TextBook of Orthodontics by Gowrishankar

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Textbook of ORTHODONTICS Sj S Gowri Sankar, mos Professor, Department of Orthodontics Narayana Dental Collage, Nellore ‘Andhra Pradesh, nda PS Viswapurna, mos, mronnncs ux) InPrvate Practice Salem nda Muscat, Oman Vito, Seychelles sande Venkata Ramana Vannala, wos Professor, Department of Orthodontics Panineeya Mahavdyalaya Dental College Hyderabad, Telangana India | @Q Paras Medical Publisher | @ les ishe on ces |Allright reserved. No pat of i pblction nay be eprodoced or “atmo ary arm ory a ene, eer ortace elo hotocopy, rearing or any ltermation storage and retevl syste ‘tout the permissions wring from he pub ote: Dent science isan ever tocores sad probes eros ‘Soene Inetient Flo. 2a 1. PSYCHOSOCIAL WELL-BEING ‘Aseveremaloclusionis likly tobe social handiap. Well lignes tet and a plssing smile ery positive stats aa sci evel, whereas nepali or rota teathea es ‘ive sats. Denoacal anomalies and severe mations have aegatve effect onthe selestem ofthe individ, Moreoever they havea negative effect on he expectations of eachers and employer. Ther sychoseil probemt me tlso one ofthe reasons why peopl seek othodnte eat ment improve ter dtl and facial appearance,1 ORAL FUNCTION Any deviation fom norma occlusion wil affect the fonctions cared out by the oa svt. Some of te Funetons eed bits andthe with markedly Increased or reverse overete teen compton o dey th fxting,parclary when tncsng fooe Dierent types of malocclusion leads to aferent types of speech ‘euties. For example, tion oF 9 (tarde ‘iamatsm) 2. Speech 3. Abnormal Solu tat I ea fr th Swallowing. Ths may change the Snalloming eno degutiton pattem. 4. Abnormal Holocclusons Ike Increased over- muscle et may lead to compensatory rentaie setuty. mandibular temporomanaiuleraystonction joint (m0), mantestes as pain in ystunction and around the TM jon. The Syndrome. pain may vesut om psthlogle ranger wtin the fone, Dut more an aay me 5. Tooth Teoth may be impacted or Impaction erupted due to malocevson 2) Unerupted impacted tet 3, ‘Paolino the rots of alee 2) Dentigeraus eyst formation can ‘ccur around Unerupted tr ‘Supernumerory teeth may also ve rset prebls, mast i Drevents normal eruption of en IM, INTERFERENCE WITH NORMAL GROWTH Process Sometimes unilateral crossbite of ene or two sntroe eet ‘may lead asymmetry of baa bone ina growing cil IV. RELATIONSHIP TO INJURY AND DENTAL DISEASE Caries alignment may reduce the potential thet se of caries Periodontal Certain occlusal anomalies may 2) Crowding mey lead to one oF more teath beng squeezed buccal oF Sngualy aut of ther averting bone, resulting Inthe reduction of ero by In les IT malacusion where the pushed labial, Yeading to inal Inaeation for orthodontic Interven teeth (ofthe overt. The provatence of ees ths ne he ) Bxreme overbee, so tat the ower onicont sue damage leading to overnite In summary, hee area numberof dnt tits, which do appear have an adverse effet upon the longevity of the secuaitince 2B] Esthetic barony é 8) runt emicene “Smucral aonce 4 Estetichanmony Fig. 12) secxson's ta |. Functional eleney: The form an function ae inte ‘elated. Any deviation rom normal cecason (rfocls sion) may aversey affect normal functions cared out bythe orl eavity. One of the main aime of orbnont! toimprve the fictional efficiency of the sometognathis system along with improving the esthetic. 2 Structural Balance: Orhodonti wetmen ings about anges not oly inthe dentition, tlio inthe sre ‘rounding sof tise envelop incldiag muscultis) and ‘heasainted set strates (basal bone ad tempore ‘mandblar join). The weatment should muna bale ance between these structures, andthe cretion of one should not be detrimental othe beth ofthe other 5. Esthetic Harmon: Most ofthe iniduls sek atodon- tie wetment to improve the appearance ofthe smile and face, The orthodontic treatment should increase the ovet- allestheticappeal ofthe individual. Ths. the orthodontic ‘teatment aims at improving teeth fhe inva THE SCOPE OF ORTHODONTIC TREATMENT Orthodontic etment can bring abou changes inthe deni- tin andthe stvtures around the dentition such the basal ‘ele bone as well asthe enveloping of sue ome |: Orthodontic Change Altern i tooth positon: Most mslocclsions involve ony the demal stuctres and this canbe effectively treated by moving eth so a2 {bring them it del oe atleast seceptable potions By applying sppropriat forces above cern threshold level the teeth cn be moved through the bone orthopeeie change iterton ater) ‘tering the (aterten in poston) Fig. 13 Scope of Orthenties 2 Orthopaedic Change (Alteration in skeletal pattern: “Maloectusion may result rom kell dishamony or i Proportions tween the asl jaw bones (maul nd ‘mandible. Depending oth age tod prow potential of ‘he patent, i's possible to move entire jae ito more favourable positions. hiss achoved by wig ante appliances or orthopaedic Forces n growing children that ae sapabe of esaning,proming or teieting shel ‘tal growths so normalize he sheet sytem ‘By onhognathic surgeries, the jaws con be beought inc favourable position i ak patients where ative growth has cease. The skeet strctres canbe alered ban omthodontist slong withthe ote eam members in all he thre planes, i, vera, transverse and seta Aircon, 3 Altering the Sof Tissue Envelop: The frm and funtion ofthe sounding soft cstue envelop of the tee ad the ora cavity have a definite impact onthe growth and evelopment ofthe ocal and facial stress oe sible to bring about favourable changes nthe sot soe pater by orthodontic wesiment. The orthodontist can helpretainorrestain th soft sues andlor ing aout ‘change in them by altering the postion ofthe eth othe DIVISION OF ORTHODONTICS: ‘Services offered by the orthodontist can be divided into our categories based onthe nature and tine of interven, 1. Preventive orthodontics 2 Inereeptive orthodontics 3. Comestive onhodoatics 4 Surialonhodones Preventive Orthodontics Preventive erthodonics, a8 the name implies, isthe ation taken to preserve the interity of what pps to be te nor malocclusion a 2 specific ime, revemive orthodonticsIncludes procedures undertaken before the onset of ml= ‘ecision mantption of «developing maloclsion, eis also alld as primary prevention. Ic begins with the fetal life and conines throughout he ie Interceptive Orthodontics Iti the phase ofthe science and srt of orthodontics, p= loyed to recognize and eliminate potential regulates sod smalositon in the developing dentofsia complex Intercepive orthodontics includes procedres tht are undertaken at an ery stage of malectsionocliminate oF reduce the severity ofthe same. This ipeludes secondary pre= ‘ventve measures, This sage ies rom he preventive or- ‘dons, in tat malocclusion aeady sts in By undertak ‘ng appropriate iterceptive procedures, itis possible to pre ‘vente etbliahnen Oa ul- edged aloctsion tat ay require long-term orthodontic teement ata later ge Cera rocodures under the preventive and interceptive ood. "iefieldmayovertp. Usually intecepive orthodontics cone las wih he mined dentition stage Corrective Orthodonties nis the orthodontic procedure undertake ocotect a fly ‘stblshed malocclusion, Coresiveontontes rsognizes the existence ofa maloclsion and the seed fr employing cera technical procedures to rducearliminate the pro lem andthe atendant sequela. The procedures employed is crzection my be mechanical, Sanconalor suri ‘Surgical Orthodontics They at sual procedures that are undertaken in conjunc +i with or 8 an aun to orthodontic treatment BRIEF HISTORY OF ORTHODONTICS Orthodontics is considered athe oldest nd fst speci of etsy ands specialty dates bak tthe begining of 19 century withthe Bogianing of Angle's Schl of Orth denis in 190. However, there had been awareness fi regia or erooked text nny centre before ‘Aristotle (384-322 BC), whe is considered tobe the Fa therof Medial Sens, emparedhuman dntton with thos ‘of varius other species. The Grek psn Hippocrates (460-377 BC) mentioned inhiswetingsebout wha: be as ealledss‘crookedeth "He vs the itt dra the atention foward the asaoeition of teath jaw suuctres. A numberof ferences on esth and Js are found in hie wings. "Te st bseevation thal eth can be moved by pressure ‘or force was given by Celsius (25 BC). He sed finger pes Sire move the teeth esl in 1836, publisod the fst book (in German on abe Kreiel atempted the fist clasifestion of alot ‘sion and was theft to advocate the se of removable applic Pierre Fauchard, «French dest, is considered the Far ther of Modern Dentistry Pie Fauchan wae he fst tse the ite “surgeon-entis.” Fauchard (1728) gave othe lthodoatis th "Bendel" Iatr kno a the expansion ttch" which is probably the ist oahodont appliance 11743, Banon istsedth ter ‘Orthopaedic incon rection wth th corection ef malocclusion, ‘Norman William Kingsley (1829-1913) isconsicered 0 te the Father of Orthodancs"Heiea profi writer anda oneer ole pase ehabitton, 185, he made st ‘Sbtrator oracle plate paint Hes also considered tobe the fis person to use hoped force to correct protruding testh Afr 1880 the fists that systematically Pie.) described orthodontis appeared; the most notable was Kingsley’s book Treat on Oral Doris (1880), te first 10 recommend that aeology, dingosis and teament planning sbould be the founstions of practic, ‘Emerson C Angell (1823-1903) wasthe fstto advocate ‘herapid maxilary expansion, which ress inthe opening oF the midpalaal eure and eae in ansvese dimension, Flo. 14 Wren Rogaley sm Magi (1825-895) was me Ms person band teeth for active oth movement Henry A Baer in 1893 invoduced interaillay elastios to wet imerarehmalcclsions, Iti also known at Baker's chorage. “The ist oustanding work devoted exclusively 0 artho- otis as rite by ohn Nating Farrar (1839-1913) ay tied "Treatise an Iragularies ofthe Teth nd their Cor- reetionFi 51 ‘Contribution of Edward 4 angie Edward H Angle(1855-1930) Fig |.6)isconsdered he“Fa- ter of Modern Dthadontes ors ous conribtons tothe specialty of orthodontics,Figs 15 dle Maing Fava (2889-1913) Angles contributions include the following [Hei the rat person to recognize ccthodonis a See rat spcily within he branch of dentistry In 1900, Ee ‘ward Ange stared his irsehool of orthodontics aS Luise, New London, Connect, Atle oranied the fir orthodontic seit (190), the American Society of Ortodontiste (now the American ‘Associaton of Orthodontist and became st pres et 3. Angleinroduod the pecmannt pp ft molars 35 "Key ofocclusion” Heals aodaced he concep of manila ‘nd mandibular acl ie. 4 In 887, EH Angle presente bis asiieation of maloe ‘losion, Angle's casieate, published in Dent Co. ‘nas (1899), remains the mst widely asepedclasifien ‘Son of malecustons, Even ier 10D years, tithe ‘erly accepted lasifeatn 5. Heals founded the fst on oontc journal, The Amer ‘an Orthodontist, 1907 bet coud pong is pu Teadon beyond 1912 6 He had 37 patents to his mane He developed ferent sppliances, Some ofthe athe "Each (1900) the pin ‘nda appliance (1910 theribbon arch appliance (1916) faith edgewise appliance (925) Angle was proponent ofthe non-extracton schoo of ‘hough He belived tat the whole complement of eth ‘ould be etaned and yet good oecusion could be ache ‘ed He this advocated arch expansion for mos patients Calvin Case (1847-1923) was » contemporary anda biter enticofAngle(Fig 17)-Ceseals claimstobetheistorth- ‘ome to use intemal elastics, He washers to use {@bout 1893), along with Henry Baker, clas I elastics and was the fist to attempt Bolly moverent. He was also the First tous igh wires (0-016 and0.018 i ia. 1.7 Calvin Case Calvin Case opposed Angle’ plosopy of ton extcton favall he casn He advoatd the extation of cern eth fsthtcs aswell as the stably ofthe treated eases. Because ‘ofhismedesty and Angle's frefunes an charisma, Case's fccomplihments were slow te recognized, bute fo onsdered one of he “Big Four” in orotic along with ‘Ame, Dewey sad Ketcham, ‘Martin Dewey (881-1933) was the funder and rst torofthe famous Americin Journal of Orthodontic.” Ma tin Dewey (1913) wrote the book Practical Onodonts He isthe founder ofthe International Jourl of Orthodontics (Gow the American Jounal of Orkodoaice and Orthop die) Tig 1s, ‘Spencer RAthinson( 1886-1970; Angle Ssh 1920 who headed the Department of Orthodontist Angle School was. sh omhodooti, teaches inventor, innovator, atoms and He pursued esearch fellowships in anatomy and antropo ‘ogy He was pioneer inthe sis th growth and devel ‘pment ofthe head He coleted 1400 atl that are 0 hoard tthe University ofthe Pacific Schoo! of Dent. He orgiaced thee ay ide, which seated o2¥80 Imati utes or mesiobueal oof ist permanent mas Tarymoar (ig 1b 11931, Holly Broadbent of USA and many independently and separately developed cephalomet fe radiogrepy by sandarding the pontion of te hed 0 relation the mand X-ray source. Theseadiogaps made1m the 1930s, Panel! Raymond Begg preseved the Begs ‘pliance igh wie differential force technique), Iwas 8 ‘modifi ofthe nibon archappines bused extremely ettactionof some text to schive sable esuts(Fig 11, Fig. 111 Reymond Begs dooce. Amita onhodotiste were mc terested in developing a improving fed ontodonticaplianes, while the Europea ood saw much gow inthe field of functional appianes. Perre Robin in 1902 incoduced a Monoblc for improving the poston of tongue inpatients with ossogtosity solding the mandible forward. The Aet ‘ator was inreducedy Viggo Anderson in 1910. Rolf Franke ‘uring 1989-1973 fnccated he tue functional aplince Fig 1.8 Aikincon ‘he Function reglitor—fo eat a vrey of skeletal ra ‘celine Melvin Moss (i |. pu forward bis famous Moss hypothesis for uowt of eaniofacilseuctures. This isthe basis of many Retinal ppsiness itposiblet visualize ad leaize the case of mleeslasion, ‘wheter ite denial or skeletal, Tie i considered to be 8 rajor advancement i orthodontic diagnosis apd treatnen Planing 9.10. Fig. 2:12 Helin Moss Bvonocor in 1955intaduced the concept avietch teehnigue On the bss ofthis Newman i 1985 ntoduced Lawrence Andrews introduce the Pre-adjused Edge-wise ‘ieee bonding of enthodontcstashinets tothe enamel, (PAE) Straightire Appince™ in 1975. Ths wasa modi which greatly enhanced esthetics by eliminating the metal eatin conventional EGpewisefited appliance in wich the ands. tracts wee pre-proppastned lorecivew sight wie, TheTEXTBOOK OF ORTHODONTICS ‘wiltintorqe nip wll accomplish he desired oth move: ‘ment inal the tee plaes of space when a proper dimen ‘Son of wierd’ This minimized he arden on oto doatist by minimizing ‘he comple wie bending. Andrews alo contributed the fi ‘mous "Sx Keys of Normal esas” 1972 (Fp | 19. Peter CKesng developed Tipe (combination of Beas and stright wir) oe Dilferetial Stralght-rh Technique ‘Kurz developed egewis lingual appliance technique and “aja of apa developed ligt wir nga panes kaown ‘Mashroom appliance | iN PREVIOUS YEARS UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS Essay Questions 1 Define otodontles and describe the avers effect aloes, 2, Desebe th scope of rthogontes, Short Answer Questions 2 thence of maaccuson 4 etc raa {Angle contbton to othosontis ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS the mig-inty Century. Am Orthod Dentofoe Orthop dos 7255-29. Drofesonaltatin af ethodontes, km} Orta’ Dentfoe rep ns 127165).708-753 3. MARIN. Orthodontics m3 milena Chapter 2: ring the ‘modem ea Am red Dero! Orthos 205:27510- Protetionalnaton of erthodorts (onus). Americ Journ) of Onhesontr ond Detfoce Ortaredes huge 2eosi289}250297, REFERENCES. 1 Graber TH. Othodontis: Pres end Proce, 3S Dente top 1950982) 176- 18, Jmeran ourtof redo 1965532; 905-92.rrr Le Growth & Development Chapters 2. General Principles and Concepts of Growth 10 3. Prenatal Growth of the Craniofacial Skeleton 35 4. Postnatal Growth of the Craniofacial Skeleton 60 5. Development of Dentition & Occlusion 77 6. The Functions of stomatognathic System 97, 2epins itadvar srs the pest al that phan ie woh theme ‘growth wth, at “nd for ices is mnofthe Sandie those he bone reasthe Mortis 4cate eneral Principles | & Concept KOF ORTHODONTICS | Detntions alte to gromth ane evelopment Nestoas of uy ron ata of gating Typesot omnes Fars infec owen and maturation fase tres sown Pater arab, rg Gal mpteatons of growth Se nature of sales prower—osepgene = TEnsozonaal one growth inramanbraraur Boe arom Mochnine of aoe growth Remaeling di ‘ow a ransermatn of one Treo of growth emecelg theory aasnos tery Fares! mat theory Enso V" pene Eni’ eounterpar” pincie Servesstem theory INTRODUCTION “The growthofthe ces characterzed bya momberofehanges that cur rom ir oad, Studying the normal changes that ocr inthe Fil comple isa very important aspect in tthodotics, This ele to deny and diagnose any exist- Ing sbnormalii to provide optimal eaten tothe patient Ins therefore, sential forthe dental surgeon be aware of how the face change, where these changes occur and when these changes ually take place. Such Knowledge enables ‘he practitioner to modify the growth processes to meet the needs of thoue stents who seek resent for various mal- ‘oeclsions “The growth pattern ofan individ has aston influence on dentin, Atacking the malocclusion with onhodontic trestment mechanics witout knowiedge of growth patern ‘an ulimatelyopardie the weamet ess and stability. "TExTBOO? ‘Goan Shankar, Mandove Post DEFINITIONS RELATED TO GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT Growth “There tno universally acceped definition of growth. Vsi= ‘us clinicians have defined gow in diferent ways. Krogman “increase rae, change i proportion and progressive compen." Fedd an nest ne origin “Entre srs of seaverta anatomic at oysiogle changes tong place irr the Beginning of preva ef Seng Moyers “Quaniatn aspect of bolo ovlopmert per unto nes Moss “change many morphological. parameter whieh Is measrabe.” fronte “Grom els to Bn erase in sie? number" General, growth sireversble Iti parlly tue a inthe fave of incest in the lng ofthe Body. Growth may be {evesible ae seen inthe eae of increase in weight ofthe ‘ody, Growthis generally aseited with an neeas in sie tnd is unidirectional There are some conditions, which involve repression or negative grow. The bes example is the atrophy ofthe thymus gland Har occurs afer puberty. ‘Another example senile rpesion that occur during old me, evelopment Growen x ofenusedas asympaymous for development. Bio= Tegal, development ea aocess of continuous changes ‘oturing na preetennined destin, Various authors have [ven following defntions"peveleoren eter tala! eens “Ths, it encompasses the ormal sequential events batwoen feriiionand deh, Differentiation Diferenation isthe change fom a geeralized cell orissce ‘one that sme speclzed. Tus eTeretaton sa change imqulity or kind “Accerding Tod growth and development rely on one nother and under the ifsenee of morphogenetic pater ‘The 3old press works is mitacles:slFmulipieaton, Aerio, organization each aecortingtn sown kind ‘Afounhdimenson stim Aes oar So 8 = Growth + Ditfrentiation + (METHODS OF STUDYING GROWTH According o Profit, three 90 main approaches to ty ing physi growth The catum i collected for the evalua tion of physical growth, which is doe in wo ways 3. Measurement Approach ‘jcraniomety Involves measurement of ull found among hun skeletal remain. thas he advantage that reise measurements an ‘bomade on dy shal, whores the big disadvatage shat sich growth study can only be eos setons 1) Anthropometry Involves measuring skeletal dimensions on living ingividu- als Various andar etalished i the studies of ry sll, Sretranstred to living incisal ang sof se pons ‘veryng these bony lndsks. Th most important advan: tage is that the study canbe ongtoinal one, wherein the ‘wth ofan individual ean flowed delyovera period ‘oft wth repeated measurment without damaging the sub- Jeet « cepholometry Tesa standasized radiographic etniqu ofthe eaiofcial ‘gon introduced by Broafbent in 1S, He designed ‘ephalostat for precise pacement ofthe individ thatthe ead ean be precisely evened vir ant the adiograh and ‘precisely controled magniteation canbe made. This ech- nique combines the advanages of tothermiomety and Antropomery in that direct ony measurements sSee0 00 {heradiogaph can bemade vers perio of time forthe sme individual. This technique vas contributed signiticanty ‘ur knowiedge of human eraniofcil skeletal growth CCephalomeics i ot only useful in studying growth, but lk finds ndispensibieappation in onthodoni signa, ‘weament planing, evalaion of weatmon results, abd Tor sromth prediction, The dsivantge ie that it produces 3 {vo-dimensionalrpreseatiion ofa thee-dimensioal tc ‘ture making impossibletonakeal temeasurements. 2. Experimental Approach 1. Vito Staining ‘Vita staining. orgnatedby John Hunter 18° century, isa technique in which grow is studied by observing the pat term of stained minerlized sues a the ition of the Ayes nt the animal. These yes erin ithe ones andthe teeth and can be detected ler afr ling the ania Its posible ro study the manne and type of one laid down also eps uso study the st of growth, the direson, dura {onan mount of growth ates ferent sitesin the bone. Such tis ae, however, ot possible the humans asthe experimental animal hist Kl. The des eed fr this purpose ar listed further ‘nis based en the techniques for measscing ning animals (incudng humans) The measurement itself ‘ldo no nar 35 the anima wil be avaiabe fer "eine. Aoi | hese incige he folowing A Canometzy (Gore on aventy det0 amas) , ‘This approach uses experiments In which afowth Is ‘manipulated in Same way.‘Tmese are destructive tecnnguet tihere the animal tat i under observation le kil Expenments approacnes are usualy not carried ut on humans for this reason such experimental stsies are Festretoe to non-human species(| 22 |SetatiicomaREoURTT TT 1 Alininceds| 2 Acar ue 3 Typ tue 4 Temnyene S Leedactte 11936, Beeler ace ooed hat ones of nil, hich hd eaten mar pans were sted fd, Subse ig sem th diye inthe mae plan sarin eed Sued fr bone vse Tivassovered oie tht tetracycline ian exelent isin tabs clam at growth ses ne sae |) wayesatain, SONTICS ] |B |» sutoredoorphy 35 Autoradiography i technique in which fm emulsion i g Placed over a thin section of tissue contining radioactive "ct and then exponent dary he aon Aer the ns developed he can of he ration nies 5 where growth is occuring atcen becbcrved by locking E tet etn tough he aioiotyes Radioisotopes of eran elements or cotnpounds act 2 in vivo markers, When injected into body they ge incorporated In the developing bone or other structures tnd ean then be eaced by means of Geiger counter, by tracking down the ‘adic they emi eg, ™Te, Ca beled component of protic, palin “The gumma-miting isotope "Te can be wed to detect. ‘seas of rapid bone growth in humans, but these images ae ‘more uf inthe diagnosis of oelized growth problems than for studying growth peters, <.mplantRdtography Implant radiography, used extensively by Bjorkad co- work: 5, fone ofthe techniques that ean alo be wed inhuman Subjects. The use of implants to study Bone growth was ft iroduced by Bjock in 1969. I invoves the implanting oF seal bits of biologically inet alloy (generally made o tae iu) into growing bone. He placed the implant pis in er. ainares ofthe manaible(smphyss corpus and lateral ape ‘ofthe ramus) and the maxi (om the aygmatc Bone ides, hard pal, blow the ateron naa spine) These seve as !adiograpie reference points or ser racogrphi nays ‘The metallic implants used for studying growth are usally ‘very ny, These implants serve as reference pont fo sud) ‘heamount, direction and manner of bone growth. Super posing radiographs (ephalograms incase of face) on Te implant allow precise obserntion ofboth changes in he poston ofone bone elativets another andchanges inex ‘al contour of the individual bone. ther methods of studying growth include the following 1 Natural markes—Nuviontcanaltrobeculse ee 2 Comparative anatomy 2. Genetic studies ‘Notural Markers "Nommal bone hs cern histologica features such asnutient ‘amale and tient foramina, tenverse lines to sportion, lies of arested growth and eernin prominent becuse ‘These sucesive development features of bone ca be used ‘natal markers o study growth by meats of ver al aio ‘graphs. Natal markers canbe wed vay bone enodeling Including bone deposition and resorption Rapid advances in molecule geate ae providing new ‘information shout growth an its conta. For exanple, the whole family of wansfoming grove ffor bea genes fon are knownto be inpriantinregalting el rowth nd organ evelopment, These dts gathered by above met i hen subjected to staistieal analysis ave at conchsion (METHODS OF GATHERING DATA The various growh studies canbe broadly growped 2) Longitadial studies 1) Cros section studies 6) Semi-longtusial dies 4. Longitudinal Studies In longitudinal studies, the observation and measurements ‘remade ofthe same pesonaroupat reglrntrve's over prolonged period (months to years). This represeis an ‘example ofa study ona long-term basis, Ths, longing! studies a long-iem studies where the sare sempl i ledby means of follow-up examination Advantages |, By regula and serial comparisons, he specific dvelop- rent pater canbe stadia. 2. The specific variation ofthe development of a ndivi- ual iva group en be studied prope. Diadvantapes |. Tine consumption smoretofllow-up yer togeherand observation of selected supe, 2. Specific laboratory research fool and dats stonge are expensive 3. Theatirtion(eéution in selected samples xmmon problem in his meth becae this study i eorcuted formany years. For example, if $0 children at chosen as sample for he longitudinal dy, few may ie end few ‘ay migrate to ter paces during the course of tay 2. Cross-se:tional Method Groups of various ages a various stages in development are ‘examined aang tie. isa quick proces. For exanpe in {school survey measuring the eight of 10-year-old nd 2 year-old prs, onthe same dy the changes ae bted by the dee.

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