Dammam aquifer for the year 2002 is displayed in
Figure 5. The contour map indicates that most of the
potentiometric surface of the Dammam aquifer in
Bahrain is below sea level, with two major cones of
depression (-2.0 m below sea level) in the western
area, where intensive agricultural activities and
groundwater abstraction are located. In the north-
central region, the potentiometric surface is
anomalously high, reaching about +1.2 m above sea
level. This high represents the areas where active
brackish water up-flow from the underlying Rus
Formation is taking place. The highest potentiometric
surface in Bahrain is located in north and northwest
(-0.4 m at north Muharraq island and -0.2 m at Umm
Al-Na'asan island), where the aquifer in Bahrain
receives its water by under-flow from Saudi Arabia.
The results of the countrywide hydrochemical survey
are statistically summarized in Table 1. The Dammam
aquifer in Bahrain receives its water by lateral under-
flow from the equivalent aquifers in Eastern Saudi
Arabia. Groundwater received at Bahrain generally
has a background quality limits characterized by: TDS
<3000 mg/L, Cl- <1100 mg/L, SO42- <470 mg/L,
HCO3- <220 mg/L, Na+ <600 mg/L, Ca2+ <245 mg/L,
Mg2+ <80 mg/L, and K+ <35 mg/L4.24.25.
Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, Vol. 10, No.1, 2005
 Spatial and Temporal Trends in Groundwater Resources in Bahrain, 1992-2002

2905000

2905000
Salinity
mg/L

50000

2900000
A
46000
2895000

42000
B

2895000
D 38000

34000

30000

2890000
26000
2885000

22000
UTM North, meters

18000

2885000
14000
Aquifer 10000
Rocks

2880000
6000
Limit
2875000

2000

2875000
440000 445000 450000 455000 460000 465000
UTM East, meters
2865000

3000 TDS contour, Contour interval <10,000 mg/L = 1,000 mg/L

Contour interval >10,000 mg/L = 5,000 mg/L
TDS Sampling Site

Figure 6. Spatial distribution of salinity (TDS) in the Dammam

aquifer in Bahrain, 2001/2002
2855000

Table 1. Statistical Summary of TDS and Major Ions

Concentrations in the Dammam Aquifer in 1991/1992.
440000 450000 460000
Standard
UTM East, meters Constituent N Mean Mode Median Min Max
Deviation

Figure 5. Potentiometric surface of the Dammam aquifer TDS, mg/L 283 6051 5046 5482 5125 2097 53562
in Bahrain, 2002
Cl- , mg/L 132 3119 3831 1888 2078 826 29780
Salinity
A comparison between these background SO42- , mg/L 132 981 543 1251 903 372 3946
concentrations limits and the means of concentrations HCO3- , mg/L 132 223 31 205 214 132 345
obtained from the conducted survey (Table 1), shows
an overall increase in the concentration of chemical CO32- , mg/L 132 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
constituents of the groundwater in Bahrain: 63% of the
Na+ , mg/L 132 1600 2102 600 1052 417 16480
samples have a TDS >3000 mg/L, t 67% of the
samples have Cl- >1100 mg/L, about 68% of the Ca2+ , mg/L 132 440 168 501 431 168 1093
samples have SO42- >470 mg/L, 30% of the samples
have HCO3- >220 mg/L, about 66% of the samples Mg2+ , mg/L 132 222 235 134 168 61 1885
have Na+ >600 mg/L, about 75% of the samples have K+ , mg/L 132 70 76 40 50 20 610
Mg2+ >80 mg/L, and about 65% of the samples have
K+ >35 mg/L. The majority of the sampled
groundwater from the Dammam aquifer in Bahrain place as the water moves from the northwest to the
suggests a widespread inland mixing with higher southeast in the aquifer.
concentration waters. In Bahrain there are four active sources of
Figure 6 shows the spatial distribution of TDS of pollution for the Dammam aquifer that have been
groundwater in the Dammam aquifer in Bahrain in identified by several researchers. The areas where
2001/02. The figure indicates that better quality water these sources are active are marked A, B, C, and D on
(TDS <3000 mg/L) in the Dammam aquifer flows the salinity map (Figure 6). Since the aquifer in the
toward Bahrain from the northwest, where the aquifer south-east locality is in hydraulic contact with the sea9,
is recharged by lateral underflow from its extension in where a seawater - fresh water interface exists at
eastern Saudi Arabia. According to the TDS isolines Sitrah Island (TDS ≈16000 mg/L), the salinization
distribution, considerable quality deterioration process in zone A is essentially attributed to sea water
takes encroachment 26-29,1,2,4,9. Zone B is located over much

Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, Vol. 10, No.1, 2005 63

W. K. Zubari

of the north-central region with a salinity ranging

5000
between 7000-10,000 mg/L, represents the upward Seawater in the Dammam
flow from the underlying upper Rus Formations, aquifer at east coast of
Bahrain
which has a salinity of 8000-15000 mg/L 9,7,4,10,1,2,29.
2000
The zone seems to be extending towards the major
municipal and agricultural abstraction areas of the
1000
aquifer located north and west of Bahrain,
respectively.
In zone C southwest Bahrain, the aquifer lies in 500

the vicinity of an extensive sabkha containing saline

M g +2 , m g/L
water with a TDS of over 10000 mg/L. Therefore, incoming Dammam
aquifer water received
salinization of the aquifer with a TDS of more than 200 by underflow from
eastern Saudi Arabia
9000 mg/L is most probably caused by the flow of
sabkha’s water into the aquifer 30,4,1,2,29. In western 100

Bahrain, and somewhat masked by the brackish water

up-flow from the underlying formations, a relatively 50
small salinity anomaly in the TDS of more than 5000 Upper Rus aquifer brackish
water in bahrain (GDC, 1980;
Typical Dammam aquifer at eastern
Saudi Arabia (Hassan and Cagatay,
mg/L can be observed (zone D). This salinity anomaly 1983) 1994)
is caused by irrigation return flows in this locality due 20 Seawater off the east Agricultural drainage water in Hamala
area, west Bahrain (Raveendran
to the erosion of the aquifer's confining layer, massive coast of Bahrain
and Madany, 1991)
agricultural activities manifested by heavy flood 10
irrigation and frequent washing of soil, and inefficient 100 200 500 1000 2000
irrigation drainage system 1,29. Ca+2, mg/L

Analysis of the chemical data set and relations

Figure 7. Ca vs. Mg plot in the Dammam aquifer in Bahrain, 2001/02
among various chemical components indicated that the
relation between Ca and Mg can be used as a good
indicator of the origin of salinization in the Dammam
aquifer in Bahrain29. Figure 7 is a scatter plot of the
relation between Ca and Mg (mg/L) in groundwater,
with the magnitude of the TDS of the samples added
as a third dimension to the plot. Uncontaminated Drawdown,
meters
groundwater in the Dammam aquifer evolves mainly
in the direction of the Rus Formation brackish waters 2.8
and towards the seawater, indicating that these two 2.6
mechanisms are currently dominating the salinization 2.4
process of the Dammam aquifer.
2.2
5.2. TEMPORAL TRENDS 2

Potentiometry 1.8

1.6
Figure 8 displays drawdown contour map between the
1.4
current survey (2002) and the previous survey
conducted in 1992 in the Dammam aquifer. 1.2

Examination of the spatial distribution of the 1

difference map indicates that there is a general water 0.8

level drop in the aquifer, and the aquifer did not have 0.6
any recovery in its water levels in the period from 0.4
1992-2002. The maximum drop in the water level, 0.2
reaching about 2.8 m, is observed at the northwest
0
region of Bahrain, where major groundwater
abstraction is taking place and where the aquifer has
better water quality.
Salinity
A comparison between the TDS levels surveyed in
2001/02 and those of the 1991/923 and 1978/79 (GDC,
Figure 8. Drawdown contour map for the Dammam aquifer in
1980a) surveys are statistically summarized in Table 2.
Bahrain, 1992-2002
The table indicates that the mean TDS values for the
Dammam aquifer in Bahrain have increased by about
25% over the period 1979-1991, and by about 30%

64 Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, Vol. 10, No.1, 2005

 Spatial and Temporal Trends in Groundwater Resources in Bahrain, 1992-2002

over the period 1992-2002 (with an overall increase of

about 60% for the 1979-2002 period), indicating even
more spread of salinity deterioration in the period
under investigation. TDS, mg/L
9000
Figure 9 shows a contour map of the salinity 8000
difference in the Dammam aquifer for the period 7000
1991/92-2001/02. Examination of the spatial 6000
distribution of the TDS temporal changes signifies the 5000
deterioration of groundwater quality in most of the 4000

aquifer areas in Bahrain; zero difference contour line 3000

marks the increase and decrease in the TDS. The map 2000

indicates that the upward migration of brackish 1000

groundwater from the underlying Rus formation, 0

previously restricted to the north-central parts of -1000

Bahrain1, has extended to most of the northwestern -2000

areas of Bahrain, where most of the agricultural -3000

activities are located and extensive pumping is taking -4000

place. Furthermore, at the east coast of Bahrain

seawater intrusion has clearly advanced more inland,
with salinity increases reaching 9000 mg/L in certain
locations (Manama and Muharraq).
Modification in the aquifer TDS levels, reaching
about 4000 mg/L, can also be observed at certain
locations in Bahrain. However, this reduction is Figure 9. Salinity difference map for the Dammam aquifer in
considered insignificant since the TDS of the Bahrain, 1992-2002
groundwater at these locations is still high and reaches
more than 6000 mg/L. This slight modification is Mm3, about 36% increase compared to the total
caused by the abandonment of most of the abstraction volume abstracted volume (1628 Mm3) from the
wells allowing slight recovery in the aquifer in these aquifer in the period 1978/79-1991/92. Obviously the
vicinities. reduction in groundwater abstraction did not have a
major impact on groundwater levels and salinity due to
6. EFFECTIVENESS OF GROUNDWATER the large volumes taken from the aquifer storage
MANAGEMENT SCHEMES during this period, and due to the fact that total
abstraction rates are still above the aquifer safe yield
Analysis of the spatial and temporal changes of the (110 Mm3/y).
Dammam aquifer indicates that management schemes
and efforts undertaken in the last 10 years have not Table 2. Statistical Comparison for TDS and Abstraction Rates
been effective in modifying aquifer's state variables of Between the current survey 2001/2002, and the 1978/79 Survey4,
potentiometry and salinity. This could be attributed to and the 1991/92 Survey 3.
that the impact of these schemes is still insignificant
and/or has been counter-acted by the continuous 1978/79 1991/92 2001/2002
increase in abstraction rates from the Dammam aquifer (N=854) (N=254) (N=283)
by other users, mainly agricultural wells. Mean, mg/L 3751 4679 6051
As discussed previously, total groundwater
Standard Deviation, mg/L 2385 2723 5046
withdrawal in Bahrain has exceeded the suggested safe
yield of the aquifer since the early 1960s (Figure 4), Mode, mg/L 2432 2240 5482
indicating that a large proportion of the water Median, mg/L 3000 3455 5125
abstracted is being taken from the aquifer’s storage. It Minimum, mg/L 2016 2120 2086
can be observed that groundwater abstraction rates
have been intensified during the investigation period Maximum, mg/L 29000 16640 53562
(1992-2002); analysis of the abstraction rate of the Abstraction rate, Mm3/y 138 187 218
aquifer in the period of investigation indicates that in
1991/92 groundwater abstraction rate was about 187
Mm3/y, increased to more than 250 Mm3 in 1998, 7. CONCLUSION AND
before it could be brought down by the implementa- RECOMMENDATIONS
tion of management schemes to about 218 Mm3/y in A countrywide potentiometry and salinity surveys in
2001/2002 (an increase of about 17% in the period the Dammam aquifer in Bahrain has been conducted in
1991/92-2001/02). In this period, the total abstracted the year 2001/2002 to investigate the aquifer
volume from the aquifer was calculated at about 2230 deterioration process. Spatial analysis of the

Emirates Journal for Engineering Research, Vol. 10, No.1, 2005 65

W. K. Zubari
potentiometry and salinity indicated that most of the
potentiometric surface of the aquifer is below sea level
and that widespread salinization of the aquifer water is
occurring. Spatial distribution of the sampled TDS
concentrations indicates that the quality of the
recharge flow received in Bahrain from the equivalent
aquifers in Eastern Saudi Arabia has been significantly
influenced by inland mixing with higher concentration
waters. Salinization of the aquifer water is caused by:
1) sea water intrusion in eastern Bahrain; 2) brackish
water upward flow from the underlying formations in
north-central and western Bahrain; 3) migration of
sabkha’s water in the south-west; and 4) agricultural
drainage water in local areas west of Bahrain.
Temporal analysis of the potentiometric surface
(drawdown map) between the current survey and a
previous survey conducted in 1992 for the aquifer has
indicated a general water level drop in the aquifer, and
the aquifer did not have any recovery in its water
levels in this period. Furthermore, statistical
comparison between the measured TDS in the present
survey and a previous survey conducted in 1992
illustrated that the mean TDS values for the Dammam
aquifer in Bahrain has increased by about 30% over
this period, demonstrating an increase in the
deterioration process. This was confirmed by
examining the spatial distribution of the TDS temporal
changes, where groundwater quality deterioration has
become more widespread in the period 1992-2002,
caused mainly by brackish water up-flow and seawater
intrusion.
Analysis of the spatial and temporal changes of
the Dammam aquifer indicated that management
schemes and efforts undertaken in the last 10 years by
the water authorities in Bahrain, manifested by
reducing groundwater abstraction by about 50 Mm3,
have not been effective in modifying the aquifer's state
variables; the current abstraction rates still exceed the
suggested aquifer's safe yield by one fold.
Conclusions drawn from the present study point
out that unless the current levels of abstraction from
the Dammam aquifer are brought back closer to the
level of renewable recharge, groundwater quality
would be completely ruined. The potentially ruinous
trend, associated with the continuous and prolonged
over-abstraction of the aquifer system, could be
reversed via implementation of proper management
plans designed to restore groundwater quality, with its
key factor is the control of abstraction rates.
Moreover, analysis of the implemented
groundwater management schemes indicates that most
of these schemes lie within the supply-side
engineering measures rather than on the demand-side
management interventions. Worldwide experiences
have shown that significant reductions in abstraction
rates can be achieved in the latter, particularly in the
agricultural sector, the major groundwater consumer in
the country, and where major wastage and major
savings can be made. This could be effectively
66
achieved by introducing economic incentives coupled
with enforced legislation, such as groundwater tariffs
based on the volume abstracted, especially that
metering of most of groundwater wells in Bahrain has
been achieved.
This study provides information that may be
useful for the management of groundwater resources
in Bahrain, especially with respect to sources of
salinization and their influence areas. Future artificial
recharge areas to the Dammam aquifer by available
sources of water (e.g. rainwater, excess tertiary treated
wastewater) should be chosen at the north-central and
the eastern areas where brackish water up-flow and
seawater are active, respectively. Additionally, treated
wastewater utilization should be given the priority to
be applied in the western agricultural areas. However,
it is suggested that irrigation water augmentation by
treated wastewater should be used to replace
groundwater wells to lower groundwater abstraction
and not be used in the expansion of agriculture.
It is recommended that aquifer salinity be
monitored on continuous basis, and similar periodic
temporal analysis for the aquifer state variables be
made against the current survey to measure the
effectiveness of the future implemented schemes in
Bahrain.
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