Appendix Supplementary Grammar Charts UNIT A: Basic Grammar Terminology PO Boca comely acd sv () Birds Ty? (noun) (verb) soy (b) The'Baby" ried? (oun) (vere) s ovo (©) The'Student heeds a ‘per: (oun) (verb) (noun) sv ° (@) My Trend Snjoyed the Bari? (ooun) (vers) (noun) Almost all English sentences contain a subject (S) and a verb (V). The verb ‘may or may not be followed by an object (0). vers: Verbs that are not followed by an object, as in (a) and (b), are called “intransitive verbs.” ‘Common intransitive verbs: agree, arrive, come, cry, exist, go, happen, live, occur, rain, rise, sleep, stay, walk. \Verbs that are followed by an object, as in (c) and (d), are called “transitive verbs.” ‘Common transitive verbs: build, cut, find, like, make, need, send, use, want. ‘Some verbs can be either intransitive or transitive. Intransitive: A student studies. ‘Transitive: A student studies books. SUBJECTS AND OBJECTS: The subjects and objects of verbs are nouns (or pronouns). Examples of nouns: person, place, thing, John, Asia, pen, information, appearance, amusement. PAP sho) (@) Annis an intelligent student (adjective) (noun) (b) The hungry child ate fruit. {adjective) (noun) Adjectives describe nouns. In grammar, we say that adjectives modify nouns. ‘The word modify means “change a litle.” Adjectives give a litle different meaning to a noun: intelligent student, lazy student, good student. Examples of adjectives: young, old, rich, beautiful, brown, French, modern. (©) I saw some beautiful pictures. inconnecr: beautiful s. pictures ‘An adjective is neither singular nor plural. A final «sis never added to an adjective. 439EM (a) He walks quickly. (adverb) (0) She opened the door quietly. (adverb) ‘Adverbs modify verbs. Often they answer the question “How?” In (a): How does he walk? Answer: Quickly. ‘Adverbs are often formed by adding -ly to an adjective. ‘Adjective: quick ‘Adverb: quickly () lam extremely happy. (adverb) (adjective) ‘Adverbs are also used to modify adjectives, i., to give information about adjectives, as in (c). (2) Ann will come tomorrow. (adverb) Adverbs are also used to express time or frequency. Examples: tomorrow, today, yesterday, soon, never, usually, always, yet. MIDSENTENCE ADVERBS: (e) Ann always comes on time. (1) Ann is always on time. (g) Ann has always come on time. (h) Does she always come on time? ‘Some adverbs may occur in the middle of a sentence. Midsentence adverbs have usual positions; they + come in front of simple present and simple past verbs (except be), as in (@); + follow be (simple present and simple past), as in (); + come between a helping verb and a main verb, as in (9). Ina question, a midsentence adverb comes directly after the subject, asin (h). Common midsentence adverbs ever usually always often frequently generally seldom never already sometimes rarely not ever finally occasionally hardly ever just probably A-4 Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases ‘Common prepositions about at beyond into since up above betore by like through upon across behind despite near throughout with after below ‘down of ti iti against beneath during off to without along beside for on towards) among besides from out under around between in over unt V__pREP OofPREP | An important element of English sentences is the prepositional (@) The Sinden? Sodas Tr the Tara phrase. It consists of a preposition (pre) and its object (0). The (oun) object of a preposition is a noun or pronoun. © prep oot prep | !(@): In the library is a prepositional phrase. We wre the arly “at’ your ‘house.* (eoun) (©) Wewent to the z00 in the afternoon. | In (c): In most English sentences, “place” comes before “time.” (Place) pa In (d): Sometimes a prepositional phrase comes at the beginning (6) In the afternoon, we went to the zo. of a sentence.5 e Verb Be (@) John is a student, A-sentence with be as the main verb has three basic patterns: (b=) (noun) In (a): be + anoun In (b): be + an adjective (b) John is intelligent, 4 io (on) tatloano} In (¢): be + a prepositional phrase (©) John was at the library, (be) (prop. phrase) (@) Mary is writing a leter. Beis also used as an auxiliary verb in progressive verb tenses and in the (e) They were listening to some music. | Passive. (That leer was written by Alice. In( auxiliary; writing = main verb Tense Forms of Be SIMPLE PRESENT. SIMPLE PAST. PRESENT PERFECT tam Iwas Ihave been Singular you are you were you have been he, she, itis he, she, itwas he, she, it has been Plural we, you, they are Wwe, you, they were we, you, they have been A-6 Linking Verbs (a) The soup smells good. (linking vero) (adjective) Other verbs like be that may be followed immediately by an adjective are called “linking verbs." An adjective following a linking verb describes the subject of a sentence." ‘Common verbs that may be followed by an adjective: * feel, look, smell, sound, taste * appear, seem * become (and get, turn, grow when they mean “become") (0) This food tastes delicious. (©) The children fee! happy. (0) The weather became coll. *Comare: (2) The man looks angry, —> An adjective (angry) follows look. ‘The adjective deseribes the subject (the man). Look has the meaning of “appear.” (2) The man looked at me angrily. -» An adverb (angrily) follows look at. ‘The adverb describes the action of the verb, Look ‘at has the meaning of “regard, watch. Ann is at the laudromat. She looks very busy. Supplementary Grammar Charts 441UNIT B: Questions B-1 Forms of Yes/No and Information Questions ‘A yes/no question = a question that may be answered by yes or no : Does he live in Chicago? B: Yes, he does. on No, he doesn't. An information question = a question that asks for information by using a question word ‘A; Where does he live? B: In Chicago. Question word order Notice that the same subject-verb order is use (Question word) + helping verb + subject + main verb both yes/no and information questions. (Question | Helping Main | (Rest of Word) Verb Subject | Verb Sentence) fa) Does she live there? If the verb is in the simple present, use does (b) Where | does. she live? (with he, she, it) or do (with J, you, we, they) _ bo Tae re a Inthe quenton, Whe verbs simple past, vse (d) Where | do they live? = Notice: The main verb in the question is in its (e) Did he live there? simple form; there is no final -s or ~ed. (f) Where | aid he live? (9) Is he living | there? {tthe verb has an auxiliary (a helping verb), (h) Where | is he living? the same auxiliary is used in the question. a eo ny m4 a Thar fs no change inthe form of the main (i) Where | have they lived? 5 ‘ Ifthe verb has more than one auxiliary, only (k) can Mary lve there? the first auxiliary precedes the subject, as in (1) Where | can Mary live? (n) and (n). (m wilt he betiving | there? (n) Where | will he be living? (0) Who | 0 ° lives there? Ifthe question word is the subject, usual ‘ome? question-word order is not used; does, do, (pone, ee ie ore and did are not used. The verb isin the same form in a question as itis in a statement. Statement: Tom came. Question: Who came? (a) Are they ° there? Main verb be in the simple present (am, is, (1) Where | are they? | 0 are) and simple past (was, were) precedes a eee = . there, tresubect, Ithas the same position as a (t) Where | was vim? 9 | 442 APPENDIXLEr Meets Ca (osc) Question Answer When | (a) When did they arrive? Yesterday. When is used to ask questions about When will you come? Next Monday. time. Where | (b) Where's she? Athome. Where is used to ask questions about Where can | find a pen? In that drawer. place, Why | (0) Whydidhe leave early? Because he's il, Why is used to ask questions about Why aren't you coming with us? | I'm tired. reason, How | (d) How did you come to school? By bus. How generally asks about manner. How does he drive? Carefully {e) How much money does it cost? | Ten dollars. How is used with much and many. How many people came? Fitteen. (1) How old are you? Twelve How is also used with adjectives and How coldis it? Ten below zero. adverbs. How soon can you get here? In ten minutes. How fast were you driving? 50 miles an hour. (9) How long has he been here? ‘Two years. How long asks about length of time. How often do you write home?__| Every week. How often asks about frequency. How faris itto Miami from here? | 500 miles. How far asks about distance. Who | (h) Whocan answer hat question? | I can. Whois used as the subject of a Who came to visit you? dane and Eri. question. It refers to people. (Whois coming to dinner tonight? | Ann, Bob, and Al. | Whois usually followed by a singular Who wants to come with me? We do. verb even if the speaker is asking about more than one person. Whom | (i) Whom) did you see? | saw George. Whom is used as the object of a verb or Who(m) ate you visiting? My relatives. preposition. In everyday spoken English, whom is rarely used; who is (K) Who(m) should I talk to? The secretary. used instead, Whom is used only in To whom should | talk? (formal) formal questions. Note: Whom, not who, is used if preceded by a preposition. Whose | (I) Whose book did you borrow? Davids. Whose asks questions about Whose key is this? Its mine. possession. (Whoseis this?) (continued) Supplementary Grammar Charts 443B-2 Question Words (continued) Question Answer What | (m) What made you angry? His rudeness. What is used as the subject of a What went wrong? Everything, question. It refers to things. (n) What do you need? Ineed a pencil What is also used as an object. What did Alice buy? book. (0) What did he talk about? His vacation. About what did he talk? (formal) (p) What kind of soup is that? Is bean soup. What kind of asks about the particular What kind of shoes did he buy? | Sandals. variety or type of something. (@)_ What oie you co tast night? | studied. What + a form of dois used to ask What is Mary doing? Reading a book. questions about activities. (9) What countries did you visit? Italy and Spain. What may accompany a noun. What time did she come? Seven o'clock. What coloris his hair? Dark brown. (8) What is Ed like? He's kind and What + be like asks for a general friendly. description of qual (1) What is the weather like? Hot and humid (u) What does Ed look lke? He's tall and has What + look like asks for a physical dark hair. description. () What does her house look ike? | It's a two-story,* red brick house. Which | (w) Ihave two pens. Which is used instead of what when a Which pen do you want? ‘question concerns choosing from a Which one do you want? The blue one. NEGATIVE ANSWER EXPECTED is she? No, she isn't. do you? No, | don't have they? No, they haven't. (©) This/Thatis your book, isn't it? The tag pronoun for this/that = it These/Those ate yours, aren't they? The tag pronoun for these/those = they. (6) There isa meeting tonight, isn't there? | In sentences with there + be, there is used in the tag. (@) Everything is okay, isn't it? Personal pronouns are used to refer to indefinite pronouns. Theyis (f) Everyone took the test, didn't they? usually used in a tag to refer to everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, no one, nobody. (9) Nothing is wrong, is it? Sentences with negative words take affirmative tags. (h) Nobody called on the phone, dic they? (i) You've never been there, have you? {(j)_ 2m supposed to be here, am I not? In (j): am I not? is formal English. {K)_ am supposed to be here, aren't I? In (K): aren't 1? is common in spoken English. “A tag question may be spoken: (2) with a rising intonation ifthe speaker is truly seeking to ascertain that hivhher information, idea, belief is correct (e.g. Ann fives in an apartment, doesn’t she?) OR (2) with a falling intonation if the speaker is expressing an idea with which shevhe is almost certain the listener will agree (¢.8.5 sa nice day today isn’t it). Jim could use some help, couldn’ he? 446 APPENDIXUNIT C: Contractions IN SPEAKING: In everyday spoken English, certain forms of be and auxiliary verbs are usually contracted with pronouns, ‘nouns, and question words. IN WANG: acceptable in formal writing. (2) Contractions with nouns and question words are, for the most part, rarely used in writ (1) In written English, contractions with pronouns are common in informal writing, but they're not generally ). A few of these contractions may be found in quoted dialogue in stories or in very informal writing, such as a Chatty letter to a good friend, but most of them are rarely if ever written. In the following, quotation marks indicate that the contraction is frequently spoken but rarely if ever, writen. With Pronouns With Nouns With Question Words am 1'm reading a book. 9 “iwhat'm" | supposed to do? is She's studying, My “book’s"on the table. Where's Sally? 1S going to rain, ‘Mary's at home. Who's that man? are You're working hard, My “books’re"on the table. “What're you doing? They're waiting for us. The “teachers're“at a meeting. “Where're*they going? has ‘She's been here for a year. I's been cold lately. My “book's"been stolen! Sally's never met him. Where's Sally been living? What's been going on? have | I've finished my work ‘The “books’ve"been sold. “Where've" they been? They've never met you. ‘The “students've"finished the test. | "How've"you been? had He'd been waiting for us. | The “book's” been sold. “where'd” you been before that? We'd forgotten about it. “ary’d"never met him before. “Who'd" been there before you? did ° 9 “What'd” you do last night? *How's" you do on the test? will 'licome later. The ‘weather'lbe nice tomorrow. | *W/ho'l!"be at the meeting? She'll help us. “Johin'l"be coming soon. “Where'll"you be at ten? would | He'd lke to go there. My “iriends'¢"come if they could. | “Where'd"you like to go? They'd come if they could, Vary’ lke to go there too. Supplementary Grammar Charts 447UNIT D: Negatives D-1 Using Not and Other Negative Words (a) Arrimnestive: The earth is round. Not expresses a negative idea. (©) Necative: The earth is not fat. AUX + Nor + MAINVERB Not immediately follows an auxiliary verb or be. (©) 1 will not go’ there. | ore: If there is more than one auxiliary, not comes immediately after the I have not —- gone note first auxiliary: I will not be going there. 1 ay net going RIE" | Do or does used with not to make a simple present verb (except be) 1 do not go__ there. ‘| negative. He does not go _ there. | Didis used with not to make a simple past verb (except be) negative. (did not go there. Contractions of auxiliary verbs with not are not = aren't* has not = hasn't was not = wasn't ‘cannot = can't have not = haven't ‘were not = weren't could not = couldn't had not = hadn't will not = won't did not = didn’t is not = isn't ‘would not = wouldn't does not = doesn’t must not = mustn't do not = don't should not = shouldn't (@) almost nevergo there. Ihave hardly ever gone there. (e) There's ro chalk in the drawer. In addition to not, the following are negative adverbs: never, rarely, seldom hardly (ever), scarcely (ever), barely (ever) ‘No also expresses a negative idea. COMPARE: NOTVS. NO (1) do not have any money. (9) Ihave no money. Not is used to make a verb negative, as in (f). Nois used as an adjective in front of a noun (e.g., money), as in (g). ove: Examples (f) and (g) have the same meaning, “Sometimes in spoken English you will hear “ain't.” It means “am not,” “isn’t,” or “aren’t.” Airis not considered proper English, bur many people use ain’ regularly, and itis also frequently used for humor. conRECT: | have no money. *Negatives D-2 Avoiding Double Negatives (@) iwconnecr: | don't have no money. (0) coarecr: | don’thave any money. ‘ovo different clauses in the same sentence cause no problems; for example: Sentence (a) is an example of a “double negative, ie., a Confusing and grammatically incorrect sentence that contains two negatives in the same clause, One clause should contain only one negative." A parson coho doesn’t have love ean’t be truly happy. I don’t know coy he isn't here. (a) Never will | do that agair (b) Rarely have | eaten better food. (©) Hardly ever does he come to class on time. D-3 Beginning a Sentence with a Negative Word When a negative word begins a sentence, the subject and verb are inverted ((.., question word order is used).* “Beginning a sentence with 2 negative word is relatively uncommon in everyday usage; itis used when the speaker/writer wishes to emphasize the negative element of the sentence and be expressive, 448 AppenDixUNITE: Preposition Combinations E Preposition Combinations with Adjectives and Verbs A beabsent from dream of, about © object to be accused of be dressed in be opposed to be accustomed to be acquainted with E _ beengaged in, to P participate in be addicted to be envious of bbe patient with be afraid of ‘be equipped with be pleased with agree with ‘escape from be polite to be angry at, with excel in, at pray for be annoyed with, by be excited about be prepared for apologize for excuse for prevent from apply to, for be exhausted from prohibit from approve of ‘be exposed to be protected trom argue with, about be proud of anve nat pe 22. to provide with be associated with ie emnliar wt ‘ba aivere of feel like ‘be qualified for fight for B believe in be filed with R recover from blame for be finished with be related to be blessed with be fond of be relevant to be bored with, by forget about rely (up}on forgive for be remembered for © be capable of be friendly to, with rescue from care about, for be frightened of, by respond to be cluttered with be furnished with be responsible for ‘be committed to na compare to, with G _begone from S__ besatistied with complain about, of be grateful to, for be scared of, by be composed of be guilty of stare at be concerned about ‘ stop from ibe connecied ts H hie from subscribe to consist of hope for substitute for succeed it ert 1 beinnocent of 2 Do corwincad ch insist (up)on T take advantage of , beiinterested in take care of be coordinated with oat nian introduce to talk about, of a ‘ be involved in be terrified of, by covered with be crowded with wane be jealous of think about, of D decide (up)on Keep trom be tired of, from be dedicated to fees kon ot ie ees depend (up}on pee be devoted to L betimited to ‘be disappointed in, with bbe located in Vv vote for ‘be discriminated against look forward to distinguish from W. be worried about bbe divorced trom M_ bemade of, from ‘be done with ‘be married to Supplementary Grammar Charts 449UNIT F: The Subjunctive in Noun Clauses F Using the Subjunctive in Noun Clauses (@) The teacher demands that we be on time. {A subjunctive verb uses the simple form of a verb. It does yt neteiee het hal pay ten tisinonete not have present, past, oF future forms; it is neither ' nthe mre ular nor plural recommende not go io inal stig gen ga. thelconcer ‘Sentences with subjunctive verbs generally stress (@) It is important that they be told the truth. importance or urgency. A subjunctive verb is used in that-clauses that follow the verbs and expressions listed below. In (a): be Is a subjunctive verb; its subject is we. In (b): pay (not pays, not paid) is a subjunctive verb; itis inits simple form, even though its subject (fe) is singular. Negative: not + simple form, as in (c). Passive: simple form of be + past participle, as in (4). {e) I suggested that she see a doctor. ‘Should is also possible after suggest and recommend.* (f) I suggested that she should see a doctor. ‘Common verbs and expressions followed by the subjunctive in a noun clause advise (that) propose (thal) itis critical (that) itis important (that) ask (that) fecommend (that) _ itis essential (that) itis necessary (that) demand (that) request that) itis imperative (that) itis vital (that) insist (that) suggest (that) *The subjunctive is more common in American English than British English. In Brit than the subjunctive: The teacher insists that tce should be on tine. h English, should + simple form is more usual UNIT G: Troublesome Verbs G Raise/ Rise, Set / Sit, Lay / Lie Transitive Intransitive Raise, set, and lay are transitive verbs; they are followed by an object. (@) raise, raised, raised (0) ise, rose, risen Rise, sit, and lie are intransitive; they Tom raised his hand, The sun risesinthe east. | are nor followed by an object.* In (a): raisedis followed by the object, (©) set, set, set @ pus a4 I will set the book on the desk. In (b}: rises is not followed by an (e) lay, laid, laid (i) fie,** lay, fain object. 11am laying the book on the desk. He is lying on his bed. Nore: Lay and lie are troublesome for native speakers too and are frequently misused, lay = put lie = recline ‘See Appendix Chart A-1 for information about transitive and intransitive verbs. **Lie isa regular verb (lig, ied) when it means “not tell the truth”: He lied ro me about his age. 450 APPENDIX