Crash Course on Indian History for CHSL, CGL & CPOAncient History — Day ]Introduction >The study of past is called ‘History’. >The English word ‘History’ is derived from the Greek word ‘historia’ meaning research, inquiry or investigation. Thus, the knowledge acquired by investigation is known as ‘historia’, > The Greek historian Herodotus (484 BC-425 BC) was the first real historian of the world. He wrote only one book ‘The Histories’ (430 BC). 'The Histories’ describes the background ‘and events of the Graeco-Persian/Greek-Iranian Wars. First of all the Roman philosopher Cicero (106 BC-43 BC) called him The Father of History’. >German economist and philosopher Karl Marx (1818-83 AD) sai first as tragedy, second as farce." ‘History repeats itself, A System of Dating BC and AD . BC is the acronym of Before Christ. This is an English phrase meaning ‘Before the birth of (Jesus) Chris€. So, the years before the birth of Jesus Christ is known as ‘Before Christ’ and it is denoted as BC in short. e.g. Gautama Buddha was bom in 563 BC and died in 483 BC. Alexander the Great was bom in 356 BC and died in 323 BC.>AD is the acronym of Anno Domini. This is a Latin phrase meaning ‘In the year of the Lord (Jesus Christ)’. So, the years begin with the birth of Jesus Christ is known as ‘Anno Domini’, and it is denoted as AD in short. e.g. : Jesus Christ was crucified in 30 AD. Kushan ruler Kanishka was ascended the throne in 78 AD. Hazrat Muhammad was born in 570 AD and died in 632 AD. > Time Line : The line displaying the events of past time is called ‘Time Line’.Some important terms pertained to time are— Decade First Half (of a century) Second Half (of a century) Century Millenium Circo-Cac. The period of 10 years First 50 years of a century i , the period from Ist year to 50th year Last 50 years of a century Le. the period from 51st year to 100th. year The period of 100 years The period of 1,000 years If the exact date is not known then the word ‘circa’ is used with the date. in short, Circa is denoted as Ca. or C. Example : C. 1,500 BC—GOO BC: The Vedic Culture Period means that the exact date of Vedic Culture Period is not known but it (C. 1500 BC— OOOBC}is some where close to that.1. Development-sequence of Gregorian Calendar : Julean Calendar introduced in 46 BC by Roman King Juleus Caesor ie Chistian Calendar introduced in 527 AD by Monk Dionysius Exiguus Gregorian Calendar introduced in 1582 AD by Roman Pope Gregory—xil Gregorian Calendar is moditied form of Christian Calendar and Christian Calendar was modified form of Julean Calendar. It means these calendars are loosely synonyms to one other. 3. National Calendar : Saka Samvata is used in some government sectors customarily (officially), where {as Gregorian Calendar is used everywhere practically. > Conversion of Eras : With the help of above mer era. Conversion of AD of Christian era in Vikrama era : For conversion of AD erain Vikrama era, 57 is added fo AD. eg. Convert 2013 AD into Vikrama era ned table, any era can be converted into other AD Vikrama 2013 + $7 = 2070Conversion of AD era into Saka era : To get Saka era from AD era, 78s subtracted from AD. 4g. Convert 2013 AD into Saka era ? AD Soka 2013-78 = 1935 Conversion of Vikrama era into AD era : To find AD era from Vikrama era, $7 is subtracted from Vikrama era. ea. Convert 2070 Vikrama era into AD era @ Vikrama AD 2070-57 = 2013, Conversion of Saka era into AD efa : To find equivalent AD era trom Saka era, 78 is added to Saka era, eg. Convert 1935 Saka era into AD era? Saka AD 1935+78 = 2013 Period Bipattite Division : History is generally divided into two petiods—Pre-Hstoric and Historic. The period that have no written evidences is called Pre-Historic Period and the period that have written evidences is known as Historic Period. In other words, the period before the beginning of writing is called Pre-Historic Period and the period after the beginning of writing is known as Historic Period, The time period of Pre- Historic Period is accepted as BC to 400 BC and the time period of Historic Period as 600 BC to fil date. Tripartite Division : Tripartite division of History is more prevalent. According to this, History is divided into three periods—Pre-Hstoric, Proto-Historic and Historic.fees etc) Sees ee) Pre-Historic _30,00,000 BC-2,500 BC Period Proto-Historic 2,500BC-600 BC. Period Historic Period 600 BC-till date The period for which no witten evidences & available. Eg. : lithic (Stone) Period. The period for which written evidence is available but either their script (used in the documents) has not been deciphered or their written documents have not been confirmed with archaeological evidences. e.g. Indus Giviization and Vedic Culture. The period for which written evidences is available. Mahojanapada Period to Till Date. 7Ancient India 1. Historical Sources Py >The sources that give information about the events of past time are known as ‘Historical Sources’. >There are two types of historical sources—titerary Sources and Archaeological Sources. With the comparison of Literary sources the Archeological sources are believed more reliable, because it is almost impossible to change in it. >The Archeological sources are more important to the study of Ancient India. There are four Samhitas or Vedas—Rig-Veda, Yajurveda, Sama Veda & Atharva Veda. Sa Rig Veda 1,500 BC-1,000 BC Sapta Saindhav Region Yojur, Sam & Atharva Veda ‘1,100 BC-600 BC Kuru-Panchala Region»Vedas throw more light on religious, social & economic life and less light on political life of the Aryans. From history point of view Rig Veda & Atharva Veda have more importance than the Yajur Veda & Sama Veda. >The composing time of Brahmanas is 1,000 BC to 600 BC. Shatapatha Brahamana throws light on Gandhar, Shalya, Kekaya etc of North-West region and Kuru-panchala, Koshala, Videha states of East region of India. >The composing time of Upanishdas is 1,000 BC to 500 BC. The best learnings of Upanishadas is 'Para-vidya' i.e. Spiritual learning. The aim of life is merging the individual's soul into world's soul which is known as ‘Para-vidya'. > The combined study of Brahmanas & Upanishadas provides historical information from king Parikshit to king Bimbisar.>The composing time of Vedangs is 600 BC to 200 AD. The Vedangas throw light on ancient Indian history, civilzation & culture. >The composing time of Smritis to The Smritis provide the know ledge of social organizations, their theories customs, king's rights duties, king's relation with their subjects, etc. > The composing time of Epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata) is 400 BC to 400 AD, > The Ramayana (Valmiki) throws light on political, social and religious conditions oi India of that time. This book provides information about origin & development of Janapadas. Besides this, it mentions Yavanas (Greeks) & Sakas (Scythians).. >The Mahabharata (Ved Vyas) throw light on political, social & religious conditions of India of that time. It is the extensive form of Mahabharata war which is fought around 950 BC between the Kauravas & Pandavas. The Mahabharta claims : "Yann Bharate Tann Bharate" i.e, which is not in ‘Mahabharata’ that is not found in Bharat (India). Girivraja , the capital of Magadha, is mentioned in it. The Mahabharata informs us that the Panchala state was in existence from the time of Mahabharata. Besides this, it mentions Huns along with Yavanas & Sakas.>The composing time of Puranas is 400 BC to 400 AD. The Puranas throw light on the history of India from very beginnings to Gupta period. Generally puranas have 5 segments—Sarga (Creation of the Universe), Pratisarga (Re-creation), Vamsa (Genealogy of the gods and the sages), Manvantar (Epochs of Manu) & Vansanucharitam (narratives of ancient dynasties) in which only Vansanucharitam is important from History point of view. Unfortunately Vansanucharitam are not found in every puranas. Only Puranas that have Vansanucharitams are—Matsya, Bhagawat, Vishnu, Vayu, Brahma, Bhavishya & Garud Purana. Garud Purana has genealogies of Purava, kshwaku & Brahadrath dynasties, but its date is not definite. Buddhist Texts >The Buddhist texts are divided into two categories— Pall texts & Anupaii Texts. > Among Pali texts ‘Tripitaka’, 'Deep Vansha' & ‘Mahavansha’, ‘Milindpannaho' etc are important texts. >The ‘Tripitaka’ is the earliest and the most important texts among Pali Texts. The ‘Tripitaka’ comprises 'Vinaya Pitaka’ ‘Sutta Pitaka’ & 'Abhidhamma Pitaka. The 'Vinaya Pitaka’ & the 'Sutta Pitka’ are compiled in First Buddhist Council (483 BC) held in Rojagriha (Bihar) while the ‘Abhidhamma Pitaka’ in third Buddhist Council (250 BC) held in Pataliputra (Bihar). The 'Tripitaka’ throws light on social and religious life of india of that time i.e; the centuries before Christ.Jain Texts >The Jain Texts throw light on religious & social conditions of that time. >The Jain texts were eventually compiled in 6th century AD in 2nd Jain Mahasabha held at Vallabhi in Gujarat. Among Jain texts 12 Angas are important. The 'Acharanga Sutra’ contains displinary rules & regulations for Jain monks. The 'Bhagawati Sutra’ throws light on the life of Mahavira and contains the list of 16 Mahajanapadas. The ‘Namadhamma Katha Sutra’ contains the preaching of Mahavira. The ‘Antagadadasao' & 'Anutarovavaiydasao' contain life stories of famous Jain monks. The 'Vivagasuyam Sutra’ contains discussion on Karma Phala i.e; fruits of actions. >The 'Bhadrabahu Charita’ contains the life-sketch of Jain Acharya Bhadra bahu along with the glimpses of later life of Mauryan king Chandragupta Maurya. >From history point of view, the 'Parishishtaparva’ written by Jain Acharya Hemchandra has the most important place among Jain Texts.Historical Texts > Although there is no such text of ancient India that can be properly called historical text, because almost every texts had written in literary or religious colour, but there are some certain texts in which some historical material are available in dispersed manner. » Kautilyo's ‘Arthashashtra’ was compiled in 4th century BC. It gives not only detailed information regarding the system of administration, but also an idea of the social and religious life of the people of that time. It is comparable with Aristotle's 'Politics' and Machiavelli's 'Prince’. ®Shukra's 'Shukraneetisar throws some light on monarchy of that time. >»Somdev Suri's 'Neetisar Neetivakyamrita’ gives information about state machinary of that time. >Brihaspati's 'Brahasapatya Arthashastra’ is a text in Kautilya's 'Arthashashtra’ tradition. >The best example of the earliest historical writing is provided by the 'Rajatarangini' [i.e the stream of kings) written by Kalhana in the 12th century AD. It is a string of biographics of the kings of Kashmir. It can be the first work to possess several characteristics of historical writing as it is understood today. In the words of eminent historian R.C. Majumdar : 'There is only one historical work, properly so called, written by Kalhana in 12th Century A.D. This is ‘Rajatarangini’ which deals with the history of Kashmir from the earliest times up to the date of composition of that work (i.e; 1148-50 AD}. It assumes, however, a regular historical form only from the 7th Century A.D. the earlier chapter being a medley of confused traditions and fanciful imaginations". >The chronicles of Gujarat— 'Prabandh Kosh’ (Rajashekhara), 'Hammir Mad Mardan' (jai Singh) ‘Tejpal Prashasti’ (Vastupal), 'Prabandha Chintamani’ (Meruttung) etc throw light on the history of Gujarat.Court Poets & Their Patron Kings Court Poet Patron King (Dynasty) Banabhatta Horshavardhana : 606-47 (Vardhana) Vokpatiroja Yashovarmane : 700-40 (Chandra) Padmagupta Parimal Vokpatimunj : 973—96 (Parmara) Vala Bhoja : 1010—55 (Parmara) Bilhana Vikramaditya-VI : 1076-1126 (Chalukya) Sandhvakar Nandin Ramopala : 1077-1120 (Pala) Hemchandra Kumarpaia : 1088-1172 (Chaulukya/Solanki) JoiSingh Sui Kumor Pala 1088-1172 (Chaulukyo/solanik) Anand Bhatta Balladsena : 1158-78 (Sena) ‘Chanabardai Prithwiroja-ll: 1178-92 (Chauhana) Joyanak Prithvirojoull: 1178-92 (Chauhana) Joychandra Hommirdeva : 1283-1301 (Chauhona) Rojanath-t ‘Achyatadeva Ray : 1529-42 (Tuluva)B. Foreign Sources > Indigenous sources can be supplemented by foreign sources. The writings of foreign travelers and chroniclers provide valuable sources of ancient Indian history: of these, some visited India and some others who never visited India (like Herodotus, Pliny, Justin, Shinab al Dinumari etc) based their accounts on information received from different sources. To India came Greek, Chinese, Tibetan, Arabian (Arab) visitors, merchants, ambassadors, historians, pilgrims, travelers etc and some of them left behind accounts of the things that they saw. >These accounts help in writing of Indian history, especially to resolve the problem of chronology. These have been found immense useful in building up the framework of Indian chronology. > Foreign sources can be divided into four categories—. Greek-Roman, Chinese, Tibetan & Arabian (Arab). Greek Writers > It is remarkable that Alexander's invasions find no mention in indian sources and it is totally on the basis of the Greek sources that we have to reconstruct the history of his indian invasions, > The names of Cheek writers of Pre-Alexandrian time are—Scylox, Hecataeus Milletus, Herodotus & Ktesias.Roman/Latin Writers Pliny (23-99 AD) : He was a Roman historian. He was the contemporary of Kushanaruler Kanishka. He wrote an encyclopedic text 'Naturulis Historica’ i.e, Natural History. He gives the descriptions of India which is based on information received from Greeks and other Western merchants. His text contains the detailed description about animals, plants and minerals of India along with the trade relation between Rome (Italy) and India. Curtius(1st century AD) : He was a Roman historian. He was the contemporary of Roman emperor Claudius (41-54 AD). His book contains suffice information about Alexander the Great. Ptolemy (2nd AD) : He was a Roman geographer historian. His popular text ‘Geography contains information about ancient geography and trade between India and Rome ([taly).A. Inscriptions ions are the most important sources among Archaeological Sources. > The Inscriptions are divided into two groups—Foreign and indigenous. Foreign Inscriptions > Boghazkoi Inscription (1380 BC) : The eariest decipharable (readable) inscription regarding India is Boghazkoi Inscription (Asia Minor, Turkey), which was discovered in 1906 AD by German archaeologist Hugo Winckler. This inscription was found in the form of Clay Tablets from Boghazkoi, the capital of ancient Hittites empire. This inscription contains the description of an accord between Hittani & Mittani states and mentions four vedic deitiesindra, Mitra, Varun & Nasatya (ie, Ashwini Kumar)]—as a guard-deities of accord. These gods are also mentioned in the Rig Veda. Thus Boghazkoi Inscription proved that Asia Minor was the original homeland of the Aryans. In other words, it confirms the Central Asian Theory. It indicates the transition of Aryans from Central Asia to India via Iran. >Behistun Inscription (520-18 BC) & Nagsh+-Rustam Inscription (515 BC) These two inscriptions are concemed with the reign of Persian/ Iranian emperor Darius-l. These are found from Behistun & Nagsh-iRustam. According to Behistun Inscription, Darius-| annexed the 'Gadar (i.e Gandhar) and the 'Shatagu’ (ie, Saptsindhu) and after annexation he consfitued this area in 20th Strapi (i.e province) of his empire. ©> This province was so fertile that from this province the empire received 360 Talent gold dust as revenue (According to Herodotus). According to Nagsh-Rustaminscription, Persianemperor Darius-| possessed the ‘Hindu’ (ie Sindhu) valley. lranian inscriptions are written in Persian language and Cuneiform script. Before 1837 AD, Iranian inscriptions were deciphered by Henry Rawlinson (an officer of the British East india Company and deputed in Afghanistan) and others. itis notable that among Foreign Inscriptions of India, the earliest deciphered inscriptions are Iranian inscriptions that is Behistun & Negsh-+ Rustam Inscription. Of course, among Indigenous the earliest deciphered inscriptions are Ashokan Inscriptions. 1. North Indian Inscriptions Mauryan Inscriptions Ashokan Inscription Up to now 40 Ashokan inscriptions have been found. In Ashokan inscriptions only Karuwaki among his queens and only Teevor among his children have mentioned. .. In Ashokan inscriptions the word 'Pasand' for Sampradaya i.e, community, 'Bambhan! for Brahmana and 'Nigrath' for Nirgranth i.e, Jain have used. iv. Bhabru inscription is the only Ashokan inscription in which Boustrophendon (Bailmutti i.e, writing like piss of an ox) script is used. This script is bidirectional script ie, from right to left and left to right in altemate line. iev. In Yerragudi inscription (Andhra Pradesh) the matter of inscription is written in Brahmi script but right to left (Note-Brahmi script is written from left to right direction only) vi. In four Ashonkan inscriptions found from Maski, Gufjara, Nittur & Udegolam, the word ‘Ashoka’ is used for him. vii. Bhabru inscription is the only Ashokan inscription in which Mauryan king Ashoka called himself 'Magadhiraj’ i.e Raja of Magadh. Ashokan Junagadh (Gimar) Major Rock Edict is the inscription on which later Saka ruler Rudradaman (130-50 AD) and Gupta ruler Skandagupta (455-67 AD) inscribed their inscriptions. ix. Ashokan Allahabad Fillar Edict is the inscription on which the inscription of four persons are inscribed—Ashoka, Karuwaki, Samudragupta & Jehangir. x. The first discovered inscription of Ashoka is Meerut-Delhi Pillar Edict which had discovered in 1750 AD by Joseph Tiefenthaler an European Jesuit Missionars & Geographer. Ashokan inscriptions are generally written in Brahmi script and Prakrit language. |. Though Prakrit was the language used in Ashokan inscription the script varied from region to region—Brahmi script in the Eastern India, Kharosthi script in North-Westem India Greek & Aramaik scripts in Westem India. viiXi. In Manshera & Shahbajgadhi (both in Pakistan) Inscription kharosthi script (Script that is written from right to is used. xii, In Shara-i-Kuna (Kandhar, Afghanistan) inscription Greek & Aramaik script is used. xiv, Devdatta Ramkrishna (DR.) Bhandarkar has written a book ‘Ashoka’ (Published in 1925 AD} which is based only on inscriptions of Ashoka. > Dasharatha's Nagarjunj Cave Inscription (220 BC) : This inscription is found from Nagarjuni hills situated in Jehanabad district of Bihar state. This inscription is written in prakritianguage and Brahmi script. According to Inscription, king Dasharatha (grandson of Ashoka) donated three caves namely Vapika, Gopika & Vadithika cave to Ajivika monks so that they can reside in the rainy season. Post-Mauryan Inscriptions > Heliodorus’s Besnagar Garud Villar Inscription (Second halfoC 2nd century BC): This pillar inscription is situated in Besnagar village (Bhilsa district, Madhya Pradesh). This inscribed pillar was erected by Heliodorus (an ambassador sent by Antiolcides (115 BC- ILO BC), the Indo-Bactrian ruler, to the court of Bhagabhadra, the Shung king) in front of the Vishnu Temple.3. Harappan/Indus Civilization (2500 BC-1750 BC) »The oldest name—indus Civilization. According to archaeological tradition, the most appropriate name— Harappan Civilization (Harappa— the first discovered site]. According to geographical point of view, the most suitable name—indus— Saraswati Civilization (the largest concentration of settlement—along the Indus— Saraswati river valley; settlement along the Saraswati). >The most accepted period—2500 BC—1750 BC (by Carbon-14 dating). » John Marshal was the first scholar to use the term ‘Indus Civilization’. >The Indus Civilization belongs to Proto-Historic Period (Chalcolithic Age/Bronze Age).>The Indus Civilization was spread over Sindh, Baluchistan, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat. Scholars generally believe that Harappa-Ghaggar— Mohenjodaro axis represents the heartland of the Indus Civilization. >The Northern-most site of Indus Civilization—Ropar (Sutlej)/ Punjab (Earlier); Manda (Chenab)/Jammu Kashmir (Now). The Southern-most site of Indus Civilization— Bhagatrav (Kim)/ Gujarat (Earlier); Daimabad (Pravara)/ Maharashtra (Now). The Eastem-most site of Indus Civilization—Alamgirpur (Hindon)/ Uttar Pradesh. The Western-most site of Indus Civilization— Sutkagendor (Dashk} /Makran Coast (Pakistan—ran Border). Capital Cities—Harappa, Mohenjodaro Port Cities—Lothal, Sutkagendor, Allahdino, Balakot, Kuntasiea a a a ar ee een enki (1926); Wheeler (1946) Serre en | eee enenes ene TTT Mee exes sneer ieee Wee rere |Nakhlistan Le. Oasis (1930), ne (Chanhudaro: indus Nawabshah Singin Pokistan ‘Mackay (1925), N.C. Mazumdar (1931) Lothot Bhogava Ahmedabad = Gujarat india Rao (1954) Kalibanga (i.e. the Ghaggar Hanumanharh — Rajasthan india “Amalanand Ghosh (1951), B.V. Lal and 8.K,, Thapar ee Si colour) Bonawol Ghaggar Fatehabod Haryana India R.S. Bisht (1973) SEE [SS aS a NAO [ks He Harappo 6 Gronaries in row, Working floors, Workmen's quarters, Virgin-Goddess (seal} Cemetery (R-37. H). Stone symbols of Lingam (male sex organ} and Yoni (female sex crgan), Painted pottery, Clay figures of Mother Goddess, Wheat and Barley in wooden mortar, Copper scale, Crucible for bronze, Coppermade miter, Vanity box Dice. Moheniodaro Great Granary, Great Bath (the largest buldings(civization) Assembly hall Shel stips, Pashupat Mahadeva/Proto Shiva |seal), Bronze Image of nude woman dancer, Steatite image of bearded man, Human skeltons huddled together, Painted seal (Demi- God}, Clay figures of Goddess: A fragment of women cotton, Bick Kins, 2 Mesopotamian seals, 1398 seals (56% of fotal seals of Clviization), Dice. Chanhudaro City without a citadel. inkpot, Lipstick: Metal workers, shellornament makers’ and bead- makers’ shops: imprint Of dog’s paw on ‘a bick, Tentacotta model of a bullock cart, Bronze toy cart7 ii POSS oo cg Tea evel loa oon Ran horse, Double burial (burying a male and a female in a single grave). Temacotta model of a ship, Dying vat, Persian/Iranian seal, Baharainean seal, Painted jar (bid and fox) Kolbanga —_—_—Ploughed field surface (Pre Horappan). 7 Fre alters, Decorated bricks, Wheels ofa toy cart, Mesopotamian cylindrical seal Bonawat lac of ches-bocrd or gion pattem fown planing Lack of ystemaiie dranoge ssl. Toy plough, Clay gues of Mother s. Dholovra ‘A unique water hamessing system and is stom water drainage system. a large well and bath (giant water reservoirs). Only site fo be divided in 103 pars, Largest Harappan inscription used for civic purposes, A stadium Sukoiada Bones of horse, Oval grave, Pot burials. Doimabad —_—_—Bronze images |Charioteer with clviot, ox, elephant and thinaceros) Note : Mohenjodaro—the largest site of Indus Civilization, Rakhigarhi—The largest Indian site of Indus Civilization.Common Features of Major Cities : 1.Systematic town-planning on the lines of ‘grid system’ 2. Use of burnt bricks in constructions 3. Underground drainage system (giant water reservoirs in Dholavira) 4. Fortified citadel (exception—Chanhudaro)}. >Surkotada (Kutchh district, Gujarat): the only Indus site where the remains of a horse have actually been found. >Main Crops : Wheat and Barely; Evidence of cultivation of rice in Lothal and Rangpur (Gujarat) only. Other Crops : Dates, mustard, sesamum, cotton etc. Indus people were the first to produce cotton in the world. > Animals : Sheep, goat, humped and humpless bull, buffalo, boar, dog, cat, pig, fowl, deer, tortoise, elephant, camel, rhinoceros, tiger etc. > Lion was not known to Indus people. >From Amari, a single instance of the Indian rhinoceros has been reported. >There was extensive inland and foreign trade. Foreign trade with Mesopotamia or Sumeria (Modern Iraq), Bahrain etc. flourished.Imports Siver Tin Lapis Lazuli ond Sapphire Jode Steaite Amethyst ‘Agate, Chalcedonies and Cornetions From Kolar Karnataka}, Afghanistan, Persia (ran) Afghanistan, Persia (ranj, South india Ket (Rojosthon), Boluchsiion, Arabic Aighanistan, 8ihor Badok-Shan (Afghanistan) Control Asia Shaher-iSokhto ron), Kirthar Hils (Pakistan) Maharashira Saurashtra and West Indio Ie) N>Exports : Agricultural products, cotton goods, terracotta figurines, pottery, c (from Chanhudaro conch-shell (from Lothal ) ivory products, copper etc. >A very interesting feature of this civilization was that Iron was not known to the people. >The Harappans were the earliest people to produce cotton (It was called iSindon’ by the Greeks). As there is no evidence of coins, barter is assumed to have been the normal method of exchange of goods. > Lothal was an ancient port of Indus civilization. > The Indus Civilization was primarily urban. >The Harappan people didn't worship their gods in temple. No temple in fact has been unearthed. An idea of their religion is formed from the statues and figurines found.>The most commonly found figurine is that of Mother Goddess (Matridevi or Shakti). >The chief male deity was the ‘Pashupati Mahadeva’ i.e. the lord of Animals (Proto-Shiva) represented in seals as sitting in yogic posture; he is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo) and two deer appear at his feet. >The remains and relics also reveal that zoolatry i.e animal worship and tree worship (esp. peepal) were in vogue in those days. > There is the evidence of pictographic script, found mainly on seals. Note : The oldest script in Indian subcontinent is the Harappan script, but the oldest deciphered script is Brahmi script known from about Sth century BC. Most later indian script developed from Brahmi.>Humpless bull is represented in most of the Indus seals. inhumation or complete burial was the most common method of disposal of the dead. >The origin of the ‘Swastika ' symbol can be traced to Indus Civilization. >The Rigveda speaks of a battle at at place named ‘Hariyumpia’ which has been identified with Harappa. The majority of scholars believe that the makers of this civilization were Dravidian. »Contemporary civilizations of Indus civilization- Mesopotamia, Egypt and China. 4. Vedic Culture (1500 BC-600 BC) >The location of the original home of the Aryans still remains a controversial point. Some scholars believe that the Aryans were native to the soil of India and some other scholars believe that the Aryans were migrated from outside [Central Asia (Max Muller) /Europe/ Arctic region (B. G Tilak)].According to popular belief, the Aryans are supposed to have migrated from Central Asia into the Indian subcontinent in several stages or waves during 2000 BC-1500 BC. >The group that came to India first settled in the present Frontier Province and the Punjab — then called Sapta Sindhu i.e. region of seven rivers. Vedic Literature (1500 BC-600 BC) > It is presumed that the Rig Veda was composed while the Aryans were stil in the Punjab. > Vedic Literature comprises of four literary productions : >1. The Samhitas or Vedas 2. The Brahmans 3. The Aranyaka's 4. The Upanishads.> The most important of Vedic Literature are Vedas. » There are four Vedas—Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda. The first three Vedas are jointly called Vedatrayi i.e. trio of Vedas. » Of the four Vedas, the Rig Veda (Collection of lyrics) is the oldest text in the world. The Rig Veda contains 1028 hymns and 10,462 verses, divided into 10 mandalas. »Six mandalas (from 2nd to 7th) are called Gotra/ Vamsha Mandalas (Kula Granth). >The Ist and 10th mandalas are said to have been added later. The 10th mandala contains the famous Purusha sukta which explains the 4 Varnas — Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. The hymns of Rig Veda were recited by Hotri.