| erg ore : Guideline Structural Design of Cooling Towers R610eReproduction in whole or in partis permitted VEB Powe = r Structural Design of Cooling Towers VGB Guideline on the Structural Design, Calculation, Engineering and Construction of Cooling Towers VGB-R 610 ¢ 2010 editio COOLING TOWERS LIBRABY PAHARPUR pee TL OS are. ACC. Now a BLL Lenn 771 674: 04 GU6IO CALL No. Published by: VGB PowerTech e.V. Obtainable from: VGB PowerTech Service GmbH Publisher of techno-scientific papers P.O. Box 10 39 32, 45039 Essen Phone: +49 201 8128-200 Fax: +49 201 8128-329 Email: mark@vgb.org Website: www. vgb.org ISBN 978-3-86875-126-0VG Preface to the 2010 edition This Guideline, “Structural Design of Cooling Towers” continues to constitute the joint basis — together with VGB-R135e, ‘Planning of Cooling Towers” [1], and VGB-R 612 @, ‘Protection Measures on Reinforced Concrete Cooling Towers and Chimneys against Operational and Environmental Impacts" [2] — for the civil engi- neering-related planning including design, construction and approval as well as the construction of cooling tower facilities built from reinforced concrete. It is based on around forty-five years of experience in the construction of cooling towers gained by plant and structural design engineers, by construction companies, check-up engi- neers and operators. In addition, Guideline VGB-R 613 e, “Code of practice for life cycle management of reinforced concrete cooling towers at power plants” [3] pre- sents notes on in-process inspection and maintenance. In anticipation of the impending introduction of the DIN EN 1991 and DIN EN 1992 series of standards and other applicable European regulations, adaptation of the 2005 edition of this Guideline was seen to be necessary; it is replaced by this 2010 edition. New findings from continued engineering studies and feedback from practice have also necessitated modifications. In particular, updated partial safety factors and combination factors for wind and temperature actions and enhanced aspects of con- crete technology have been incorporated in this 2010 edition. This Guideline does not cover contractual arrangements with responsibilities for or- ganizational workflows. These are to be defined separately by the contractual parties. Users are requested to inform the VGB Office of their experience with the application of this Guideline and any sources of possible misinterpretation or shortfalls in presen- tation, and to make suggestions for improvements. These may be taken as a basis for future additions or amendments. This 2010 edition has been compiled and edited by the following members of a Pro- ject Group on "Civil Engineering for Cooling Towers” constituted by the VGB Working Panel on “Stacks, Cooling Towers and other Special Constructions” within the VGB Technical Committee on “Civil Engineering’: Dipl.-Ing. P. Blémeke, Gelsenkirchen Prof. Dr.-Ing. L. Lohaus, Hanover Dipl.-Ing. D. Busch, Essen Dr.-Ing. R. Meiswinkel, Hanover (Chairman) Dipl.-Ing. T. Depe, Ratingen Dipl.-Ing. J. Meyer, Bochum Dipl.-Ing. H. Eggers, Hanover Dipl.-Ing. H. Mosebach, Dortmund Dipl.-Ing. G. Gjorsoski, Ratingen Prof. Dring. H.-J. Niemann, Bochum Dipl.-Ing. J. Gnegel, Herne Dipl.-Ing. F.-J. Nunier, Essen Prof. Dr.-Ing. R. Harte, Wuppertal Dipl.-Ing. B. Titze, Cottbus Dipling. R. Haupt, Dortmund Dipl.-Ing. J. Torkar, Bochum Dr. rer. nat. R. Hitt!, Berlin Dipl.-Ing. J. Weigl, Neustadt a.d.W. Dipl.-Ing. E. Jung, Diisseldort Dipl.-Ing. R. Winking, Grevenbroich Dipl.-Ing. J. Lenz, Essen Dr.-Ing. R. Wérmann, Bochum We wish to thank all those involved for their assistance. Essen, December 2010 VGB PowerTech e.V. ISBN 978-3-86875-126-0VoB Content 1 Introduction 14 Scope. 12 Other applicable standards .. 13 Terms and definitions. 2 Assurance of Durability - Concrete Technology 24 General... 22 Minimum requirements. 2.24 Exposure classes... 2.2.2 Concrete composi 2.2.3 Concrete cover. 224 Concrete surfaces. 2.2.5 Construction joint 2.2.6 — Post-treatment . eves . 23 Additional requirements for components exposed to cooling water . 2.3.1 Exposure classes 2.3.2 Concrete composition 233 Concrete cover. 2.34 Posttreatment... 24 Additional requirements for concrete aggressive groundwater 25 Additional requirements for seawater exposure and for cooling towers in coastal areas..... Exposure classes. Concrete composition Concrete cover. .. Additional requirements for cooling towers with flue gas discharge..... Exposure classes. Concrete cover. Further protection measures Additional requirements for use of concrete with high resistance to chemical impact : - General Concrete composition ..6 _ Vos re Concrete cover AD 3 Cooling Tower Structure. Actions. General... Dead load G.... Wind load W .. General. External and internal pressure... External pressure coefficients of a free-standing cooling tower. Gust velocity pressure Qp..... Dynamic amplification. Interference effects .. Temperature T.... General Operational temperature T*... ‘Summer outage TS......... Winter outage T” Shrinking S & Indirectly induced soil settlements B... Assembly loadS Mo... Actions due to earthquakes A Ae Prestressing P .... Miscellaneous and accidental actions. Safety concept... General... - . Actions, partial safety factors and combination factors Ultimate limit state of bearing capacity Design coneept..... Combinations of actions ... Serviceability limit state Buckling safety. Calculation methods and procedures General Linear calculations....... La ee et coe cars41 PAAAKTR AR wWLEONNNN KS 444 444A 414.2 41.1.3 4114 41.4.5 4.1.1.6 41.2 413 4.13.1 41.3.2 Non-linear calculations... Buckling safety analysis... Limitation of crack width... Proof of minimum reinforcement on initial cracking. Combinations of actions... Additional proofs for supports ... Additional proofs for foundations. Subsoil Raft foundation Pile foundations Construction requirements. Cooling tower shell Wall thicknes: Reinforcement. Upper and Tower edge beams. Permissible construction tolerances. Overview of minimum values Formwork and scaffolding systems. ‘Supports and foundation... Reinforcement... Permissible construction tolerances... Basin, Fill Support Structure, Water Distribution System and Riser. 42 Basin with water outlet... Actions..... Water filling Quy. ‘Assembly loads M... Operational temperature T Indirectly induced soil settlements B... Actions due to earthquakes Ae... Earth pressure E and external water pressure Qwe Calculation of the design values .. Safety concept and dimensioning Safety against buoyancy. Basin slab4.1.3.3 414 4444 414.2 41.43 4144 4145 42 424 42.441 4.2.4.2 42.13 4244 4215 42.1.6 4247 4218 4.21.9 4.2.2 4.2.2.4 4.2.3 4.23.1 4.2.3.2 4.24 424.1 4.2.4.2 5.1 5.2 VoB Water tightness. Design and construction ... ‘Sub-grade beneath the basin. ‘Structural design of water inlet and outlet buildings Dimensions..... Minimum reinforcement Joints ... Fill support structure, water distribution system and riser .. Actions. Dead load G Live load Qe Wind load W Operational actions.. Actions due to earthquakes Ac .. Dynamic actions .... lee load F. Horizontal impact loads Aa... Indirectly induced soil settlements B. Calculation of the design values... Imperfections .. . Safety concept and dimensioning Limitation of crack width .. Joints .... Design and construction Design details... Construction tolerances... Quality Management. General. Components... le mes45 45 45 45 45 415 46 46 46 46 47 47 47 47 47 47 a7 48 48 48 49 49 49 49 49 50 50 50 51 VGB APPENDIX AM List of symbols used. A2 Referenced guidelines and literature A3 Further guidelines and literature ...VGB 1 1 Introduction 1A Scope In addition to the other applicable standards listed below, this Guideline contains specific details on impacts, the safety concept, structural design and construction of cooling towers. It can be applied to all common cooling tower sizes and shapes built from reinforced concrete. The content of the Guideline corresponds to the latest technical knowledge and expe- rience gained from the construction, conversion and maintenance measures of these structures. The VGB Guideline “Code of practice for life cycle management of reinforced con- crete cooling towers at power plants" [3] deals with the establishment of a cooling tower logbook for in-process inspection and maintenance. Details on geometry, mate- rial selection, impacts and special design features stipulated on the basis of this Guideline are also to be integrated in that logbook. 12 Other applicable standards The fundamental requirements for design and construction are governed by the latest versions of the following standards. The standards listed are inclusive of all their indi- vidual parts and their national annexes where applicable. DIN 488: Reinforcing steels DIN 4030: Assessment of water, soil and gases for their aggressiveness to concrete DIN EN 1990: Basis of structural design DIN EN 1991: Actions on structures DIN EN 1992: Design of concrete structures DIN EN 1997: Geotechnical design DIN EN 1998: Design of structures for earthquake resistance DIN EN ISO 10456: Building materials and products — Hygrothermal properties DIN EN 13670: Execution of concrete structures Supplementary guidelines and literature are listed in the Appendix. 13 Terms and definitions Cooling towers are tower-like structures in which heated water from the condenser Circuit is spread over the heat exchange surface and cooled by means of ambient air. Whereas smaller heat exchange plants are designed as rectangular cells and can be Positioned in series, larger plants have polygonal or circular cross sections. Depending on the cooling system, a distinction is made between12 7 VGaB — wet cooling towers, — dry cooling towers and — hybrid cooling towers. (Hybrid cooling towers require special design and construction specifications which can only be covered to a limited extent within this Guideline.) A distinction is made on the basis of how the cooling air is generated between — natural draught cooling towers, — fan-supported natural draught cooling towers and — mechanical draught cooling towers. Depending on design, a distinction is made between shell-type cooling towers and — cell-type cooling towers (not covered by this Guideline). A cooling tower can be divided into the following structural components: veil with air inlet at base and outlet at top, hot water inlet system, fill support structure, water distribution system, basin and 1 cold water back flow system (cold water outlet). Furthermore, auxiliary facilities may be needed, depending on the type of the cooling tower. The VGB Guideline on “Planning of Cooling Towers” [1] presents detailed information and explanations on the operation and design of cooling tower systems. The cooling tower structure is divided into the structural parts: — shell, = supports (V-, A- and X-type columns or radial supports) and — foundation. The shell can be aerodynamically smooth or equipped with meridional wind ribs and horizontal stiffening rings, and it can have different openings, e. g. for the entry of one or two flue gas ducts. The flue gas ducts are mostly supported by the shell (fixed bearings) and on support structures at the centre of the cooling tower (floating bear- ings). In the case of fan-supported natural draught cooling towers the air inlet area is nor- mally designed with fan openings in the shell wall. In pure natural draught cooling towers, the air inlet is the area between the shell-supporting columns or radial sup- ports. Cooling towers can be based on individual foundations or on ring foundations de- signed as raft or pile foundations.on ncn VGB 13 2 Assurance of Durability — Concrete Technology an General All components are fundamentally to be dimensioned on the basis of minimum re- quirements in such a way that they withstand all the usual impacts affecting cooling towers. The minimum requirements do not apply to blinding layers and filler concrete. The impacts listed below which affect concrete are considered in greater detail in the course of this Guideline: — impact of cooling water, — impact of aggressive groundwater, — impact of seawater (for cooling towers in coastal areas) and — impact of flue gas discharge. Any further impacts which affect the concrete are to be assessed in each individual case. ‘A component list and a corresponding general arrangement drawing are to be com- piled, showing the most important components and stating the exposure to be ex- ected (exposure classes), the conorete strength classes (concrete compositions), the water-cement ratios, the consistency classes, the concrete cover and the limits of calculated crack widths. All components are fundamentally to be assigned to Monitoring Class 2, provided that no more stringent requirements (e. g. high-performance concrete) have been stipu- lated. 22 Minimum requirements 224 Exposure classes At least exposure class XC2 is to be assumed for pile foundations, and at least expo- Sure classes XC4, XA1 and XF1 for all other components. The exposure classes of the components are to be indicated in reinforcement plans. 2.2.2 Concrete composition At least the following conditions are to be fulfilled for all components: 0s 0.6 (for pile foundations) C 25/30 280 kg/m? 270 kg/m? when adding fly ash Water-cement ratio: w/c or (wic)eq wle or (WiC)oq Strength class: fx Cement content: ¢ orc viv ~AW14 vos For aggregates meeting standard requirements and with additional resistance to frost clase Fz and alkali sensitivity class E |, £1 O-F or E'S to the DAfStb Alkali Di rective [4] 2.2.3. Concrete cover For all components, at least Cnin = 25 mm, is to be provided. For determination of Crom = Gnin + AC the positive allowance is stipulated as ‘Ae = 10 mm when provision is made for corresponding quality assurance measures (see 5.2). 2.2.4 Concrete surfaces A continuous, even, extensively cavity-free concrete surface is to be produced. Pores ‘vith a depth of > 5 mm on the concrete surface and formwork shoulders of more than Sm are to be reworked. The formation of larger pores can occur in strongly inclined areas, especially on the outer surface in the lower area of the shell. Greater pore siz ge and depths may be agreed. A comparison with reference surfaces on existing Cooling towers is recommended for precise stipulation of the requirements. Further- more, losses of cement paste in the area of construction joints, are to be avoided. {A specimen wall is to be constructed in advance for stipulation of all the requirements Concerning the concrete surface. Reference surfaces are to be defined on this spec- men wall; above all, the number of pores per unit area, the pore size, the cement paste losses, the appearance in the area of construction joints and the formwork shoulders are to be assessed. When surface coating is to be applied, the coating materials and the parting agent are to be matched. The compatibility of the parting agent with the coating (ct. VGB- R612 [2)) is to be demonstrated on the specimen wall, taking account of the work operations planned (preparation of the concrete subsurface). 2.2.5 Construction joints For the cooling tower shell, the number, spacing and design of the construction joints are to be stipulated before the start of construction works. The construction ints are to be implemented in such a way that the penetration of water Is prevented. One tried and tested method is the installation of steel ribbons. No even-surfaced layer of cement paste may be allowed to settle on the construction joint, but rather the selection of a suitable concrete composition is to ensure that the Coarse augregate is stil visible on the surface even after compaction, so that the construction joint achieves a natural roughness. If a layer of cement slurry has formed on the surface, for instance due to early exposure to water, this is to be re- moved, for example by water blasting, before concreting work continues, 2.2.6 Post-treatment Posttreatment is fundamentally regulated by the stipulations of DIN EN 13670. Post- froatmant af the internal and external surfaces of the cooling tower shell can be car- rent,ts re ‘ on te 1e as st een Vos 15 ried out at times other than those specified in DIN EN 13670 if necessary. Post- treatment must however be carried out at least until a concrete compressive strength of 15 N/mm is achieved. For applications where surface protection measures are required, e. g. in the case of fiue gas discharge via the cooling tower, reference is made to VGB-R 612 e [2] which is applicable to such protection measures. 23 Additional requirements for components exposed to cooling water 2.3.1 Exposure classes Assessment of the water (cemestry) in the cooling circuit with regard to aggressive ness to concrete is to be arranged for by the owner on the basis of a cooling water analysis against the background of a concentration of chemical ingredients. In general, it must be expected that the concentration factor will be increased in the course of the operating period. This increasing concentration can lead in particular to an increased SO,” ion content and thus to increased sulphate attack (SO. > 600 mg/l), as well as to an increased chloride concentration. In such a case, the concrete composition is to be selected in such a way as to meet at least the require- ments of exposure class XA2 for sulphate contents between 600 and 1500 mg/l SO,” . Additional measures (e. g. application of HS cement) are required for sulphate con- tents between 1500 and 3000 mg/l SO,” When shock chlorination is performed as part of the water treatment, highly increased chloride concentrations can attack the concrete structures. Assignment to exposure class XD is however not necessary if the increased chloride attack only occurs for a short time, as part of the penetrating chlorides can subsequently diffuse back into the cooling water. If structural components soaked by cooling water are exposed to frost during opera- tion, they are to be assigned at least to exposure class XF3. If these components are simultaneously assigned to an XD or XS class, class XF4 is applicable with regard to frost exposure. 2.3.2 Concrete composition For components exposed to cooling water, the following requirements are to be ful- filled in addition to the minimum requirements, unless an expert report confirms that a different solution is suitable: Concrete strength class: fe 2 C30/37 ‘Cement content: ee ore = 270 kglm? when adding fly ash16 _ ae ‘Cement content and fly ash content: c+f 2 320 kgim* Fly ash content: f > 0.256 orf 2 0.11 c for blast furnace cement or Portland shale cement orf 2 for cement with high sulphate resistance (HS cement) With simultaneous assignment to exposure classes XD and XF or XS and XF, further measures (e. g. ait-entrained concrete) are necessary. In the tidal zone, with assignment to exposure class XD or XS, a water-cement ratio of wic < 0.45 is to be achieved. Deviations from the standard case described above are possible for bulky compo- nents (smallest dimension d > 0.8 m) or when air-entrained concrete is used, and in justified exceptional cases. 2.3.3 Concrete cover If cooling tower components which are exposed to the cooling water are assigned to XD or XS classes, the surfaces exposed to cooling water are to have a concrete cov- €F OF Crrin = 40 mm. 2.3.4 — Post-treatment For cooling water with significantly increased chloride contents, such as can occur when high operational concentration factors are performed, it is recommended to double the post-treatment duration for component surfaces exposed to cooling water, so as to ensure their durability 2.4 Additional requirements for concrete aggressive groundwater Ground water attack on cooling tower components is to be assessed in accordance with DIN 4030, and an assignment to exposure classes performed accordingly. As a result, additional requirements over and above the minimum requirements may arise and will require stipulation in the individual cases concerned 25 Additional requirements for seawater exposure and for cooling towers in coastal areas 2.5.1 Exposure classes For cooling towers in coastal areas, all components which come into contact with the outside atmosphere are additionally to be assigned to exposure class XS1. Compo- nents which are constantly in contact with seawater are to be assigned to exposure class XS2 (submerged) or XS3 (tidal zone). - emerson1” ar to te re VoB 17 25.2 Concrete composition For cooling towers in coastal areas, the following requirements are to be fulfilled in addition to the minimum requirements for all components: Conerete strength class: fog 2 30/37 ‘Cement content: ce 300 kg/m® ore 2 270 kg/m? when adding fly ash Cement content and fly ash content: c+fe 300 kg/m? For components in the cooling circuit which are exposed to seawater, section 2.3.2 applies. 25.3 Concrete cover Acconerete cover of Onin 2 40 mm applies to all structural components assigned to ex- posure class XS, 26 Additional requirements for cooling towers with flue gas discharge 2.6.1 Exposure classes In the case of cooling towers with flue gas discharge, the cooling tower shell and the. structural components above the water distribution level are to be assigned to expo- sure class XA3. ‘An appropriate special coating is therefore to be applied in accordance with the de- tailed requirements set out in VGB-R 612 [2]. This coating is to be inspected and maintained at regular intervals. Alternatively, implementation with a concrete in accordance with section 2.7 is possi- ble, in which case no coating needs to be applied. Additional requirements for the other structural components must also be stipulated in individual cases where appropriate 2.6.2 Concrete cover The concrete cover on the coated inside of the cooling tower shell is to be at least Cnin= 25 mm. The concrete cover on the possibly uncoated outside of the cooling tower shell is fur- thermore to be increased, €. g. to Cmin = 35 mm, in the case of attack by vapour wash- down (up to 30 m from the upper edge) or in the case of attack by the vapour plumes of adjacent cooling towers (e. g. from the upper edge of the adjacent cooling tower or in accordance with the local situation as specified by the owner).18 _ VGB 2.6.3 Further protection measures Horizontal concrete surfaces in the flue gas intake area which are subjected to high chemical and mechanical stresses by droplet impact require especially effective pro- tection, e. g. by thick film surface protection systems, silicate mortar, PEHD plates or comparable protection systems. In order to reduce the intensity of the acid exposure, puddle formation should be avoided by establishing a surface gradient. 27 ‘Additional requirements for use of concrete with high resistance to chemi- cal impact 2.7.1 General As an alternative to coating the inside of the cooling tower shell, a concrete with high resistance to chemical effects can be used. The requirements set out in section 2.6 are also generally to be observed. When a concrete with high resistance to chemical impact is used, such use is to be inspected and reported upon during all project phases by an experienced and quali- fied concrete technologist employed by the owner. This concrete technologist is to be involved from the preliminary planning stage onwards, in the compilation of the ten- dering documents, and for quality assurance purposes during performance of the construction work. ‘At the ame time, the preparation and the entire construction phase for this concrete are to be supervised by an experienced and qualified concrete technologist employed by the contractor. ‘A separate mixer system in which only this concrete may be produced is to be de- ployed for the production period of the relevant structural components from this con- crete. The quality assurance requirements for concrete with high resistance to chemical im- pact are described in section 5 2.7.2. Concrete composition Concrete with high resistance to chemical impact which is used without additional coating as set down in VGB-R 612 [2] must fulfil the following criteria: — The concrete must have a proved resistance to the chemically aggressive sub- stances, in particular to sulphuric acid. As aggregate without carbonate compo- nents is mostly acid-resistant, the resistance of the concrete is mainly determined by the binding agent matrix. The acid resistance of the binding agent matrix can be effectively increased with the transformation of the Ca(OH). into the significantly more resistant CSH phases by the use of mineral aggregates, mostly slag sand, fly ash, microsilica or metakaolin (sheet silicate). The composition and fineness of the aggregates must be matched. — The concrete must have a proved resistance of the binding agent matrix to pene- tration by the chemical substances which affect the concrete. i |iw ih > or TRF an ts RN en RES BE ; I k | I VoB 19 For testing of the suitability of concrete with high resistance to chemical impact, it is necessary to have the requirements stipulated by concrete technologists as set out in section 2.7.1 and verified with the aid of performance tests. It has proven appropriate in practice to list at least the test methods mentioned below with the limit values to be complied in the tender documents: — In good time before the start of the concrete work, the performance of the concrete with regard to its resistance to chemical impact is to be proved in the course of ex- tended pre-construction tests. This evidence is to be provided with the aid of acid tests in which the erosion and total damage depths of the concrete after at least 12 weeks washing over of the cut concrete specimens with sulphuric acid at a pH- value of 3.0 to 3.5 are determined microscopically and compared with well-tried and tested concrete compositions which are included in the test as reference spec- imens. Determination of the loss of mass of the test specimens only is not suffi- cient. ~ The tests are to be combined with corresponding supplementary examinations of the tightness of the concrete texture (total porosity, chloride migration coefficient), of the sulphate resistance, of the frost resistance (CIF method) and/or freeze-thaw resistance (CDF method, but with 56 freeze-thaw cycles and determination of the modulus of elasticity by ultrasonic transit time) and of the residual alkalinity. Fur- thermore, tests are to be performed on the workability, the setting behaviour and the early strength of the concrete (including such at minimum and maximum tem- perature as set out in the concreting pian), and specimen walls produced in ac- cordance with sections 2.2.4 and 2.2.5. The performance of the concrete is to be assessed as a whole by concrete technologists as described in section 2.7.1. 2.7.3 Concrete cover The concrete cover on the inside of the cooling tower shell is to be stipulated as at least Cnin= 35 mm. 3 Cooling Tower Structure 34 Actions 3.1.1 General The actions described below are generally represented by characteristic values which, in accordance with DIN EN 1990, lead to the respective design values after multiplication with the corresponding partial safety factors. Only accidental actions A and actions due to earthquake Ae are to be specified directly as design values with regard to action combinations referring to the ultimate bearing capacity (cf. 3.2.3)20 VGB ee Dead load G A characteristic value of 25 kN/m? is to be assumed for the dead load of reinforced concrete. In addition, the dead load of the constructional wind ribs and that of the equipment in the cooling tower are to be considered. 3.1.3 Wind load W 3.1.3.1 General The effects of the wind load are to be determined by applying equivalent static loads in terms of surface pressures. A distinction is to be made between the wind pressure We acting on the external surface of the cooling tower shell and the internal pressure Ww acting on the internal surface. Pressure directed towards the shell surface is de- fined as positive. In the context of the combination of actions as set out in sections 3.2.3.2 and 3.2.4, the wind load W is to be considered as most unfavourable superimposition of loads from the external pressure W’ and the internal pressure W'. The wind load is to be indicated as a characteristic load with a retum period of 50 years, The applied equivalent static load includes the gust effect by means of gust velocity Vp, Which takes into account the special behaviour of the pressure field on the cooling tower shell and the special load bearing behaviour of the cooling tower structure. The basis is the wind zone map according to DIN EN 1991-1-4 with the average wind ve- locities vm indicated there The wind load is to be applied at the full velocity pressure, independently of its direc- tion. The influence of the wind direction may be taken into account in the determina- tion of the wind load if secured statistical values on the wind rosette are available. The wind pressure distribution is influenced by the roughness of the cooling tower surface. The roughness is created by ribs which can generally be implemented as pi- laster strips for the climbing formwork and/or as additional wind ribs. 3.1.3.2 External and intemal pressure The external pressure We (2, 0) is calculated as We (Z, 8) = Cpe (8) @ Fi qe (2) where: Z = _ height above ground @ = angular distance in a horizontal cross-section from the stagnation line Cpe =~ external pressure coefficient determined according to 3.1.3.3 > = _ gust velocity pressure as defined in 3.1.3.4 “ters smerny resem ER Prone meneame eA NAAT qT oossusseneeeenmensot VGB 21 9 = dynamic amplification factor determined according to 3. Fi = _ interference factor determined according to 3.1.3.6 The internal pressure wis calculated as Wi = pi Fi gu(H) where: qe(H) = gust velocity pressure according to section 3.1.3.4 at height z = H (see figure 3.4) y= _ internal pressure coefficient The internal pressure is assumed to be constant over the full height and circumfer- ence of the cooling tower shell. It is negative (suction). The internal pressure coeffi- cient c= -0.50. 3.1.3.3 External pressure coefficients of a free-standing cooling tower The basis for the distribution of the wind load in the circumferential direction is the six standardized pressure distribution curves as presented in figure 3.1 and figure 3.2: K1.0-K14-K12-K13-K1.5-K16 The input parameter for the pressure distribution curves is the surface roughness pa- rameter hplar according to figure 3.1 and table 3.1 with the average distance be- tween the ribs ap and the average height of the ribs hr taken at one-third of the shell height. T TT fe egal Nig = ZZ g v 4 é 13 13 20 2 -t0 £ g 8 ° surface roughness parameter hy/ag —> Figure 3.1. Pressure minimums for extemal pressure in relation to surface roughness BI9F22, Vos surface Roughness Pressure | Distribution parameter minimum cue hla tin Cpe | With ribs 0.028 ... 0.100 40 K10 0.016 .. 0.025 a4 Kia 0010... 0.016 42 Ki2 0.008 0.010 43 K13 Without ribs | Off-sutter fish 45 K15 smooth 1.6 K16 Table 3.1. Pressure minimums and associated pressure distribution curves for external pressure in relation to surface roughness Surfaces are considered to have an off-shutter finish if uniformly distributed rough- ness dents with average heights greater than 5 - 10° times the average diameter of the shell dm occur. In the case of a smooth surface, pressure distribution curve K 1.6 is to be used. Each of the curves is described by three analytical functions (cf. figure 3.2). For com- parison, table 3.2 additionally presents the aerodynamic force coefficient o; (re- sistance coefficient) for the resulting wind force. 10 os fo. rs 2 9s 5 g 10 g Boas 20 Figure 3.2 129° area ‘reall ‘reall area rea real 160" \ ‘creurterentil angle (8) Pressure distribution curves Gy» (6) for areas |, I! and lil ee ERC AER IT AN RETAIN A NTE EPVGB 23 preseu Area! Area tl Area ill & Curve | minimum osos7e 7os029" or sos 180" K19 | 40 |, solsn22oj") to-os{en(2e-m)}”| os | ase | Kit | 44 tsai(ino)”” -saeoe{in(Me-n])”"| 05 | ose K12 | 42 Ihaa(in®e)"|-i2ser{in(Ze-na))”| os | aso [ Osos 73° <0<97° 97° < 85180" K19 | 43 fiax(uRo]""|-rsvos{en(Ze-n))"] os | oso K15 | 415 Ih os(un2of™|-sserofu(2o-r5]]”| 08 | ovo eae ar marae R18 | 48 tesa(ine)™ | -rosts(ve(20-r6))”| as | as Table 3.2 Pressure distribution curves Gy» (8) by areas and corresponding resistance coefficients c. 3.1.3.4 Gust velocity pressure gp The gust velocity pressure depends on the geographic position and the terrain cate- gory. Germany is divided into four wind zones as shown in figure 3.3. The profiles of the gust velocity pressures for the four wind zones are to be determined from table 3.3,24 VGB Figure 3.3. Wind zone map of Germany (source: DIN EN 1991-1-4/NA) in coastal areas up to 5 km inland as well as on the islands in the North Sea and the Baltic Sea the terrain category is determined to be category |, and for interior regions it is category Il The basis for the gust velocity pressure is the increase in stress due to gust effects, caloulated in accordance with the theory of random vibrations and then converted into equivalent loads. Resonant vibrations of the cooling tower shell are not included and are to be considered separately (see section 3.1.3.5). The annual probability of exceeding the gust velocity pressure is 0.02, i. e. the aver- age return period is 50 years. The gust velocity pressure may be reduced for con- struction conditions lasting up to 24 months. The reduction is to be limited to 0.7 qp. | Ie |5 VGB 25 Wind | Terrain | Average wind | Gust velocity | Gust velocity pressure zone | category velocity Vee |e ® - ms kNim? on6 ae 7 la 0 22.5 (2) wa(Z) on{ = 10) 10. 10, 2 250(2)" ans(Z 0.88[ 2 | 10. U0, 10. ~ ~ zy” 2 ' 1.05} — 10, | 3 u 1.06 2 10. 3 ' 1.27 (3) 10 022 4 " 1.27/2 10, 4 1.52 (= 10 Table3.3 Gust velocity pressure qx(2) 3.1.3.5 Dynamic amplification Resonant vibrations caused by the fluctuating wind load component are taken into account by increasing the equivalent static load. The dynamic amplification factor @ for shells with and without stiffening rings can be taken from figure 3.4, where Mmin designates the lowest natural frequency of the shell including the supports and the foundation. The dynamic amplification factor has been calculated for the maximum tensile forces in the lower third of the shell height using numerical methods. This may be consider- ably larger for membrane forces in other parts of the shell and for bending moments. Related experience indicates, however, that a uniform amplification factor as given in figure 3.4 is, in general, adequate. For unusual shell geometries and for more de- tailed investigations, a calculation in accordance with the theory of random vibrations can be made based on detailed acquisition of the stochastic dynamic behaviour with random dynamic wind load.26 : Vos 1,20 | 4,10 oe a (H) 4s (dt + Mein 1,00 L L o 2 4 6 8 40 Dimer: kN lV hy 2 am Figure 3.4 Dynamic amplification factor @ 3.1.3.6 _ Interference effects If further cooling towers or high power plant buildings are in close vicinity to the coo!- ing tower under consideration, their flow fields will interfere with each other, altering the static and dynamic wind load as compared to a free-standing tower. Consequent- ly, increased stresses may occur, depending on the type and distance of the adjacent buildings. The interference effects are taken into account by increasing the wind load (equiva- lent static load) for the free-standing tower by an interference factor F and, if neces- sary, increasing the ratio of minimum reinforcement pr for the ring reinforcement in the lower half of the shell. The reinforcement ratio is as follows: Pr = asr/h[%] where: asp = total cross-section of the ring reinforcement [cm*/m] h = wall thickness [em] sacmprecireeen tte on RPE a a aS scene ee aR ET ORR eI