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THE FEELING MIND

Emotion
- Psychologists usually define it in terms of a combination of
cognitions, physiology, feelings, and actions (Keltner &
Shiota, 2003; Plutchick, 1982).
- For the way most people use the term emotion, the key
component is the feeling.
- combination of arousal, physical sensations and subjective
feelings that occurs spontaneously towards in response to
environmental stimuli.

The Crucial Importance of Emotion

- It’s not true that better decisions are made without the
influence of emotions, despite vast pop culture lore promoting
this idea.
- Brain damaged people whose emotions are impaired become
poor decision-makers.
- Emotions powerfully inform our decisions, and are closely
related to motivation.

NATURE OF EMOTION
Measuring Emotions is challenging. Each method has strengths and
weaknesses.
- Self-reports are fast and easy but have questionable
accuracy.
- Behavioral observations - especially of facial expressions -
are useful. Facial emotions can be suppressed but micro-
expressions can be very revealing.
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- Physiological meas[[ures use autonomic nervous activity.

These are harder to control but their meaning is ambiguous.

Excitement and Physiological Arousal

The role of the autonomic nervous system
- It controls the functioning of the internal organs.
- It has two subdivisions, the sympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous systems.

Sympathetic Nervous System

- Made up of two chains of neuron clusters to the left and right
of the spinal cord.
- increases the heart rate, breathing rate, production of sweat,
and flow of adrenaline.
- prepares the body for intense activity, “fight or flight” and
other high energy behaviors. It is the “crisis management”
center.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

- Consists of neurons with axons extending out from the
medulla and the lower spinal cord.
- The axons connect to neuron clusters near the internal organs.
- It’s the long-term survival center, promoting rest by
decreasing heart rate, digestion, and other functions that keep
an organism healthy and alive.
> Both systems shifts between the two systems keeps
the body in a balanced condition - homeostasis.
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> Emergencies activate the sympathetic nervous system,

but involve some parasympathetic activity (i.e., being
frightened causes an individual to lose bowel or bladder
control).
> Autonomic responses aren’t directly controlled, but can
be influence through thought and behavior – as with athletes
who control breathing and focus their concentration for
improved aim.

The Opponent-Process Principle of Emotions

- After sympathetic nervous system activity slows,
parasympathetic activity increases.
- Removal of a stimulus that excites one emotion causes a
swing to an opposite emotion. The initial emotion is the “A”
state, and the rebound emotion is the “B” state.
- With repetition of the cycle, the A state becomes weaker, and
the B state is prolonged and strengthened.

* Common sense dictates that one feels sad and therefore one cries,
one feels happy and then laughs. *

The James-Lange Theory of Emotions

- Two early psychologists, working independently, came up with
an alternative explanation of how emotion and physiological
reactions are related.
- The theory proposes that a person’s interpretation of a
stimulus directly evokes autonomic changes.
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- The psychological experience of emotion is the individual’s

perception of those changes.
- You decide you are happy because you are smiling, sad
because you are frowning and tears are forming in your eyes.
- The reactions are not enough to produce the emotions, but full
experience of the emotions is impossible without them.

Effects of Decreased Perceived Arousal

- Some medical conditions cause people to feel little
physiological arousal.
- In pure autonomic failure the ANS stops regulating the internal
organs.
- People who suffer from it recognize situations that call for
strong emotions (fear, elation) but they report that their
emotions are much less intense.
- This is what the James-Lange theory predicts.

Schachter And Singer’s Theory of Emotions

- Physiological state is not the same as the emotion.
- The intensity of the physiological reaction determines only the
intensity of the emotion, not the type of emotion.
- A person’s cognitive appraisal of the situation that determines
the emotion experienced.
- Research studies based on the theory leave some unanswered
questions about the contribution of physiological arousal to the
intensity of the emotional states.
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Catharsis
- A theory of emotion that views emotion as reservoir that fills
up and spills over; it predicts that expressing an emotion will
reduce arousal.

Contemporary Approaches
1. Somatovisceral afference model of emotion (SAME) –
different emotional states produce physical responses ranging
from specific to ambiguous
- Ambiguous responses require more appraisal than
specific responses before a subjective feeling is
identified.
- Provides a middle ground between the James-Lange
Theory and Schachter and Singer Theories.
- If a physical response is only partially specific, an
ambiguous message is sent forward that is clarified by
the presence of additional cues or information.
2. Appraisal theory – the detection and assessment of stimuli
that are relevant to personal well-being.

Usefulness of Emotions
1. Emotions would have not evolved were they not informative.
2. They adjust our priorities and focus attention on important
information.
3. The broaden-and-build hypothesis of positive emotions states
that happy moods increase readiness to explore new ideas and
opportunities.
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4. Mildly sad moods increase the accuracy of judgment and

decision-making.
5. Emotions influence moral decisions.
6. Using the Trolley Dilemma and Footbridge Dilemma,
problems involving decisions about letting a small number of
people die to save a larger number, provide evidence that
emotions play a powerful role in deciding the most moral
course of action.
> Good decision-making is thought to require a great degree of
emotional control, hence the familiar advice to remain calm and
rational faced with big decisions.
> This is not entirely true. Only extreme emotions interfere with
decision-making.
> Some degree of emotionality is needed for good decision-making.

Decisions by People with Impaired Emotions

- Case studies of brain damaged patients suggest that the
ability to experience and express emotions plays a key role in
important life and moral decisions.
- The case of Phineas Gage and Antonio Damasio’s case study
of “Elliot” provide evidence that feeling distinctly good or bad
is crucial to achieve the best outcome in important decisions.

Emotional Intelligence
- The ability to perceive, imagine and understand emotions and
to use them in decision-making.
- This concept has gained a great deal of popularity over the
past decades
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- Evidence for its existence is still not strong.

- Measuring this construct poses significant challenges.
- In constructing questions for a test of emotional intelligence,
too often the best answer might be “it depends.”
- It’s an interesting idea, but requires further and better
research.
- The ability to imagine the feeling that we would have
pursuing options presented to us is essential to good decision-
making.

Motivation
- is the process of activating, maintaining and directing
behavior toward a particular goal. It is the “why” of our
behavior.
> Motives – are thoughts, feelings or condition that
arouse, maintain and direct the behavior toward a
goal.
> Homeostasis – process of maintaining internal
equilibrium which is keeping the body’s metabolic and
chemical processes in good functioning order thus
keeping us in good health.

Classification of Motives
1. Physiological Motives – are those that arise from the needs
of the body.
a. Hunger b. Thirst c. Sleep
d. Air Hunger e. Cold & Warmth f. Pain Avoidance
g. Elimination Drive
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2. Social Motives – grow out of our relationship with others

a. Achievement b. Achievement c. Affiliation
d. Social Approval e. Status
3. Sex Drive – neither physical nor social

Theories of Motivation
A. Biological Theories
1. Instinct Theory – William James
- “they naturally act that way”
- Humans have rigid and fixed motor response patterns
that are not learned and have an inherited, genetic
foundation established in the course of evolution.
2. Drive Reduction Theory – Clark Hull
- Motivation begins with a physiological need (lack or
deficiency) that elicits a psychological energy or drive
directed toward behavior that will satisfy the need.
Once the need is met, a state of balanced
(homeostasis) is restored and motivation decreases

B. Psychological Theories
1. Incentive Theory
- External stimuli pull the person to a certain direction
- Rewards like recognition, money, etc. pull the person
to behave towards the goal.
2. Cognitive Theory
- Emphasizes thought processes in goal-directed
behavior
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- Behavior is attributed to certain causes

C. Interactionism
1. Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
- Lower needs must be fulfilled before advancing to
higher level needs
- Pyramid illustration shows five (5) levels where the
lowest has the biggest in quantity and to be
addressed first before going up
- Partial satisfaction can lead to the individual to
advance to the next level

Hierarchy of Needs
1. Physiological – hunger, thirst and maintenance of internal
state of the body
2. Safety – to feel secure and safe, to seek pleasure and avoid
pain
3. Belongingness and love – to affiliate with others, be
accepted and give and receive attention
4. Esteem – to achieve, be competent, gain approval and excel
5. Self-Actualization – to find self-fulfillment and realize one
potential

Unconcious Motivation
- It is when we do certain things but do not know why we do
them, Motives are not clearly defined.
- In the Psychoanalytic Theory, it is attributed to some
repressed memory, thought or feeling. When we feel
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uncomfortable, or even guilty about certain feelings or

thoughts, we remove them from our conscious awareness and
perforce drive them to the level of the subconscious.
Therefore, they are not remembered consciously but influence
our behavior sometimes.

Signs of Unconcious Motivation

1. There is denial in the output of his behavior
2. Manifestation of signs of emotional tension without
acknowledging them
3. Presence of inconsistencies, in behavior at different times.