POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER TABLE of CONTENTS

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 1 2
Table of Contents

Chapter I. The State .................................................3
I. Territory .......................................................3
A. 1987 Const., Art. I ...................................3
B. Treaty of Paris, Art. III .............................3
C. Archipelagic Doctrine ..............................4
II. People..........................................................4
A. Definition .................................................4
B. Citizenship ..............................................4
III. Sovereignty..................................................6
A. Kinds .......................................................6
B. Theory of Auto-Limitation ........................6
C. “Dominium” v “Imperium” ........................6
D. Jurisdiction ..............................................6
E. Suits Against the State and the Doctrine
of Sovereign Immunity......................................7
IV. Government .................................................8
A. Definition .................................................8
B. Functions ................................................8
C. Doctrine of Parens Patriae ......................8
D. De Jure and De Facto Governments.......9
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
B. Exploration, Development, and Utilization
47
C. Stewardship Concept ............................48
III. Private Lands .............................................48
A. General Rule .........................................48
B. Exceptions.............................................48
IV. Monopolies.................................................48
V. Central Monetary Authority ........................48
Chapter IV. Current Events and Special Topics ..49
I. Party-List System.......................................49
II. Question Hour v. Inquiries In Aid of
Legislation ...........................................................51
III. Executive Privilege................................51
IV. People’s Initiative .......................................52
V. Right of Reply ............................................53
VI. The (Erstwhile) Province of Shariff
Kabunsuan ..........................................................53
VII. MOA on Ancestral Domain (MOA-AD) ..54

Chapter II. Structure and Powers of Government –

Separation of Powers ............................................10
I. Legislative Department ..............................10
A. Nature and Classification of Legislative
Power .............................................................10
B. Composition, Qualifications and Term of
Office10
C. Election .................................................11
D. Salaries, Privileges and Disqualifications
12
E. Internal Government of Congress .........13
F. Electoral Tribunals ................................14
G. Commission on Appointments ..............15
H. Powers of Congress..............................16
II. Judiciary.....................................................21
A. In General .............................................21
B. Supreme Court......................................23
C. Judicial and Bar Council........................25
III. Executive ...................................................25
A. The President........................................25
B. Vice President.......................................41
IV. Constitutional Commissions.......................42
A. Common Provisions ..............................42
B. Civil Service Commission......................42
C. Commission on Elections......................43
D. Commission on Audit ............................44
V. Constitutionally-Mandated Bodies .............44
A. Sandiganbayan .....................................44
B. Ombudsman .........................................44
C. Commission on Human Rights..............45

Chapter III. National Economy and Patrimony.....46

I. General Principles .....................................46
A. Goals.....................................................46
B. Citizenship Requirements .....................46
C. Filipino First...........................................46
II. Natural Resources .....................................46
A. Regalian Doctrine [Jura Regalia] ..........46
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter I. THE STATE

Chapter I. The State

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I TEAM

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
Dean Marvic MVF Leonen I. TERRITORY 3
Faculty Editor A. 1987 CONSTITUTION, ART.
RT. I

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
B. TREATY OF PARIS
Earla Langit
C. ARCHIPELAGIC DOCTRINE
DOCTRIN
Lead Writer
II. PEOPLE
Abigail Alameda A. DEFINITIONS
Maricor Estrella B. CITIZENSHIP
Kate Lomoljo III. SOVEREIGNTY
Writers A. KINDS
B. THEORY OF AUTO-LIMITATION
LIMITATION
POLITICAL LAW C. DOMINIUM V. IMPERIUM
D. JURISDICTION
Jennifer Go E. SUITS AGAINST THE STATEST AND THE
Subject Editor DOCTRINE OF SOVEREIGN
SOVEREIG IMMUNITY
IV. GOVERNMENT
ACADEMICS COMMITTEE A. DEFINITION
Kristine Bongcaron B. FUNCTIONS
C. DOCTRINE OF PARENS PATRIAE
Michelle Dy
D. DE JURE AND DE FACTO GOVERNMENTS
Patrich Leccio
Editors-in-Chief
I. Territory
PRINTING & DISTRIBUTION
(Asked 7 times in the Bar)
Kae Guerrero
A. 1987 Const., Art. I
DESIGN & LAYOUT
SCOPE OF THE NATIONAL TERRITORY AS
Pat Hernandez DEFINED IN THE CONSTITUTION
Viktor Fontanilla 1) Philippine archipelago
Romualdo Menzon Jr. 2) All other territories over which the Philippines has
Rania Joya sovereignty or jurisdiction
3) Territorial sea, Seabed, Subsoil, Insular shelves,
LECTURES COMMITTEE and other submarine areas corresponding to (1)
Michelle Arias and (2)
Camille Maranan 4) (1) and (2) also consist of terrestrial, fluvial, and
Angela Sandalo aerial domains
Heads
B. Treaty of Paris, Art. III
Katz Manzano Mary Rose Beley
Sam Nuñez Krizel Malabanan “Spain cedes to the United States the archipelago
Arianne Cerezo Marcrese Banaag known as the Philippines Islands, and comprehending
Volunteers the islands lying within the following line” xxx

MOCK BAR COMMITTEE

Lilibeth Perez

BAR CANDIDATES WELFARE

Dahlia Salamat

LOGISTICS
Charisse Mendoza

SECRETARIAT COMMITTEE
Jill Hernandez
Head
Loraine Mendoza Faye Celso
Mary Mendoza Joie Bajo
Members

*Image taken from:

http://media.photobucket.com/image/philippine%20map%20image%2
0international%20law/jibrael_2007/Jibrael%202008/map1_rpterritory.j
pg
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER
C. Archipelagic Doctrine
Elements:
1. Internal waters – “waters around, between and
connecting the islands of the archipelago”
2. Straight baseline method – consists of drawing
straight lines connecting appropriate points on
the coast without departing to any appreciable
extent from the general direction of the coast,
in order to delineate the internal waters from the
territorial waters of an archipelago
 Refer to PIL, Chap. 12, II for further discussion
on Baselines
II. People
A. Definition
The term assumes three different meanings,
depending on the context in which it is used:
(NACHURA)
1. Inhabitants, as used in:
i. “The right of the people to be secure in
their persons, houses, papers, and effects
against unreasonable searches and seizures
of whatever nature and for any purpose shall
be inviolable x x x” (Sec 2, Art III)
 The right of an individual to be
secure in his person is guaranteed
by the Constitution. The same is
declared a popular right of the
people and indisputably applies to
both citizens and foreigners in this
country. [Qua Chee Gan vs
Deportation Board (1963)]
ii. “Civilian authority is, at all times, supreme
over the military. The Armed Forces of the
Philippines is the protector of the people
and the State. Its goal is to secure the
sovereignty of the State and the integrity of
the national territory. (Sec 3, Art II)
2. Electors, as used in:
i. “The President and the Vice-President shall
be elected by direct vote of the people”
(Sec 4, Art VII)
3. Citizens, as used in:
i. “We, the sovereign Filipino people …”
(Preamble)
ii. “The Philippines is a democratic and
republican State. Sovereignty resides in
the people and all government authority
emanates from them.” (Sec 1, Art II)
iii. “The prime duty of the Government is to
serve and protect the people. The
Government may call upon the people to
defend the State and, in the fulfillment
thereof, all citizens may be required, under
conditions provided by law, to render
personal military, or civil service.” (Sec 4, Art
II)
Chapter I. THE STATE
“The right of the people to information on matters of
public concern shall be recognized. Access to official
records, and to documents, and papers pertaining to 4
official acts, transactions, or decisions, as well as to
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
government research data used as basis for policy
development, shall be afforded the citizen, subject to
such limitations as may be provided by law.” (Sec 7,
Art III)
As an element of a state, “people” means a
community of persons adequate in number for self-
sufficiency and defense, and also capable of
maintaining the continued existence of the
community and held together by a common bond of
law. (BERNAS)
B. Citizenship
(Asked 25 times in the Bar)
1. Who are citizens?
i. Citizens of the Philippines at the time of the
adoption of this Constitution;
ii. Those whose fathers or mothers are citizens
of the Philippines;
iii. Those who elected to be citizens. This is
available only to:
- those born before January 17, 1973,
- to Filipino mothers,
- and elect Philippine citizenship upon
reaching the age of majority
iv. Those naturalized in accordance with law.
ARTICLE IV, Section 1 (3), 1987 Constitution is
also applicable to those who are born to Filipino
mothers and elected Philippine citizenship before
February 2, 1987.
This is to correct the anomalous situation
where one born of a Filipino father and an alien
mother was automatically granted the status of a
natural-born citizen, while one born of a Filipino
mother and an alien father would still have to
elect Philippine citizenship. [Co v. Electoral
Tribunal of the House of Representatives (1991)]
2. Natural-born
i. citizens of the Philippines from birth without
having to perform any act to acquire or
perfect their Philippine citizenship; and
ii. those who elect Philippine citizenship in
accordance with ARTICLE IV, Section 1 (3)
 The term "natural-born citizens," is
defined to include "those who are
citizens of the Philippines from birth
without having to perform any act to
acquire or perfect their Philippine
citizenship." [Tecson vs COMELEC
(2004)]
Only two, i.e., jus soli and jus sanguinis, could
qualify a person to being a "natural-born" citizen
of the Philippines. Jus soli, per Roa vs. Collector
of Customs (1912), did not last long. With the
adoption of the 1935 Constitution and the
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER
reversal of Roa in Tan Chong vs. Secretary of
Labor (1947), jus sanguinis or blood
relationship would now become the primary
basis of citizenship by birth.
3. Who must be Natural-Born?
i. President (Sec. 2, Art VII)
ii. Vice-President (Sec. 3, Art VII)
iii. Members of Congress (Secs. 3 and 6, Art VI)
iv. Justices of SC and lower collegiate courts
(Sec. 7 (1), Art VIII)
v. Ombudsman and his deputies (Sec. 8, Art
XI)
vi. Members of Constitutional Commissions
vii. CSC (Sec. 1 (1), Art IX B)
viii. COMELEC (Sec. 1 (1) Art IX C)
ix. COA (Sec. 1 (1), Art IX D)
x. Members of the Central Monetary Authority
(Sec. 20, Art XII)
xi. Members of the Commission on Human
Rights (Sec. 17 (2), Art XIII)
4. Grounds for Loss of Citizenship
i. Naturalization in a foreign country [Sec.1 (1),
CA 63];
ii. Express renunciation or expatriation [Sec.1
(2), CA 63];
iii. Taking an oath of allegiance to another
country upon reaching the age of majority;
iv. Accepting a commission and serving in the
armed forces of another country, unless
there is an offensive/ defensive pact with the
country, or it maintains armed forces in RP
with RP’s consent;
v. Denaturalization;
vi. Being found by final judgment to be a
deserter of the AFP;
vii. Marriage by a Filipino woman to an alien, if
by the laws of her husband’s country, she
becomes a citizen thereof.
 Expatriation is a constitutional right.
No one can be compelled to remain a
Filipino if he does not want to. [Go
Gullian vs Government]
EXCEPTION: A Filipino may not divest
himself of Philippine citizenship in any
manner while the Republic of the Philippines
is at war with any country. (Sec. 1 (3), Com.
Act No. 63)
 Aznar v COMELEC, (1995)
Loss of Philippine citizenship cannot be
presumed. Considering the fact that admittedly,
Osmeña was both a Filipino and an American,
the mere fact that he has a certificate stating that
he is an American does not mean that he is not
still a Filipino, since there has been NO
EXPRESS renunciation of his Philippine
citizenship. [Aznar vs COMELEC (1995)]
Chapter I. THE STATE
5. How may citizenship be reacquired?
i. Naturalization (CA No. 63 and CA No. 473)
 now an abbreviated process, no need to 5
wait for 3 years (1 year for declaration of
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
intent, and 2 years for the judgment to
become executory)
 requirements:
a.) be 21 years of age
b.) be a resident for 6 months
c.) have good moral character
d.) have no disqualification
 Naturalization is never final and
may be revoked if one commits acts
of moral turpitude. [Republic vs Guy
(1982)]
ii. Repatriation
 Repatriation results in the recovery of
the original nationality. Therefore, if he is
a natural-born citizen before he lost his
citizenship, he will be restored to his
former status as a natural-born Filipino.
[Bengson III vs. HRET (2001)]
 Mere filing of certificate of candidacy
is not a sufficient act of repatriation.
Repatriation requires an express and
equivocal act. [Frivaldo vs COMELEC
(1989)]
 In the absence of any official action or
approval by proper authorities, a mere
application for repatriation does not,
and cannot, amount to an automatic
reacquisition of the applicant’s
Philippine citizenship. [Labo vs
COMELEC (1989)]
iii. Legislative Act
 both a mode of acquiring and
reacquiring citizenship
6. Dual Allegiance
i. aliens who are naturalized as Filipinos but
remain loyal to their country of origin (cite
source)
ii. public officers who, while serving the
government, seek citizenship in another
country (cite source)
 disqualified from running for any elective
local position. (Sec 40d, Local Government
Code)
 Once a candidate files his candidacy, he is
deemed to have renounced his foreign
citizenship. [Mercado vs Manzano (1999)]
 Clearly, in including §5 in Article IV on
citizenship, the concern of the
Constitutional Commission was not with
dual citizens per se but with naturalized
citizens who maintain their allegiance to
their countries of origin even after their
naturalization. Hence, the phrase “dual
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER
citizenship” in R.A. No. 7160, §40(d) and
in R.A. No. 7854, §20 must be understood
as referring to “dual allegiance.”
 Consequently, persons with mere dual
citizenship do not fall under this
disqualification. Unlike those with dual
allegiance, who must, therefore, be subject
to strict process with respect to the
termination of their status, for candidates
with dual citizenship, it should suffice if,
upon the filing of their certificates of
candidacy, they elect Philippine
citizenship to terminate their status as
persons with dual citizenship considering
that their condition is the unavoidable
consequence of conflicting laws of different
states.
Cf: RA 9225 (Citizenship Retention and Re-acquisition
Act of 2003)
Sec. 3. Retention of Philippine Citizenship. — Any
provision of law to the contrary notwithstanding, natural-born
citizens of the Philippines who have lost their Philippine
citizenship by reason of their naturalization as citizens of a
foreign country are hereby deemed to have re-acquired
Philippine citizenship upon taking the following oath of
allegiance to the Republic: xxx
Natural-born citizens of the Philippines who, after the
effectivity of this Act, become citizens of a foreign country
shall retain their Philippine citizenship upon taking the
aforesaid oath.
Sec. 4. Derivative Citizenship. — The unmarried child,
whether legitimate, illegitimate or adopted, below eighteen
(18) years of age, of those who re-acquire Philippine
citizenship upon effectivity of this Act shall be deemed
citizens of the Philippines.
Sec. 5. Civil and Political Rights and Liabilities. — Those
who retain or re-acquire Philippine citizenship under this Act
shall enjoy full civil and political rights and be subject to all
attendant liabilities and responsibilities under existing laws of
the Philippines and the following conditions:
(1) Those intending to exercise their right of suffrage must
meet the requirements under Sec. 1, Art. V of the
Constitution, RA 9189, otherwise known as "The
Overseas Absentee Voting Act of 2003" and other
existing laws;
(2) Those seeking elective public office in the Philippines
shall meet the qualifications for holding such public
office as required by the Constitution and existing laws
and, at the time of the filing of the certificate of
candidacy, make a personal and sworn renunciation of
any and all foreign citizenship before any public officer
authorized to administer an oath;
(3) Those appointed to any public office shall subscribe
and swear to an oath of allegiance to the Republic of
the Philippines and its duly constituted authorities prior
to their assumption of office: provided, that they
renounce their oath of allegiance to the country where
they took that oath;
(4) Those intending to practice their profession in the
Philippines shall apply with the proper authority for a
license or permit to engage in such practice; and
(5) That right to vote or be elected or appointed to any
public office in the Philippines cannot be exercised by,
or extended to, those who:
(a) are candidates for or are occupying any public
office in the country of which they are naturalized
Chapter I. THE STATE
citizens; and/or
(b) are in active service as commissioned or non-
commissioned officers in the armed forces of the
country which they are naturalized citizens.
6
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
III. Sovereignty
(Asked 4 times in the Bar)
 Supreme and uncontrollable power inherent in a
State by which the State is governed.
A. Kinds
1. Legal sovereignty - power to issue final
commands.
2. Political sovereignty - power behind the legal
sovereign, or the sum total of the influences that
operate upon it.
3. Internal sovereignty - power to control domestic
affairs.
4. External sovereignty (also known as
independence) - power to direct relations with
other states.
B. Theory of Auto-Limitation
 It is the property of the State-force due to which a
State has exclusive legal competence of self-
limitation and self-restriction.
 Sovereignty is subject to restrictions and
limitations voluntarily agreed to by the
Philippines, expressly or impliedly, as a member
of the family of nations. [Tañada vs Angara
(1997)]
C. “Dominium” v “Imperium”
[Lee Hong Hok v. David, (1972)]
 “Dominium” –
 capacity of the State to own property.
 covers such rights as title to land,
exploitation and use of it, and disposition or
sale of the same.
 Regalian doctrine
 all lands of the public domain belong to
the State, and anyone claiming title has
the burden to show ownership, comes
within this concept. In this capacity, the
State descends to the status of ordinary
persons and thus becomes liable as
such. [Cruz v. Sec of DENR, (2000)]
 “Imperium”
 State’s authority to govern.
 covers such activities as passing laws
governing a territory, maintaining peace and
order over it, and defending it against foreign
invasion.
 When the State acts in this capacity, it
generally enjoys sovereign immunity.
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER
D. Jurisdiction
 Jurisdiction is the manifestation of sovereignty.
The jurisdiction of the state is understood as both
its authority and the sphere of the exercise of that
authority. (SINCO)
1. KINDS:
3.
i. Territorial jurisdiction
 authority of the State to have all persons
and things within its territorial limits to be
completely subject to its control and
protection.
ii. Personal jurisdiction
 authority of the State over its nationals,
their persons, property, and acts,
whether within or outside its territory.
(Art 15, CC: Laws relating to family
rights and duties, or to the status,
condition and legal capacity of persons
are binding upon citizens of the
Philippines, even though living abroad.)
iii. Extraterritorial jurisdiction
 authority of the State over persons,
things, or acts, outside its territorial limits
by reason of their effects to its territory
E. Suits Against the State and the Doctrine of
Sovereign Immunity
(Asked two times in the Bar)
 The State may not be sued without its consent.
(Sec 3, Art XVI)
 There can be no legal right as against the
authority that makes the laws on which the right
depends.  also called the doctrine of Royal
Prerogative of Dishonesty. [Kawananakoa v.
Polyblank (1907)]
 If the State is amenable to suits, all its time would
be spent defending itself from suits and this
would prevent it from performing it other
functions. [Republic vs. Villasor (1973)]
1. A suit is against the State regardless of who is
named the defendant if:
i. it produces adverse consequences to the
public treasury in terms of disbursement of
public funds and loss of government
property.
ii. cannot prosper unless the State has given its
consent.
2. In the following instances, it was held that the suit
is not against the State:
i. when the purpose of the suit is to compel an
officer charged with the duty of making
payments pursuant to an appropriation
made by law in favor of the plaintiff to make
such payment, since the suit is intended to
compel performance of a ministerial duty.
[Begoso v. PVA (1970)]
ii. when from the allegations in the complaint, it
Chapter I. THE STATE
is clear that the respondent is a public
officer sued in a private capacity;
iii. when the action is not in personam with the 7
government as the named defendant, but an
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
action in rem that does not name the
government in particular.
How the State’s consent to be sued is given:
i. Express consent
a. It is effected only by the will of the
legislature through the medium of a duly
enacted statute.
b. may be embodied either in a:
General Law
 authorizes any person who meets
the conditions stated in the law to
sue the government in accordance
with the procedure in the law
Special Law
 may come in the form of a private
bill authorizing a named individual
to bring suit on a special claim
 Art 2189, CC: Provinces, cities and
municipalities shall be liable for
damages for the death or injuries
suffered by any person by reason of
the defective conditions of roads,
streets, public buildings and other
public works under their control and
supervision.
ii. Implied consent
 when the State enters into a business
contract or itself commences litigation.
 State may only be liable for
proprietary acts (jure gestionis) and
not for sovereign acts (jure imperii)
 When state files complaint, suability
will result only where the
government is claiming affirmative
relief from the defendant. [US v.
Guinto, (1990)]
 When it would be inequitable for the
State to invoke its immunity.
 In instances when the State takes
private property for public use or
purpose.
iii. When does Liability Attach?
a. The Government is only liable for the
acts of its agents, officers and
employees, when they act as special
agents within the meaning of Art. 2180
(6) CC.
Special Agent
 one who receives a definite and fixed
order or commission, foreign to the
exercise of the duties of his office if he is
a special official. [Merritt v. Govt of the
Philippine Islands, (1916)]
 This concept does not apply to any
executive agent who is an
employee of the active
administration and who on his own
responsibility performs the functions
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER
which are inherent in and naturally
pertain to his office and which are
regulated by law and the
regulations.
 Unauthorized acts of government
officials or officers are not acts
of the State, and an action against
the officials or officers by one
whose rights have been invaded or
violated by such acts, for the
protection of his rights, is not a suit
against the State.
 The doctrine of immunity from suit
will not apply and may not be
invoked where the public official is
being sued in his private and
personal capacity as an ordinary
citizen, for acts without authority or
in excess of the powers vested in
him. [Lansang vs CA (2000)]
b. When the Government creates a
corporation, it invariably provides this
corporation a separate entity and with
the capacity to sue and be sued.
 Consent to be sued includes
actions based on quasi-delict even
though committed by regular, and
not special, agents.
 Rule: a government entity can be
sued for tort, but if it is, it can invoke
the defense that it acted through its
regular employee, and not through
a special agent.
c. The principle of State immunity from suit
does not apply when the relief
demanded requires no affirmative
official action on the part of the State
or the affirmative discharge of any
obligation which belongs to the State in
its political capacity, even though the
officers or agents who are made
defendants claim to hold or act only by
virtue of a title of the State and as its
agents and servants. [Republic v
Sandoval, (1993)]
Chapter I. THE STATE
IV. Government
(Asked two times in the Bar)
8
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
A. Definition
Sec. 2(1) Administrative Code. “Government of the
Republic of the Philippines” is defined as:
the corporate governmental entity through which the
functions of government are exercised throughout the
Philippines, including
 the various arms through which political authority is
made effective in the Philippines, whether pertaining to:
1. the autonomous regions,
2. the provincial, city, municipal, or barangay
subdivisions, or
3. other forms of local government.
 “Government” is that institution or aggregate of
institutions by which an independent society
makes and carries out those rules of action which
are necessary to enable men to live in a social
state or which are imposed upon the people
forming that society by those who possess the
power or authority of prescribing them.[US vs
Dorr (1903)]
B. Functions
1. Constituent functions - constitute the very bonds
of society; compulsory.
i. keeping of order and providing protection
ii. fixing of legal relations between man and
wife, and children
iii. regulation of the holding, transmission and
interchange of property
iv. define crime and punishment
v. regulates and determines contract between
individuals
vi. dealings of state with foreign powers
2. Ministrant functions - undertaken to advance the
general interests of society; optional.
i. public works
ii. public education
iii. public charity
iv. health and safety regulations
v. trade and industry
 The distinction between constituent and
ministrant functions is not relevant in our
jurisdiction. [ACCFA v. Federation of Labor
Unions, (1969)]
C. Doctrine of Parens Patriae
 Parens patriae is the task of the government to
act as guardian of the rights of the people.
 This prerogative of parens patriae is inherent in
the supreme power of every state, whether that
power is lodged in a royal person or in the
legislature
 The Monte de Piedad y Caja de Ahorros de
Manila is an institution organized in accordance
with the canon law, having been created by the
royal order of the King of Spain of July 8, 1880,
made under the royal patronate powers then
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter I. THE STATE

existing in the Crown of Spain. The royal order the 1987 Constitution. Indeed, she has stressed
referred to created, according to the purpose that she is discharging the powers of the
expressed therein, an institution for the safe presidency under the authority of the 1987 9
investment of the savings of the poor classes and Constitution.

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
to assist the needy in time of need by loaning
such savings to them at a low rate of interest. In fine, the legal distinction between EDSA
[Government of the Philippine Islands v. Monte People Power I EDSA People Power II is clear.
de Piedad, (1916)] EDSA I involves the exercise of the people power
of revolution which overthrew the whole
government. EDSA II is an exercise of people
D. De Jure and De Facto Governments power of freedom of speech and freedom of
assembly to petition the government for redress
1. De jure government
of grievances which only affected the office of the
i. has rightful title President. EDSA I is extra-constitutional and
ii. no power or control, either because this has the legitimacy of the new government that
been withdrawn from it, or because it has not resulted from it cannot be the subject of
yet actually entered into the exercise thereof. judicial review, but EDSA II is intra-
[In re Letter of Associate Justice Puno, constitutional and the resignation of the
(1992)] sitting President that it caused and the
2. De facto government succession of the Vice President as President
are subject to judicial review. EDSA I
i. government of fact, that is, it actually
presented a political question; EDSA II involves
exercises power or control without legal title.
legal questions. xxx
[Co Kim Cham v. Valdes, (1945)]
Even if the petitioner can prove that he did not
 The legitimacy of the Aquino government is
resign, still, he cannot successfully claim that he
not a justiciable matter. It belongs to the
is a President on leave on the ground that he is
realm of politics where only the people of the
merely unable to govern temporarily. That claim
Philippines are the judge. And the people
has been laid to rest by Congress and the
have made the judgment; they have
decision that respondent Arroyo is the de
accepted the government of President
jure, president made by a co-equal branch of
Corazon C. Aquino which is in effective
government cannot be reviewed by this Court.
control of the entire country so that it is not
[Estrada v Desierto/ Estrada v GMA, (2001)]
merely a de facto government but in fact
and law a de jure government. Moreover,
the community of nations has recognized the
legitimacy of the present government. All the
eleven members of this Court, as
reorganized, have sworn to uphold the
fundamental law of the Republic under her
government. [In re Bermudez, (1986) citing
Lawyers League for a Better Philippines v.
Aquino, (1986)]
 In the cited cases [Lawyers League for a
Better Philippines and/or Oliver A. Lozano v.
President Corazon C. Aquino, et al], we held
that the government of former President
Aquino was the result of a successful
revolution by the sovereign people, albeit a
peaceful one. No less than the Freedom
Constitution declared that the Aquino
government was installed through a direct
exercise of the power of the Filipino people
"in defiance of the provisions of the 1973
Constitution, as amended."
It is familiar learning that the legitimacy of a
government sired by a successful revolution
by people power is beyond judicial scrutiny
for that government automatically orbits out of the
constitutional loop. In checkered contrast, the
government of respondent Arroyo is not
revolutionary in character. The oath that she
took at the EDSA Shrine is the oath under the
1987 Constitution. In her oath, she
categorically swore to preserve and defend
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers

Chapter II. Structure and Powers of I. Legislative Department

(Asked 23 times in the Bar)
Government – Separation of Powers 10

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
I. LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT A. Nature and Classification of Legislative
A. NATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF Power
LEGISLATIVE POWER
B. COMPOSITION, QUALIFICATIONS AND TERM 1. Nature:
OF OFFICE  The authority to make laws and to alter or
C. ELECTION repeal them.
D. SALARIES, PRIVILEGES AND  Vested in Congress, except to the extent
DISQUALIFICATIONS reserved to the people by provision on
E. INTERNAL GOVERNMENT OF CONGRESS
F. ELECTORAL TRIBUNALS
initiative and referendum
G. COMMISSION ON APPOINTMENTS  Plenary (Congress may legislate on any
H. POWERS OF CONGRESS subject matter provided that the limitations
II. JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT are observed.)
A. IN GENERAL
B. SUPREME COURT 2. Classification of Legislative Power:
C. JUDICIAL AND BAR COUNCIL  Original - possessed by the sovereign
III. EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT people
A. PRESIDENT  Derivative - delegated by the sovereign
B. VICE-PRESIDENT
IV. CONSTITUTIONAL COMMISSIONS
people to legislative bodies and is
A. COMMON PROVISIONS subordinate to the original power of the
B. CIVIL SERVICE COMMISSION people
C. COMMISSION ON ELECTIONS  Constituent - power to amend and revise
D. COMMISSION ON AUDIT the Constitution
V. CONSTITUTIONALLY-MANDATED BODIES  Ordinary - power to pass ordinary laws
A. SANDIGANBAYAN
B. OMBUDSMAN
C. COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS

B. Composition, Qualifications and Term of Office

Senate House of Representatives
(Art. VI secs. 2-4) (Art. VI secs. 5-8)
Composition 24 senators elected at large  Not more than 250 members, unless otherwise
provided by law, consisting of:
1. District Representatives
2. Party-List Representatives
3. Sectoral Representatives
Qualifications  Natural-born citizen  Natural-born citizens
 At least 35 years old on the day of the  At least 25 years old on the day of the election
election  Able to read and write
 Able to read and write  Registered voter in the district he seeks to
 A registered voter represent
 Resident of the Philippines for at least 2  A resident of the said district for at least 1 year
years immediately preceding the day of the immediately preceding the day of the election
election
Term of 6 years 3 years
Office
Term Limits 2 consecutive terms. 3 consecutive terms.
th
1. Senate on the 30 day of June next following their
(Art. VI Secs. 2-4) election
 Composition: 24 senators elected at large  Term Limits: only up to 2 consecutive terms.
However, they may serve for more than 2 terms
 Qualifications: provided that the terms are not consecutive.
1. Natural-born citizen
2. At least 35 years old on the day of the
election 2. House of Representatives
3. Able to read and write (Art. VI Secs. 5-8)
4. A registered voter  Composition: Not more than 250 members,
5. Resident of the Philippines for at least 2 unless otherwise provided by law, consisting of:
years immediately preceding the day of the
election i. District Representatives
 elected from legislative districts
 Term of Office: 6 years, commencing at noon
apportioned among the provinces, cities,
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers

and the Metro Manila area. of nominees by the respective

 Rules on Apportionment of Legislative sectors. (Art. XVIII, sec. 7)
Districts: 11
1. Proportional representation based Sec. 41, RA 7160 (An Act Providing for a Local Government

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
on number of inhabitants Code of 1991): Manner of Election.
a. Each city with a population of
at least 250,000, or each (c) In addition thereto, there shall be one (1) sectoral
representative from the women, one (1) from the workers,
province, shall have at least 1 and one (1) from any of the following sectors: the urban
representative. Each province, poor, indigenous cultural communities, disabled persons, or
irrespective of the number of any other sector as may be determined by the sanggunian
inhabitants, shall have at least concerned within ninety (90) days prior to the holding of the
1 representative. next local elections, as may be provided for by law. The
b. Each legislative district shall Comelec shall promulgate the rules and regulations to
comprise, as far as practicable, effectively provide for the election of such sectoral
contiguous, compact, and representatives.
adjacent territory.
 Qualifications of Representatives:
2. Re-apportionment by Congress
1. Natural-born citizens
within 3 years after the return of
2. At least 25 years old on the day of
each census
the election
ii. Party-List Representatives 3. Able to read and write
 20% of the total number of 4. Registered voter in the district he
representatives seeks to represent
 chosen indirectly through a party 5. A resident of the said district for at
selected by voters least 1 year immediately preceding
 RA 7941 (An Act Providing For The the day of the election.
Election Of Party-List Representatives  Term of Office: 3 years, commencing
Through The Party-List System, And th
at noon on the 30 day of June next
Appropriating Funds Therefor) following their election.
o Parties, organizations, and
coalitions must obtain at least 2% of  In B.P. Blg. 881 members of the legislature
all votes cast to obtain a party-list included in the enumeration of elective public
seat officials are to be considered resigned from
o Those garnering more than 2% are office from the moment of the filing of their
entitled to additional seats in certificates of candidacy for another office,
proportion to their total number of except for President and Vice-President. The
votes, but may not have more than term of office prescribed by the Constitution
3 seats may not be extended or shortened by the
o Disqualified: legislature, but the period during which an
1. Religious Sects officer actually holds the office (tenure) may
2. Foreign Organizations be affected by circumstances within or
3. Those Advocating Violence or beyond the power of said officer.
Unlawful Means Tenure may be shorter than the term or
o Qualified Sectors: it may not exist at all. These situations will
1. Labor not change the duration of the term of office.
2. Peasant [Dimaporo vs Mitra (1991)]
3. Fisherfolk
4. Urban Poor  Term Limits: No member of the House
5. Indigenous Cultural of Representatives shall serve for more than
Communities 3 consecutive terms.
6. Elderly 3. Synchronized Terms of Office
7. Handicapped (Secs 1-2, Art XVIII)
8. Women
9. Youth
10. Veterans C. Election
11. Overseas Workers
12. Professionals 1. Regular Elections
iii. Sectoral Representatives  Unless otherwise provided by law, the
regular election of the Senators and the
 For 3 consecutive terms from 2
February 1987, 25 seats shall be Members of the House of Representatives
allotted to sectoral representatives. shall be held on the second Monday of May.
(Sec 8, Art VI)
 to be chosen by appointment or
election, as may be provided by law 2. Special Election
 Until a law is passed, they are  In case of vacancy in the Senate or in the
appointed by the President from a list House of Representatives, a special election
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers

may be called to fill such vacancy in the  Each House of the Congress can discipline its
manner prescribed by law, members for disorderly conduct or behavior.
 But the Senator or Member of the House of What constitutes disorderly behavior is 12
Representatives thus elected shall serve entirely up to Congress to define.

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
only for the unexpired term. (Sec 9, Art VI) Although a member of Congress shall not be
held liable in any other place for any speech or
 The Constitution mandates that there should debate in the Congress or in any committee
always be adequate representation for every thereof, such immunity, although absolute in its
province or legislative district. If a vacancy protection of the member of Congress against
occurs in a manner contemplated in the suits for libel, does not shield the member
Constitution, then Congress has the authority if against the disciplinary authority of the
not the duty to call for special elections. Congress. [Osmena v. Pendatun, (1960)]
[Lozada v. COMELEC, (1983)]
4. Disqualifications
D. Salaries, Privileges and Disqualifications  May not hold any other office or employment
in the government during his term without
1. Salaries forfeiting his seat. (Art VI Sec 13)
 The salaries of Senators and Members of  May not be appointed to any office created
the House of Representatives shall be or the emoluments thereof were increased
determined by law. during the term for which he was elected.
 No increase in said compensation shall take (Art VI Sec 13)
effect until after the expiration of the full term  Cannot personally appear as counsel before
of all the Members of the Senate and the any court, electoral tribunal, quasi-judicial
House of Representatives approving such and administrative bodies during his term of
increase. [Ligot v. Mathay, (1974)] office. (Art VI Sec 14)
 Shall not be financially interested, directly or
Official Annual Salary indirectly, in any contract with, or franchise
President Php 300,000 or special privilege granted by the
Vice-President, President of Php 240,000 government during his term of office. (Art VI
the Senate, Speaker of the
Sec 14)
House of Representatives,
and Chief Justice of the  Shall not intervene in any matter before any
Supreme Court office of the government when it is for his
Senators, Members of the Php 204,000 pecuniary benefit or where he may be called
House of Representatives, upon to act on account of his office. (Art VI
Associate Justices of the Sec 14)
Supreme Court, and
Chairmen of the  Certain salient circumstances militate against the
Constitutional Commissions intervention of Assemblyman Fernandez in the
Members of the Php 180,000 SEC Case.
Constitutional Commissions He had acquired a mere P200.00 worth of
stock in IPI, representing ten shares out of
2. Freedom from arrest 262,843 outstanding shares.
(Art VI Sec 11, 1987 Constitution) He acquired them after the contested
 A Senator or Member of the House of election of Directors, after the quo warranto suit
Representatives shall, in all offenses had been filed before SEC, and one day before
punishable by not more than six years the scheduled hearing of the case before the
imprisonment, be privileged from arrest while SEC.
the Congress is in session. Before he moved to intervene, he had
 No Member shall be questioned nor be held signified his intention to appear as counsel for
liable in any other place for any speech or respondent, but which was objected to by
debate in the Congress or in any committee petitioners. Realizing, perhaps, the validity of the
thereof. objection, he decided, instead, to "intervene" on
3. Speech and Debate Clause the ground of legal interest in the matter under
 In this case, a clarification of the scope and litigation.
limitation of the parliamentary immunity was Under those facts and circumstances that
made. There was reiteration that, there has been an indirect "appearance as
counsel before ... an administrative body" and
First, Congressional immunity is a guarantee that is a circumvention of the Constitutional
of immunity from answerability before an outside prohibition.
forum but not from answerability to the The "intervention" was an afterthought to
disciplinary authority of congress itself; enable him to appear actively in the proceedings
Second, to come under the guarantee the in some other capacity. [Puyat v De Guzman,
speech or debate" must be one made "in (1982)]
Congress or in any committee thereof." [Jimenez
v. Cabangbang, (1966)]
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers
5. Duty to Disclose
 A public officer or employee shall, upon
assumption of office and as often as may be
required by law, submit a declaration
under oath of his assets, liabilities, and
net worth.
 Cases wherein declaration shall be disclosed
to the public in the manner provided by law:
o President
o Vice-President
o the Members of the Cabinet
o the Congress
o the Supreme Court
o the Constitutional Commissions and
other constitutional offices
o officers of the armed forces with
general or flag rank (Art XI Sec 17)
 All Members of the Senate and the House of
Representatives shall, upon assumption of
office, make a full disclosure of their financial
and business interests.
o They shall notify the House concerned
of a potential conflict of interest that may
arise from the filing of a proposed
legislation of which they are authors.
(Art VI Sec 12)
 The records and books of accounts of the
Congress shall be preserved and be open to
the public in accordance with law,
o such books shall be audited by the
Commission on Audit which shall
publish annually an itemized list of
amounts paid to and expenses incurred
for each Member. (Art VI Sec 20)
E. Internal Government of Congress
1. Election of officers
Officers:
1. Senate President
2. Speaker of the House
3. Such officers as deemed by each house to be
necessary
Election of Officers: By a majority vote of all
respective members
2. Quorum
 Majority of each House shall constitute a
quorum.
 A smaller number may adjourn from day to day
and may compel the attendance of absent
members.
 In computing a quorum, members who are
outside the country, thus outside of each House’s
coercive jurisdiction, are not included.
“Majority” refers to the number of members
within the “jurisdiction” of the Congress (those
it can order arrested for the purpose of
questioning). In this case, one Senator was out of
the Philippines which is not within the
“jurisdiction” of the Senate, so that the working
majority was 23 Senators.
There is a difference between a majority of "all
members of the House" and a majority of "the
House", the latter requiring less number than the
first. Therefore, an absolute majority (12) of all 13
members of the Senate less one (23) constitutes
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
constitutional majority of the Senate for the
purpose of the quorum. [Avelino v. Cuenco,
(1949)]
3. Rules of Proceedings
 Each House shall determine its own procedural
rules.
 Issues may either be:
o Political- On matters affecting only internal
operation of the legislature, the legislature’s
formulation and implementation of its rules.
o Justiciable - when the legislative rule affects
private rights.
4. Discipline of Members
 Each house may punish its members for
disorderly behavior, and with the concurrence of
2/3 of ALL its members:
1. Suspension (shall not exceed 60 days)
2. Expulsion
 Other disciplinary measures:
1. deletion of unparliamentary remarks from the
record
2. fine
3. imprisonment
4. censure
 Senate expelled Senator Alejandrino for
disorderly conduct for assaulting Senator de Vera
during one of their debates in session. Senate
adopted a resolution depriving Senator
Alejandrino of all the prerogatives, privileges
and emoluments of his office for the period of
one year.
The Court held that the resolution was illegal
since it amounted to expulsion and it would
deprive the electoral district of representation
without any means to fill the vacancy. The
Senate had no authority to suspend an appointed
Senator like Senator Alejandrino. [Alejandrino v.
Quezon, (1924)]
5. Journal and Congressional Records
a. The Enrolled Bill Theory
 An enrolled bill is the official copy of
approved legislation and bears the
certifications of the presiding officers of each
House.
 where the certifications are valid and are not
withdrawn, the contents of the enrolled bill
are conclusive upon the courts.
 RATIONALE OF ENROLLED BILL
THEORY- An enrolled Act in the custody of
the Secretary of State, and having the official
attestations of the Speaker of the House of
Representatives, of the President of the
Senate, and of the President of the United
States, carries, on its face, a solemn
assurance by the legislative and executive
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers
departments of the government, charged,
respectively, with the duty of enacting and
executing the laws, that it was passed by
Congress. The respect due to coequal and
independent departments requires the
judicial department to act upon that
assurance, and to accept, as having passed
Congress, all bills authenticated in the
manner stated; leaving the courts to
determine, when the question properly
arises, whether the Act, so authenticated, is
in conformity with the Constitution [Astorga
vs Villegas, (1974) citing Field vs. Clark].
 Respect due to a co-equal department
requires the courts to accept the certification
of the presiding officer of the legislative
body. [Casco vs Gimenez (1963)]
 A duly authenticated bill or resolution imports
absolute verity and is binding on the
courts.[Mabanag v. Lopez Vito, (1947)]
b. Probative value of the Journal
 The Journal is conclusive upon the courts.
 But when the contents of the journal conflicts
with that of an enrolled bill, the enrolled bill
prevails over the contents of the journal.
 Congress may validly continue enacting
bills even beyond the reglementary
period of adjournment. When the
journal shows that Congress conducted
a sine die session where the hands of
the clock are stayed in order to afford
Congress the opportunity to continue its
session. All bills enacted during the
sine die session are valid and
conclusive upon the Courts.
The Journals are conclusive
evidence of the contents thereof and
Courts are bound to take judicial
notice of them. [US vs Pons (1916)]
c. Matters required to be entered in the Journal
 Yeas and Nays on third and final reading of
a bill
 Veto message of the President
 Yeas and Nays on the repassing of a bill
vetoed by the President
 Yeas and Nays on any question at the
request of 1/5 of members present.
d. Journal Entry Rule v. Enrolled Bill Theory
 It may be noted that the enrolled bill theory is
based mainly on "the respect due to coequal
and independent departments," which
requires the judicial department "to accept,
as having passed Congress, all bills
authenticated in the manner stated." Thus it
has also been stated in other cases that if
the attestation is absent and the same is not
required for the validity of a statute, the
courts may resort to the journals and other
records of Congress for proof of its due
enactment. [Astorga v. Villegas, (1974)]
14
e. Congressional Record
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
6. Sessions
a. Regular Sessions

th
Convenes once every year on the 4
Monday of July.
 Continues to be in session until 30 days
before the start of its next regular session,
exclusive of Saturdays, Sundays, and legal
holidays.
b. Special Sessions
 Called by the President at any time when
Congress is not in session
c. Adjournments
 Neither House can adjourn for more than 3
days during the time Congress is in session
without the consent of the other House.
 Neither can they adjourn to any other place
than that where the two houses are sitting,
without the consent of the other.
d. Joint Sessions
 Voting separately
 Choosing the President (Sec. 4, Art VII)
 Determining the President’s temporary
disability (Id., Sec. 11, Par 4)
 Confirming the nomination of a Vice-
President (Id., Sec. 9)
 Declaring a state of war (Sec. 23(1), Art
VI)
 Amending the Constitution (Sec. 1(1),
Art XVII)
 Voting Jointly
 To revoke or extend martial law or
suspension of privilege of habeas
corpus (Sec. 18 Art VII)
F. Electoral Tribunals
1. Composition
 3 Supreme Court Justices to be designated by
the Chief Justice (The senior Justice in the
Electoral Tribunal shall be its Chairman).
 6 Members of the Senate or House, as the case
may be, chosen on the basis of proportional
representation from the political parties and
party-list organizations.
 The ET shall be constituted within 30 days after
the Senate and the House shall have been
organized with the election of the President and
the Speaker.
 Members chosen enjoy security of tenure and
cannot be removed by mere change of party
affiliation.
 The five LDP members who are also members
of the Senate Electoral Tribunal may not inhibit
themselves since it is clear that the Constitution
intended legislative and judiciary membership to
the tribunal. As a matter of fact, the 2:1 ratio of
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers
legislative to judiciary indicates that
legislative membership cannot be ignored.
To exclude themselves is to abandon a duty
that no other court can perform. [Abbas vs
SET (1988)]
2. Nature of Function
Jurisdiction: be the sole judge of all CONTESTS
relating to the election, returns, and qualifications
of their respective members. ET has jurisdiction
only when there is an election contest.
 Election Contest - one where a defeated
candidate challenges the qualification and claims
for himself the seat of a proclaimed winner.
 The Electoral Tribunal of each House is the
SOLE judge of all contests relating to the
election, returns, and qualifications of the
members of Congress.
In the absence of election contest, the
Electoral Tribunal has no jurisdiction.
The Electoral Tribunals are independent
constitutional bodies and cannot be regulated by
Congress.
Supreme Court has jurisdiction over the
Electoral Commission and the subject matter of
the present controversy for the purpose of
determining the character, scope and extent
of the constitutional grant to the Electoral
Commission as "the sole judge of all contests
relating to the election, returns and qualifications
of the members of the National Assembly."
[Angara vs Electoral Commission (1936)]
3. Independence of the Electoral Tribunals
 Since the ET’s are independent constitutional
bodies, independent even of the respective
House, neither Congress nor the Courts may
interfere with procedural matters relating to the
functions of the ET’s. [Co vs HRET, (1991)]
 The HRET was created to function as a
nonpartisan court although two-thirds of its
members are politicians. It is a non-political body
in a sea of politicians.
To be able to exercise exclusive jurisdiction,
the House Electoral Tribunal must be
independent. Its jurisdiction to hear and decide
congressional election contests is not to be
shared by it with the Legislature nor with the
Courts. "The Electoral Commission is a body
separate from and independent of the legislature
and though not a power in the tripartite scheme
of government, it is to all intents and purposes,
when acting within the limits of its authority, an
independent organ; while composed of a
majority of members of the legislature it is a
body separate from and independent of the
legislature. [Bondoc v. Pineda, (1991)]
 Valid grounds / Just cause for termination of
membership to the tribunal.
o Expiration of Congressional term of office;
o Death or permanent disability;
o Resignation form political party which one
represents in the tribunal;
o Removal from office for other valid reasons.
15
4. Powers
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
 Lazatin v. HRET, (1988)
The HRET will only gain jurisdiction upon
proclamation of the candidate. Until such
proclamation, he is not yet a member of the
House; hence, the HRET will not have jurisdiction
over him. Jurisdiction over such remains with
the COMELEC.
 As constitutional creations invested with
necessary power, the Electoral Tribunals are, in
the exercise of their functions independent
organs — independent of Congress and the
Supreme Court. The power granted to HRET by
the Constitution is intended to be as complete
and unimpaired as if it had remained originally in
the legislature [ Co vs HRET (1991) citing Angara
vs. Electoral Commission [1936]).
5. Judicial Review of Decisions of Electoral
Tribunals
 With the SC only insofar as the decision or
resolution was rendered
o without or in excess of jurisdiction, or
o with grave abuse of discretion tantamount to
denial of due process.
 To question the jurisdiction of the lower court or
the agency exercising judicial or quasi-judicial
functions, the remedy is a special civil action
for certiorari under Rule 65 of the Rules of
Court. The petitioner in such cases must clearly
show that the public respondent acted without
jurisdiction or with grave abuse of discretion
amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction. Grave
abuse of discretion defies exact definition, but
generally refers to "capricious or whimsical
exercise of judgment as is equivalent to lack of
jurisdiction. The abuse of discretion must be
patent and gross as to amount to an evasion of
positive duty or a virtual refusal to perform a duty
enjoined by law, or to act at all in contemplation
of law, as where the power is exercised in an
arbitrary and despotic manner by reason of
passion and hostility. [Garcia vs HRET (1999)]
G. Commission on Appointments
(Sec, Art VII)
1. Composition:
a. Senate President as ex-officio chairman (shall
not vote except in case of a tie.)
b. 12 Senators
c. 12 Members of the House
The 12 Senators and 12 Representatives are elected
on the basis of proportional representation from
the political parties and party-list organizations.
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers

 The authority of the House of Representatives to COMELEC members);

change its representation in the Commission on
Appointments to reflect at any time the changes
that may transpire in the political alignments of its
b. Congress cannot by law require that the
appointment of a person to an office created by
16
such law shall be subject to confirmation by the

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
membership. It is understood that such changes
in membership must be permanent and do not Commission on Appointments.
include the temporary alliances or factional c. Appointments extended by the President to the
divisions not involving severance of political above-mentioned positions while Congress is
loyalties or formal disaffiliation and permanent not in session shall only be effective until
shifts of allegiance from one political party to disapproval by the Commission on
another. [Daza vs SIngson (1989) Appointments or until the next adjournment
 The provision of Section 18 on proportional of Congress.
representation is mandatory in character and
does not leave any discretion to the majority H. Powers of Congress
party in the Senate to disobey or disregard the
rule on proportional representation RATIONALE: 1. General
The party with a majority representation in the (Sec Art VI)
Senate or the house of Representatives can by
sheer force of numbers impose its will on the a. Legislative Powers: (Scope: vested in
hapless minority. Congress by the Constitution except to the
By requiring a proportional representation in extent reserved to the people by the
the Commission on Appointments, Section 18 in provision on initiative and referendum).
effect works as a check on the majority party in  powers of appropriation, taxation and
the Senate and helps to maintain the balance of expropriation
power. No party can claim more than what it is  authority to make, frame and enact laws
entitled to under such rule. [Guingona, Jr. vs b. Non-legislative Powers (Scope)
Gonzales, (1993)]
 power to canvass the presidential
elections;
 The Commission on Appointments shall be
 declare the existence of war;
constituted within 30 days after the Senate and
 give concurrence to treaties and
the House of Representative shall have been
amnesties;
organized with the election of the President and
the Speaker.  propose constitutional amendments;
 impeach;
 The Commission on Appointments shall act on all
appointments within 30 session days from their  derivative and delegated power;
submission to Congress.  implied powers such as the power to
 The Commission on Appointments shall rule by a punish contempt in legislative
majority vote of all its members. investigations.
2. Specific Powers
2. Meetings
a. Constituent power
 Commission on Appointments shall meet only b. Legislative Inquiries
while Congress is in session. c. Appropriation
 Meetings are held either at the call of the d. Taxation
Chairman or by a majority of all its members. e. Concurrence in treaties and international
 Since the Commission on Appointments is also agreements
an independent constitutional body, its rules of f. War powers and delegations powers
procedure are also outside the scope of
congressional powers as well as that of the 3. Inherent Powers
judiciary.
a. Police Power
3. Jurisdiction  Make, ordain, and establish all manner
of wholesome and reasonable laws,
a. Commission on Appointments shall confirm the statutes and ordinances as they shall
appointments by the President with respect to the judge for the good and welfare of the
following positions: constituents.
 Heads of the Executive Departments (except  Includes maintenance of peace and
if it is the Vice-President who is appointed to order, protection of life, liberty and
the post); property and the promotion of general
 Ambassadors, other public ministers or welfare
consuls; b. Power of Taxation
 Officers of the AFP from the rank of Colonel c. Power of Eminent Domain
or Naval Captain; d. Contempt power
 Other officers whose appointments are
vested in him by the Constitution (e.g. 4. Limitations:
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers

a. Formal or Procedural Limitations appropriating money for a valid secular

 Prescribes the manner of passing bills in purpose, even if it incidentally benefits a
the form they should take religion, e.g. appropriations for a 17
 Limitations provided by Sec 26, Art VI national police force is valid even if the

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
o Every bill passed by the Congress police also protects the safety of
shall embrace only one subject clergymen.
which shall be expressed in the title o Also, the temporary use of public
o No bill passed by either house shall property for religious purposes is valid,
become law unless it has passed 3 as long as the property is available for
readings on separate days all religions.
o Printed copies in its final form have
been distributed to its members 3  Specific Limitations
days before the passage of the bill o For General Appropriations Bills
1. Congress may not increase the
 Exception: president certifies to
appropriations recommended by
the necessity of its immediate
the President for the operation of
enactment to meet a public
the Government as specified in the
calamity or emergency
budget.
b. Substantive Limitations 2. Form, content and manner of
 Circumscribe both the exercise of the preparation of the budget shall be
power itself and the allowable subject of prescribed by law.
legislation 3. No provision or enactment shall be
 Express limitations: embraced in the general
o Sec 24-26, 28-30, Art VI appropriations bill unless it relates
 Express limitations on general powers specifically to some particular
o Bill of rights appropriation therein.
 Implied Limitations 4. Procedure in approving
o No power to pass irrepealable law appropriations FOR THE
o Non-encroachment on powers of CONGRESS shall strictly follow the
other departments procedure for approving
o Non-delegability of powers appropriations for other
departments and agencies.
5. Discussion of Specific Powers 5. No law shall be passed authorizing
any transfer of appropriations.
a. Constituent Powers However, the following may, BY
 Power to propose amendments to the LAW, be authorized to AUGMENT
Constitution any item in the general
appropriations law for their
b. Legislative Inquiries (Sec 21, Art VI)
respective offices from savings in
 Requisites:
other items of their respective
o Must be in aid of legislation
appropriations:
o In accordance with duly published rules
of procedure i. President
o Right of persons appearing in or ii. Senate President
affected by such inquiries shall be iii. Speaker of the House
respected iv. Chief Justice of the Supreme
 Additional limitation: Executive Privilege Court
(Refer to Chap 4, III) v. Heads of the Constitutional
Commissions
c. Appropriation
 General Limitations: Guidelines for disbursement of
o Appropriations must be for a PUBLIC DISCRETIONARY FUNDS appropriated
PURPOSE. FOR PARTICULAR OFFICIALS:
o Cannot appropriate public funds or i. For public purposes
property, directly or indirectly, in favor of ii. To be supported by appropriate
1. Any sect, church, denomination, or vouchers
sectarian institution or system of iii. Subject to such guidelines as may be
religion or prescribed by law
2. Any priest, preacher, minister, or
other religious teacher or dignitary If Congress fails to pass the general
as such. appropriations bill by the end of any
EXCEPT if the priest, etc is assigned to: fiscal year:
1. the Armed Forces; i. The general appropriations bill for the
2. any penal institution; previous year is deemed reenacted
3. government orphanage; ii. It shall remain in force and effect until
4. leprosarium the general appropriations bill is passed
o Government is not prohibited from by Congress.
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers
o For Special Appropriations Bill
1. Shall specify the purpose for which
it is intended
2. Shall be supported by funds
actually available as certified by the
National Treasurer or to be raised
by corresponding revenue proposal
therein
o Limitation on Use of Public Funds (Sec
29, Art VI):
1. No money shall be paid out of the
National Treasury EXCEPT in
pursuance of an appropriation
made by law.
2. However, this rule does not prohibit
continuing appropriations, e.g. for
debt servicing, for the reason that
this rule does not require yearly or
annual appropriation.
o Four phases of Government’s budgeting
process:
1. Budget preparation
2. Legislative authorization
3. Budget execution
4. Budget accountability
d. Taxation (Sec 28, Art VI)
 Nature
o Sec 28 is an enumeration of the limits
on the inherent and otherwise unlimited
power
 Purposes
o Pay debts and provide for the common
defense and general warfare;
o Raise revenue;
o Instrument of national and social policy;
o Instrument for extermination of
undesirable acts and enterprises;
o Tool for regulation;
o Imposition of tariffs designed to
encourage and protect locally produced
goods against competition for imports.
 Limitations
o Public. Power to tax should be
exercised only for a public purpose.
o Uniform and Equitable.
1. Operates with the same force and
effect in every place where the
subject of it is found
2. Does not prohibit classification for
the purpose of taxation
3. Requirements for valid
classification:
i. Based on substantial
distinctions which make real
differences
ii. Germane to the purpose of law
iii. Applies to present and future
conditions substantially
identical to those of the present
iv. Applies equally to those who
belong to the same class
o Progressivity.
1. The rate increases as the tax base
increases 18
2. Tax burden is based on the
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
taxpayers’ capacity to pay
3. Suited to the social conditions of
the people
4. Reflects aim of the Convention that
legislature following social justice
command should use taxation as
an instrument for more equitable
distribution of wealth
o Constitutional Tax Exemptions:
1. Religious, charitable, educational
institutions and their properties
2. All revenues and assets of NON-
STOCK NON-PROFIT
EDUCATIONAL institutions are
exempt from taxes and duties
PROVIDED that such revenues and
assets are actually, directly and
exclusively used for educational
purposes (sec. 4 (3) Art XIV).
3. Grants, endowments, donations or
contributions used actually,
directly and exclusively for
educational purposes shall be
exempt from tax, subject to
conditions prescribed by law (sec. 4
(4) Art XIV).
o Special Funds
1. Money collected on a tax levied for
a special purpose shall be treated
as a special fund and paid out for
such purpose only.
2. Once the special purpose is fulfilled
or abandoned, any balance shall be
transferred to the general funds of
the Government
e. Concurrence in Treaties and international
agreements (Sec 21, Art VII)
 Treaties and other international agreements
which are in the nature of original
agreements of a permanent nature or which
establish national policy, or involve political
issues or changes in national policies need
the concurrence of 2/3 of the members of
the Senate.
 Executive agreements which are merely
implementation of treaties or statutes or of
well-established policies or are of transitory
effectivity do not require Senate
concurrence.
f. War Powers (Sec 23 (1), Art VI)
 Congress in joint session assembled and
voting separately shall have the sole power
to declare the existence of war
 Philippines renounces war as an instrument
of national policy
 Even though the legislature can declare
existence of war and enact measures to
support it, the actual power to make war is
lodged nonetheless in the executive
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers

6. Delegation of Powers  RA 7716 (EVAT Law) did not violate Sec. 24, Art.
VI (Origination Clause). It is important to
a. General rule: Congress cannot delegate its
legislative power (Potestas delegate non
emphasize that it is the law, and not the bill, 19
which is required to originate exclusively

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
potest delegare) from the HoR, because the bill may undergo
b. Exceptions such extensive changes in the Senate that the
1. Delegation of tariff powers to the result may be the rewriting of the whole.
President (Art VI sec. 28(2)). To insist that a revenue statute, and not just the bill,
2. Delegation of emergency powers to the must be substantially the same as the House bill
President (Art VI sec. 23(2)). would be to deny the Senate’s power not only to
o Preconditions: “concur with amendments” but also to “propose
i. Limited time period amendments”. It would violate the co-equality of
CA 671 – passed delegative legislative power of the Senate. [Tolentino vs.
emergency powers to the Secretary of Finance (1994)]
president in times of war and
other national emergencies. B. Procedure for the Passage of Bills
Since said grant was given to
meet the emergencies i. Procedure for Enactment:
incidental to the war, such
powers ceased at the time the Introduction: must be by any member of the
war stopped House of Representatives or Senate except for
some measures that must originate only from the
ii. Power may be withdrawn by
former chamber
resolution, not necessary that it
be done through statute First reading: The reading of the title and the
iii. Subject to restrictions as the number; the bill is passed by the Senate
congress may provide President or Speaker to the proper committee
3. Delegation to the people at large.
4. Delegation to local governments. Second reading: Entire text is read and debates
5. Delegation to administrative bodies are held, and amendments introduced.
(rule-making power). The bill as approved in the second reading is
printed in its final form and copies are distributed
Tests for a Valid Delegation three days before the third reading
1. The Completeness Test Third reading: Only the title is read, no
The law must be complete in all its terms and amendments are allowed. Vote shall be taken
conditions when it leaves the legislature so that immediately thereafter and the yeas and nays
there will be nothing left for the delegate to do entered in the journal.
when it reaches him except enforce it.
Sent to the other chamber: once the bill passes
2. The Sufficient Standard Test the third reading, it is sent to the other chamber
The law must fix a standard, the limits of which where it will also go under three readings
are sufficiently determinate or determinable, to
which the delegate must conform in the Enrolled Bill: The bill is printed as finally
performance of his functions. [Pelaez vs. Auditor approved by the Congress, authenticated with
General, (1965)] the signatures of the Senate President or the
Speaker and the Secretary and approved by the
7. Legislative Process President
A. Bills that Must Originate EXCLUSIVELY from
ii. Submission to the President; President’s Veto
the House of Representatives
power (Sec 27, Art VI)
(Sec. 24, Art VI):
 Every bill, in order to become a law, must be
i. Appropriation bills (A bill appropriating a sum of presented to and signed by the President.
money from the public treasury.) A bill creating a  If the President does not approve of the bill,
new office, and appropriating funds therefor is he shall veto the same and return it with his
NOT an appropriation bill. objections to the House from which it
ii. Revenue bills (A bill specifically designed to raise originated. The House shall enter the
money or revenue through imposition or levy.) objections in the journal and proceed to
iii. A law regulating an industry, though incidentally reconsider it.
imposing a tax, does not make the law a revenue  The President must communicate his
bill. decision to veto within 30 days from the date
iv. Tariff bills of receipt thereof. If he fails to do so, the bill
shall become a law as if he signed it.
v. Bills authorizing the increase of public debt
 To override the veto, at least 2/3 of ALL the
vi. Bills of local application
members of each House must agree to pass
vii. Private bills the bill. In such case, the veto is overridden
and becomes a law without need of
presidential approval.
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers
Item veto
o The President may veto particular items in an
appropriation, revenue or tariff bill.
o This veto will not affect items to which he does
not object.
Veto of a Rider
o A rider is a provision which does not relate to a
particular appropriation stated in the bill.
o Since it is an invalid provision under Section
25(2), the President may veto it as an item.
 The executive's veto power does not carry
with it the power to strike out conditions or
restrictions. If the veto is unconstitutional, it
follows that the same produced no effect
whatsoever, and the restriction imposed by the
appropriation bill, therefore, remains. [Bolinao
Electronics Corp vs Valencia, (1964)]
 DOCTRINE OF INAPPROPRIATE
PROVISIONS- A provision that is constitutionally
inappropriate for an appropriation bill may be
singled out for veto even if it is not an
appropriation or revenue item. [Gonzales vs
Macaraig, (1990)]
 The Constitution provides that only a particular
item or items may be vetoed. The power to
disapprove any item or items in an appropriate
bill does not grant the authority to veto a part of
an item and to approve the remaining portion of
the same item. [Bengzon vs. Drilon, (1992)]
“The terms item and provision in budgetary
legislations and practice are concededly different. An
item in a bill refers to the particulars, the details, the
distinct and severable parts . . . of the bill. It is an
indivisible sum of money dedicated to a stated
purpose. An 'item' of an appropriation bill means an
item which in itself is a specific appropriation of
money, not some general provision of law, which
happens to be put into an appropriation bill.'"
The president cannot veto unavoidable obligations
such as the payment of pensions which has already
been vested by the law. The veto is invalid since it is
violated the separation of property and the judiciary’s
fiscal autonomy.
C. Effectivity of Laws
Article 2 (CC)
Laws shall take effect after fifteen days following the
completion of their publication in the Official Gazette, unless
it is otherwise provided. This code shall take effect one year
after such publication.
 unless otherwise provided – this phrase refers to
the date of effectivity, and not to the very act of
publication. Complete publication is
indispensable.
 Executive Order No. 200 (June 18, 1987):
Amended Art II of CC to include any newspaper
of general circulation as a means of publication
other than the Official Gazette
8. Initiative and Referendum
(Sec 32, Art VI)
20
a. Limited only to the proposal of amendments
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
b. Requirements for people’s initiative:
 12 % of the total number of registered voters
 at least 3% of all registered voters in every
district should be represented
c. No amendments shall be authorized within 5
years following the ratification of the new
Constitution.
 The right of the people to directly propose
amendments to the Constitution through the
system of initiative would remain entombed in the
cold niche of the Constitution until Congress
provides for its implementation. Stated otherwise,
while the Constitution has recognized or granted
that right, the people cannot exercise it if
Congress, for whatever reason, does not
provide for its implementation.
Held: RA 6735 is incomplete, inadequate, or wanting
in essential terms and conditions insofar as initiative
on amendments to the Constitution is concerned.
The court cited the following reasons:
1. Sec 2 of the Act does not suggest an initiative on
amendments to the Constitution. The inclusion of
the word "Constitution" therein was a delayed
afterthought. That word is neither germane nor
relevant to said section.
2. Unlike in the case of the other systems of
initiative, the Act does not provide for the
contents of a petition for initiative on the
Constitution.
While the Act provides subtitles for National
Initiative and Referendum and for Local Initiative
and Referendum, no subtitle is provided for
initiative on the Constitution. Also, while RA 6735
exerted utmost diligence and care in providing for
the details in the implementation of initiative and
referendum on national and local legislation, it
failed, rather intentionally, to do so on the system
of initiative on amendments to the Constitution.
[Santiago vs Comelec, (1997)]
 The court cited the following reasons for holding
that there was failure to comply with §2, Art.XVII
of the Constitution: (a) the initiative petition did
not present the full text of the proposed
amendments; and (b) the proposed changes
constituted revision not amendment. The
essence of amendments “directly proposed by
the people through initiative upon a petition”
is that the entire proposal on its face is a
petition by the people. This means two
essential elements must be present. First, the
people must author and thus sign the entire
proposal. No agent or representative can sign on
their behalf. Second, as an initiative upon a
petition, the proposal must be embodied in a
petition. Further, a people’s initiative could only
propose amendments not revisions. Only
Congress or a constitutional convention can
propose both amendments and revisions to the
Constitution. A change in the form of government
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers

– from presidential and bicameral Congress to Essential Requisites for Judicial Review
parliamentary and unicameral legislature— a. Actual case or controversy
constitutes revision and not merely amendment.  This means that there must be a genuine 21
[Lambino v Comelec, (2006)] conflict of legal rights and interests which

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
can be resolved through judicial
determination. [John Hay vs. Lim, (2003)]
II. Judiciary
(Asked 28 times in the Bar) This precludes the courts from entertaining the
following:
A. In General i. Request for an advisory opinion [Guingona
vs. CA, (1998)]
1. Judicial Power v. Judicial Review ii. Cases that are or have become moot and
(Asked 6 times in the Bar) academic, unless ---
JUDICIAL POWER JUDICIAL REVIEW
 capable of repetition yet evading review
Where Supreme Court Supreme Court [Alunan III v. Mirasol, (1997); Sanlakas
vested Lower courts Lower courts v. Executive Secretary, (2004)]; or
Definition Duty to settle actual Power of the courts  when the court feels called upon to
controversies to test the validity exercise its symbolic function and
involving rights of executive and provide future guidance [Salonga v.
which are legally legislative acts in Paño, (1985)]
demandable and light of their
enforceable, and to conformity with the b. Standing: NOT the same as “real party in interest”
determine whether Constitution A proper party is one who has sustained or is in
or not there has [Angara v. Electoral imminent danger of sustaining a direct injury as
been a grave abuse Commission
a result of the act complained of [NACHURA,
of discretion (1936)]
amounting to lack or citing IBP v. Zamora (2000)]. The alleged injury
excess of jurisdiction must also be capable of being redressed by a
on the part of any favorable judgment [Tolentino v. Comelec,
branch or (2004)].
instrumentality of the i. requires partial consideration of the merits of
Government [Art. the case in view of its constitutional and
VIII, Sec. 1, Par. 2]
public policy underpinnings [Kilosbayan vs
Requisites for Jurisdiction – power 1. Appropriate
exercise to decide and hear a case: actual
Morato, (1995)]
case and execute a case or ii. may be brushed aside by the court as a
decision thereof controversy mere procedural technicality in view of
2. Standing: transcendental importance of the issues
personal and involved [Kilosbayan vs Guingona, (1994);
substantial Tatad vs DOE, (1995)]
interest
3. Question raised
iii. Who are proper parties?
at the earliest  taxpayers, when public funds are
opportunity involved [Tolentino vs Comelec, (2004)]
4. Lis mota of the  Government of the Philippines, when
case questioning the validity of its own laws
[People vs Vera, (1937)]
 When the judiciary mediates to allocate
 legislators, when the powers of
constitutional boundaries, it does not assert
Congress are being impaired [Philconsa
any superiority over the other departments; it
vs Enriquez, (1994)]
does not in reality nullify or invalidate an act of
 citizens, when the enforcement of a
the legislature, but only asserts the solemn and
public right is involved [Tañada vs
sacred obligation assigned to it by the
Tuvera, (1985)]
Constitution to determine conflicting claims of
authority under the Constitution and to c. Constitutional question must be raised at the
establish for the parties in an actual earliest possible opportunity, except:
controversy the rights which that instrument i. in criminal cases, at the discretion of the
secures and guarantees to them. This is in court
truth all that is involved in what is termed "judicial ii. in civil cases, if necessary for the
supremacy" which properly is the power of determination of the case itself
judicial review under the Constitution. [Angara v.
iii. when the jurisdiction of the court is involved
Electoral Commission, (1936)]
[NACHURA]
Functions of Judicial Review d. Decision on the constitutional question must be
a. Checking determinative of the case itself.
b. Legitimating
c. Symbolic [NACHURA]  The reason for this is the doctrine of separation
of powers which requires that due respect be
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers

given to the co-equal branches, and because of POLITICAL QUESTION JUSTICIABLE

the grave consequences of a declaration of CONTROVERSY
unconstitutionality. [De la Llana v. Alba, (1982)] XV, hence, it may be said
that in its political aspect,
22
which is what counts most,

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
Political Question Doctrine after all, said Article has
 The term “political question” refers to: (1) matters been substantially complied
to be exercised by the people in their primary with, and, in effect, the 1973
political capacity; or (2) those specifically Constitution has been
delegated to some other department or constitutionally ratified.
particular office of the government, with
discretionary power to act. It is concerned with Effect of a Declaration of Unconstitutionality
issues dependent upon the wisdom, not legality, a. Orthodox view
of a particular measure. [Tañada v. Cuenco, An unconstitutional act is not a law; it confers no
(1957)] rights; it imposes no duties; it affords no
protection; it creates no office; it is inoperative, as
In recent years, the Court has set aside this doctrine if it had not been passed at all.
and assumed jurisdiction whenever it found b. Modern view
constitutionally-imposed limits on the exercise of  Pelaez v. Auditor General, (1965)
powers conferred upon the Legislative and Executive Certain legal effects of the statute prior to its
branches [BERNAS]. declaration of unconstitutionality may be
recognized. [NACHURA]
POLITICAL QUESTION JUSTICIABLE
CONTROVERSY
Alejandrino v. Quezon, Avelino v. Cuenco, (1949): 2. Appointment and Qualifications
(1924): The legislature’s election of Senate President
exercise of disciplinary was done without the SC and CA RTC MTC/
power over its member is required quorum JUSTICE JUDGE MCTC
not to be interfered with by JUDGE
the Court. Citizenship Natural-
Vera v. Avelino, (1946): Tañada v. Cuenco, (1957): born Filipino
inherent right of the The selection of the Filipino
legislature to determine who members of the Senate Age At least 40 At least At least
shall be admitted to its Electoral Tribunal is subject years old 35 years 30 years
membership to constitutional limitations. old old
Mabanag v. Lopez-Vito, Cunanan v. Tan, Jr., (1962): Experience 15 years or Has been engaged for
(1947): Proposal to amend The Commission on more as a at least 5 years in the
the Constitution is a highly Appointments is a judge or a practice of law* in the
political function performed constitutional creation and lower court Philippines or has held
by Congress in its sovereign does not derive its power or has public office in the
capacity. from Congress. been Philippines requiring
Osmeña v. Pendatun, Gonzales v. Comelec, engaged in admission to the
(1960): disciplinary power of (1967); Tolentino v. the practice practice of law as an
the legislature Comelec, (1971): of law in indispensable requisite
abandoned Mabanag v. the Phils.
Lopez-Vito for the
Severino v. Governor- Lansang v. Garcia, (1971): same
General, (1910): Mandamus Suspension of the privilege period
and injunction could not lie of the writ of habeas corpus Tenure Hold office during good behavior until
to enforce or restrain a duty is not a political question. they reach the age of 70 or
which is discretionary become incapacitated to discharge
(calling a special local their duties
election). Characteristics Person of proven competence,
Montenegro v. Castañeda, Javellana v. Executive integrity, probity and independence
(1952): Authority to decide Secretary, (1973): WON the
whether the exigency has 1973 Constitution had been  “Practice of law” is not confined to litigation.
arisen requiring the ratified in accordance with It means any activity in and out of court, which
suspension of the privilege the 1935 Constitution is requires the application of law, legal procedure,
of the writ of habeas corpus justiciable. knowledge, training and experience. [Cayetano v.
belongs to the President.
Monsod, (1991)]
Manalang v. Quitoriano,
(1954): President’s
appointing power is not to 3. Disqualification from Other Positions or
be interfered with by the
Offices
Court.
Javellana v. Executive Art. VIII, Sec. 12. The Members of the Supreme Court and
Secretary, (1973): The of other courts established by law shall not be designated to
people may be deemed to any agency performing quasi-judicial or administrative
have cast their favorable functions.
votes in the belief that in
doing so they did the part
required of them by Article
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers

 The issue concerns the legal right of the
members of the SC, sitting as a board of
arbitrators, the decision of a majority of whom
shall be final, to act in that capacity.
any treaty, international or executive agreement, law,
presidential decree, proclamation, order, instruction,
ordinance, or regulation is in question.
(b) All cases involving the legality of any tax, impost,
23
assessment, or toll, or any penalty imposed in relation

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
It was held that the SC and its members thereto.
should not and cannot be required to exercise (c) All cases in which the jurisdiction of any lower court
any power or to perform any trust or to assume is in issue.
any duty not pertaining to or connected w/ the (d) All criminal cases in which the penalty imposed is
administering of judicial functions. [Meralco vs reclusion perpetua or higher.
Pasay Transportation Co., (1932)] (e) All cases in which only an error or question of law is
involved.
 A judge in the CFI shall not be detailed with the
Department of Justice to perform administrative
iii. Congressional power vis-à-vis SC
functions as this contravenes the doctrine of Art. VIII, Sec. 2. The Congress shall have the power to
separation of powers. [Garcia vs Macaraig, define, prescribe, and apportion the jurisdiction of the
(1972)] various courts [subject to the following
conditions/limitations:

4. Grounds Removal from Office on a. It may not increase or decrease the

Impeachment of Members of the SC appellate jurisdiction of SC
(Art. XI, Sec. 2) b. It may not pass a law reorganizing the
Judiciary when it undermines the security of
i. Culpable violation of the Constitution tenure of the Members of the latter
ii. Treason
iii. Bribery  Section 27 of Republic Act No. 6770
(Ombudsman Act of 1989), together with
iv. Graft and corruption
Section 7, Rule III of Administrative Order
v. Other high crimes
No. 07 (Rules of Procedure of the Office of
vi. Betrayal of public trust the Ombudsman), and any other provision of
law or issuance implementing the aforesaid
B. Supreme Court Act and insofar as they provide for appeals
in administrative disciplinary cases from the
1. Composition Office of the Ombudsman to the Supreme
i. Chief Justice and 14 Associate Justices Court, are declared INVALID for increasing
the Court’s appellate jurisdiction. However, it
ii. May sit en banc or in divisions of three, five, or
cannot be said that transfer of appellate
seven Members
jurisdiction to the CA is an act of creating a
iii. Vacancy shall be filled within 90 days from the new right of appeal because such power of
occurrence thereof the SC to transfer appeals to subordinate
appellate courts is purely a procedural and
2. Powers: Jurisdiction not a substantive power. [Fabian vs
Desierto, (1998)]
i. Original
a. Cases affecting ambassadors, other public
ministers and consuls [Art. VIII, Sec. 5(1)];
3. Other Powers
b. Petitions for certiorari, prohibition, i. Rule-making
mandamus, quo warranto, and habeas
corpus [Art. VIII, Sec. 5(1)]; Art. VIII, Sec. 5. The Supreme Court shall have the
c. Sole judge of all contests relating to the following powers:
election, returns, and qualifications of the xxx
(5) Promulgate rules concerning the protection and
President or Vice-President, and may
enforcement of constitutional rights, pleading, practice,
promulgate its rules for the purpose [Art. VII, and procedure in all courts, the admission to the
Sec. 4, par. 7]; practice of law, the integrated bar, and legal assistance
d. Sufficiency of the factual basis of the to the under-privileged.
proclamation of martial law or the
suspension of the privilege of the writ of  The 1987 Constitution took away the power
habeas corpus or the extension thereof [Art. of Congress to repeal, alter, or supplement
VII, Sec. 18, par. 3]. rules concerning pleading, practice and
procedure. In fine, the power to
ii. Appellate promulgate rules of pleading, practice
and procedure is no longer shared by this
Art. VIII, Sec. 5. The Supreme Court shall have the
Court with Congress, more so with the
following powers:
xxx Executive. [Echegaray vs Secretary of
(2) Review, revise, reverse, modify, or affirm on appeal Justice, (1999)]
or certiorari, as the law or the Rules of Court may
provide, final judgments and orders of lower courts in:
(a) All cases in which the constitutionality or validity of
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers
Limitations:
a. Shall provide a simplified and inexpensive
procedure for speedy disposition of cases
b. Uniform for all courts in the same grade
c. Shall not diminish, increase or modify
substantive rights
ii. Administrative
a. Assign temporarily judges of lower courts to
other stations as public interest may require;
 shall not exceed 6 months without the
consent of the judge concerned
b. Order a change of venue or place of trial to
avoid a miscarriage of justice;
c. Appoint all officials and employees of the
Judiciary in accordance with the Civil Service
Law;
d. Supervision over all courts and the
personnel thereof;
e. Discipline judges of lower courts, or order
their dismissal by a vote of a majority of the
Members who actually took part in the
deliberations on the issues in the case and
voted [en banc].
4. Manner of Sitting and Required Votes
i. En banc
a. decided with the concurrence of a majority
of the Members who actually took part in
the deliberations and voted.
b. Instances when the SC sits en banc: (C-DD-
MM-PO)
 Those involving the constitutionality,
application, or operation of: (TOIL-
PIPOO)
 Treaty
 Orders
 International or executive
agreement
 Law
 Presidential decrees
 Instructions
 Proclamations
 Ordinances
 Other regulations
 Exercise of the power to discipline
judges of lower courts, or order their
dismissal [Art. VIII, Sec. 11]
 Cases or matters heard by a division
where the required number of votes to
decide or resolve (the majority of those
who took part in the deliberations on the
issues in the case and voted thereon
and in no case less than 3 members) is
not met [Art. VIII, Sec. 4(3)]
 Modifying or reversing a doctrine or
principle of law laid down by the court in
a decision rendered en banc or in
division [Art. VIII, Sec. 4(3)]
 Actions instituted by citizen to test the
validity of a proclamation of martial law
or suspension of the privilege of the writ
[Art. VII, Sec. 18]
 When sitting as Presidential Electoral
Tribunal [Art. VII, Sec. 4, par. 7]
 All other cases which under the Rules of 24
Court are required to be heard by the
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
SC en banc. [Id., Sec. 4(2)]
ii. In divisions
 Requirement and Procedures:
 With the concurrence of a majority of the
Members who actually took part in the
deliberations and voted
 In no case without the concurrence of at
least three of such Members
 When required number is not obtained,
the case shall be decided en banc:
Provided: that no doctrine or principle of
law laid down by the court in a decision
rendered en banc or in division may be
modified or reversed except by the court
sitting en banc
 The Supreme Court sitting en banc is not an
appellate court vis-à-vis its Divisions. The
only constraint is that any doctrine or
principle of law laid down by the Court, either
rendered en banc or in division, may be
overturned or reversed only by the Court
sitting en banc.[ Firestone Ceramics v. CA,
(2000)]
iii. Provisions of the Rules of Court
Rule 56, Sec. 7. Procedure if opinion is equally divided.
Where the court en banc is equally divided or the
necessary majority cannot be had, the case shall again
be deliberated on, and if after such deliberation no
decision is reached, the original action commenced
in the court shall be dismissed; in appealed cases,
the judgment or order appealed from shall stand
affirmed; and on all incidental matters, the petition or
motion shall de denied.
Rule 125, Sec. 3. Decision if opinion is equally
divided. – When the Supreme Court en banc is
equally divided or the necessary majority cannot
be had on whether to acquit the appellant, the
case shall again be deliberated upon and if no
decision is reached after re-deliberation, the
judgment of conviction of the lower court
shall be reversed and the accused acquitted.
5. Requirements as to Decisions
(applicable also to lower collegiate courts)
i. Conclusions shall be reached in consultation
before the case is assigned to a Member for the
writing of the opinion;
ii. Certification to this effect signed by the Chief
Justice shall be issued and a copy thereof
attached to the record of the case and served
upon the parties;
iii. Any Member who took no part, or dissented, or
abstained from a decision or resolution must
state the reason;
iv. Decision shall clearly and distinctly express
the facts and the law on which it is based
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers

 No petition for review or MR of a decision  Representative of the Integrated Bar (4

shall be refused due course or denied years)
without stating the legal basis  Professor of Law (3 years) 25
 The Court reminds all lower courts, lawyers,  Retired Member of the SC (2 years)

and litigants that it disposes of the bulk of its
cases by minute resolutions and decrees
them as final and executory, as where a
case is patently without merit, where the
issues raised are factual in nature, where the 2.
decision appealed from is supported by
substantial evidence and is in accord with
the facts of the case and the applicable laws,
where it is clear from the records that the
petition is filed merely to forestall the early
3.
execution of judgment and for non-
compliance with the rules. The resolution
denying due course or dismissing the
petition always gives the legal basis. As
emphasized in In Re: Wenceslao Laureta
(1987), “The Court is not ‘duty bound’ to
render signed Decisions all the time. It has
ample discretion to formulate Decisions
and/or Minute Resolutions, provided a
legal basis is given, depending on its
evaluation of a case”. This is the only way
whereby it can act on all cases filed before it
and, accordingly discharge its constitutional III. Executive
functions. [Borromeo vs. Court of Appeals,
(1990)]
A. The President
6. Mandatory Period for Deciding Cases
1.
SUPREME LOWER LOWER COURTS
COURT COLLEGIATE i.
COURTS
24 months 12 months, unless 3 months, unless
from date of reduced by SC reduced by SC
submission
Art. VIII, Sec. 15(3). Upon the expiration of the
corresponding period, a certification to this effect signed by
the Chief Justice or the presiding judge shall forthwith be
issued and a copy therefor attached to the record of the case
or matter, and served upon the parties. The certification shall
state why a decision or resolution has not been rendered
or issued within said period.
Art. VIII, Sec. 15(4). Despite the expiration of the
applicable mandatory period, the court, without prejudice to
such responsibility as may have been incurred in
consequence thereof, shall decide or resolve the case or
matter submitted thereto for determination, without further
delay. ii.
C. Judicial and Bar Council
1. Composition
i. Ex Officio Members
 Chief Justice as ex officio Chairman
 Secretary of Justice
 Representative of the Congress
ii. Regular Members
 appointed by the President for a term of
4 years with the consent of the
Commission on Appointments but the
term of those initially appointed shall be
staggered as to create continuity
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
 Representative of the private sector (1
year)
iii. Clerk of SC as Secretary ex officio
Function
i. Recommending appointees to the Judiciary;
ii. Such other functions and duties as the SC
may assign.
Procedure
i. Members of the SC and Judges of lower
courts
 appointed by the Pres. from a list of at
least 3 nominees prepared by the JBC
for every vacancy
 no confirmation needed
ii. Lower courts
 President shall issue the appointments
within 90 days from the submission of
the list
(Asked 34 times in the Bar)
Qualifications, Election, Term and Oath
Qualifications (Sec. 2, Art VII)
 natural-born citizen of the Philippines
 a registered voter
 able to read and write
 at least forty years of age on the day of the
election
 a resident of the Philippines for at least ten
years immediately preceding such election.
o residency and domicile mean the same
thing under election law
o The ff must be taken into consideration:
1. bodily presence
2. animus manendi
3. animus revertendi
 The candidate must be qualified on the day
of the elections.
Term and Election (Sec. 4, Art VII)
 Elected by direct vote of the people
 Unless otherwise provided by law, the
regular election for President and Vice-
President shall be held on the second
Monday of May.
 Canvassing of votes:
o Congress shall promulgate rules for
canvassing of the certificates.
o Board of canvassers duly certifies
returns of every election for President
and VP and transmits them to
Congress, directed to the Senate
President.
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers
o Senate President shall, not later than 30
days after the day of election (2nd
Tuesday of June), open all certificates in
the presence of the members of
Congress in a joint public session. The
Congress, upon determination of the
authenticity and due execution of the
certificates, shall canvass the votes.
o The persons having the highest number
of votes shall be proclaimed elected. In
case of a tie, one of the candidates shall
be chosen by the vote of a majority of all
the members of Congress, voting
separately.
o The Supreme Court en banc, shall be
the sole judge of all contests relating to
the election, returns, and qualifications
of the President, or VP, and may
promulgate its rules for the purpose.
Regular Election and Term
o The President and Vice-President (who shall
be elected with and in the same manner as
the President) shall be elected by direct vote
of the people for a term of 6 years
o Term shall begin on the noon of June 30
next following the day of election. *The
regular election for President and Vice-
nd
President shall be held on the 2 Monday of
May. (Art. VII, Sec. 4 pars. 1 & 3).
Special Election and Term
o A special election to elect the President and
Vice-President shall be called by Congress,
pursuant to Art VII, Section 10, if
1. a vacancy occurs in the offices of
President and Vice- President
2. more than 18 months
3. before the date of the next regular
presidential election.
o The failure of the SC to issue an injunction
on time is a decision in itself in favor of the
validity of the law calling for Snap Elections
despite the absence of vacancy. [Philippine
Bar Association, Inc. v COMELEC, (1985)]
o The Constitution is silent as to whether the
persons elected in the special election shall
serve only for the unexpired portion of the
term.
Whether the new President can run for re-
election if he has not served more than 4
years (Art VII, Section 4, par. 1) depends on
the construction of the phrase "has
succeeded as the President.”
Re-election
A. President
o Not eligible for any re-election.
o No person who has "succeeded" as
President and has served as such for
more than 4 years, shall be qualified for
any election to the same office (the
Presidency) at any time. (par. 1 Sec. 4,
Art VII)
 The person who succeeds as
President and not just in an acting
capacity, could either be 26
(i) the Vice-President, or
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
(ii) one who was elected President
in a special election.
B. Vice President
o shall not serve for more than 2
successive terms.
o a voluntary renunciation of office for
any length of time, shall not be
considered an interruption in the
continuity of the service for the full terms
for which he was elected. (par 2, Sec. 4,
Art VII).
 applicable beginning 1992, because
of the Transitory Provisions. This
prohibition is similar to that
applicable to Senators.
Canvassing of Election Returns
o Congress acts as Board of Canvassers of
every election for President and Vice-
President.
Electoral Tribunal for the Election of the
President and Vice- President
o The Supreme Court, sitting en banc, shall be
the sole judge of all contests relating to
the election, returns, and qualifications of
the President or Vice-President, and may
promulgate its rules for that purpose. (par 7,
Sec. 4, Art VII.)
 while election controversies in the
Congress are under the exclusive
jurisdiction of their respective Electoral
Tribunals, those in the Executive are
under the Supreme Court itself.
iii. Oath of Office (Sec 5, Art VII)
 Before they enter into office, the President,
the Vice-President or the Acting President
shall take the following oath or affirmation:
"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will
faithfully and conscientiously fulfill my duties
as President (or Vice-President or Acting
President) of the Philippines, preserve and
defend its Constitution, execute its laws, do
justice to every man, and consecrate to
myself to the service of the Nation. So help
me God." (In case of affirmation, last
sentence will be omitted.)
2. Privilege and Salary
o The President shall have an official residence.
o The salaries of the President and Vice-President
shall be determined by law and shall not be
decreased during their tenure.
 No increase in said compensation shall take
effect until after the expiration of the term of
the incumbent during which such increase
was approved.
 Unless the Congress provides otherwise, the
President shall receive an annual salary of P
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers
300,000 (Sec 17, Art XVIII)
o They shall not receive during their tenure any
other emolument from the Government or any
other source.
3. Prohibitions (Sec 13, Art VII)
o Prohibited acts:
i. Hold any other office or employment during
their tenure, unless otherwise provided in the
Constitution
ii. Directly or indirectly practice any other
profession
iii. Directly or indirectly participate in any
business
iv. Be financially interested in any contract with,
or in any franchise, or special privilege
granted by the Government or any
subdivision, agency or instrumentality
thereof, including GOCCs or their
subsidiaries.
v. Appoint President’s spouse and relatives by
consanguinity or affinity within the 4th civil
degree as Members of the Constitutional
Commissions, or the Office of the
Ombudsman, or as Secretaries,
Undersecretaries, chairmen or heads of
bureaus or offices, including GOCCs and
their subsidiaries.
o Who are prohibited?
1. President
2. Vice-President,
3. the Members of the Cabinet, and their
deputies or assistants
o Exceptions to rule prohibiting executive
The stricter prohibition applied to the Pres. and his
official family under Sec. 13, Art. VII as compared to
the prohibition applicable to appointive officials in
general under Art. IX, B, Sec. 7, par. 2 are proof of
the intent of the 1987 Constitution to treat them as
a class by itself and to impose upon said class
stricter prohibitions.
However, the prohibition against holding dual or
multiple offices or employment under Art. VII, Sec. 13
must not be construed as applying to posts
occupied by the Executive officials specified
therein w/o additional compensation in an ex-
officio capacity as provided by law and as required
by the primary functions of said official's office. The
reason is that these posts do not comprise "any
other office" w/in the contemplation of the
constitutional prohibition but are properly an
imposition of additional duties and function on
said officials. [Civil Liberties Union v Executive
Secretary, (1991)]
o Prohibitions against other officials
(1.) Sec. 13, Art VI
No Senator or Member of the House of
Representatives, during his term, may:
o hold any other office or employment in the
Government, or any of its subdivisions,
agencies, or instrumentalities including
GOCCs or their subsidiaries
o be appointed to any office which may have
been created or the emoluments thereof
increased during the term for which he was
elected
(2.) Sec. 2, Art IX-A
27
No member of the Constitutional Commission
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
during his term, shall:
o hold any other office or employment.
o engage in the practice of any profession or in
the active management or control of any
business which in any way may be affected
by the functions of his office
o be financially interested, directly or indirectly,
in any contract with, or in any franchise or
privilege granted by the Government, any of
its subdivisions, agencies, or
instrumentalities, including government-
owned or controlled corporations or their
subsidiaries.
(3.) Sec. 7. Art IX B
No elective official during his tenure shall:
o be eligible for appointment or designation in
any capacity to any public office or position.
No appointive official shall:
o hold any other office or employment in the
Government or any of its subdivisions,
agencies or instrumentalities, including
GOCCs or their subsidiaries.
(4.) Sec. 12, Art VIII
The Members of the Supreme Court and of other
courts established by law shall not be designated
to any agency performing quasi-judicial or
administrative functions.
officials from holding additional positions:
a. President
(1) The President can assume a Cabinet
post, (because the departments are
mere extensions of his personality,
according to the Doctrine of Qualified
Political Agency, so no objection can
be validly raised based on Sec. 13, Art
VII
(2) The President is the Chairman of NEDA.
(Sec. 9, Art XII)
b. Vice-President
xxx The Vice-President may be appointed as
member of the Cabinet. Such appointment
requires no confirmation (Sec 3, Art VII)
c. Cabinet
(1) The Secretary of Justice shall be an ex-
officio member of the Judicial and Bar
Council. ( Sec. 8[1], Art VIII)
(2) Unless otherwise allowed by law or by
the primary functions of his position,
appointive officials shall not hold any
other office or employment in the
Government or any subdivision, agency
or instrumentality thereof, including
government- owned or controlled
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers

corporations or their subsidiaries. (Art. ii. Permanent Vacancy in the Presidency during
IX, B, 7, par. 2) the term
Art. VII, Sec. 13 talks of "unless otherwise Causes Effect
28
provided by the Constitution." In the case of President's VP shall become President

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
Cabinet members, this refers to Art. IX, B, 7, 1. death for the unexpired portion of
par. 2. 2. permanent disability, the term. (par. 1)
3. removal from office
Thus, the Constitution allows a Cabinet (impeached), or
member to hold another office provided 4. resignation*
either Both the President's and Senate President or, in case
(1) such is necessitated by the primary VP's of his inability, the Speaker
functions of his position 1. death of the House, shall become
2. permanent disability Acting President until the
a. Secretary of Trade and Industry as
3. removal from office President or VP shall have
Chairman of NDC (impeached) been "elected" (pursuant to
b. Secretary of Agrarian Reform as 4. resignation Art. VII, Sec. 10) and
Chairman of the Land Bank qualified. (par. 1.)
(2) such is allowed by law. Acting President Congress shall by law,
1. dies provide "who" shall be
2. becomes permanently Acting President until the
4. Succession disabled President or VP shall have
3. resigns been "elected" (pursuant to
Vacancy in the Presidency Art. VII, Sec. 10) and
Two sets of rules in succession: qualified. Acting President
1. vacancy took place before the beginning of the shall be subject to the same
term on June 30 restrictions of powers and
2. vacancy during the pendency of the terms that disqualifications.(par. 2)
commences on June 30 * The president’s resignation must be willful and
i. Temporary or permanent vacancy in the intentional, and it must be strictly construed.
Presidency before the term When impeachment proceedings have become
moot due to the resignation of the Pres, proper
Causes Effect criminal and civil cases may already be filed
1. President has not yet VP shall act as President against him. [Estrada v. Desierto (2001)]
qualified (e.g. he had until the President-elect shall
an operation and so he have qualified, or shall have * The totality test was applied to determine
could not take his oath been "chosen” and qualified, whether or not the president has indeed
of office on June 30) as the case may be. (pars. 2 resigned. Many things were considered including
2. President has not yet & 3, sec 7, Par VII). the Angara Diary. [Res’n on the Motion for Recon
been "chosen" and
qualified (e.g. there is a
(2001]
tie and Congress has Comparisons and distinctions between the two
not yet broken the tie)
vacancies:
President-elect VP elect shall become the
1. dies, or President. (par. 4, Sec 7, Art a) The incumbent President never holds-over the
2. becomes permanently VII) Presidency in any case.
disabled b) The vacancy must occur in the offices of both the
Both President and VP Senate President, or in case President and Vice-President in order for the Senate
1. have not been "chosen" of his inability, the Speaker President, or the Speaker, or, in their inability, the
or of the House, shall act as one provided to succeed according to the Law of
2. have not qualified, or President until a President
Succession passed by the Congress, to succeed as
3. die, or or a VP shall have been
4. become permanently "chosen" and qualified. (par.
Acting President until the qualification of the Presi-
disabled 5) dent.
c) The Law on Succession must be passed by the
In case both Senate Congress in both cases in the event that the
President and Speaker of President, Vice-President, Senate President and the
the House are unable to act Speaker are all unable to act as President. But in
as President, Congress shall the case of a vacancy occurring before the term, the
by law, provide for the law provides only for the "manner of selecting" the
"manner of selecting" the Acting President, while in the case of a vacancy
one who will act as occurring during the term, it provides for "the
President until a President person" who shall act as President. In both cases,
or VP shall have been either the stint of the Acting President is temporary.
"chosen" or "elected" d) When the vacancy comes before the term, the
pursuant to the special Constitution talks of the successor acting as
election referred to in Art VII, President until a President has been "chosen" and
Sec 10, and qualified.
"qualified"; when it comes during, it talks of
"elected" and qualified. The reason is that before
the term, the vacancy in the Presidency need not be
filled up by election, since it may be filled up by a
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers
vote of Congress in case of a tie (Art. VII, Sec. 4,
par. 5); but during the term, the only way to fill up
the vacancy is by special election.
e) A special election in both cases is held, pursuant to
Art. VII, Sec. 10, only when both offices of President
and Vice-President are vacant. However, if the
vacancy occurs before the term, the grounds are
limited to 2 (death and permanent disability or both),
while if the vacancy occurs during the term, the
grounds are 4 (death, permanent disability, removal,
and resignation).
f) The vacancy that occurs before the term of office
may be temporary or permanent; the vacancy that
occurs during the term of office can only be a
permanent one. Thus, a different set of rules
applies, to be discussed next following, in case of
the temporary inability of the President during the
term of office.
Special election in Sec. 10, Art VII.
1. The Congress shall, at ten o'clock in the morning
of the third day after the vacancy in the offices of
the President and Vice-President occurs,
convene in accordance with its rules without
need of a call
2. Within seven days enact a law calling for a
special election to elect a President and a Vice-
President to be held not earlier than forty-five
days nor later than sixty days from the time of
such call.
 The bill calling such special election:
a. is deemed certified under paragraph 2,
Section 26, Article VI
Actions Required
Voluntary President transmits to Senate President
Declaration of and Speaker of the House his written
Inability by declaration that he is unable to discharge
President the powers and duties of his office
Contested 1. Majority of all Cabinet members
Inability of the transmit to the Senate President and
President Speaker of the House their written
declaration that the President is unable to
discharge his office.
2. President contests by sending his own
written declaration to the Senate
President and Speaker that no inability
exists.
3. Majority of the Cabinet insist on their
original stand by transmitting a second
written declaration of the President's
inability within 5 days from resumption of
office of the President.
(xxx the President certifies to the necessity
of its immediate enactment to meet a
public calamity or emergency xxx) 29
b. shall become law upon its approval on
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
third reading by the Congress.
 Appropriations for the special election
a. charged against any current appropriations
b. exempt from the requirements of
paragraph 4, Section 25, Article VI of this
Constitution.
(“A special appropriations bill shall specify
the purpose for which it is intended, and
shall be supported by funds actually
available as certified by the National
Treasurer, or to be raised by a
corresponding revenue proposal therein”)
3. The convening of the Congress cannot be
suspended nor the special election postponed.
4. No special election shall be called if the vacancy
occurs within eighteen months before the date of
the next presidential election.
iii. Temporary Vacancy in the Presidency During
the term
o A vacancy in the Presidency arising from his
disability can occur in any of the ff ways:
1. A written declaration by the President
2. Written declaration by the Cabinet
3. Finding by Congress by 2/3 vote that the
President is disabled.
o In all these cases, the Vice-President temporarily
acts as the President.
Effect
VP to become Acting President until the President transmits to
Senate President and Speaker of the House a written declaration
that he is no longer unable to discharge his office.
VP shall immediately assume the Presidency in an acting capacity
President shall automatically assume his office.
a. Congress shall convene, if it is not in session, within 48 hours,
without need of call, in accordance with its rules, and decide
before the 12th day after it is required to assemble. If it is already
in session, it must meet immediately, and decide within 10 days
after receipt of the second written declaration by the Cabinet
b. If the President, by a 2/3 vote of both houses voting separately,
is determined to be "unable" to discharge his office, then the VP
shall act as President. If less than 2/3 find him unable, the
President shall continue exercising the powers and duties of his
office.
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers

o Serious Illness of the President (Sec 12, Art VII)
a. The public shall be informed of the state of
his health.
b. The members of the Cabinet in charge of
5.
The same shall constitute the Articles of
Impeachment, and trial by the Senate shall
forthwith proceed. 30
No impeachment proceedings shall be initiated

national security and foreign relations and
the Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the
Philippines, shall not be denied access to the
President during such illness.
5. Removal
i. Impeachment, Sec. 2, Art XI.
o Who are Subject to Impeachment:
 The President
 the Vice-President
 the Members of the Supreme Court
 the Members of the Constitutional
Commissions
 Ombudsman
o Reasons for Impeachment
 culpable violation of the Constitution
 treason
 bribery
 graft and corruption
 other high crimes
 betrayal of public trust.
o All other public officers and employees may be
removed from office as provided by law, but not
by impeachment.
ii. Impeachment Process Art. XI, Sec. 3.
1. Who may initiate
The House of Representatives shall have the
exclusive power to initiate all cases of
impeachment.
2. Verified Complaint
a. A verified complaint for impeachment may be
filed by any Member of the House of
Representatives or by any citizen upon
resolution of endorsement by any Member
thereof
b. Verified Complaint shall be included in the
Order of Business within ten session days,
and referred to the proper Committee within
three session days thereafter.
c. The Committee, after hearing, and by a
majority vote of all its Members, shall submit
its report to the House within sixty session
days from such referral, together with the
corresponding resolution.
d. The resolution shall be calendared for
consideration by the House within ten
session days from receipt thereof.
3. Number of votes necessary
A vote of at least one-third of all the Members of
the House shall be necessary either to affirm a
favorable resolution with the Articles of
Impeachment of the Committee, or override its
contrary resolution. The vote of each Member
shall be recorded.
4. In case the verified complaint or resolution of
impeachment is filed by at least one-third of all
the Members of the House.
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
against the same official more than once within a
period of one year.
6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try and
decide all cases of impeachment. No person shall
be convicted without the concurrence of two-
thirds of all the Members of the Senate.
o When sitting for that purpose, the Senators
shall be on oath or affirmation.
o When the President of the Philippines is on
trial, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court
shall preside, but shall not vote.
7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not
extend further than:
o removal from office and
o disqualification to hold any office under the
Republic of the Philippines.
But the party convicted shall nevertheless be
liable and subject to prosecution, trial, and
punishment according to law.
The officer can still be tried for a criminal case
aside from impeachment. (BERNAS)
“Initiation” - governed by the rules of the House of
Reps;
“Trial”-governed by the rules of the Senate.
The basic issue here was the
constitutionality of the filing of the second
impeachment complaint against then Chief
Justice Davide. The following are the pertinent
constitutional provisions:
Art. XI, Section 3 (1) The House of
Representatives shall have the exclusive power
to initiate all cases of impeachment. [Francisco
v. House of Representatives, (2003)]
xxx
(5) No impeachment proceedings shall be
initiated against the same official more than once
within a period of one year.
The Court held that once an impeachment
complaint has been initiated and subsequently
dismissed, another impeachment complaint may
no longer be filed until after the lapse of one year.
In so ruling, the Court differentiated between the
initiation of the impeachment case and the
impeachment proceeding. The latter is initiated
when a verified complaint is filed and referred to
the House Committee on Justice for action, or by
the filing of at least 1/3 of the Members of the
House with the Secretary General of the House.
In consequence therefore, once an impeachment
complaint has been initiated, another
impeachment complaint may not be filed against
the same official within a 1-year period. The
House Impeachment Rules were thereby
declared unconstitutional for giving the term
“initiate” a different meaning, i.e., it pegged the
initiation of the impeachment proceedings to,
among others, the finding by the House
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers
Committee on Justice that the verified complaint
and/or resolution is sufficient in substance.
6. Powers and Functions of the President
o Executive power
o Control of executive departments
o General supervision of local governments
o Power of appointment
o Executive clemencies
o Commander in chief powers
 Military powers
 Suspension of the writ of habeas corpus
 Martial law
o Emergency powers
o Contracting and guaranteeing foreign loans
o Powers over foreign affairs
o Power over legislation
o Immunity from suit
(A) Executive Power
o It is the duty to implement the laws within the
standards imposed by the legislature. *This
power is exercised by the President. (Sec 1 Art
VII)
o The President shall have control of all the
executive departments, bureaus, and offices. He
shall ensure that the laws be faithfully executed
(Sec 17).
 The Court held that as administrative head of
the government, the President is vested with
the power to execute, administer and carry
out laws into practical operation. [National
Electrification Commission vs. CA (1997)]
The powers of the President cannot be said to be
limited only to the specific power enumerated in
the Constitution. In other words, executive power
is more than the sum of specific powers so
enumerated.
The framers did not intend that by enumerating
the powers of the Pres, he shall exercise those
powers and no other.
These unstated residual powers are implied
from the grant of executive power and which
are necessary for the Pres to comply with his
duties under the Constitution. [Marcos vs
Manglapus (1989)]
(B) Control of Executive Departments
(Sec 17, Art VII)
 Control is the power of an officer to alter or
modify or nullify or to set aside what a
subordinate has done in the performance of his
duties and to substitute one's own judgment to
that of a subordinate.
 Qualified political agency doctrine (also alter
ego principle)- “all the different executive and
administrative organizations are mere adjuncts of
the Executive Department, the heads of the
various executive departments are assistants and
agents of the Chief Executive, and, except in
cases wherein the Chief Executive is required by
the Constitution or by the law to act in person or
the exigencies of the situation demand that he act
personally, the multifarious executive and 31
administrative functions of the Chief Executive
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
are performed by and through the executive
depts., performed and promulgated in the regular
course of business, are, unless disapproved or
reprobated by the Chief Executive, presumptively
acts of the Chief Executive.” [Free Telephone
Workers Union vs. Minister of Labor and
Employment (1981)]
(C) General Supervision of Local Governments
and Autonomous Regions
 The President shall exercise general supervision
over local governments. (Sec 4, Art X)
 The President shall exercise general supervision
over autonomous regions to ensure that laws are
faithfully executed. (Sec 16, Art X)
Supervision and Control Distinguished
Supervision Control
- Overseeing or the power or - Power of an officer to
authority of the officer to see alter, modify, nullify
that subordinate officers or set aside what a
perform their duties, and if the subordinate officer had
latter fail or neglect to fulfill done and to
them, then the former may take substitute the
such action or steps as judgment of the former
prescribed by law to make for that of the latter.
them perform these duties.
- This does not include the power
to overrule their acts, if these
acts are within their discretion.
(D) Power of appointment
o Definition: the selection, by the authority vested
with the power, of an individual who is to exercise
the functions of a given office.
o Appointment is distinguished from:
1. Designation – imposition of additional duties,
usually by law, on a person already in the
public service
2. Commission – written evidence of the
appointment
o Classification of Power of Appointment:
1. With the consent of the Commission on
Appointments
There are 4 groups of officers whom the
Pres may appoint:
1. Heads of the Executive Department,
ambassadors, other public ministers and
consuls, officers of the armed forces
from the rank of colonel or naval captain
and other officers whose appointments
are vested in him;
2. All other officers of the government
whose appointments are not otherwise
provided by law;
3. Those whom the President may be
authorized to appoint;
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers
4. Officers lower in rank whose
appointments Congress may by law vest
in the President alone.
 Heads of bureaus were deliberately removed
from the provision of appointments requiring
th
confirmation and were included in the 4
group and hence, their appointments no
longer need confirmation. [Sarmiento vs
Mison, (1987)]
 The seats reserved for sectoral reps may be
filled by appointment by the President under
Art XVIII, Sec7. It is indubitable that sectoral
representatives to the House are among the
“other officers whose appointments are
vested in the Pres in this Constitution”,
st
referred to in the 1 sentence of Art. VII, Sec.
16. These appointments require the
confirmation of the Commission on
Appointments.
Notes: From the rulings in Sarmiento III v.
Mison 1987, Bautista v. Salonga 1989, and
Deles v. Constitutional Commission 1989,
these doctrines are deducible:
1. Confirmation by the Commission on
Appointments is required only for
presidential appointees as mentioned in
the first sentence of Sec. 16, Art. VII,
including those officers whose
appointments are expressly vested by
the Constitution itself in the President:
(a) Heads of the executive departments
(b) Ambassadors, other public
ministers and consuls
(c) Officers of the Armed Forces of the
Philippines with the rank of colonel
or naval captain (because these are
officers of a sizeable command
enough to stage a coup)
(d) Other officers whose appointments
are vested in the President in the
Constitution:
(i) Chairman and Commissioners
of the Constitutional
Commissions (Sec 1 Art IX-B,
Sec 1 (2) Art IX-B, Sec 1(2) Art
Ix-D)
(ii) Regular members of the
Judicial and Bar Council (Sec 8
(2) Art VII)
(iii) Sectoral representatives (Sec 7
Art XVIII, Sec 18 Art X)
2. Confirmation is not required when the
President appoints other government
officers whose appointments are not
otherwise provided for by law or those
officers whom he may be authorized by
law to appoint (like the Chairman and
Members of the Commission on Human
Rights). Also, as observed in Sarmiento
v. Mison, when Congress:
o creates inferior offices but omits to
provide for appointment thereto, or
o provides in an unconstitutional
manner for such appointments
the officers are considered as among 32
those whose appointments are not
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
otherwise provided for by law.
2. Upon Recommendation of the Judicial and
Bar Council
(a) Members of the Supreme Court and all
other courts. (Sec 9, Art VIII)
a. Appointments need no confirmation
b. For lower courts, appointment shall
be issued within 90 days from
submission of the list
(b) Ombudsman and his 5 deputies (for
Luzon, Visayas, Mindanao, general and
military) Sec 9 Art XI
a. Such appointments shall require no
confirmation.
b. All vacancies shall be filled within
three months after they occur.
3. Appointment of Vice-President as Member of
the Cabinet (Sec 3, Art.VII)
o Appointment requires no confirmation
4. Appointments solely by the President (Sec.
16, Art VII)
1. Those vested by the Constitution on the
President alone (e.g. appointment of
Vice-President to the Cabinet) [Art. VII,
Sec. 3(2)]
2. Those whose appointments are not
otherwise provided by law.
3. Those whom he may be authorized by
law to appoint.
4. Those other officers lower in rank whose
appointment is vested by law in the
President (alone).The phraseology is
muddled:
 Sarmiento v Mison (1987):
In arguing that even bureau chiefs needed
confirmation even if they are of inferior rank,
the basis was the phrase, "the Congress
may, by law, vest in the appointment of other
officers lower in rank in the President alone".
This meant that until a law is passed giving
such appointing power to the President
alone, then such appointment has to be
confirmed. The SC dismissed this view
however, saying that the inclusion of the
word "alone" was an oversight. Thus, the
Constitution should read "The Congress
may, by law, vest the appointment of other
officers lower in rank in the President."
o Limitations on appointing power of the
President
a. The spouse and relatives by
consanguinity or affinity within the 4th
civil degree of the President shall not,
during his "tenure", be appointed as (sec
13, Art VII)
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers
(i) members of the Constitutional
Commissions,
(ii) member of the Office of
Ombudsman,
(iii) Secretaries,
(iv) Undersecretaries,
(v) Chairmen or heads of bureaus or
offices, including government-
owned or controlled corporations
and their subsidiaries.
o Interim or recess appointments
b. The President shall have the power to
make appointments during the recess
of the Congress, whether voluntary or
compulsory, but such appointments
shall be effective only until disapproval
by the Commission on Appointments or
until the next adjournment of the Con-
gress. (par 2, Sec 16, Art VII)
c. Two months immediately before the next
presidential elections (2nd Monday of
March), and up to the end of his "term"
(June 30), a President (or Acting
President) shall not make appointments.
(Sec 15, Art VII)
Exception:
Temporary appointments, to executive
positions, when continued vacancies will
(1) prejudice public service (e.g
Postmaster); or
(2) endanger public safety (e.g. Chief of
Staff).
 The SC ruled that while "midnight
appointments" (note: made by
outgoing President near the end of his
term) are not illegal, they should be
made in the capacity of a "caretaker"
doubly careful and prudent in making
the selection, so as not to defeat the
policies of the incoming administration.
The filling up of vacancies in important
posts, if few, and so spaced as to afford
some assurance of deliberate action and
careful consideration of the need for the
appointment and the appointee’s
qualifications, may be undoubtedly
permitted. But the issuance of 350
appointments in one night and the
planned induction of almost all of them a
few hours before the inauguration of the
new President may be regarded as
abuse of presidential prerogatives.
[Aytona vs Castillo (1962)]
 The SC emphasized that the Aytona
ruling does not declare all midnight
appointments as invalid, and that the ad
interim appointment of the petitioner
chief of police here, whose qualification
and regularity were not disputed, except
for the fact that it was made during the
last few days of the old administration, is
thus not invalid. [Quimsing vs
Tajanglangit (1964)]
 The prohibition against midnight
appointments applies only to the
president and does not extend to
33
local elective officials. Moreover,
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
there is no law that prohibits local
elective officials from making
appointments during the last days of his
or her tenure. [De Rama v. CA (2001)]
1) Regular and recess (ad-interim)
appointments
 Appointments requiring confirmation
are of two kinds
(i) regular, if the CA, that is,
Congress, is in session
(ii) during the recess of Congress
(because the Commission shall
meet only while Congress is in
session [Art. VI, Sec. 19]).
Regular appointment - one made by
the President while Congress is in
session, takes effect only after
confirmation by the Commission on
Appointments, and once approved,
continues until the end of the term of the
appointee.
Ad-interim appointment - one made by
the President while Congress is not in
session, takes effect immediately, but
ceases to be valid if disapproved by the
Commission on Appointments or upon
the next adjournment of Congress. (Art.
VII, Sec. 16, par. 2)
 Ad interim appointment – a
permanent appointment made by
the Pres in the meantime that
Congress is in recess. It is
permanent as it takes effect
immediately and can no longer be
withdrawn by the President once
the appointee has qualified into
office. The fact that it is subject to
the confirmation of the Commission
on Appointments does not alter its
permanent character. Hence, said
appointment is effective until (1)
disapproved by the CA or (2) the
next adjournment of Congress
[Matibag vs Benipayo (2002)]
2) Acting/Temporary appointment – can be
withdrawn or revoked at the pleasure of
the appointing power. The appointee
does not enjoy security of tenure. This
is the kind of appointment that the
Constitution prohibits the Pres from
making to the independent constitutional
commissions.
The mere filing of a motion for
reconsideration of the confirmation of an
appointment cannot have the effect of
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers
recalling or setting aside said
appointment. The Consti is clear – there
must either be a rejection by the
Commission on Appointments or non-
action on its part for the confirmation to
be recalled.
Also, the power to approve or
disapprove appointments is conferred
on the CA as a body and not on the
individual members. [Pacete vs
Secretary (1971)]
3) Temporary Designations
Admin Code of 1987, Book III Sec. 17
The President may designate an officer
already in the govt. service or any other
competent person to perform the functions of
any office in the executive branch,
appointment to which is vested in him by law,
when:
(a) The officer regularly appointed to the
office is unable to perform his duties by
reason of illness, absence or any other
cause; or
(b) There exists a vacancy;
In no case shall a temporary designation
exceed one (1) year.
o Limitations on the appointing power of the
Acting President
1. Appointments extended by an Acting
President shall remain effective unless
revoked by the elected President within
o Except:
ninety days from his assumption or
reassumption of office. (Sec. 14 Art VII)
2. A President or Acting President shall not
make appointments two months
immediately before the next presidential
elections and up to the end of his term
 except temporary appointments to
executive positions when continued
vacancies therein will prejudice
public service or endanger public
o The President shall also have the power to grant
safety. (Sec 15, Art VII)
7. Executive Clemencies
o The President may grant:
a. Reprieves
 a temporary relief from or postponement
of execution of criminal penalty or
sentence or a stay of execution.
(BLACK)
 It is the withholding of a sentence for an
interval of time, a postponement of
execution, a temporary suspension of
execution. [People vs. Vera, supra]
b. Commutations
 Reduction of sentence. (BLACK)
 It is a remission of a part of the
punishment; a substitution of a less
penalty for the one originally imposed.
[People vs. Vera, supra]
c. Pardons, and
 Permanent cancellation of sentence.
(BLACK)
 It is an act of grace proceeding from the
power entrusted with the execution of 34
the laws, which exempts the individual
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
on whom it is bestowed, from the
punishment the law inflicts for the crime
he has committed. It is a remission of
guilt, a forgiveness of the offense.
[People v Vera, supra]
 Plenary or partial
o Plenary - extinguishes all the
penalties imposed upon the
offender, including accessory
disabilities
o Partial – does not extinguish all
penalties imposed
 Absolute or conditional
o Conditional - the offender has the
right to reject the same since he
may feel that the condition imposed
is more onerous than the penalty
sought to be remitted.
o Absolute pardon - pardonee has no
option at all and must accept it
whether he likes it or not. In this
sense, an absolute pardon is similar
to commutation, w/c is also not
subject to acceptance by the
offender.
d. Remit fines and forfeitures, after conviction
by final judgment
(a) In cases of impeachment, and
(b) As otherwise provided in this Constitution
 No pardon, amnesty, parole or
suspension of sentence for violation of
election laws, rules, and regulations
shall be granted by the President
without the favorable recommendation
by the Commission (on Elections.) (Sec
5, Art IX)
amnesty with the concurrence of a majority of all
the Members of the Congress. (Sec 19, Art VII)
 Amnesty - a sovereign act of oblivion for past
acts, granted by government generally to a
class of persons who have been guilty
usually of political offenses and who are
subject to trial but have not yet been con-
victed, and often conditioned upon their
return to obedience and duty within a
prescribed time. (BLACK; Brown v Walker,
161 US 602).
 Probation - a disposition under which a
defendant after conviction and sentence is
released subject to conditions imposed by
the court and to the supervision of a
probation officer. [Sec. 3 (a), PD 968.]
 Parole - suspension of the sentence of a
convict granted by a Parole Board after
serving the minimum term of the inde-
terminate sentence penalty, without granting
a pardon, prescribing the terms upon which
the sentence shall be suspended. [REYES]
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers
o Effects of Pardon (Case Law)
 There are 2 limitations upon the exercise of
the constitutional prerogative of the Pres. to
grant pardon: (1) that the power be
exercised after conviction; (2) that such
power does not extend to cases of
impeachment. [Cristobal v Labrador
(1940)]
o Absolute pardon has the effect of removing
the disqualification from voting and being
elected incident to criminal conviction under
Sec 94(a) of the Election Code.
The Chief Executive, after inquiry into the
environmental facts, should be at liberty to
atone the rigidity of the law to the extent of
relieving completely the party or parties
concerned from the accessory and resultant
disabilities of criminal conviction. [Pelobello
v. Palatino (1941)]
 Pardon implies guilt and does not erase the
fact of the commission of the crime and the
conviction thereof. It does not ipso facto
restore a convicted felon to a public office
necessarily relinquished or forfeited by
reason of the conviction although such
pardon undoubtedly restores his eligibility for
appointment to that office. [Monsanto vs
Factoran (1989)]
Notes:
"Pardon granted after conviction frees the
individual from all the penalties and legal
disabilities and restores him to all his civil rights.
But unless expressly grounded on the
person's innocence (w/c is rare), it cannot bring
back lost reputation for honesty, integrity and fair
dealing.
This must be constantly kept in mind lest we
lose track of the true character and purpose of
the privilege. xxx"
o Application of Pardoning Powers to
Administrative Cases
 If the President can grant reprieves,
commutations and pardons, and remit fines
and forfeitures in criminal cases, with much
more reason can she grant executive
clemency in administrative cases, which are
clearly less serious than criminal offenses.
 However, the power of the President to grant
executive clemency in administrative cases
refers only to administrative cases in the
Executive branch and not in the Judicial or
Legislative branches of the govt. [Llamas v
Executive Secretary (1991)]
 Removal of Administrative Penalties
Sec. 53, Chapter 7, Subtitle A, Title I, Book V,
Administrative Code of 1987
Removal of Administrative Penalties or
Disabilities.-- In meritorious cases and upon
recommendation of the (Civil Service)
Commission, the President may commute or
remove administrative penalties or disabilities
imposed upon officers or employees in disciplinary
cases, subject to such terms and conditions as he
may impose in the interest of the service
35
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
o Who may avail of amnesty? (Case Law) (Asked 5
times in the Bar)
 Amnesty Proclamation No. 76 applies even
to Hukbalahaps already undergoing
sentence upon the date of its promulgation.
The majority of the Court believes that by its
context and pervading spirit the proclamation
extends to all members of the Hukbalahap.
[Tolentino vs Catoy (1948)]
The SC agreed with the Sandiganbayan that
in fact the petitioners were expressly
disqualified from amnesty. The acts for
which they were convicted were ordinary
crimes without any political complexion
and consisting only of diversion of public
funds to private profit. The amnesty
proclamation covered only acts in the
furtherance of resistance to duly constituted
authorities of the Republic and applies only
to members of the MNLF, or other anti-
government groups. [Macaga-an vs People
(1987)]
8. Powers as Commander-in-Chief
o Powers as Commander-in-Chief:
a. He may call out such armed forces to
prevent or suppress lawless violence,
invasion or rebellion.
b. He may suspend the privilege of the writ of
habeas corpus, or
c. He may proclaim martial law over the entire
Philippines or any part thereof.
o Subject to judicial review to determine whether or
not there has been a grave abuse of discretion
amounting to lack or excess of jurisdiction (par.
2, Sec 1, Art VIII)
a. Call out the AFP to prevent lawless violence
 This is merely a police measure meant to quell
disorder. As such, the Constitution does not
regulate its exercise radically
 It is not disputed that the President has full
discretionary power to call out the armed forces
and to determine the necessity for the exercise of
such power. While the Court may examine
whether the power was exercised within
constitutional limits or in a manner constituting
grave abuse of discretion, none of the petitioners
here have, by way of proof, supported their
assertion that the President acted without factual
basis. The President, in declaring a state of
rebellion and in calling out the armed forces, was
merely exercising a wedding of her Chief
Executive and Commander-in-Chief powers.
These are purely executive powers, vested on
the President by Sections 1 and 18, Article VII, as
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers
opposed to the delegated legislative powers
contemplated by Section 23 (2), Article VI.
[Sanlakas v Executive Secretary (2004)]
 Assailed is PP1017 (Declaration of State of
National Emergency). It is different from the law
in Sanlakas as this proclamation was woven out
of the “calling out” and “take care” powers of the
President joined with the “temporary takeover”
provision under Art. XII, section 17.
PP1017 purports to grant the President, without
authority or delegation from Congress, to take
over or direct the operation of any privately-
owned public utility or business affected with
public interest.
The SC held that while the President could validly
declare the existence of a state of national
emergency even in the absence of a
Congressional enactment, the exercise of the
emergency powers, such as the taking over of
privately-owned public utility or business affected
with public interest, requires a delegation from
Congress which is the repository of emergency
powers.
PP1017 did not authorize said temporary take
over without authority from Congress. [David v.
Arroyo (2006)]
b. Suspend the privilege of the writ of habeas
corpus
 A "writ of habeas corpus" is an order from the
court commanding a detaining officer to inform
the court
(i) if he has the person in custody, and
(ii) his basis in detaining that person.
The "privilege of the writ" is that portion of the writ
requiring the detaining officer to show cause why he
should not be tested. Note that it is the privilege that
is suspended, not the writ itself.
o Requisites:
1) There must be an invasion or rebellion, and
2) The public safety requires the suspension.
o Effects of the suspension of the privilege:
1) The suspension of the privilege of the writ
applies only to persons "judicially charged"
for rebellion or offenses inherent in or directly
connected with invasion (Art. VII, Sec. 18,
par. 5).
 Such persons suspected of the above
crimes can be arrested and detained
without a warrant of arrest.
 The suspension of the privilege does
not make the arrest without warrant
legal. But the military is, in effect,
enabled to make the arrest, anyway
since, with the suspension of the
privilege, there is no remedy available
against such unlawful arrest (arbitrary
detention). 36
 The arrest without warrant is justified by
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
the emergency situation and the
difficulty in applying for a warrant
considering the time and the number of
persons to be arrested.
 The crime for which he is arrested must
be one related to rebellion or invasion.
As to other crimes, the suspension of
the privilege does not apply.
2) During the suspension of the privilege of the
writ, any person thus arrested or detained
shall be judicially charged within 3 days, or
otherwise he shall be released. (Art. VII,
Sec. 18, par. 6).
 The effect of the suspension of the
privilege, therefore, is only to extend the
periods during which he can be detained
without a warrant. When the privilege is
suspended, the period is extended to 72
hours.
 What happens if he is not judicially
charged nor released after 72 hours?
The public officer becomes liable under
Art. 125 for "delay in the delivery of
detained persons."
3) The right to bail shall not be impaired even
when the privilege of the writ of habeas
corpus is suspended. (Art. III, Sec. 13)
c. Proclaim Martial Law
o Requisites:
1) There must be an invasion or rebellion, and
2) Public safety requires the proclamation of
martial law all over the Philippines or any
part thereof.
o Effects of the proclamation of martial law:
The President can:
1) Legislate
2) Order the arrest of people who obstruct the
war effort.
o But the following cannot be done (Art. VII, Sec.
18, par. 4)
a. Suspend the operation of the Constitution.
b. Supplant the functioning of the civil courts
and the legislative assemblies.
 martial law is proclaimed only because
the courts and other civil institutions like
Congress have been shut down. It
should not happen that martial law is
declared in order to shut down the civil
institutions.
c. Confer jurisdiction upon military courts and
agencies over civilians, where civil courts are
able to function.
 "open court" doctrine
o holds that civilians cannot be tried
by military courts if the civil courts
are open and functioning.
o if the civil courts are not functioning,
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers
then civilians can be tried by the
military courts.
o Martial law usually contemplates a
case where the courts are already
closed and the civil institutions have
already crumbled, that is a "theater
of war." If the courts are still open,
the President can just suspend the
privilege and achieve the same
effect.
d. Automatically suspend the privilege of the
writ of habeas corpus.
 The President must suspend the
privilege expressly.
The Role of Congress [Art. VII, Sec. 18, pars. 1-2]
a. Congress may revoke the proclamation of martial
law or suspension of the privilege of the writ of
habeas corpus before the lapse of 60 days from
the date of suspension or proclamation
b. Upon such proclamation or suspension,
Congress shall convene at once. If it is not in
session, it shall convene in accordance with its
rules without need of a call within 24 hours
following the proclamation or suspension.
c. Within 48 hours from the proclamation or the
suspension, the President shall submit a report,
in person or in writing, to the Congress (meeting
in joint session of the action he has taken).
d. The Congress shall then vote jointly, by an
absolute majority. It has two options:
(i) To revoke such proclamation or suspension.
 When it so revokes, the President
cannot set aside (or veto) the revocation
as he normally would do in the case of
bills.
(ii) To extend it beyond the 60-day period of its
validity.
 Congress can only so extend the
proclamation or suspension upon the
initiative of the President.
The period need not be 60 days; it could
be more, as Congress would determine,
based on the persistence of the
emergency.
If Congress fails to act before the
measure expires, it can no longer
extend it until the President again
redeclares the measure.
o Congress cannot "validate" the proclamation or
suspension, because it is already valid.
o If Congress extends the measure, but before the
period of extension lapses the requirements for
the proclamation or suspension no longer exist,
Congress can lift the extension, since the power
to confer implies the power to take back.
o If Congress does not review or lift the order, this
can be reviewed by the Supreme Court pursuant
to the next section.
The Role of the Supreme Court
[Art. VII, Sec. 18, par. 3]
o The Supreme Court may review, in an
37
appropriate proceeding filed by any citizen, the
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
sufficiency of the factual basis of:
(a) the proclamation of martial law or the
suspension of the privilege of the writ, or
(b) the extension thereof. It must promulgate its
decision thereon within 30 days from its
filing. (Sec 18 (3), Art. VII)
o The jurisdiction of the SC may be invoked in a
proper case.
o Petition for habeas corpus
 When a person is arrested without a warrant
for complicity in the rebellion or invasion, he
or someone else in his behalf has the
standing to question the validity of the
proclamation or suspension.
 Before the SC can decide on the legality of
his detention, it must first pass upon the
validity of the proclamation or suspension.
o Test of Arbitrariness: [IBP v. Zamora, (2000)]
 to be used by the Supreme Court in so
reviewing the act of the President in
proclaiming or suspending, or the act of
Congress in extending
 seeks to determine the sufficiency of the
factual basis of the measure.
 The question is not whether the President or
Congress acted correctly, but whether he
acted arbitrarily in that the action had no
basis in fact.
 amounts to a determination of whether
or not there was grave abuse of discre-
tion amounting to lack or excess of
jurisdiction. (Sec 1(2) Art. VIII)
 The issue there raised was whether in
suspending the privilege of the writ in 1971,
Marcos had a basis for doing so. The SC, in
considering the fact that the President based
his decision on (a) the Senate report on the
condition in Central Luzon and (b) a closed
door briefing by the military showing the
extent of subversion, concluded that the
President did not act arbitrarily. One may
disagree with his appreciation of the facts,
but one cannot say that it is without basis.
[Lansang v Garcia (1971)]
o 2 conditions must concur for the valid exercise of
authority to suspend the privilege:
(a) there must be an actual invasion,
insurrection, rebellion or imminent danger;
and
(b) public safety must require the suspension of
the privilege. [This holding of the SC is now
found in Art. VII, Sec. 18, par. 3.] The
function of the court is to check and not
supplant the executive or to ascertain merely
whether he has gone beyond the
constitutional limits of jurisdiction. The
proper standard is not correctness but
arbitrariness.
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers
 There are 4 ways, then, for the proclamation or
suspension to be lifted: (P-C-S-O)
1) Lifting by the President himself
2) Revocation by Congress
3) Nullification by the Supreme Court
4) Operation of law after 60 days
 Military trial of civilians void even under Martial
Law, if civil courts are open. (Sec 18(4) Art.
VII,).
Cf. RA 7055 (1991) "An Act Strengthening
Civilian Supremacy over the Military by Returning
to the Civil Courts the Jurisdiction over Certain
Offenses involving Members of the Armed Forces
of the Philippines, other Persons Subject to
Military Law, and the Members of the Philippine
National Police, Repealing for the Purpose
Certain Presidential Decrees"
 RA 7055 effectively placed upon the civil
courts the jurisdiction over certain offenses
involving members of the AFP and other
members subject to military law.
 RA 7055 provides that when these
individuals commit crimes or offenses
penalized under the RPC, other special
penal laws, or local government ordinances,
regardless of whether civilians are co-
accused, victims, or offended parties which
may be natural or juridical persons, they
shall be tried by the proper civil court, except
when the offense, as determined before
arraignment by the civil court, is service-
connected in which case it shall be tried by
court-martial.
 The assertion of military authority over
civilians cannot rest on the President's power
as Commander in Chief or on any theory of
martial law. As long as civil courts remain
open and are regularly functioning, military
tribunals cannot try and exercise jurisdiction
over civilians for offenses committed by them
and which are properly cognizable by civil
courts. To hold otherwise is a violation of the
right to due process. [Olaguer vs Military
Commission No. 34 (1987)]
9. Emergency powers (Sec 23, Art. VI).
o The Congress may by law authorize the
President to exercise powers necessary and
proper to carry out a declared national policy.
o Different from the Commander-in-Chief clause:
 When the President acts under the
Commander-in-Chief clause, he acts under a
constitutional grant of military power, which
may include the law-making power.
 When the President acts under the
emergency power, he acts under a
Congressional delegation of law-making
power.
o Meaning of “power necessary and proper”
 Power to issue rules and regulations
This power is:
38
(1) for a limited period, and
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
(2) subject to such restrictions as Congress may
provide.
The power ceases:
(a) upon being withdrawn by resolution of the
Congress, or, if Congress fails to adopt such
resolution,
(b) upon the next (voluntary) adjournment of
Congress. For the fact that Congress is able
to meet in session uninterruptedly and
adjourn of its own will proves that the
emergency no longer exists is to justify the
delegation.
This rule or the termination of the grant of
emergency powers is based on decided cases,
which in turn became Art. VII, Sec. 15 of the
1973 Constitution.
 The Congress granted the President certain
emergency powers. (CA671) After the war,
Congress held a special session. The SC
held that the emergency power lasted only
until Congress held its regular session. The
fact that Congress could now meet meant
that there was no emergency anymore that
would justify the delegation. The assertion
that new legislation is needed to repeal
CA671 is not in harmony with the
Constitution. If a new law were necessary to
terminate it, then it would be unlimited and
indefinite. This would create an anomaly
since what was intended to meet a
temporary emergency becomes a permanent
law. [Araneta v Dinglasan (1949)]
 The specific power to continue in force laws
and appropriations which would lapse or
otherwise become inoperative is a limitation
on the general power to exercise such other
powers as the executive may deem
necessary to enable the government to fulfill
its responsibilities and to maintain and
enforce its authority. [Rodriguez v Gella
(1953)]
o Inconsistency between the Constitution and the
cases: (BARLONGAY)
 The Constitution [Art. VI, Sec. 23 (2)] states
that the emergency powers shall cease upon
the next adjournment of Congress unless
sooner withdrawn by resolution of Congress
 Cases tell us that the emergency powers
shall cease upon resumption of session.
 Reconciling the two: it would not be enough
for Congress to just resume session in order
that the emergency powers shall cease. It
has to pass a resolution withdrawing such
emergency powers, otherwise such powers
shall cease upon the next adjournment of
Congress.
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers
10. Contracting and Guaranteeing Foreign
Loans
o Requisites for contracting and guaranteeing
foreign loans:
1. With the concurrence of the monetary board
(Sec 20, Art VII)
2. subject to limitations as may be provided by
law (Sec 21, Art XII)
3. information on foreign loans obtained or
guaranteed shall be made available to the
public (sec 21, Art XII)
o Cf. Republic Act 4860
 An Act Authorizing The President Of The
Philippines To Obtain Such Foreign Loans
And Credits, Or To Incur Such Foreign
Indebtedness, As May Be Necessary To
Finance Approved Economic Development
Purposes Or Projects, And To Guarantee, In
Behalf Of The Republic Of The Philippines,
Foreign Loans Obtained Or Bonds Issued By
Corporations Owned Or Controlled By The
Government Of The Philippines For
Economic Development Purposes Including
Those Incurred For Purposes Of Re-Lending
To The Private Sector, Appropriating The
Necessary Funds Therefore, And For Other
Purposes
 Approved, September 8, 1966.
o Role of Congress:
1. The President does not need prior approval
by the Congress
a. Because the Constitution places the
power to check the President’s power on
the Monetary Board
b. Congress may provide guidelines and
have them enforced through the
Monetary Board
11. Powers over Foreign Affairs
(a) Treaty-making power
o No treaty or international agreement shall be
valid and effective unless concurred in by at least
two-thirds of all the members of the Senate. (Sec
21, Art VII)
o Treaty distinguished from executive agreements:
1. Executive Agreements
 entered into by the President
 need no concurrence.
 International agreements involving political
issues or changes in national policy and
those involving international agreements of
permanent character usually take the form of
TREATIES. But the international
agreements involving adjustments in detail
carrying out well-established national policies
and traditions and those involving a more or
less temporary character usually take the
form of EXECUTIVE AGREEMENTS. [
Commissioner of Customs vs. Eastern Sea
Trading (1961)]
 The agreement is not a "treaty" as the term
is used in the Constitution. The agreement
was never submitted to the Senate for 39
concurrence. It must be noted that a treaty
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
is not the only form that an international
agreement may assume. For the grant of
treaty making power to the Executive and the
Senate does not exhaust the power of the
government over international relations.
Consequently, executive agreements may be
entered into with other states and are
effective even without the concurrence of the
Senate. From the point of view of
international law, there is no difference
between treaties and executive agreements
in their binding effect upon states concerned
as long as the negotiating functionaries have
remained within their powers. The distinction
between an executive agreement and a
treaty is purely a constitutional one and has
no international legal significance. [USAFFE
Veterans Assn. vs Treasurer (1959)]
o Nature of Executive Agreements:
There are 2 classes:
(1) agreements made purely as executive acts
affecting external relations and independent
of or without legislative authorization, which
may be termed as presidential agreements,
and
(2) agreements entered into in pursuance of
acts of Congress, or Congressional-
Executive Agreements.
 Although the President may, under the
American constitutional system enter into
executive agreements without previous
legislative authority, he may not, by
executive agreement, enter into a transaction
which is prohibited by statutes enacted prior
thereto. Under the Constitution, the main
function of the Executive is to enforce laws
enacted by Congress. The former may not
interfere in the performance of the legislative
powers of the latter, except in the exercise of
his veto power. He may not defeat legislative
enactments that have acquired the status of
law, by indirectly repealing the same through
an executive agreement providing for the
performance of the very act prohibited by
said laws. [Gonzales v Hechanova (1963)]
 The issue in this case is the constitutionality
of the VFA. The SC held that once the
Senate performs the power to concur with
treaties or exercise its prerogative within the
boundaries prescribed by the Constitution,
the concurrence cannot be viewed as an
abuse of power, much less a grave abuse of
discretion. The President, in ratifying the
VFA and submitting the same for
concurrence of the Senate, acted within the
confines and limits of the power vested in
him by the Constitution. The President
merely performed a constitutional task and
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers
exercised a prerogative that chiefly pertains
to the functions of his office. [Bayan vs
Executive Secretary (2000)]
(b) Deportation of undesirable aliens
 [Qua Chee Gan vs Deportation Board (1963]
o The President may deport only according to
grounds enumerated by law since it would be
unreasonable and undemocratic to hold that an
alien be deported upon an unstated or undefined
ground depending merely on the use of an
unlimited discretion by the President.
o 2 ways of deporting an undesirable alien:
(a) by order of the President after due
investigation
(b) by the Commissioner of Immigration
o The President can delegate the power of
investigation but not the power to order the arrest
of an alien.
o The Deportation Board may not order the arrest
of the alien in this case. If an implied grant of
power, considering that no express authority was
granted by law, would curtail the right of a person
then a delegation of the implied power must be
rejected as inimical to the liberties of the people.
 [Go Tek vs Deportation Board (1977)]
o The Deportation Board can entertain deportation
based on grounds not specified in Sec 37 of the
Immigration Law. The Board has jurisdiction to
investigate Go Tek even if he had not been
convicted yet.
o The President’s power to deport aliens and to
investigate them subject to deportation are
provided in the Revised Administrative Code.
o The State has inherent power to deport
undesirable aliens. This power is exercised by
the President.
o There is no legal nor constitutional provision
defining the power to deport aliens because the
intention of the law is to grant the Chief Executive
the full discretion to determine whether an alien’s
residence in the country is so undesirable as to
affect the security, welfare or interest of the state.
o The Chief Executive is the sole and exclusive
judge of the existence of facts which would
warrant the deportation of aliens.
12. Power over Legislation
(a) Message to Congress
 The President shall address the Congress at the
opening of its regular session. He may also
appear before it at any other time. (Sec 23, Art
VII)
 Every 4th Monday of July, the President delivers
the State of the Nation Address, which contains
his proposals for legislation. Through this
speech, he can influence the course of legislation
that Congress can take during the regular
session.
(b) Prepare and Submit the Budget
40
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
The President shall submit to Congress within thirty
days from the opening of every regular session, as
the basis of the general appropriations bill, a budget
of expenditures and sources of financing, including
receipts from existing and proposed revenue
measures. (Sec 22, Art VII)
o The budget is the plan indicating:
(a) expenditures of the government,
(b) sources of financing, and
(c) receipts from revenue-raising measures.
This budget is the upper limit of the appropriations bill
to be passed by Congress. Through the budget,
therefore, the President reveals the priorities of the
government.
(c) Veto power
o As a general rule, all bills must be approved by
the President before they become law, except
when:
(i) the veto of the President is overridden by 2/3
vote of all the Members of the House where
it originated; and
(ii) the bill passed is the special law to elect the
President and Vice-President.
o This gives the President an actual hand in
legislation. However, his course of action is only
to approve it or veto it as a whole. (See
Legislative Power of Congress)
 It is true that the Constitution provides a
mechanism for overriding a veto (Art. VI, Sec. 27
[1]). Said remedy, however, is available only
when the presidential veto is based on policy or
political considerations but not when the veto is
claimed to be ultra vires. In the latter case, it
becomes the duty of the Court to draw the
dividing line where the exercise of executive
power ends and the bounds of legislative
jurisdiction begin. [PHILCONSA v Enriquez
(1994)]
(d) Emergency Power
o In times of war or other national emergency, the
Congress, may, by law, authorize the President,
for a limited period, and subject to such
restrictions as it may prescribe, to exercise
powers necessary and proper to carry out a
declared national policy. Unless sooner
withdrawn by resolution of the Congress, such
powers shall cease upon the next adjournment
thereof. (Sec 23, Art VI see discussion above)
(e) Fixing of tariff rates (Sec 28, Art VI)
o The Congress may, by law, authorize the
President to fix:
 within specified limits, and
 subject to such limitations and restrictions as
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers

it may impose, B. Vice President

 tariff rates
Article VII, Section 3. There shall be a Vice
 import and export quotas
President who shall have the same qualifications and
41
 tonnage and wharfage dues
term of office and be elected with, and in the same

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
 other duties or imposts within the
manner, as the President. He may be removed from
framework of the national development
office in the same manner as the President.
program of the Government.
The Vice President may be appointed as a Member of
o Reason for delegation: highly technical nature of
the Cabinet. Such appointment requires no
international commerce, and the need to
confirmation.
constantly and with relative ease adapt the rates
to prevailing commercial standards.
1. Qualifications, Election, Term and Oath

13. Immunity from Suit a. Qualifications

* same as President (Sec. 3, Art VII)
 The President as such cannot be sued, enjoying b. Term and Election
as he does immunity from suit, but the validity of * same as President (Sec. 4, Art VII)
his acts can be tested by an action against
the other executive officials or such c. Oath
independent constitutional agencies as the * same as President (except for the statement of
Commission on Elections and the Commission on position)
Audit. [Carillo vs. Marcos (1981)]
2. Privilege and Salary
 The petition seeks clarification as to whom the
* same as President
Constitution refers to as the incumbent Pres and
Vice Pres. The petition amounts in effect to a suit except: the Vice-President, xxx [shall receive annual
against the incumbent Pres. Aquino and it is salary of] P240,000 (Sec 17, Art XVIII)
equally elementary that incumbent Presidents are
3. Prohibitions
immune from suit or from being brought to court
during the period of their incumbency and tenure. * same as President
[In Re Bermudez (1986)]
4. Succession
 The SC held that the privilege of immunity from
* same as President (Art. VII, Sec. 9)
suit pertains to the President by virtue of the
office and may be invoked only by the holder 5. Removal
of the office; not by any other person in the Impeachment Process
President's behalf. Thus, an accused in a
criminal case where the President is a * same as President (Art. XI, Sec. 3)
complainant cannot raise the presidential 6. Functions
privilege as a defense to prevent the case from
proceeding against the accused. Moreover, there a. Right of succession
is nothing in our laws that would prevent the
President from waiving the privilege. The The Vice-President shall assume the functions of the
President may shed the protection afforded by president in case of:
the privilege and submit to the court's jurisdiction. 1. death, permanent disability, removal from office,
[Soliven vs Makasiar (1988); Beltran vs Makasiar or resignation of the President (Sec 8, Art VII)
(1988)] 2. Whenever the President transmits to the
President of the Senate and the Speaker of the
The President’s immunity from suit extends House of Representatives his written declaration
beyond his term so long as the act in question that he is unable to discharge the powers and
was done during his term. duties of his office, and until he transmits to them
 Petitioners theorize that the present petition for a written declaration to the contrary (Sec 11, Art
prohibition is improper because the same attacks VII)
an act of the President, in violation of the doctrine 3. Whenever a majority of all the Members of the
of presidential immunity from suit. Petitioners’ Cabinet transmit to the President of the Senate
contention is untenable for the simple reason that and to the Speaker of the House of
the petition is directed against petitioners and Representatives their written declaration that the
not against the President. The questioned acts President is unable to discharge the powers and
are those of petitioners and not of the President. duties of his office
Furthermore, presidential decisions may be
questioned before the courts where there is b. Membership in Cabinet
grave abuse of discretion or that the
President acted without or in excess of xxx The Vice-President may be appointed as member
jurisdiction. [Gloria v CA (2000)] of the Cabinet. Such appointment requires no
confirmation. (Sec 3, Art VII)
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers

IV. Constitutional Commissions 3. Compensation

 Fixed by law and shall not be decreased during
A. Common Provisions
their tenure. (sec. 3) 42
(Asked 3 times in the Bar)

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
4. Power to Appoint Personnel (sec. 4)
1. Disqualifications; Inhibitions
5. Fiscal Autonomy (sec. 5)
o No member of a Constitutional Commission shall,
during his tenure: 6. Rule-Making Power
i. hold any other office or employment  shall not diminish, increase, or modify substantive
ii. engage in the practice of any profession rights (sec. 6)
iii. engage in the active management and control
of any business which in any way may be 7. Procedure
affected by the functions of his office i. Decision on any case or matter brought
iv. be financially interested, directly or indirectly, in
before it shall be decided by a majority vote
any contract with, or in any franchise or
of all its Members within 60 days of
privilege granted by the Government, any of its
subdivisions, agencies or instrumentalities,
submission for decision or resolution
including GOCCs or their subsidiaries. (Art. IX, ii. SC has certiorari jurisdiction which a party
sec.2) aggrieved by any decision, order, or ruling of
each Commission can invoke within 30 days
2. Composition and Qualifications from receipt of a copy. (sec.16)
CSC COMELEC COA
Chairman and 2 Chairman and Chairman and 2
8. Other functions provided by law
Commissioners 6 Comm Comm (sec. 8)
(Comm)
 At issue was the “no report, no release” policy of
Natural-born citizens
At least 35 years of age
the DBM which the latter is invoking, in addition
Proven capacity for Holders of a Certified public to the fact that there is an alleged shortage of
public college accountants funds, to justify the withholding of the balance of
administration, and degree, and with not less than the CSC’s annual budget. It was held that such
must not have been must not have 10 years auditing policy may not be validly enforced against
candidates for any been experience, or offices vested with fiscal autonomy like the
elective position in candidates for Members of the CSC and other Constitutional Commissions.
the lections any elective Philippine Bar Being “automatic” means that the budget
immediately position in the who have been
releases cannot be made contingent on the
preceding their immediately engaged in the
appointment preceding practice of law for performance of a particular act or the availability
elections at least 10 years, of funds, otherwise, the constitutional mandate of
and must not automatic and regular release would be
Majority, have been significantly emasculated.[ CSC v. DBM, (2005)]
including the candidates for
Chairman, any elective
shall be position in the B. Civil Service Commission
Members of elections (Asked 4 times in the Bar)
the Philippine immediately
Bar who have preceding their 1. Scope of Civil Service
been engaged appointment
in the practice Art. IX-B, Sec. 2(1). The civil service embraces all branches,
of law for at At no time shall subdivisions, instrumentalities, and agencies of the
least 10 years all Members of Government, including government-owned or controlled
the Commission corporations with original charters.
belong to the
same profession. 2. Terms and Conditions of Government
Employment
Appointed by the President with the consent of the
Commission on Appointments for a term of 7 years without i. Merit-based system
reappointment ii. No holding of other positions
Staggered term of Staggered term Staggered term iii. Standardization of salary
those first appointed: of those first of those first
iv. No partisan political activity
a) Chairman 7 appointed: appointed:
years a) 3 Members a) Chairman 7
v. Security of tenure  Temporary employees of
b) 1 Comm  5 7 years years the Government shall be given such protection as
years b) 2 Members b) 1 Comm  5 may be provided by law.
c) Other Comm  3  5 years years vi. Right to self-organization (v. Right to strike)
years c) Last 2 c) Other Comm
Members 3  3 years Art. XIII, Sec. 3. [The State] shall guarantee the rights of all
years workers to self-organization,…peaceful concerted
Appointment to any vacancy shall be only for the unexpired activities, including the right to strike in accordance with
portion of the term of the predecessor. In no case shall any law.
Member be appointed or designated in a temporary or acting
capacity.
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers
Art. III, Sec. 8. The right of the people, including those
employed in the public and private sectors, to form
unions, association, or societies for purposes not contrary
to law shall not be abridged.
Art. IX-B, Sec. 2(5). The right to self-organization shall not
be denied to government employees.
Sec. 38, Book V, Title I, Subtitle A, Chapter 6,
Administrative Code of 1987.
Who: All government employees, including those in GOCCs
with original charters
Exception: (1) members of the AFP, (2) police officers and
policemen, (3) firemen, (4) jail guards.
Scope of right: (1) form, join or assist employees'
organizations of their own choosing for the furtherance and
protection of their interests
(2) form, in conjunction with appropriate government
authorities, labor-management committees, work councils
and other forms of workers' participation schemes to achieve
the same objectives
 Employees in the Civil Service may not resort to
strikes, walkouts and other temporary work
stoppages in order to alter the terms and
conditions of their employment, which are
generally governed and fixed by law. Government
employees may, through their unions or
associations, either
(1) petition the Congress for the betterment of
the terms and conditions of employment
which are within the ambit of legislation, or
(2) negotiate with the appropriate government
agencies for the improvement of those which
are not fixed by law. If there be any
unresolved grievances, the dispute may be
referred to the Public Sector Labor-
Management Council for appropriate action.
[SSS Employees’ Association v. CA, (1989)]
3. Disqualifications
i. Candidate who has lost in any election, within 1
year after such election, cannot be appointed to
any office in the Civil Service;
ii. No elective official shall be eligible for
appointment or designation in any capacity to any
public office or position during his tenure;
iii. No appointive official shall hold any other office or
employment in the Civil Service unless otherwise
allowed by law or by the primary functions of his
position.
4. Powers and Functions
Art. IX-B, Sec. 3. The Civil Service Commission, as the
central personnel agency of the Government, shall
establish a career service and adopt measures to promote
morale, efficiency, integrity, responsiveness,
progressiveness, and courtesy in the civil service. It shall
strengthen the merit and rewards system, integrate all
human resources development programs for all levels
and ranks, and institutionalize a management climate
conducive to public accountability. It shall submit to the
President and the Congress an annual report on its
personnel programs.
5. Salary
i. Standardized compensation, taking into account 43
the nature of the responsibilities pertaining to,
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
and the qualifications required for their positions
ii. No additional, double, or indirect
compensation unless specifically authorized by
law
iii. No elective or appointive public officer or
employee shall accept without the consent of
the Congress, any present, emolument, office,
or title of any kind from any foreign government
C. Commission on Elections
(Asked 9 times in the Bar)
1. Powers and Functions
i. Enforce all laws relating to the conduct of
election:
o Recommend to the Congress effective
measures to minimize election spending,
and to prevent and penalize all forms of
election frauds, offenses, malpractices, and
nuisance candidacies
o Submit to the President and the Congress, a
comprehensive report on the conduct of
each election, plebiscite, initiative,
referendum, or recall
ii. Decide administrative questions pertaining to
election except the right to vote;
iii. File petitions in court for inclusion or exclusion of
voters;
iv. Investigate and prosecute cases of violations of
election laws;
v. Recommend pardon, amnesty, parole or
suspension of sentence of election law violators;
vi. Deputize law enforcement agencies and
instrumentalities of the Government for the
exclusive purpose of ensuring free, orderly,
honest, peaceful, and credible elections;
vii. Recommend to the President the removal of any
officer or employee it has deputized for violation
or disregard of, or disobedience to its directive;
viii. Registration of political parties, organizations and
coalitions and accreditation of citizens’ arms;
ix. Regulation of public utilities and media of
information.
 The law limits the right of free speech and of
access to mass media of the candidates
themselves. The limitation however, bears a
clear and reasonable connection with the
objective set out in the Constitution. For it is
precisely in the unlimited purchase of print space
and radio and television time that the resources
of the financially affluent candidates are likely to
make a crucial difference. The purpose is to
ensure "equal opportunity, time, and space,
and the right to reply," as well as uniform and
reasonable rates of charges for the use of such
media facilities, in connection with "public
information campaigns and forums among
candidates." [National Press Club vs Comelec,
(1992)]
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers
x. Decide election cases
Art. IX-C, Sec. 3. The Commission on Elections may sit en
banc or in two divisions, and shall promulgate its rules of
procedure in order to expedite disposition of election cases,
including pre- proclamation controversies. All such election
cases shall be heard and decided in division, provided that
motions for reconsideration of decisions shall be
decided by the Commission en banc.
2. Jurisdiction
i. Exclusive original: all contests relating to the
elections, returns, and qualifications of all elective
regional, provincial, and city officials
ii. Appellate:
o elective municipal officials decided by trial
courts of general jurisdiction
o elective barangay officials decided by trial
courts of limited jurisdiction
 Once a winning candidate has been proclaimed,
taken his oath, and assumed office as a Member
of the House of Representatives, the Comelec’s
jurisdiction over election contests relating to his
election, returns, and qualifications ends, and the
HRET’s own jurisdiction begins. [Aggabao vs
Comelec, (2005)]
 Congress cannot make decisions of MTC or
MCTC in a barangay election appealable to the
trial court, because Comelec has exclusive
appellate jurisdiction over all contests involving
barangay elective officials decided by trial courts
of limited jurisdiction. The jurisdiction of the
Comelec, however, is over questions of fact;
questions of law go to the SC. [Flores v. Comelec,
(1990)]
D. Commission on Audit
(Asked 1 time in the Bar)
1. Powers and Functions
i. Examine, audit, and settle accounts pertaining to
Government funds or property: its revenue,
receipts, expenditures, and uses
o Post-audit basis: Constitutional bodies,
commissions and offices; Autonomous state
colleges and universities; GOCCs with no
original charters and their subsidiaries; Non-
governmental entities receiving subsidy or
equity, directly or indirectly, from or through
the Government, which are required by law
or the granting institution to submit such
audit as a condition of subsidy or equity
ii. Exclusive Authority
o Define the scope of its audit and
examination;
o Establish techniques and methods required ;
o Promulgate accounting and auditing rules
and regulations.
Art. IX-D, Sec. 3. No law shall be passed exempting any
entity of the Government or its subsidiaries in any guise
whatever, or any investment of public funds, from the
jurisdiction of the Commission on Audit.
V. Constitutionally-Mandated Bodies
A. Sandiganbayan 44
(Asked 1 time in the Bar)
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
Art. XI, Sec. 4. The present anti-graft court known as the
Sandigan-bayan shall continue to function and exercise its
jurisdiction as now or hereafter may be provided by law.
 Under RA 8249 (AN ACT FURTHER DEFINING
THE JURISDICTION OF THE
SANDIGANBAYAN, AMENDING FOR THE
PURPOSE PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NO. 1606,
AS AMENDED, PROVIDING FUNDS
THEREFOR, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES), to
determine whether the Sandiganbayan has
jurisdiction, one must look into two (2) criteria,
namely:
1) The nature of the offense, and
2) The salary grade of the public official.
 To further strengthen the functional and structural
organization of the Sandiganbayan, several
amendments have been introduced to the
original law creating it, the latest of which are
Republic Acts No. 7975 and No. 8249.
 Under these new laws, the jurisdiction of the
Sandiganbayan is now confined to cases
involving public officials occupying positions
classified as salary grade 27 and higher.
 As restructured, the Sandiganbayan is presently
composed of:
 a Presiding Justice and
 fourteen (14) Associate Justices
 who sit in five (5) Divisions of
 three Justices
 each in the trial and determination of
cases.
B. Ombudsman
(Asked 5 times in the Bar)
1. Qualification
 Natural born citizen at time of appointment
 At least 40 yrs old
 With probity and independence
 Member of the Bar
 Not a candidate for elective office in
immediately preceding election
 At least 10 yrs had been a judge OR in
practice of law
2. Appointment
 JBC to nominate at least 6 for original
Ombudsman
 JBC to nominate at least 3 for every vacancy
thereafter
 Vacancies to be filled within 3 months after
occurrence
 Appointed by the President
 Appointment needs no confirmation
3. Term
 7 yrs without reappointment
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter II. STRUCTURE and POWERS of GOVERNMENT – Separation of Powers

4. Removal  Promulgate its rules of procedure

By impeachment for:  Exercise other functions provided by law
 culpable violation of the constitution  Declare his assets, liabilities, and net worth 45
 treason upon assumption of office and when required

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
 bribery by law
 graft and corruption 7. Disqualification
 other high crimes  Cannot hold any other office or employment
 betrayal of public trust during tenure
5. Benefits  Cannot engage in any profession or active
 Ombudsman has rank of Chairman of a management/control of any business
ConCom affecting their office
 Enjoys fiscal autonomy  Cannot be financially interested, directly or
 Automatic and regular release of funds indirectly, in any contract, franchise, or
 Salary cannot be decreased during term privilege granted by the Government or its
agencies/corporations (Sec. 2, Art. IX-A)
6. Powers/Duties  Cannot run for any office in the election
MAIN PURPOSE: protectors of the people immediately succeeding their term of office
 Shall act promptly on complaints against  Cannot be granted any financial
public officials/govt employees AND notify accommodation for business purposes,
complainants of action taken and the result directly or indirectly, within tenure.
 Investigate on its own or any complaint when
appears to be: C. Commission on Human Rights
 Illegal
 Unjust (Asked 5 times in the Bar)
 Improper 1. Composition and Qualifications
 Inefficient
 Direct, on its own or upon complaint, any  Chairman and 4 Members
public official/govt employee to: o natural-born Filipinos
 perform and expedite an act/duty o majority shall be members of the Bar
o The term of office and other qualifications
required shall be provided by law.
 stop/prevent/correct any abuse or
impropriety of duty 2. Powers and Functions
 Direct the officer concerned to take
 Investigate, on its own or on complaint by any
appropriate action against the public
party, all forms of human rights violations involving
official/govt employee civil and political rights
 Recommend for their:
 removal  The Commission can only protect “civil and
political rights,” which do not include the less
 suspension
traditional social and economic rights. [Simon v.
 demotion CHR, (1994)]
 fine
 censure o Note, however, that the reason for these modest
objectives of the Framers of the Constitution is the
 prosecution desire not to overburden the CHR during its initial
 Ensure compliance of the recommendation years. The limitation does not exclude the
 Subject to limitations of law, direct the officer possibility of expanding the Commission’s scope
concerned to furnish copies of related later --- as in fact Section 19 specifically allows
documents/contracts entered by his office (BERNAS).
involving use of public funds:
IMPT: Section 25 of the Universal Declaration of
 Further report any irregularity to the Human Rights (UDHR) as well as the International
Commission on Audit Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights
 Request assistance and information from (ICESCR) are deemed part of Philippine law pursuant
other govt agencies for the discharge of his to the Incorporation Clause of the Constitution.
duties
 Publicize, with due prudence, matters Art. XIII, Sec. 19. The Congress may provide for
other cases of violations of human rights that should fall
covered by investigation, whenever
within the authority of the Commission, taking into
warranted account its recommendations.
 Determine the causes of the ff and make
recommendations for their eradication, and  The Commission was not meant by the
observance of high standards of fundamental law to be another court or quasi-
ethics/efficiency: judicial agency in this country, or duplicate much
less take over the functions of the latter. It is
 Inefficiency conceded, however, that the Commission may
 Red tape investigate, i.e., receive evidence and make
 Mismanagement findings of fact as regards claimed human
 Fraud rights violations involving civil and political
 Govt corruption rights. [Cariño v. CHR, (1991)]
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter III. NATIONAL ECONOMY and PATRIMONY

100% Filipino 60-40 70-30

Chapter III. National Economy and Patrimony Small-scale Operation of
(Asked 13 times in the Bar) utilization
natural resources
of public utility [Art.
XII, Sec. 11]
46
(as may be o Cannot be for

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES
A. GOALS provided by law) longer period
B. CITIZENSHIP REQUIREMENTS [Art. XII, Sec. 2, than 50 years
C. FILIPINO FIRST par. 3] o Executive
II. NATURAL RESOURCES and
A. REGALIAN DOCTRINE managing
B. EXPLORATION, DEVELOPMENT, UTILIZATION officers must
C. STEWARDSHIP CONCEPT be Filipino
III. PRIVATE LANDS
 A public utility is a business or service engaged in
IV. MONOPOLIES
regularly supplying the public with some commodity or
V. CENTRAL MONETARY AUTHORITY
service of public consequence. A joint venture falls
within the purview of an “association” pursuant to Sec.
11, Art. XII; thus a joint venture which would engage in
I. General Principles the business of operating a public utility must comply
with the 60%-40% Filipino-foreign capitalization
A. Goals requirement. [JG Summit Holdings v. CA, (2000)]
1. More equitable distribution of opportunities,
income and wealth C. Filipino First
2. Sustained increase in amount of goods and
services produced by the nation for the benefit Art. XII, Sec. 10. In the grant of rights, privileges, and
concessions covering the national economy and patrimony,
of the people the State shall give preference to qualified Filipinos.
3. Expanding production as the key to raising the
quality of life for all, especially the The State shall regulate and exercise authority over foreign
investments within its national jurisdiction and in accordance
underprivileged. with its national goals and priorities.

B. Citizenship Requirements  The term “patrimony” pertains to heritage, and given

the history of the Manila Hotel, it has become a part of
100% Filipino 60-40 70-30 our national economy and patrimony. Thus, the Filipino
Marine Wealth Natural Resources Advertising First policy provision of the Constitution is applicable.
[Art. XII, Sec. 2, [Art. XII, Sec. 2, Industry [Art. Such provision is per se enforceable, and requires no
par. 2] par. 1] XVI, Sec. 11] further guidelines or implementing rules or laws for
(Co-production, its operation. [Manila Prince Hotel v. GSIS, (1997)]
Joint venture,
Production sharing Art. XII, Sec. 12. The State shall promote the preferential
agreemenents) use of Filipino labor, domestic materials and locally produced
goods, and adopt measures that help make them
Agreements shall competitive.
not exceed a
period of 25 years
renewable for
II. Natural Resources
another 25 years.
Agricultural lands Educational A. Regalian Doctrine [Jura Regalia]
[Art. XII, Sec. 3] Institutions [Art.
o Lease: < 500 XIV, Sec. 4(2)]  The King had title to all the land in the Philippines
ha. except so far as it saw fit to permit private titles to
o Purchase, be acquired.. [Cariño v. Insular Government,
homestead (1909)]
or grant: < 12
ha.
o Private  As in previous Constitutions, the 1987
corpora-tions Constitution adheres to this doctrine as illustrated
may lease by this section:
not more
than 1,000 Art. XII, Sec. 2. All lands of the public domain, waters,
ha. for 25 minerals, coal, petroleum, and other mineral oils, all forces of
years, potential energy, fisheries, forests or timber, wildlife, flora
renewable for and fauna, and other natural resources are owned by the
another 25 State. With the exception of agricultural lands, all other
years. natural resources shall not be alienated.
Practice of Areas of
 Under the Regalian Doctrine, all lands not otherwise
professions [Art. Investment as
clearly appearing to be privately owned are presumed
XII, Sec. 14] Congress may
to belong to the State. The classification of public lands
prescribe
is an exclusive prerogative of the Executive Department
(percentage can
through the Office of the President. [Republic v.
be higher) [Art.
Register of Deeds of Quezon, (1994)]
XII, Sec. 10]
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter III. NATIONAL ECONOMY and PATRIMONY

B. Exploration, Development, and Utilization FTAA SERVICE

(1987 Const.) CONTRACT
Art. XII, Sec. 2, par. 4. The President may enter into
agreements with foreign-owned corporations involving
(1973 Const.)
marketing or
47
either technical or financial assistance for large-scale resources

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
exploration, development, and utilization of minerals,
petroleum, and other mineral oils according to the general Following this framework, the SC declared the
terms and conditions provided by law, based on real following provisions of the Philippine Mining Act of
contributions to the economic growth and general welfare of 1995 (RA 7942) unconstitutional for being contrary
the country. In such agreements, the State shall promote the
to Sec. 2, Art. XII of the 1987 Constitution:
development and use of local scientific and technical
resources. a. The proviso in Sec. 3(aq), which defines a
“qualified person”, to wit: Provided, That a legally
The State, being the owner of the natural resources, foreign-owned corporation shall be deemed a
is accorded the primary power and responsibility in qualified person for purposes of granting an
the exploration, development and utilization thereof. exploration permit, FTAA or mineral processing
As such it may undertake these activities through four permit
modes: b. Sec. 23, which specifies the rights and
(1) The State may directly undertake such activities; obligations of an exploration permit grantee
(2) The State may enter into co-production, joint c. Sec. 33, which prescribes the eligibility of a
venture or production-sharing agreements with contractor in an FTAA
Filipino citizens or qualified corporations; d. Sec. 35, which enumerates the terms and
(3) Congress may, by law, allow small-scale conditions for every FTAA
utilization of natural resources by Filipino citizens; e. Sec. 39, which allows the contractor to convert
or the FTAA into a mineral production-sharing
(4) For the large-scale exploration, development and agreement (MPSA)
utilization of minerals, petroleum and other f. Sec. 56, which authorizes the issuance of a
mineral oils, the President may enter into mineral processing permit to a contractor in an
agreements with foreign-owned corporations FTAA
involving technical or financial assistance. The following provisions of the same Act were
[[La Bugal-B’Laan Tribal Assn. v. Ramos, likewise deemed void as they are dependent on the
(Jan,2004)] foregoing provisions and cannot stand on their own:
a. Section 3 (g), which defines the term “contractor,”
FTAA SERVICE insofar as it applies to a financial or technical
(1987 Const.) CONTRACT
(1973 Const.)
assistance agreement;
Parties Only the A Filipino citizen, b. Section 34, which prescribes the maximum
President (in corporation or contract area in a financial or technical
behalf of the association with a assistance agreements;
State), and only “foreign person or c. Section 36, which allows negotiations for financial
with entity” or technical assistance agreements;
corporations d. Section 37, which prescribes the procedure for
Size of Only large-scale Contractor provides filing and evaluation of financial or technical
Activities exploration, all necessary assistance agreement proposals;
development and services and
utilization technology and the
e. Section 38, which limits the term of financial or
requisite financing, technical assistance agreements;
performs the f. Section 40, which allows the assignment or
exploration work transfer of financial or technical assistance
obligations, and agreements;
assumes all g. Section 41, which allows the withdrawal of the
exploration risks contractor in an FTAA;
Natural Minerals, Virtually the entire h. The second and third paragraphs of Section 81,
Resources petroleum and range of the
which provide for the Government’s share in a
Covered other mineral oils country’s natural
resources financial and technical assistance agreement;
Scope of the Involving either Contractor provides i. Section 90, which provides for incentives to
Agreements financial or financial or technical contractors in FTAAs insofar as it applies to said
technical resources, contractors;
assistance undertakes the
The Court then struck down the Financial and
exploitation or
production of a
Technical Assistance Agreement (FTAA) entered into
given resource, or between the Government and Western Mining
directly manages Corporation (Phils.), Inc. (WMCP) for being similar to
the productive service contracts, previously allowed under the 1973
enterprise, Constitution but which are now proscribed under the
operations of the 1987 Constitution.
exploration and
exploitation of the  On motion for reconsideration, the SC reversed
resources or the
disposition of
its original decision and upheld the
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER
constitutionality of the subject FTAA, the Mining
Law, and its Implementing Rules.
The Constitution should be read in broad, life-giving
strokes. It should not be used to strangulate
economic growth or to serve narrow, parochial
interests. Rather, it should be construed to grant the
President and Congress sufficient discretion and
reasonable leeway to enable them to attract foreign
investments and expertise, as well as to secure for
our people and our posterity the blessings of
prosperity and peace. The Court fully sympathize with
the plight of La Bugal B’laan and other tribal groups,
and commend their efforts to uplift their communities.
However, the Court cannot justify the invalidation
of an otherwise constitutional statute along with
its implementing rules, or the nullification of an
otherwise legal and binding FTAA contract.
The Court believes that it is not unconstitutional to
allow a wide degree of discretion to the Chief
Executive, given the nature and complexity of such
agreements, the humongous amounts of capital and
financing required for large-scale mining operations,
the complicated technology needed, and the
intricacies of international trade, coupled with the
State’s need to maintain flexibility in its dealings, in
order to preserve and enhance our country’s
competitiveness in world markets. On the basis of this
control standard, the Court upholds the
constitutionality of the Philippine Mining Law, its
Implementing Rules and Regulations -- insofar as
they relate to financial and technical agreements -- as
well as the subject Financial and Technical
Assistance Agreement (FTAA). [La Bugal-B’laan
Tribal Assn. v. Ramos, (Dec. 2004)]
C. Stewardship Concept
Art. XII, Sec. 6. The use of property bears a social function,
and all economic agents shall contribute to the common
good.
Individuals and private groups, including corporations,
cooperatives, and similar collective organizations, shall have
the right to own, establish, and operate economic
enterprises, subject to the duty of the State to promote
distributive justice and to intervene when the common good
so demands.
Art. XIII, Sec. 6. The State shall apply the principles of
agrarian reform or stewardship, whenever applicable in
accordance with law,
in the disposition or utilization of other natural resources,
including lands of the public domain under lease or
concession suitable to agriculture,
subject to prior rights, homestead rights of small settlers, and
the rights of indigenous communities to their ancestral lands.
III. Private Lands
A. General Rule
No private lands shall be transferred or conveyed
except to individuals, corporations, or associations
qualified to acquire or hold lands of the public domain.
(Art. XII, sec. 7)
Chapter III. NATIONAL ECONOMY and PATRIMONY
B. Exceptions
i. Hereditary succession
(Art. XII, sec. 7)
48
ii. A natural-born citizen of the Philippines who has
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
lost his Philippine citizenship may be a transferee
of private lands, subject to limitations provided by
law.
(Art. XII, sec. 8)
IV. Monopolies
Art. XIII, Sec. 19. The State shall regulate or prohibit
monopolies when the public interest so requires. No
combinations in restraint of trade or unfair competition shall
be allowed.
 Although the Constitution enshrines free
enterprise as a policy, it nevertheless reserves to
the Government the power to intervene whenever
necessary for the promotion of the general
welfare. [Philippine Coconut Dessicators v. PCA,
(1998)]
 Monopolies are not per se prohibited by the
Constitution but may be permitted to exist to aid
the government in carrying on an enterprise or to
aid in the performance of various services and
functions in the interest of the public.
Nonetheless, a determination must first be made
as to whether public interest requires a
monopoly. As monopolies are subject to abuses
that can inflict severe prejudice to the public, they
are subject to a higher level of State regulation
than an ordinary business undertaking. [Agan, Jr.
v. PIATCO, (2003)]
V. Central Monetary Authority
[Art. XII, Sec. 20]
Functions:
1. Provide policy directions in the areas of money,
banking, and credit;
2. Supervise the operations of banks;
3. Exercise such regulatory powers as may be
provided by law over the operations of finance
companies and other institutions performing
similar functions
Qualifications of the Governors:
1. Natural-born Filipino;
2. Known probity, integrity and patriotism;
3. Majority shall come from the private sector
 Subject to such other qualifications and
disabilities as may be provided by law
Until the Congress otherwise provides, the Central
Bank of the Philippines operating under existing laws,
shall function as the central monetary authority.
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER
Chapter IV. Current Events and Special
Topics
I. PARTY-LIST SYSTEM
II. QUESTION HOUR V. INQUIRIES IN AID OF
LEGISLATION
III. EXECUTIVE PRIVILEGE
IV. PEOPLE’S INITIATIVE
V. RIGHT OF REPLY BILL
VI. THE (ERSTWHILE) PROVINCE OF SHARIFF
KABUNSUAN
VII. MOA ON ANCESTRAL DOMAIN (MOA-AD)
I. Party-List System
 The SC laid down the following guidelines for
screening party-list participants ---
1) The parties must represent the marginalized and
underrepresented.
2) Major political parties must comply with this
statutory policy
3) Religious sects are prohibited by the Constitution
4) The party must not be disqualified under RA 7941
5) The part must not be an adjunct of an entity or
project funded by the government
6) The party and its nominees must comply with the
requirements of the law
7) The members must come from the marginalized
and underrepresented sectors
8) The nominee must be able to contribute to the
formulation and enactment of appropriate
legislation that will benefit the nation
9) Their nominees must come from the same party.
[Ang Bagong Bayani v. Comelec, (2001)]
The Legal and Logical Formula for the Philippines
Step One. The initial step is to rank all the
participating parties, organizations and coalitions
from the highest to the lowest based on the
number of votes they each received. Then the ratio
for each party is computed by dividing its votes
by the total votes cast for all the parties
participating in the system. All parties with at least
two percent of the total votes are guaranteed one
seat each. Only these parties shall be considered in
the computation of additional seats. The party
receiving the highest number of votes shall
thenceforth be referred to as the “first” party.
Step Two. The next step is to determine the number
of seats the first party is entitled to, in order to be able
to compute that for the other parties. Since the
distribution is based on proportional representation,
the number of seats to be allotted to the other
parties cannot possibly exceed that to which the
first party is entitled by virtue of its obtaining the
most number of votes.
For example, the first party received 1,000,000 votes
and is determined to be entitled to two additional
seats. Another qualified party which received 500,000
votes cannot be entitled to the same number of seats,
since it garnered only fifty percent of the votes won by
the first party. Depending on the proportion of its
votes relative to that of the first party whose number
Chapter IV. CURRENT EVENTS and SPECIAL TOPICS
of seats has already been predetermined, the second
party should be given less than that to which the first
one is entitled. 49
The other qualified parties will always be allotted
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
less additional seats than the first party for two
reasons:
(1) the ratio between said parties and the first party
will always be less than 1:1, and
(2) the formula does not admit of mathematical
rounding off, because there is no such thing as a
fraction of a seat.
Verily, an arbitrary rounding off could result in a
violation of the twenty percent allocation. An
academic mathematical demonstration of such
incipient violation is not necessary because the
present set of facts, given the number of qualified
parties and the voting percentages obtained, will
definitely not end up in such constitutional
contravention.
The Court has previously ruled in Guingona Jr. v.
Gonzales that a fractional membership cannot be
converted into a whole membership of one when it
would, in effect, deprive another party's fractional
membership. It would be a violation of the
constitutional mandate of proportional representation.
We said further that "no party can claim more than
what it is entitled to x x x.” [Veterans Federation Party
v. Comelec, (2000)]
Formula for Determining Additional Seats for the
First Party
The formula for computing the number of seats to which
the first party is entitled is as follows:
Number of votes
Proportion of votes
of first party
relative to total votes
------------------ =
for party list
Total votes for
party-list system
If the proportion of votes received by the first
party without rounding it off is equal to at least six
percent of the total valid votes cast for all the
party list groups, then the first party shall be
entitled to two additional seats or a total of three
seats overall. If the proportion of votes without a
rounding off is equal to or greater than four percent,
but less than six percent, then the first party shall
have one additional or a total of two seats. And if the
proportion is less than four percent, then the first party
shall not be entitled to any additional seat.
Note that the above formula will be applicable only in
determining the number of additional seats the first
party is entitled to. It cannot be used to determine the
number of additional seats of the other qualified
parties. As explained earlier, the use of the same
formula for all would contravene the proportional
representation parameter.
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER
Formula for Additional Seats of Other Qualified
Parties
Step Three. The next step is to solve for the number
of additional seats that the other qualified parties are
entitled to, based on proportional representation. The
formula is encompassed by the following complex
fraction:
No. of votes of
Additional seats concerned party No. of additional
for concerned = --------------- x seats allocated
party No. of votes of to first party
the first party
Incidentally, if the first party is not entitled to any
additional seat, then the ratio of the number of
votes for the other party to that for the first one is
multiplied by zero. The end result would be zero
additional seats for each of the other qualified
parties as well.
The above formula does not give an exact
mathematical representation of the number of
additional seats to be awarded since, in order to be
entitled to one additional seat, an exact whole number
is necessary. In fact, most of the actual mathematical
proportions are not whole numbers and are not
rounded off for the reasons explained earlier.
To repeat, rounding off may result in the awarding of a
number of seats in excess of that provided by the law.
Furthermore, obtaining absolute proportional
representation is restricted by the three-seat-per-party
limit to a maximum of two additional slots. An increase
in the maximum number of additional representatives
a party may be entitled to would result in a more
accurate proportional representation. But the law itself
has set the limit: only two additional seats. Hence, we
need to work within such extant parameter. [Veterans
Federation Party v. Comelec, (2000)]
SC declared the 2%-threshhold used for computing
the allocation of additional seats under the Veterans
Formula, pursuant to Sec. 11, RA 7941,
unconstitutional, because it renders the attainment
of the maximum number of available party seats
mathematically impossible once the available party list
seats exceeds 50, as in the present state of the law,
where 55 seats are available to party-list
representatives.
 In determining the allocation of seats for
party-list representatives under Section 11 of
R.A. No. 7941, the following procedure shall
be observed:
1. The parties, organizations, and coalitions shall be
ranked from the highest to the lowest based on
the number of votes they garnered during the
elections.
2. The parties, organizations, and coalitions
receiving at least two percent (2%) of the total
votes cast for the party-list system shall be
entitled to one guaranteed seat each.
3. Those garnering sufficient number of votes,
according to the ranking in paragraph 1, shall be
entitled to additional seats in proportion to their
Chapter IV. CURRENT EVENTS and SPECIAL TOPICS
total number of votes until all the additional seats
are allocated.
4. Each party, organization, or coalition shall be 50
entitled to not more than three (3) seats.
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
In computing the additional seats, the guaranteed
seats shall no longer be included because they have
already been allocated, at one seat each, to every
two-percenter. Thus, the remaining available seats
for allocation as “additional seats” are the maximum
seats reserved under the Party List System less the
guaranteed seats. Fractional seats are disregarded in
the absence of a provision in R.A. No. 7941 allowing
for a rounding off of fractional seats.
The three-seat cap, as a limitation to the number of
seats that a qualified party-list organization may
occupy, remains a valid statutory device that prevents
any party from dominating the party-list elections.
However, by a vote of 8-7, the Court decided to
continue the ruling in Veterans disallowing major
political parties from participating in the party-list
elections, directly or indirectly. [Barangay Association
for National Advancement and Transparency
(BANAT) v. Comelec, (2009)]
Puno, C.J., Concurring and Dissenting Opinion:
Limiting the party-list system to the marginalized and
excluding the major political parties from participating
in the election of their representatives is aligned with
the constitutional mandate to “reduce social,
economic, and political inequalities, and remove
cultural inequalities by equitably diffusing wealth and
political power for the common good”.
The evils that faced our marginalized and
underrepresented people at the time of the framing of
the 1987 Constitution still haunt them today. It is
through the party-list system that the Constitution
sought to address this systemic dilemma. In ratifying
the Constitution, our people recognized how the
interests of our poor and powerless sectoral groups
can be frustrated by the traditional political parties
who have the machinery and chicanery to dominate
our political institutions. If we allow major political
parties to participate in the party-list system electoral
process, we will surely suffocate the voice of the
marginalized, frustrate their sovereignty and betray
the democratic spirit of the Constitution.
Nachura, J., Separate Opinion:
The inflexible 2% threshold vote required for
entitlement by a party-list group to a seat in the House
of Representatives in Republic Act (R.A.) No. 7941 is
unconstitutional.
This minimum vote requirement ─ fixed at 2% of the
total number of votes cast for the party list system ─
presents an unwarranted obstacle to the full
implementation of Section 5 (2), Article VI, of the
Philippine Constitution.
As such, it effectively defeats the declared
constitutional policy, as well as the legislative
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER
objective expressed in the enabling law, to allow the
people’s broadest representation in Congress, the
raison d’etre for the adoption of the party-list system.
A legal provision that poses an insurmountable barrier
to the full implementation and realization of the
constitutional provision on the party-list system should
be declared void.
I submit that, until Congress shall have effected an
acceptable amendment to the minimum vote
requirement in R.A. 7941, we abide by the sensible
standard of “proportional representation” and adopt a
gradually regressive threshold vote requirement,
inversely proportional to the increase in the
number of party-list seats.
Thus, at present, considering that there are 55 seats
allocated for party-list groups, the formula should be:
100%
(Total # of votes cast for party-list)
55 party-list seats = 1.818%
The minimum vote requirement will gradually
lessen as the number of party-list seats increases.
Accordingly, if the scenario we presented above
should ever come to pass, and there are 100 seats
allocated for party-list groups, then the threshold vote
should be 1%, based on the following computation:
100%
(Total # of votes cast for party-list)
100 party-list seats = 1%
II. Question Hour v. Inquiries In Aid of
Legislation
 Macalintal v. Comelec, (2003), Puno, C.J.,
Concurring and Dissenting Opinion:
Categories of Congressional Oversight Functions
A. Scrutiny
1. Primary purpose is to determine economy and
efficiency of the operation of government
activities
2. In the exercise of legislative scrutiny, Congress
may request information and report from the
other branches of government.
3. based primarily on the power of appropriation of
Congress
4. Congress can ask the heads of departments to
appear before and be heard by either House of
Congress on any matter pertaining to their
departments.
Art. VI, Sec. 22. The heads of departments may, upon their
own initiative, with the consent of the President, or upon the
request of either House, as the rules of each House shall
provide, appear before and be heard by such House on any
matter pertaining to their departments. Written questions
shall be submitted to the President of the Senate or the
Speaker of the House of Representatives at least three days
before their scheduled appearance. Interpellations shall not
be limited to written questions, but may cover matters related
thereto. When the security of the State or the public interest
so requires and the President so states in writing, the
appearance shall be conducted in executive session
Chapter IV. CURRENT EVENTS and SPECIAL TOPICS
o Under the 1973 Constitution, a similar provision
expressly referred to this appearance as the
“question hour”. In contrast to such provision,
51
however, the tenor of its counterpart in the
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
present Constitution is merely permissive. Hence,
the President may or may not consent to the
appearance of the heads of departments; and
even if he does, he may require that the
appearance be in executive session.
Reciprocally, Congress may refuse the initiative
taken by a department secretary.
5. Likewise, Congress exercises legislative scrutiny
thru its power of confirmation.
B. Congressional Investigation
Art. VI, Sec. 21. The Senate or the House of
Representatives or any of its respective committee may
conduct inquiries in aid of legislation in accordance with
its duly published rules of procedure. The rights of persons
appearing in or affected by such inquiries shall be respected.
o Limitations
i. Must be in aid of legislative functions
ii. Must be conducted in accordance with duly
published rules of procedure
iii. Persons appearing therein are afforded their
constitutional rights
 Although there is no provision in the Constitution
expressly investing either House of Congress
with power to make investigations and exact
testimony to the end that it may exercise its
legislative functions advisedly and effectively,
such power is so far incidental to the legislative
function as to be implied. In other words, the
power of inquiry — with process to enforce it — is
an essential and appropriate auxiliary to the
legislative function. A legislative body cannot
legislate wisely or effectively in the absence of
information respecting the conditions which
legislation is intended to affect or change; and
where the legislative body does not itself possess
the requisite information — which is not
frequently true — recourse must be had to others
who do possess it. [Arnault v. Nazareno, (1950)]
C. Legislative Supervision
Congress exercises supervision over the executive
agencies through its veto power.
It typically utilizes veto provisions when granting the
President or an executive agency the power to
promulgate regulations with the force of law. These
provisions require the President or an agency to
present the proposed regulations to Congress, which
retains a “right” to approve or disapprove any
regulation before it takes effect.
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER Chapter IV. CURRENT EVENTS and SPECIAL TOPICS

III. Executive Privilege  where such exemption is necessary to the

discharge of highly important executive
 Citing American sources, the SC defined and
explained “executive privilege” as follows ---
responsibilities involved in maintaining 52
governmental operations, and
(1) It is the right of the President and high-level

CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
 extends not only to military and diplomatic
executive branch officers to withhold information
secrets but also to documents integral to an
from Congress, the courts, and ultimately the
appropriate exercise of the executive domestic
public;
decisional and policy making functions, that is,
(2) It takes on various forms, whereby U.S.
those documents reflecting the frank expression
Presidents invoke it in order to prevent a
necessary in intra-governmental advisory and
subversion of crucial military or diplomatic
deliberative communications. [Neri v Senate
objectives, or to protect the identity of informers,
(2008)]
or to maintain the internal nature of the
formulation of governmental decisions and
 Two kinds of executive privilege:
policies;
[citing In re: Sealed Case]
(3) It is based on the constitutional doctrine of
1. Presidential Communications Privilege
separation of powers. [Senate v. Ermita, (2006)]
2. Deliberative Process Privilege
 exempts the executive from disclosure
requirements applicable to the ordinary citizen or
organization

Presidential Communications Deliberative Process

Scope Communications, documents or other materials that reflect Advisory opinions, recommendations
presidential decision-making and deliberations and that the and deliberations comprising part of a
President believes should remain confidential process by which governmental
o applies to documents in their entirety, and covers final and post- decisions and policies are formulated.
decisional materials as well as pre-deliberative ones
Who are President Executive officials
covered  operational proximity test: meant to encompass only those
functions that form the core of presidential authority, involving
what the court characterized as “quintessential and non-
delegable
Basis Rooted in the constitutional principle of separation of power and Common law privilege
the President’s unique constitutional role
Elements 1. The protected communication must relate to a “quintessential
and non-delegable presidential power.”
2. The communication must be authored or “solicited and received”
by a close advisor of the President or the President himself.
The judicial test is that an advisor must be in “operational
proximity” with the President.
3. The presidential communications privilege remains a qualified
privilege that may be overcome by a showing of adequate
need, such that the information sought “likely contains important
evidence” and by the unavailability of the information elsewhere
by an appropriate investigating authority.

 How does one draw the line, or balance, the

competing claims of the presidency and the
legislature?
o Citing Senate v. Ermita (2006), the Court
held that “the oversight function of
Congress may be facilitated by
compulsory process only to the extent
that it is performed in pursuit of
legislation.”
o It is conceded that it is difficult to draw the
line between an inquiry in aid of legislation
and an inquiry in the exercise of oversight
function of Congress. In this regard, much
will depend on the content and the manner
the inquiry is conducted.
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER
IV. People’s Initiative
 Lambino v. COMELEC (2006):
In Santiago v. COMELEC (1997), the SC declared
RA. 6735 on People’s Initiative to be “incomplete,
inadequate, or wanting in essential terms and
conditions insofar as initiative on amendments to the
Constitution is concerned.”
The Lambino petition seeks to use the same law for a
new people’s initiative in order to convert the present
government set-up into a parliamentary-unicameral
system.
Held:
o The Court held that the Santiago decision need
not be revisited. The Lambino petition warranted
outright dismissal for failure to comply with the
basic requirement of Section 2, Art. XVII such
that an affirmation or reversal of Santiago will not
change the outcome of the case.
o The Lambino petition failed to comply because:
a) the initiative petition did not present the full
text of the proposed amendments, and
b) the proposed changes constituted revision,
not amendment.
o The essence of amendments “directly proposed
by the people through initiative upon petition” is
that the entire proposal on its face is a petition by
the people. This means the 2 essential
elements must be present:
1) The people must author and thus sign the
entire proposal. No agent or representative
can sign on their behalf.
2) As an “initiative upon a petition”, the proposal
must be embodied in the petition.
o Further, a people’s initiative could only propose
amendments, not revisions. Only a Congress or
a Constitutional Convention can propose both
amendments and revisions to the Constitution. A
change in the form of government—from
presidential and bicameral to parliamentary and
unicameral—constitutes revision and not merely
an amendment.
Chapter IV. CURRENT EVENTS and SPECIAL TOPICS
V. Right of Reply
Highlights of House Bill No. 3306 53
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
A. To Whom the Right to Reply is Granted
1. All persons accused of any crime or offense
defined by law, or
2. Criticized by innuendo, suggestion or rumor for
any lapse in behavior in public or private life.
B. Where Reply is Published or Broadcast
1. Same space of the printed media where
accusation or criticism was published
2. Same program where accusation or criticism was
broadcast
 Media covered include websites and any
electronic devices
C. When Reply is Published or Broadcast
Not later than 1 day after the reply shall have been
delivered to the editorial office of the publication
concerned or to the station that carried the broadcast
being replied to.
D. Length of Reply
Not longer than the accusation or criticism.
E. Other Provisions
1. It is the obligation of the publication or
broadcast network which featured the
accusations against a person, if the latter is
eventually cleared of the crime alluded to him, to
correct its previous report.
2. The publication or broadcasting of the reply shall
be free of charge, payment or fees.
3. Failure or refusal to publish or broadcast a reply
or the correction of an erroneous news item is
carries penal sanctions consisting of both fines
and imprisonment.
4. The publication of the reply or correction does not
preclude recourse to the exercise of other legal
rights and remedies available to the party
concerned.
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER
VI. The (Erstwhile) Province of Shariff
Kabunsuan
 Sema v. Comelec, (2008):
Facts:
o The ARMM's legislature, the ARMM Regional
Assembly, exercising its power to create
provinces under Section 19, Article VI of RA
9054, enacted Muslim Mindanao Autonomy Act
No. 201 (MMA Act 201) creating the Province of
Shariff Kabunsuan.
o The province was composed of the eight
municipalities in the first district of Maguindanao
and the City of the Cotabato. However, Cotabato
City, though part of the first legislative district of
Maguindanao, voted against its inclusion in the
ARMM in the plebiscite held in November 1989.
Issue: WON the ARMM Regional Assembly can
create the Province of Shariff Kabunsuan.
Held:
1. There is no provision in the Constitution that
conflicts with the delegation to regional legislative
bodies of the power to create municipalities
and barangays, provided the provisions of
Section 10, Article X of the Constitution is
followed.
However, the creation of provinces and cities
is another matter.
Section 5 (3), Article VI of the Constitution
provides, “Each city with a population of at least
two hundred fifty thousand, or each province,
shall have at least one representative” in the
House of Representatives.
Similarly, Section 3 of the Ordinance appended to
the Constitution provides, “Any province that may
hereafter be created, or any city whose
population may hereafter increase to more than
two hundred fifty thousand shall be entitled in the
immediately following election to at least one
Member.
Thus, the power to create a province or city
inherently involves the power to create a
legislative district.
The creation of the ARMM, and the grant of
legislative powers to its Regional Assembly under
its organic act, did not divest Congress of its
exclusive authority to create legislative
districts. To allow the ARMM Regional Assembly
to create a national office is to allow its legislative
powers to operate outside the ARMM’s territorial
jurisdiction.
This violates Section 20, Article X of the
Constitution which expressly limits the coverage
of the Regional Assembly’s legislative powers
“[w]ithin its territorial jurisdiction x x x.”
Thus, the creation of the Province of Shariff
Kabunsuan without a legislative district is
unconstitutional.
Chapter IV. CURRENT EVENTS and SPECIAL TOPICS
2. Only Congress can create provinces and
cities because the creation of provinces and
cities necessarily includes the creation of
54
legislative districts, a power only Congress
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
can exercise under Section 5, Article VI of the
Constitution and Section 3 of the Ordinance
appended to the Constitution. The ARMM
Regional Assembly cannot create a province
without a legislative district because the
Constitution mandates that every province shall
have a legislative district. Thus, MMA Act 201,
enacted by the ARMM Regional Assembly and
creating the Province of Shariff Kabunsuan, is
void.
VII. MOA on Ancestral Domain (MOA-AD)
 Province of North Cotabato v. GRP, Esperon
(2008)
Facts:
In lieu of the historical hostilities occurring in
Mindanao perpetrated by Muslim secessionist groups
and the failure of a number of peace talks entered into
between the government and the MNLF (the MILF
broke away from MNLF and continued armed
hostilities), President Arroyo issued Executive Order
No.3 defining the policy and administrative structure
for the government’s comprehensive peace effort.
Later on, she issued Memorandum of Instructions to
the GRP Peace Panel providing the General
Guidelines on the Peace Talks with the MILF.
Pursuant to this, the MILF and the AFP suspended all
military actions and began the peace talks. But
despite two rounds of formal peace talks, violence still
ensued.
Later on, the GRP and the MILF again agreed to a
cessation of hostilities to give way to exploratory talks
to be conducted in Kuala Lumpur. The exploratory
talks culminated in the drafting of the subject of MOA-
AD intended to be signed on August 5, 2008 in Kuala
Lumpur.
Petitioners wanted to secure copies of the MOA but
they were denied. They filed petitions which resulted
to a cease and desist order from the Supreme Court
restraining the government to sign the MOA-AD and
prompted the SolGen to submit to the court the final
draft of the MOA-AD.
Later on, the Executive Department pronounced that it
would not longer sign the MOA-AD and dissolved the
GRP Peace Panel.
Petitioners still filed 13 petitions assailing the
constitutionality of the MOA-AD arguing that there
remains a justiciable controversy to resolve.
Held:
Concrete acts under the MOA-AD are not necessary
to render the present controversy ripe. In Pimentel, Jr.
v. Aguirre (2000), this Court held that the mere
enactment of the questioned law or the approval of
POLITICAL LAW REVIEWER
the challenged action ripened the dispute to a judicial
controversy even without any other overt act. By the
same token, when an act of the President, who in our
constitutional scheme is a coequal of Congress, is
seriously alleged to have infringed the Constitution
and the laws, settling the dispute becomes the duty
and the responsibility of the courts.
Contrary to the contention of the respondents, the
non-signing of the MOA-AD and the eventual
dissolution of the GRP Peace Panel did not moot the
present petitions. It bears emphasis that the signing of
the MOA-AD did not push through due to the Court's
issuance of a Temporary Restraining Order.
Likewise, the MOA-AD cannot be considered a mere
"list of consensus points," especially given its
nomenclature, the need to have it signed or initialed
by all the parties concerned on August 5, 2008, and
the far-reaching Constitutional implications of
these "consensus points," foremost of which is the
creation of the BJE. In fact, there is a commitment on
the part of respondents to amend and effect
necessary changes to the existing legal framework for
certain provisions of the MOA-AD to take effect.
Consequently, the present petitions are not confined
to the terms and provisions of the MOA-AD, but to
other on-going and future negotiations and
agreements necessary for its realization. The
petitions have not, therefore, been rendered moot and
academic simply by the public disclosure of the MOA-
AD, the manifestation that it will not be signed as well
as the disbanding of the GRP Panel not withstanding.
Moreover, these petitions are imbued with paramount
public interest, involving a significant part of the
country's territory and the wide-ranging political
modifications of affected LGUs. The assertion that the
MOA-AD is subject to further legal enactments
including possible Constitutional amendments more
than ever provides impetus for the Court to formulate
controlling principles to guide the bench, the bar,
the public and, in this case, the government and
its negotiating entity.
- end of Constitutional Law I -
Chapter IV. CURRENT EVENTS and SPECIAL TOPICS
Also:
1. The Presidential Adviser on Peace Process,
General Esperon, committed grave abuse of 55
discretion when he failed to carry out the
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW I
pertinent consultation process as required by EO
3, RA 7160 (LGC) and RA 8371 (IPRA).
2. The MOA-AD cannot be reconciled with the
Constitution and laws, particularly the associative
relationship envisioned between GRP and BJE.
Therefore, it is unconstitutional.
3. The clause on the MOA-AD that “inconsistent
provisions will not take effect until the framework
is amended” does not cure the MOA-AD’s
unconstitutionality.
4. Respondent’s act of guaranteeing the
amendments is, by itself, already a constitutional
violation.
Nachura’s Dissent:
In light of supervening events, there is no more actual
case or controversy to be resolved. There can be no
violation of the Constitution because the MOA-AD
was not consummated. On the substantive aspect,
Nachura believed that the constitutionality of the
MOA-AD should be viewed from the perspective of
executive power. As Chief Executive and
Commander-in-Chief, there is an implied power given
to the President as protector of peace. Implied from
the calling out power of the President which does not
require existence of actual invasion or rebellion, the
President may exercise not only emergency powers,
but day-to-day problems of maintaining peace and
order and ensuring domestic tranquility. The mandate
of the GRP Peace Panel emanated from Executive
Order No. 3 which was issued pursuant to the power
of the President to maintain peace and order.