BIOCHEMISTRY
Informational
 Biochemistry is the science concerned
with the chemical basis of life.
It is also the science concerned with the
chemical constituents of living cells and with the
reactions and processes they undergo.
 It is the application of the principles
and methods of chemistry to the field
of biology and physiology.
Biochemistry encompasses large areas of cell
biology, molecular biology and molecular
genetics.
 Genetics is a basically a study in
heredity, particularly the mechanisms
of hereditary transmission, and the
variation of inherited characteristics
among similar or related organisms.
CELL BIOLOGY-the branch of biology dealing
with the study of cells, especially their
formation, structure, components, and
function.
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY-the branch of biology
that deals with the structure and function of the
macromolecules (e.g., proteins and nucleic
acids) essential to life
MOLECULAR GENETICS- A branch of genetics
that deal with the structure and function of
genes at a molecular level. Supplement. 
Three areas of study in Biochemistry
1.Conformational
The structure of conformation of biological
molecules-DNA, RNA and protein transfer of
information
2. Metabolism
Energy production and utilization-
Metabolism and the metabolic aspects of
cellular communication
3.
Language for communication inside and
between the cells
Importance of Chemistry
PHYSIOLOGY
Biochemistry helps one understand the
biochemical changes and related physiological
changes alteration in the body, Pathology of any
disease is studied through biochemical changes
PATHOLOGY
based on the symptoms by the patient, the
physician can get clue on the biochemical
changes  and the associated disorder/s
HORMONAL DEFICIENCY
The formation , role of hormones in the normal
body function  is taught in biochemistry by
which the physician can understand the
concerned problem during the treatment
NUTRITION DEFICIENCY
In the present scenario, many people rely in
taking multivitamin and minerals for better
health. The function and the role of vitamin in
the body is described by biochemistry
NUTRITION
 Water is necessary for maintenance of
health
 vitamins minerals and essential fatty
acid- Optimum health
ROOTS OF BIOCHEMISTRY DANISH J. SKOU
Studied the “pump” that drives sodium and
Biochemistry Instructors potassium across membranes

Karl Scheele- STANLEY PRUSINER

Swedish founder of biochemistry. He studied Discovered the organism that cause the “mad
the chemical composition of matter in mid 1700 cow disease”

WALTER FLEMMING RUSKA, et. All

Discovered chromosomes in 1875 Discovered the electron microscope and
provided a whole new level of insight into
cellular structure
CARL NEWBERG
A german chemist who coined the word The Big Discussion on Cells
chemistry

Living Things
HANS KREB
Proposed the Kreb cycle of the TCA in 1937  All living things have a cellular
organization, contain similar chemicals,
use energy, grown and develop,
EMBDEN AND MAYERHOFF respond to their surroundings, and
Described the glycolytic pathway in 1925 reproduce.

 These are the 7 major characteristics of

life!
JAMES WATSON
AND FRANCIS CRICK
Described the double helical structure of DNA in What is a Cell?
1953
 All organisms are made of small
building blocks called cells.
EDWARD AND
 A cell is the basic unit of structure and
HANS BUCHNER
function in an organism.
Found that extracts from yeast could bring
about fermentation of sugar into ethanol in
1957
Cell Sizes can vary

 Most cells are small, about 40 human

PAUL BOYER AND J. WALKER cells would fit on the dot of this letter i.
Discovered the “rotary engine” that generated
 Some cells are big, the yolk of a chicken
ATP in 1997
egg is a single cell.
  The smallest cells are so tiny that you
could fit over a million of them on the
period at the end of this sentence.
Cell Size
 Cells are made of molecules
 Molecules are tiny particles of matter.
 Molecules are made up of atoms.
 The atom is the basic fundamental unit
of matter.
 Atoms are made up of protons,
neutrons and electrons.
How Many Cells Make Up Organisms?
 Organisms can be composed of only
one cell or many cells.
 Unicellular or single celled organisms
include bacteria the most numerous
organisms on Earth.
 Multi-cellular organisms are composed
of many cells.
 You are made up of trillions of cells.
 You have specialized cells in your body
that perform specific functions.
Chemicals of Life
 The most abundant chemical in cells is
water.
 Other chemicals are called
carbohydrates and these are the energy
source for the cell.
 Two other chemicals are proteins and
lipids which are the building materials
for cells, much like wood and bricks are
the building materials of houses.
 Finally nucleic acids are the genetic
material.
Cells use Energy
 The cells of organisms use energy to do
what living things must do, such as
grow and repair injured parts.
 Cells are always hard at work.
 Right now your cells are busy not only
with your eyes and brain but your blood
cells are moving chemicals around your
body.
 White Blood Cells are pictured to the
right!
How do we look at Cells?
 The invention of the microscope made
it possible for people to discover and
learn about cells.
 A microscope is an instrument that
makes small objects look larger.
 A light microscope that has more than
one lens is called a compound
microscope.
Who discovered that we have Cells?
  One of the first people to observe cells
was the English scientist Robert Hooke.

 In 1663, Hooke observed the structure

of a thin slice of cork using a compound
microscope.

 To Hooke the cork looked like

rectangular rooms, which he called
cells.

 At about the same time that Robert

Hooke made his discovery, Anton van
Leeuwenhoek also began to observe
tiny objects with his microscope.

 Leeuwenhoek was a Dutch scientists

and when he looked at water from a
pond he saw tiny single celled Parts of the Cell
organisms.
Cell Wall

 The Cell Wall is a rigid layer of nonliving

The Cell Theory material that surrounds the cells of
plants and some other organisms.
 Observations from Hooke and
Leeuwenhoek led to the development  Cell Walls look rectangular and shape
of the cell theory. and are only found in plant cells.

 The cell theory states:
 All living things are composed of cells.
 Cells are the basic unit of structure and
function in living things.
 A plants cell wall helps to protect and
support the cell. It provides a rigid
support stand for the cell and also helps
keep out some harmful substances.

 All cells are produced from other cells

Looking Inside Cells

 Cells contain even smaller structures

inside of the cell called organelles.

 Organelles were called organelles

because early scientists thought they Cell Membrane
looked like “inner organs” kind of like
 In plant cells the next layer inward is
our heart, kidneys, or brain.
the cell membrane.
  In animal cells the cell membrane forms
the outside boundary that separates
the cell from its environment.

 The cell membranes main function is

that it controls what substances com
into and out of the cell.

 For example it will let food and oxygen

in but keep out harmful waste products.

 Inside the nucleus you have DNA

(Deoxyribonucleic acid) This is what
helps cells reproduce and tells them
what they should do and look like

 This is why you look like a combination

of your mother and father because you
have DNA from both of your parents.

Nucleus

 The nucleus is a large oval structure

inside the cell.

 The nucleus is the cell’s control center

that directs all of the cells activities.

 It’s really the Brain of the Cell!

 The nucleus does have a nuclear

membrane which is an inner protection
system for the cell to protect it’s Cytoplasm
nucleus.  The region between the cell membrane
and the nucleus is known as cytoplasm.

 This is a clear, thick, gel-like fluid.

 Many of the cell’s organelles are found

in the cytoplasm.
Mitochondria
Ribosomes
 Inside the cytoplasm you can find rod
 Attached to the outer surface of the
shaped structures called mitochondria.
endoplasmic reticulum are small grain-
 Mitochondria are called the like bodies called ribosomes.
powerhouses of the cell because they
 Ribosomes function as factories that
produce most of the energy the cell
produce proteins for the cell.
needs to carry out its functions.
 From the ribosomes and endoplasmic
 Muscle cells rely heavily on
reticulum the proteins are transported
mitochondria.
to the golgi apparatus.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

 The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) looks

like a giant maze of passageways.

 The endoplasmic reticulum is

responsible for moving proteins and
other materials from one part of the cell
to another.

Golgi Bodies

 Within the endoplasmic reticulum you

will find a flattened collection of sacs
 and tubes. These are called Golgi
Bodies.

 The Golgi Bodies are like the cells

Vacuoles
mailroom. They receive proteins ,
package them, and distribute them to  Throughout the cell you can find large
different parts of the cell. water-filled sacs floating in the
cytoplasm.

 These sacs are called vacuoles.

Vacuoles store food and other materials
needed by the cell.

 All plant cells have a large central

vacuole.

C
hloroplasts

 Only plant cells and other protist type

cells have chloroplasts.

 The chloroplasts help capture energy

from sunlight and use it to produce
food for the cell.

 The chloroplasts give plants their green

color.

 They are responsible for

photosynthesis.

Lysosomes

 Lysosomes are small round structures

that contain chemicals that break down
large food particles smaller ones.

 Lysosomes also break down old cell

parts and release the substances so
they can be used again
 

Cillia and Flagella

 Cillia are hair like structures that are

found on bacteria and some protist
cells. They are like a bunch of tiny ores
that are used for movement

 Flagella is a whip like structure that

some bacteria and protists cells have.
When they whip their tail they propel
themselves through the water. Bacterial Cells

 Bacterial cells are smaller than plant or

animal cells.

 Bacterial cells do have a cell wall and

membrane but they do not have a
nucleus.

 Organisms whose cells lack a nucleus

are called prokaryotic or the organsims
prokaryotes.
 How are Plant Cells and Animal Cells Different?

 Plant Cells are rectangular in shape due

to their Cell Walls.

 Plant cells have chloroplasts which

Animal or Plant Cells perform photosynthesis.

 Animal and Plant cells both have a  Plant cells have a large central vacuole.
nucleus so we call their cells eukaryotic This helps regulate how much water the
or the organisms eukaryotes. plants lets in or keeps out. It regulates
osmosis!

The Importance of Cells

 Think about every time you need

energy to move your cells have to
actively be working so that you can
move.

 Think about every time you breathe in

your individual cells have to take in
Bacteria vs. Plant vs. Animal Cell oxygen and use it to make energy.
  All of our energy needs are met by small
tiny parts of our body that we barely
even think of.

Types of Cell Transport

Passive and Active

Diffusion of Liquids

Passive Transport
 Requires NO energy
 Molecules move from area of HIGH
to LOW concentration
DIFFUSSION IN DAILY LIFE
 Balloons
 Food Coloring
 Perfume, air freshener,
cigarette smoke
 Soda
 Tea
 Air Pollution
 Leaves
 Aroma of food in the air

DIFFUSSION IN the HUMAN BODY

 Breathing
 Calcium
DIFFUSION  Kidneys
 Diffusion is a PASSIVE  Liver
process which means no  Water
energy is used to make the
molecules move, they have
a natural KINETIC
ENERGY
 Moves DOWN the
concentration gradient
OSMOSIS IN DAILY LIFE
0• In the body of all living
creatures.. Nutrients are absorbed
from the sorrounding into
individual cells by osmosis.
1• In plants water is
absorbed from the soil into the
roots by osmosis.
2• In the small intestine
digested nutrients are absorbed
from the small intestine into the
blood capillaries of the villi by
osmosis.
3• Cells in our body get rid of
waste matter and toxic substances
by osmosis back into the blood
vessels to transport to the kidneys.
4• Nitrogenous waste from
the blood is sent to the kidneys for
excretion by osmosis.
5• Osmosis helps to send
carbon dioxide gas into the air
vessels from the air sacs.
6• Your water soaked fingers
get wrinkles due to osmosis.
7• Stem of wilted flowers
become stiff when kept in water.

FACILITATED DIFFUSION
 Doesn’t require energy
 Uses transport proteins to move
high to low concentration
 Examples: Glucose or amino
acids moving from blood into a
cell.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
 Requires energy or ATP
 Moves materials from LOW to
HIGH concentration
 AGAINST concentration gradient
Example of Active transport Example of Active Transport:
0• Calcium Pump Sodium-Potassium Pump
 Calcium Pump-present in the
sarcoplasmic reticulum ; it is
vital for regulating the amount of
Ca2+ within cells.
1• Potassium pump
 The sodium-potassium pump is
an active transport pump that
exchanges sodium ions for
potassium ions
 It moves two potassium ions into
the cell where potassium levels
are high, and pumps three
sodium ions out of the cell and
into the extracellular fluid.
 Exocytosis – Releases from the Cell
 Exocytosis is the process by
which cells move materials from
within the cell into the
extracellular fluid.
 Exocytosis occurs when a vesicle
fuses with the plasma
membrane, allowing its contents
to be released outside the cell.

Pinocytosis
 Cell forms an invagination
 Materials dissolve in water to be
brought into cell.
 Called “Cell Drinking”
 During pinocytosis, the cell takes
in substances from the
extracellular fluid that it needs
to function. These include things
like water and nutrients.

ACTIVE vs PASSIVE TRANSPORT


WATER
0• Water is an inorganic, transparent,
tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless
chemical substance, which is the main
constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the
fluids of all known living organisms. It is vital for
all known forms of life.
WATER
0• Water is a molecule made up of two
hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. It has
the formula H2O. When oxygen and hydrogen
combine (H-O-H) they form a v-shaped
triangular molecule. Water molecules are
attracted to each other, creating hydrogen
bonds.
1• These strong bonds determine almost
every physical property of water and many of its
chemical properties too.
Water as Universal Solvent
Water is the solvent of life Solvent - does
the dissolving (usually the liquid).
0• Solute - is dissolved (often the solid)
1• Solution - is a liquid that is made of 2
or more substances and these substances
are equally dispersed in the mixture
2• Aqueous solution - water is the solvent
3• Water can dissolve more substances
than any other liquid.
Polarity gives water its ability to dissolve
solutes.
2.Cohesion
Molecules of pure substances are attracted to
themselves. This sticking together of like
substances is called cohesion. Depending on
how attracted molecules of the same substance
are to one another, the substance will be more
or less cohesive. Hydrogen bonds cause water
to be exceptionally attracted to each other.
Therefore, water is very cohesive.
We see evidence of water’s cohesiveness every
day – in water drops and in streams of water.
2. Adhesion
loses water through pores in the leaves, more
water moves up from roots and stems to
replace the lost water. The process of water loss
by leaves is known as transpiration.
Surface Tension

0• The cohesion of water creates surface

Adhesion is similar to cohesion, but it involves
tension where air and water meet. Where air
unlike (i.e. different) substances sticking
and liquids meet there are unbalanced forces,
together. Water is very adhesive; it sticks well
Water molecules very near the surface are
to a variety of different substances. Water sticks
being pulled down and to the side by the strong
to other things for the same reason it sticks to
cohesion of water to itself and the strong
itself – because it is polar so it is attracted to
adhesion of water to the surface it is touching.
substances that have charges. 
1• The result is a net force of attraction
Water adheres to many things— it sticks to
between water molecules a very flat, thin sheet
plants, it sticks to dishes, and it sticks to your
of molecules at the surface.
eyebrows when you sweat. In each of these
cases water adheres to or wets something
because of adhesion.

2• Surface Tension

3• Because of hydrogen bonding, water

Adhesion can actually support objects that are more
dense than it is. Water molecules stick to one
Water also clings to living things. Most plants
another on the surface, which prevents the
have adapted to take advantage of water’s
objects resting on the surface from sinking. This
adhesion that helps move water from the roots
is why water striders and other insects can
to the leaves. This is called capillary action. This
“walk” on water! It is also what allowed you to
can also be seen as blood moves through our
float a paper clip on water.
capillaries, carrying nutrients to each cell within
our body.

4• Heat of Vaporization—Water has a high

Transpiration
One of the tallest plants is the redwood tree.
Water moves from its roots to its leaves, more
than 310 feet above the ground. As a plant
heat of vaporization. Water absorbs heat as it
changes from a liquid to a gas; the human body
can dissipate excess heat by the evaporation of
its sweat. A leaf can keep cool in the bright
sunlight by evaporating water from its surface.
Water’s high heat conductivity makes possible
the even distribution of heat throughout the 5. Acids turn blue litmus paper red
body
🡪 Litmus paper is an indicator

5• Water density--Water is most dense at

40C and then begins to expand again (becoming
less dense) as the temperature decreases What are bases?
further. This expansion occurs because its
hydrogen bonds become more rigid and > Substances that form hydroxide ions
ordered. As a result, frozen water (ice floats) (OH-) ions when in water, or accept H+ ions.
upon the denser cold water. The expansion of
water takes place even before it actually
freezes. This explains why a pond freezes from Characteristics of Bases:
the surface down, rather than from the bottom • Bases usually taste bitter.
up. As water temperature drops, the colder
water (0-40C) where it is less dense— rises to • Bases feel slippery
the pond surface. It freezes to form a lid of ice.
• Bases contain hydroxide ions. (OH-)
This ice insulates the water below from the
wintry chill so that it is less likely to freeze. • Bases can burn skin.
Organisms that inhabit the pond are able to
survive the frigid winter below the icy surface.

ACIDS and BASES

Strong vs. Weak bases

Strong bases - ionize (break into cations and

What are acids?
anions) almost completely, and conduct
• Substances that donate hydrogen ions, electricity well
H+, to form hydronium ions, H3O+, when
a. KOH – potassium hydroxide
dissolved in water.
b. NaOH – sodium hydroxide
Strong and weak acids?

2. Weak bases - do not completely ionize

a. Ammonia (NH3)

Characteristics of acids
Carbohydrate Metabolism
1. Acids taste sour.

2. Can burn skin. Carbohydrates

 which means “hydrated carbon,”
3. Acids react with metals and carbonates to  molecular formulas of sugars.
produce gas. A. glucose is C6H12O6
B. ribose is C5H10O5
4. Acids contain hydrogen. Classification of CHO
 1. Monosaccharides
 structural units, or building
blocks, of carbohydrates.
2. disaccharides,
3. Oligosaccharides
4. polysaccharides.
2. Disaccharides
 or double sugars
 formed when two simple sugars
are joined by dehydration
synthesis.
 dehydration synthesis:
 hydrogen atom is removed from
one monomer and a hydroxyl
group (OH) is removed from the
monomer it is to be joined with.
 As a covalent bond unites the
monomers, a water molecule is
released.
 This removal of a water molecule
at the bond site occurs each time a
monomer is added to the growing
polymer chain.
Disaccharides
 too large to pass through cell
membranes, they must be broken
down (digested) to their
monosaccharide units
 to be absorbed from the digestive
tract into the blood; this is
accomplished by hydrolysis
Hydrolysis
 is a chemical reaction in which
water is used to break down the
bonds of a particular substance.
 polymers must be broken down or
digested to their monomers, the
reverse process
 water molecule is added to each
bond, the bond is broken,
releasing the monomers.
3. Polysaccharides
 Long, branching chains of linked
simple sugars
 (literally, “many sugars”)
 large, insoluble molecules
 Ideal storage products.
 lack the sweetness of the
simple and double sugars.
Only two polysaccharides:
1. starch and
2. glycogen,
 major importance to the body.
 Starch is the storage
polysaccharide formed by plants.
 We ingest it in the form of
“starchy” foods, such as grain
products and root vegetables
(potatoes and carrots.)
 Glycogen is a slightly smaller, but
similar, polysaccharide found in
animal tissues (largely in the
muscles and the liver).
 Storage polysaccharide made by
animals
 formed of linked glucose units.
DIGESTION/ABSORPTION/
METABOLISM

DIGESTION and ABSORPTION
FROM THE MOUTH to the STOMACH:
The mechanical and chemical digestion
of carbohydrates begins in the mouth.
Chewing, also known as mastication,
crumbles the carbohydrate foods into
smaller and smaller pieces. The salivary
glands in the oral cavity secrete saliva
that coats the food particles. Saliva
contains the enzyme, salivary amylase.
IN THE STOMACH
 When carbohydrates reach the
stomach no further chemical
breakdown occurs because the
amylase enzyme does not
function in the acidic conditions
of the stomach. But the
mechanical breakdown is
ongoing…. the strong peristaltic
contractions of the stomach mix
the carbohydrates into the more
uniform mixture of CHYME
Metabolism of carbohydrates in the
Small Intestine.
 Upon entry of the chyme into the
small intestine, the pancreas
releases pancreatic juice through
a duct.
 This pancreatic juice contains
the enzyme, pancreatic amylase,
which starts again the
breakdown of dextrins into
shorter and shorter carbohydrate
chains.
 When pancreatic juice reaches
the small intestine, it neutralizes
the acidic chime coming in from
the stomach and provides the
proper environment for
activation and activity of
intestinal and pancreatic
digestive enzymes.
 Pancreatic juice contains
enzymes that (1) along with
brush border enzymes,
complete the digestion of starch
(pancreatic amylase).In
addition to enzymes, pancreatic
juice contains a rich supply of
bicarbonate, which makes it very
basic (about pH 8).
 Additionally, enzymes are secreted
by the intestinal cells that line the
villi. These enzymes, known as
brush border enzymes that break
down double sugars into simple
sugars.
 collectively as disaccharides, are
sucrase, maltase, and lactase.
Sucrase breaks sucrose into
glucose and fructose molecules.
Maltase breaks the bond between
the two glucose units of maltose,
and lactase breaks the bond
between galactose and glucose.
From the Stomach to the Small
Intestine
 Once carbohydrates are chemically
broken down into single sugar
units they are then transported
into the inside of intestinal cells.
 The cells in the small intestine
have membranes that contain
many transport proteins in order
to get the monosaccharides and
other nutrients into the blood
 where they can be distributed to
the rest of the body. Fructose is
absorbed by facilitated diffusion
while glucose and galactose are
actively transported.
Absorption: Going to the Blood
Stream
 The first organ to receive glucose,
fructose, and galactose is the liver.
 The liver takes them up and
converts galactose to glucose,
breaks fructose into even smaller
carbon-containing units, and
either stores glucose as glycogen
or exports it back to the blood.
Maintaining Blood Glucose Levels:
The Pancreas and Liver
0• Insulin gives glucose access to the
cells. It attaches to the insulin
receptors on cells throughout the
body, instructing the cells to open
up and grant entry to glucose.
1• Low levels of insulin constantly
circulate throughout the body. A
spike in insulin signals to the liver
that blood glucose is also high.
The liver absorbs glucose then
changes it into a storage molecule
called glycogen.
2• When blood sugar levels drop,
glucagon instructs the liver to
convert the glycogen back to
glucose, causing blood sugar levels
to return to normal.
Carbohydrate Metabolism
 Carbohydrates
 Metabolism includes all
chemical breakdown
(catabolic) and building
(anabolic) reactions
needed to maintain life.
 provide a ready, easily
used source of food energy
for cells
 glucose is at the top of the
“cellular menu.”
 When glucose is oxidized
(combined with oxygen) in
a complex set of chemical
reactions, it is broken
down into carbon dioxide
and water.
 Major site of metabolism is in
the small intestine
 preferred fuel to produce cellular
energy (ATP).
 Glucose, also known as blood
sugar, is the major breakdown
product of carbohydrate
digestion.
 Glucose is also the major fuel
used for making ATP in most
body cells.
 Glucose is the food of the cell
 Most abundant in the CSF- brain
cells
 Enzymes (catalysts) Essential
to virtually every biochemical
reaction in the body; increase the
rates of chemical reactions by at
least a millionfold; in their
absence (or destruction),
biochemical reactions cease.
 While the substrates are bound
to the enzyme’s active site they
undergo structural changes that
result in a new product.
  Once the reaction has occurred,
the enzyme releases the product.
 Because enzymes are not
changed in doing their job, they
are reusable, and the cells need
only small amounts of each
enzyme.
 No enzyme, no reaction
 Without enzymes, biochemical
reactions would occur far too
slowly to sustain life.

carbonic anhydrase
 Anhydrase
 an enzyme that catalyzes 
the removal of water from 
a compound.
 carbonic anhydrase 
 an enzyme that catalyzes 
the decomposition of carboni
c acid into carbon dioxide an
d water, facilitating transfer 
of carbon dioxide
from tissues to blood and fro
m blood to alveolar air.
 Present in
 Renal tubular cells
 Red blood cells
 Gastric parietal cells
 Except in Plasma

cellular respiration.
 carbon atoms released leave the
 cells as carbon dioxide,
 and the hydrogen atoms removed
(which contain energy-rich
electrons) are eventually combined
with oxygen to form water.

0• Make an illustration with concise

explanation on the digestion and
absorption of carbohydrates.