Real Time Modeling, System Security, Monitoring & Control 10 Hrs

Real Time Modeling, System Security, Monitoring &
Control ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~10 hrs

q Realtime modeling q Simultaneous transfer
subsystem capability analysis
q SCADA system q Impact of deregulation
q Power
System q Modeling of Governing
Communication system
q Security monitoring and q Generator and load modeling
controls q Static ane dynamic response
1
ü Real time modeling subsystem:
u Main components of an electric power system~ Generating Stations,
transmission lines and the distribution systems. Generating stations and
distribution systems are connected through transmission lines, which also
connect one power system (grid, area) to another. A distribution system
connects all the loads in a particular area to the transmission lines.
u For economical technical reasons, individual power systems are organized in the
form of electrically connected areas or regional grids.
u As power systems increased in size, so did the number of lines, substations,
transformers, switchgear etc.
u Their operation and interactions became more complex and hence it is
necessary to monitor this information simultaneously for the total system at a
focal point called as Energy Control Centre.
u The fundamental design feature is increase in system reliability and economic
feasibility.
PSOC/ TN Tiwari/ Chapter-4 “Real Time Modeling, System Security, Monitoring & Control” 2
Major Concerns of Power System Design and Operation:
u Quality: Continuous at desired frequency and voltage level
u Reliability: Minimum failure rate of components and systems
u Security: Robustness i.e. in normal state even after disturbances
u Stability: Maintain synchronism under disturbances
u Economy: Minimize Capital, running and maintenance Costs
Need for Power System Management:
u Demand for Power Increasing every day
u No of transmission line, Sub-stations, Transformers, switchgear etc.,
u Operation and Interaction is more and more complex
u Essential to monitor simultaneously for the total system at a focal point–
ENERGY LOAD CENTRE
Components of power system operation and control:
u Information gathering and processing
u Decision and control
u System integration
Energy Load Centre:

The function of energy load centre is to control the function of coordinating
the response in both normal and emergency conditions. Digital Computers are
very effectively used for the purpose. Their function is to process the data,
detect abnormalities, alarm the human operator by lights, buzzers, screens
etc., depending on the severity of the problem.
Control Features – Control Centre Functions of Control Centre
u System Commands – Mode of control u Short, Medium and Long-term Load
Forecasting
u Units – base / peak load
u System Planning
u AGC – Automatic Generation Control
u Unit Commitment and maintenance
u Data Entry Scheduling
u Alarms – To find source of alarm and u Security Monitoring
necessary action
u State Estimation
u Plant/Substation selection
u Economic Dispatch
u Special Functions - To send/retrieve data etc.
u Load Frequency Control
u Readout control – Output to CRT/printers etc.
u CPU control – Selection for the computer
ü SCADA system:
u SCADA~ Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition: One of key processes of
SCADA is the ability to monitor an entire system in real time. This is facilitated
by data acquisitions including meter reading, checking status of sensors, etc.
that are communicated at regular intervals depending on the system.
u A well planned and implemented SCADA system not only helps utilities to deliver
power reliably and safely to their customers but it also helps to lower the costs
and achieve higher customer satisfaction and retention.
u SCADA – Why do we need it?
q If we did not have SCADA, we would have very inefficient use of human resources
and this would cost us (Rs,Rs,Rs).
q In today’s restructured environment SCADA is critical in handling the volume of data
needed in a timely fashion.
q Service restoration would involve travel time and would be significantly higher.
q It is essential to maintain reliability.
ü SCADA system:
SCADA - Architecture
u Basic elements are sensors which measure the desired quantities.
u Instrument Transformers: Current Transformers (CTs)~ measure currents and
Potential Transformers (PTs)~ measure voltages.
u Today there is a whole new breed of Intelligent electronic devices (IEDs)
u This data is fed to a remote terminal unit (RTU)
u The master computer or unit resides at the control center EMS
SCADA - Process
u Master unit scan RTUs for reports, if reports exist, RTU sends back the data
and the master computer places it in memory.
u In some new substation architectures there could be significant local
processing of data which could then be sent to the control center.
ü SCADA system:
SCADA – Process:
u The data is then displayed on CRTs and printed SCADA - Logging
u The SCADA provides a complete log of the system
u The log could be provided for the entire system or part of the system
Type of information provided:

u Time of event
u Circuit breaker status
u Current measurements, voltage measurements, calculated power flows,
energy, etc.
u Line and equipment ratings
u All parameters which the operators needs for smooth operation of the system
ü SCADA as a system:
u There are many parts of a working SCADA system. A SCADA system usually
includes signal hardware (input and output), controllers, networks, user
interface (HMI), communications equipment and software. All together, the
term SCADA refers to the entire central system.
u For the most part, the brains of a SCADA system are performed by the Remote
Terminal Units (sometimes referred to as the RTU). The Remote Terminal Units
consists of a programmable logic converter. The RTU are usually set to specific
requirements, however, most RTU allow human intervention, for instance, in a
factory setting, the RTU might control the setting of a conveyer belt, and the
speed can be changed or overridden at any time by human intervention.
u Any changes or errors are usually automatically logged for and/or displayed.
Most often, a SCADA system will monitor and make slight changes to function
optimally; SCADA systems are considered closed loop systems and run with
relatively little human intervention.
u SCADA can be seen as a system with many data elements called points. Usually
each point is a monitor or sensor. Usually points can be either hard or soft. A
hard data point can be an actual monitor; a soft point can be seen as an
application or software calculation. Data elements from hard and soft points
are usually always recorded and logged to create a time stamp or history.
User Interface – Human Machine Interface (HMI)
u A SCADA system includes a user interface, usually called Human Machine Interface
(HMI). The HMI of a SCADA system is where data is processed and presented to be
viewed and monitored by a human operator. This interface usually includes controls
where the individual can interface with the SCADA system.
u HMI's are an easy way to standardize the facilitation of monitoring multiple
RTU's or PLC's (programmable logic controllers). Usually RTU's or PLC's will
run a pre-programmed process, but monitoring each of them individually can
be difficult, usually because they are spread out over the system.
u Because RTU's and PLC's historically had no standardized method to display or
present data to an operator, the SCADA system communicates with PLC's
throughout the system network and processes information that is easily
disseminated by the HMI.
u HMI's can also be linked to a database, which can use data gathered from
PLC's or RTU's to provide graphs on trends, logistic info, schematics for a
specific sensor or machine or even make troubleshooting guides accessible.
In the last decade, practically all SCADA systems include an integrated HMI
and PLC device making it extremely easy to run and monitor a SCADA system.
u Today’s SCADA systems, in response to changing business needs, have added
new functionalities and are aiding strategic advancements towards
interactive, self healing smart grids of the future.
u A modern SCADA system is also a strategic investment which is a must-have
for utilities of all sizes facing the challenges of the competitive market and
increased levels of real time data exchange that comes with it (Independent
Market Operator, Regional Transmission Operator, etc).
u A well planned and implemented SCADA system not only helps utilities
deliver power reliably and safely to their customers but it also helps to lower
the costs and achieve higher customer satisfaction and retention. Modern
SCADA systems are already contributing and playing a key role at many
utilities towards achieving :
u New levels in electric grid reliability – increased revenue.
u Proactive problem detection and resolution – higher reliability.
u Meeting the mandated power quality requirements – increased customer satisfaction.
u Real time strategic decision making – cost reductions and increased revenue
Critical Functions of SCADA (Following functions are carried out every 2 seconds):
u Switchgear Position, Transformer taps, Capacitor banks
u Tie line flows and interchange schedules
u Generator loads, voltage etc.,
u Verification on links between computer and remote equipment
Modern SCADA systems are already contributing and playing a key role at many
utilities towards achieving :
u New levels in electric grid reliability– increased revenue.
u Proactive problem detection and resolution– higher reliability.
u Meeting the mandated power quality requirements– increased customer
satisfaction.
u Real time strategic decision making– cost reductions and increased revenue.
ü Power System Communication:
u Definition of a smart grid (By the European Commission): “Smart grids are
energy networks that can automatically monitor energy flows and adjust to
changes in energy supply and demand accordingly. When coupled with smart
metering systems, smart grids reach consumers and suppliers by providing
information on real-time consumption.”
u With the need to increase autonomous and automated monitoring of the
electrical power system, various communication technologies are being
considered for exploitation. This is an evolving process and the global market
still has not reached a mature stable point in its adoption of any one particular
technology. One major consideration is the maintenance of the power grid in a
stable state, with minimal power outages.
u The implementation of a smart grid requires the essential components of an
effective communication technology coupled with an intelligent low
maintenance and low energy drain device. The system must require the
absolute minimal consumer interaction, preferably a set and forget device.
The smart grid layer has three primary functions to fulfill, these being of
providing:
u Smart Network Management- such as data acquisition, transmission, switching and
monitoring of the energy flow between the customer and the supplier, ensuring an
acceptable quality of service;
u Smart Integrated Generation- encompassing energy distribution, storage, fusion
from diverse sources integration with provision of future grid scalability. The need
to provide charging points to EV (electric vehicle) should also be provisioned as they
become more commonly accepted by the general populace;
u Smart Market- two-way communication functionality must be implemented between
meter and utility company in order to support advanced features such as dynamic
pricing and load control. The meter in itself must offer advanced functionalities
beyond just registering energy usage. Thus the smart meter must be coupled with
inbuilt networking technologies linked to network gateways, much like how modern
multimedia services are internetworked.
ü Standards for Electric Power Systems Communications
For any implementation of a smart grid system, it must adhere to these
communication infrastructure requirements
a. Scalability: The number of consumers requiring connections to the energy grid
is predicted to grow exponentially. Fortunately the reliance upon the network
communication technology requirements in terms of protocols and signaling are
expected to be the same.
Thus scalability is an important factor to be dimensioned into a smart grid
network for future growth. This will entail the use of a myriad of M2M
(machine-to-machine) devices being linked to the low voltage electricity grid
(11 kV level).
The addressing task of each network device or devices will be helped by the
utilization of IPv6 (Internetwork Protocol version 6) with its 128 bit addressing
space.
b. Network Performance: Specific network performance parameters such as the
data rate, the quality of service, the network delay are taken in consideration.
Fortunately these parameters are not so stringent as those required for conveying
multimedia real-time network traffic though the Internet. Smart grids require only
data transfer rates of 10 Kb or less with latencies less than 100 ms, for network
originating control and signaling information. Customer premises meter-originating
data are even less demanding, being able to function with higher latencies of up
to 72 hours!
c. Availability: Any power utility company must ensure they can deliver power
ideally with 100% uptime or at best with the absolute minimum downtime or
power outage of say at most a few hours. Even if an outage is unavoidable, then
power must be maintained by rerouting to such critical facilities like hospitals.
Load shedding must be avoided wherever possible. For smart grids, availability
also means being in active communication link, this is less of a problem for power
being provided by fixed network connections.
d. Costs: When a smart meter is to be installed, two cost factors need to be taken
into account, these being the price of the smart meter itself and the actual
installation cost of the meter into the consumer premise or the home.
e. Security: Protection of the smart grid network is extremely important, not only
to protect the personal billing information of the consumer, but also to protect the
network from spoofing and infiltration by hackers attempting to defraud and bring
down the entire network.
f. Smart meter grid/system life-cycle: The smart grid community would like to
see a life-cycle of at least 15 years with standardization and interoperability as
key features. This is to ensure longevity of the network and ease of maintenance
with minimal cost.
g. Control: To enable a smart grid to be under the effective control of the power
generating utility, it may become necessary for the utility to use their own
network - totally under their control.
u It has to be stressed that smart grid communication is bidirectional, not
necessarily at the same time, between the customer and the utility company.
The smart grid is normally considered to consist of the parts of: generation,
distribution and consumption of the energy.
u The use of a well-integrated smart grid is of immense benefit to both the
consumer and the energy producer, these include:
v A better power distribution management policy to handle peak demands, minimizing
load shedding
v Efficient integration of renewable power sources into the grid
v Consumers being able to utilize cheap power
v Consumers being able to sell excess power during peak demand by the grid for those
generating their own, for example using a CHP (Combined Heat and Power) unit
v Maintaining a stable power grid.
ü Communications Technologies for Smart Grid Metering:
Whatever technology is chosen, they must adhere to the previously mentioned requirements. It
may also be noted that some situations may require the use of more than one type of technology.
The types of technologies that are currently being utilized in the smart grid can be categorized into
two, these being wired or wireless. For most practical implementation both are required together.
Wired Technologies for Smart Grid:
a. Fibre Optic Communication: The use of fibre optic cabling to network the smart grid offers the
advantage of the availability of a high bandwidth, compared to using copper cables or twisted pair
wires. However, the penetration of optical fibre to the home is still at a low level. The main reason
for this is the high cost of deployment. This situation is slowly changing by implementation of
‘Fibre To The Home’ (FTTH) continues to accelerate.
b. xDSL (x Digital Subscriber Line/Loop): For most of the industrialized nations, broadband
services are provided by a form of DSL technology, hence the ‘x’ in the acronym. The cities are well
served in this regard. It would appear that this form of technology is ideally suited to implement
the smart grid. However, there are many challenges, these being the regulatory issues and the cost
of the equipment, to actually interface in to the DSL line itself, along with being dependent on the
customer. Despite these potential problems, smart meters are already deployed that use WiFi
connections and the DSL line to carry the data back to the power generating companies.
ü Wired Technologies for Smart Grid:
c. Power Line Communications:
q Using the actual power line infrastructure to carry both electricity and data makes
much commercial sense, as the network is already there and the company has full
control over their grid.
q Such technologies are already being utilized. However, the actual
transmission is functional and possible between the transformers only and
not through the transformers.
q The data is transmitted by carrier modulation. The use of multiple carriers,
now enables broadband communication to also take place. For power line
communications, signal operate in a very electrically noisy environment.
q The technology currently offers two modes of operation, this being narrow
band and broadband. Broadband suffers from greater attenuation and
restricted range. Depending on the scenario, a mixture of both narrow band
and broadband power line communication is generally utilized.
ü Wireless Technologies for Smart Grid:
q There are two ways of implementing a smart grid using wireless technology.
Ø Use the currently available wireless technologies and mobile cellular networks.
Ø The other is to set up a private wireless localized network.
q The first one has the advantage of a lower cost as the infrastructure is already
in place. The major disadvantage is the lack of control by the utility itself.
q The major disadvantage here would be the high initial cost in setting up the
private wireless network. Using any shared or unlicensed part of the
electromagnetic spectrum would not be an advantage, as the utility company
would have to compete with other users and the consequent radio noise, both
affecting the effective data throughput.
q For in-building use, frequencies up to 1 GHz may be employed before
attenuation becomes a severe problem. This would mean that the lower GSM
and GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) frequencies of 450 MHz, 800 MHz and
900 MHz should only be utilized.
ü Wireless Technologies for Smart Grid:
a. GSM and GPRS services at 900 MHz
u The bandwidth is adequate and the technology is mature to implement a smart
grid solution using GSM/GPRS at 900 MHz currently. Indoor coverage also exists
with the use of microcells and femtocells. However, in dense urban areas,
network congestion and availability is a serious problem and alternative, more
secure solution is needed.
b. 800 MHz and LTE (Long Term Evolution)
u The use of this fourth generation mobile technology with its broadband data
capacity offers clearly a superior alternative for implementing the smart grid.
The technology is also available over different frequency bands. The lower band
of 800 MHz is of particular interest for implementing the smart grid. As LTE
continues to be rolled out and deployed, it will make implementing a smart grid
using this solution an economic viability. The utility also has to rely on the
commercial third party provider, thus losing control of the network.
ü Architecture of Communication System used for Power System Control:
The complexity of the information flow
in a smart grid framework is shown in
Figure.
The quantity of monitored data will
vastly exceed that of command and
control data, because of the myriad of
devices that have to be monitored.
Clearly the control, command and
billing channels need to be highly
secure and the information conveyed in
a timely manner to be acted upon when
It also identifies five areas of a power
demand for action requires it. In some
generation system: the residence, the
parts of the world, effective monitoring
distribution system, the substation, the
of “stolen energy” is of paramount
transmission and the generating station.
importance.
ü Architecture of Communication System used for Power System Control:
u A practical implementation of a smart
grid network, as shown in Fig. 14.3, is
to combine several technologies
together, both wired and wireless
including public and private networks.
u Important parameters for the
communication network: latency,
bandwidth, resilience, security,
scalability, coverage and the life
expectancy.
u Latency is the round trip delay
between the TX and the RX, including
media access time, the propagation
delay, queuing but not the processing Fig. 14.3 The Integration of WiMAX for Smart Grid
time at the destination. Applications
ü Overview of IEEE 802.11 Mesh Networking:
u Whatever incarnation a smart grid
takes, it will likely consist of a mesh
network as show in Fig. 14.4, applied
to a smart grid.
u The main difference with this type of
network is that not all the nodes have
access to the wired network, instead
access is gained via anchor access
points. Having key access points means
that congestion management is a Fig. 14.4 Mesh Networking in Smart Grid Application
priority to free up bottlenecks.
u To enhance radio resource planning
and security monitoring, a smart grid
should employ a controller-based
WLAN architecture.
ü IEEE 802.15.4 Wireless Sensor Networks:
u At the heart of the smart grid will be
the sensors that are used to monitor
the smart grid and to implement it.
u Clearly a wireless sensor network will
afford the greatest flexibility in its
placement.
u The use of an already existing
standard, such as the IEEE 802.15.4 is
judicious.
Fig. 14.4 Mesh Networking in Smart Grid Application
u This IEEE standard is mainly concerned u Other competing standards such as the
with specifying the requirements for WirelessHART and ISA100.11a use the
power efficient low data rate wireless physical layer of this standard but
networks. The ZigBee protocol is the have their own respective different
main driver behind this protocol. layer two MAC (Media Access Control)
PSOC/ TN Tiwari/ Chapter-4 “Real Time Modeling, System Security, Monitoring & Control” definitions. 27
ü Security monitoring and controls:
q Security monitoring is the automated process of collecting and analyzing
indicators of potential security threats, then sorting and processing these
threats with appropriate action.
q Security monitoring shall be a highly available and hardened service that is
accessible internally or remotely in a secure manner.
q Security monitoring shall include:
Ø The generation of alerts based on automated recognition that a critical security
event or situation has taken place or is detected.
Ø The delivery of critical alerts via various means in order that security and
management are made aware in a timely manner.
Ø The means for security personnel to improve alerting mechanisms or to manually
identify security incidents.
Ø Implement a cloud-wide intrusion and anomaly detection capability and consider
expressing this as a service for tenants or users (see Figure 4.2).
ü Security monitoring and controls:
uSecurity monitoring involves real-time
monitoring of events and activities
happening on all organization’s
important systems at all times.
uSecurity monitoring is implemented to
be reliable and correct even under
circumstances of failure in the
pathway of event generation. Security
logs must be retained in compliant
with law, applicable regulation, and
the security policy.
Figure 4.2. Overview of security event management and its role

in monitoring.
ü Purpose of Security monitoring:
u Threat Detection- Some exploits may not be preventable and some threats may
not be anticipated, and in this sense monitoring is the last line of defense. But
there is a difference between detecting a security situation and doing something
about it.
u Verification of Security Controls- Although most security controls are oriented
toward enforcing security policy, monitoring is used to verify the correct
operation of other security controls. If events which indicate actions prohibited
by policy appear in the security event stream, this would indicate that policy is
not being correctly enforced by security controls.
u Exposure of Bugs- Security monitoring has identified vulnerabilities or security
bugs that were previously unknown. This can take several forms, including the
triggering of monitoring rules, which when they are subsequently reviewed
against the monitoring record simply does not make sense.
ü Purpose of Security monitoring:
u A Legal Record of Activity- Security event data can form a legal record of
actions that users or processes performed. To be used in a legal proceeding, this
data must have verifiable integrity (records have not been altered and they
comprise a complete record) and the organization must be able to demonstrate
chain of custody over the data.
u Enabling Forensics- Security event data has great value in gaining an
understanding of the steps involved in an exploit along with discerning the scope
of any resulting damage.
u In multi-tenant cloud computing, security monitoring has additional importance
beyond serving as a means for infrastructure control. By the very nature of a
multi-tenant infrastructure, monitoring is necessary on an ongoing basis for
near-real-time verification of security.
ü Security monitoring and Control:
u Next-generation firewalls combine
traditional deep-packet
inspection capabilities with
applications awareness to better
detect and deny malicious or
unacceptable activity
u Data loss prevention uses classifiers to
detect and prevent potential data
exfiltration.
u Mobile device management allows
remote administration and enterprise
integration of mobile computing
devices, such as smartphones and Figure 10.2. Next-Gen security controls layers.
tablets.
ü Simultaneous transfer capability analysis:
u Transfer Capability (TC)- is the measure of the ability of interconnected
electric systems to reliably move or transfer power from one area to another
area over all transmission lines (or paths) between those areas under specified
system conditions. The units of transfer capability are in terms of electric
power, generally expressed in megawatts (MW).
u In this context, “area” may be an individual electric system, power pool,
control area, subregion, or NERC Region, or a portion of any of these. Transfer
capability is also directional in nature. That is, the transfer capability from Area
A to Area B is not generally equal to the transfer capability from Area B to Area
A.
u TC calculations must conform to NERC, Regional, subregional, power pool, and
individual system reliability planning and operating policies, criteria, or guides.
Appropriate system contingencies must be considered.
ü Simultaneous transfer capability analysis:
u To effectively maintain system reliability, those who calculate, report, post,
and use this information must all have the same understanding of its meaning
for commercial use.
u TC should be answered with the following questions:
u What is TC?
u How does TC relate to standard terminology?
u What physical factors need to be considered in determining TC?
u What reliability issues must be considered in determining TC?
u How is TC calculated?
u How will TC be commercially used?
ü TRANSFER CAPABILITY VERSUS TRANSMISSION CAPACITY:
u Electric systems throughout NERC have agreed to use common terminology to
calculate and report transmission transfer limits to maintain the reliability of
the interconnected transmission networks.
u These transfer values are called “capabilities” (differentiating them from
“capacities”) because they are highly dependent on the generation, customer
demand, and transmission system conditions assumed during the time period
analyzed.
u The electric industry generally uses the term “capacity” as a specific limit or
rating of power system equipment.
u In transmission, capacity usually refers to the thermal limit or rating of a
particular transmission element or component. The ability of a single
transmission line to transfer electric power, when operated as part of the
interconnected network, is a function of the physical relationship of that line to
the other elements of the transmission network.
ü TRANSFER CAPABILITY VERSUS TRANSMISSION CAPACITY:
u Individual transmission line capacities or ratings cannot be added to determine
the transfer capability of a transmission path or interface (transmission circuits
between two or more areas within an electric system or between two or more
systems). Such aggregated capacity values may be vastly different from the
transmission transfer capability of the network.
u Often, the aggregated capacity of the individual circuits of a specific
transmission interface between two areas of the network is greater than the
actual transfer capability of that interface.
u The calculation of transfer capability is generally based on computer
simulations of the operation of the interconnected transmission network under
a specific set of assumed operating conditions. These simulations are typically
performed “off line,” well before the systems approach that operational states.
u In summary, the aggregated transmission line capacities of a path or interface
do not represent the transfer capabilities between two areas.
ü LIMITS to TRANSFER CAPABILITY:
u The ability of interconnected transmission networks to reliably transfer electric
power may be limited by the physical and electrical characteristics of the
systems including any one or more of the following:
u Thermal Limits- Thermal limits establish the maximum amount of electrical current that a
transmission line or electrical facility can conduct over a specified time period before it
sustains permanent damage by overheating or before it violates public safety requirements.
u Voltage Limits- System voltages and changes in voltages must be maintained within the
range of acceptable minimum and maximum limits. E.g. minimum voltage limits can
establish the maximum amount of electric power that can be transferred without causing
damage to the electric system or customer facilities. A widespread collapse of system
voltage can result in a blackout of portions or all of the interconnected network.
u Stability Limits- The transmission network must be capable of surviving disturbances through
the transient and dynamic time periods following the disturbance. All generators connected
to ac interconnected transmission systems operate in synchronism with each other at a same
frequency. After disturbance, generators begin to oscillate and become stable it it diminish
the cause, otherwise lose the synchronism leading partial or full system collapse.
ü Impact of deregulation:
u Deregulation is the process of removing or reducing state regulations, typically
in the economic spheres.
u It became common in advanced industrial economies in the 1970s and 1980s, as
a result of new trends in economic thinking about the inefficiencies
of government regulation, and the risk that regulatory agencies would be
controlled by the regulated industry to its benefit, and thereby hurt consumers
and the wider economy.
u Deregulation can be distinguished from privatization, which transfers state-
owned businesses to the private sector.
u One problem that encouraged deregulation was the way in which regulated
industries often come to control the government regulatory agencies in a
process known as regulatory capture.
ü Impact of deregulation:
Pros- In certain industries, the barriers to entry are decreased to small or new
companies, fostering innovation, competition, and increased consumer choice.
u The free market sets prices, which some believe promotes growth.
u It improves corporate efficiency, lowering costs for consumers.
u Companies have greater freedom to create monopolies,
u Companies must use capital to comply with federal rules instead of investing in
plant, equipment, and people.
Cons- Asset bubbles are more likely to build and burst~ crises/ recessions.
u Industries with initial infrastructure costs need government support to get start.
u Customers are more exposed to fraud and excessive risk-taking by companies.
u Social concerns are lost. E.g. businesses ignore damage to the environment.
u Rural and other unprofitable populations are underserved.
ü Modeling of Governing system:
q Governing system or governor is the main controller of the hydraulic turbine.
The governor varies the water flow through the turbine to control its speed or
power output.
q Generating units speed and system frequency may be adjusted by the governor.
Governing system as per IEEE std. -75 includes following.
ü Speed sensing elements/ Governor control actuators/ Hydraulic pressure supply system/
Turbine control servomotors-these are normally supplied as part of turbine
q The primary functions of the hydraulic turbine governor are as follows:
ü To start, maintain/ adjust unit speed for synchronizing with the running units/grid.
ü To maintain system frequency after synchronization
ü To share load changes with the other units.
ü To adjust output of the unit in response to operator or other supervisory commands.
ü To perform normal shut down or emergency over speed shut down for protection.
ü Governor control system for Hydro Turbines is basically a feed back control
system which senses the speed and power of the generating unit etc. and takes
control action for load controlling devices in accordance with the deviation of
actual set point from the reference point.
ü Governor control system of all units controls the speed and power output of the
hydroelectric turbine. Water level controlled power output controllers can be
used for grid connected units.
ü Governing system comprises of
following sections (figure 6.2). a)
Control section b) Mechanical
hydraulic Actuation section
ü The control section may be
mechanical; analogue electronic or
digital electronic.
ü Permanent magnet generators (PMG)
are coupled to the generator shaft.
PMG output frequency and voltage
are proportional to unit speed.
ü Sensitivity i.e. speed change to
which governor will respond for
large units is generally 0.005%. This
requires that the speed be sensed at
about every 10 milli second or
better. Further pulse sensing is
preferred for direct use in digital
governing.
ü Fundamentals of Speed Governing System:
Steam
The system consists of
following components
Lowe
u Fly ball governor r
Speed
changer XC
XB XD
u Hydraulic amplifier To
Raise l2 l3 XE
l1 Turbine
u Linkage mechanism r X l4
A Steam valve
Pilot
u Speed changer valve
High Main
Speed
pressure piston
Governor
oil
Hydraulic
amplifier
43
q Fly ball speed governor:
– This is the heart of the system which senses the change in speed(frequency).
– As the speed increases the fly ball move outwards and the point B on linkage
mechanism moves downwards. The reverse happens when the speed
decreases.
q Hydraulic amplifier:
– It consists of pilot value and main piston.
– Low power level pilot value movement is converted into high power level
pilot value.
– This is necessary in order to open or close the steam value against high
pressure system.
44
q Linkage mechanism:
– A,B,C is a rigid link pivoted at CDE in another rigid kink pivoted at D.
– This link mechanism provides a movement to control value in proportion to
the change in speed.
q Speed Changer:
– It provides a steady state power output setting for the turbine.
– Its downward movement opens the upper pilot value so that more steam is
admitted to the turbine under steady state condition.
– The reverse happens for upward movement of speed changer.
45
ü Speed Governor modal
u The governor compensates for changes in the shaft speed
u changes in load will eventually lead to a change in shaft speed
u change in shaft speed is also seen as a change in system frequency
46
ü Turbine model
u The prime mover driving a generator unit may be a steam turbine or a hydro
turbine.
u The models for the prime mover must take account of the steam supply and
boiler control system characteristics in the case of steam turbine on the
penstock for a hydro turbine
u The dynamic response of steam turbine in terms of changes in generator power
output ΔPG to change in steam valve opening ΔXE
47
ü Generator load or Power system model
q To develop the mathematical model of an isolated generator, which is only
supplying local load and is not supplying power to another area,
q Suppose there is a real load change of ΔPD .
q Due to the action of the turbine controllers, the generator increases its output
by an amount ΔPG .
q The net surplus power (ΔPG - ΔPD ) will be absorbed by the system in two ways.
u By increasing the kinetic energy in the rotor at the rate
u As the frequency changes, the motor load changes being sensitive to speed,
the rate of change of load w.r.t frequency f
48
ü Model of Load frequency control of single area:
Speed Governor Turbine Power system
Complete Block diagram representation of LFC

49
ü Speed-Load characteristics
q The isochronous governors cannot be used when there are two or more units
connected to the same system since each generator would have to precisely
the same speed setting.
q For stable load sharing between two or more units operating in parallel, the
governors are provided with a characteristics so that the speed drops as the
load in increased.
q Percent speed regulation or droop:
ü The value of R determine the steady state speed versus load characteristics of
generating unit. The ratio of speed deviation(Δω) or frequency deviation (Δf) to
change in valve/gate position (ΔY) or power output (ΔP) is equal to R.
50
ü Speed-Load characteristics
u The parameter R is referred to as
speed regulation or droop. It can be
expressed in percent as
51
ü Load sharing between two synchronous machine in parallel
u If two or more generators with drooping governor characteristics are connected
to a power system, there will be a unique frequency at which they will share a
load change
u They are initially at nominal frequency f0,with outputs P1 and P2.
u When a load increases ΔPL causes the units to slow down, the governors
increase output until they reach a new common operating frequency f’.
u The amount of load picked up by each unit depends on the droop
characteristics:
52
ü Load sharing between two synchronous machine in parallel
u Hence
u If the percentage of regulation of the units are nearly equal, the change in the
outputs of each unit will be nearly in proportion to its rating
Load sharing by parallel units with drooping characteristics

53
ü Load Frequency Control of Single area system

- Uncontrolled case
or
Primary control loop 54
-Controlled case
or
Integral control loop
Integral controller
Primary LFC loop
Secondary or Supplementary LFC loop controller
55
56
ü Generator and load modeling:
ü Generator and load modeling:
ü Load modeling:
ü Load modeling:
ü Load modeling:
ü Static and dynamic response:

Real Time Modeling, System Security, Monitoring & Control 10 Hrs

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Real Time Modeling, System Security, Monitoring & Control 10 Hrs

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Real Time Modeling, System Security, Monitoring &

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Figure 4.2. Overview of security event management and its role

Speed Governor Turbine Power system

Complete Block diagram representation of LFC

Load sharing by parallel units with drooping characteristics

Speed Governor Turbine Power system

Complete Block diagram representation of LFC

Speed Governor Turbine Power system

Primary LFC loop

Secondary or Supplementary LFC loop controller

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