NWAOZURU

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CHURCH RESPONSE TO DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AGAINST IGBO WOMEN

OF SOUTH EASTERN NIGERIA

BY

NWAOZURU, JOHNMAJOR. C.

2020

Published Online by Bambooks Digital Library Limited, Lagos.

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Copyright: Nwaozuru, Johnmajor. C. 2020

All rights reserved. No part of this online publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means without the written
permission of the author.

Contact Address
09023990044
07087514159
08169870464

Email

nwaozuruugo@gmail.com
nwaozuruugo@yahoo.com

ISBN: 978-978-57662-7-1
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DEDICATION

This book is dedicated to Late Mr. Obilor Ochulor my secret mentor on family matters.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Predictably, I want to first of all acknowledge and thank the Almighty God, the author

and finisher of my faith, for all his goodness and mercies in my life and for his unfading

love, provision and protection throughout my first degree in the university. I also

appreciate my parents Mr. and Mrs. Enyeribe Promise Nwaozuru, and my relatives

such as Chigozie Christian Nwaozuru, Engr. Chimeze Joel, Sorochi Ugoala, Vincent

Iheajuru, George Okorafor Nneji and many others, for their collective efforts in

assisting me during my first degree in the university. Special thanks to Rev. and Rev.

Mrs. Obinna Chinwe Agu they have been of immense help to me. Finally, to all those

who in one way or other have helped me I say a big thank you and that may God

bless you all. Amen

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page ii
Copyright iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgements v
Table of Contents vi
Preface viii
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER TWO: DOMESTIC VIOLENCE IN HUMAN SOCIETY 6

CHAPTER THREE: IGBO ETHNIC GROUP IN NIGERIA 13

Brief History of Igbo Ethnic Group 13

Geographical Location of Igboland 14
Religious Life 15
Socio-Cultural Life 16
Economic Activities 18
Political Activities 19

CHAPTER FOUR: DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AGAINST

WOMEN IN IGBOLAND 22

Nature and Characteristics of Domestic Violence 22

Forms of Domestic Violence 23
Physical Abuse 23
Emotional Abuse 24
Sexual Abuse 25
Financial Abuse/ Economic Violence 26
Social Abuse 27
Causes of Domestic Violence in Igbo Society 27
Igbo Patriarchal System 27
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Childlessness Problem/ Male-Child Syndrome 30

Lack of Education and Economic Dependence of Women 32
Social Stress 32
Mental Illness 33
Poverty/ Financial Issue 33
Family Upbringing and Moral Value 35
Addiction to Hard Drugs and Alcohol 36
Suspicion About Sexual Infidelity/ Jealousy 37
Bad Characters 38
Effects of Domestic Violence Against Women 38
Physical Injury 38
Death 39
Impact on Women’s Reproductive Health 39
Trauma of Forced sex 39
Unwanted Pregnancies 40
Increase Rate of Sexually Transmitted Infections 41
Miscarriage and Bleeding 41
Economic Multiplier Effects 42
Divorce 42
Depression/Insomnia 43
Stigmatization 43
Church Response to Domestic Violence 44
Church and Social Change in Igboland 44
Marriage Seminars 46
Transformative Preaching and Teaching on Love 47
Effective Marriage Course/ Counseling and Mandatory Attendance 48
Visitation and Prayer 48
Church Teaching on Equality 49
Inculturation of Valuable Indigenous Practices Into Church Liturgy 50
Promotion of Women’s Rights 51

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION 53

CONCLUSION 53

REFERENCES 54

PREFACE
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Domestic violence (DV) is a common occurrence in various parts of the world

today. In contemporary Igbo society DV is experienced by men, women, children and

elderly people but it seems that it often occurs against women. DV for any reason is not

good as it has damaging effects on the family and the society at large. Western countries

view DV as a crime punishable by law but reverse is the case in African society as it is

considered as a family affair. This book focuses on how this inhuman act would be

addressed by the positive response of the Church.

Chapter one elucidates the back ground to the study of Domestic violence in Igbo

society. Chapter two examined domestic violence in human society Chapter three traces

the history of Igboland. Chapter four exposes domestic violence against women in

Igboland explaining nature and characteristics, forms, causes, effects of domestic

violence as well as portraying Church positive response to curb DV. Chapter five brings

the book to a close.

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Domestic violence (DV) is as old as the society tracing back to the Ancient Near

East where women were not given due recognition just like the men. The womenfolk

were seen as objects of sexual pleasure and bearing children. In Greco-Roman era the

Pater Familias (Head of the Family) has absolute power of life and death over his family

and controls the affairs in the family. Domestic violence (DV) against women is a global

problem without cultural, geographic, religious, social, economic or national boundaries.

From the cradle to the grave, women are objects of violence from those nearest and

dearest to them especially in the family cycle. Chitashvili, Javakhishvili, Arutiunov, Lia

and Chachanidze (2010) elucidate that:

Gender-based violence is considered one of the most serious violations of human

rights and is a widespread phenomenon which does not discriminate based on

race, religion, ethnicity or language. Violence against women as a social problem

mostly within close/immediate social settings. It has serious consequences

affecting not only female victims’ physical and emotional health, and social well-

being, but has considerable effects on children, family and society as whole.

Domestic violence against women deprives them of their right to participate in

societal life as a whole and holds them prisoners under the special conditions set
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by the immediate social setting such as family, kinship, social norms and values

shared by the majority. (p. 14).

Tenkorang, Nwabunike and Sedziafa (2016) view that Nigeria is among one of

the countries recording high incidence of female domestic abuse in sub-Sahara Africa,

where two thirds of women are found to be suffering male partner violence. Among the

Igbo ethnic group the context of female domestic abuse is defined by women’s societal

relations with men. Women are traditionally obliged to surrender their entirety to their

husbands, in addition to being domestically available to gratify male partner’s

psychological, physical and sexual desires. Thus, women’s transgressions of these

expected roles lead to their beating and coercion, in an attempt to restore traditional

gender order and male power ( Okenwa, Lawoko and Jansson, 2009 ). Okeke and Agu

(2012) quip that Igboland is a highly male-centered, and traditional titles, lands, wealth,

and decision-making is a major part of male privilege, these societal privileges are

handed down from males to males of younger generations, and women are entirely

excluded . Okenwa et. al (2009) aver that as far as cultural norms are concerned,

womanhood among the Igbos (sic) is highly denigrated to humility, passivity,

submission, inferiority, and traditional norms encourage male domination and power

which could be expressed through violence, in order to sustain the expected gender order.

Nmah (2003) observes that the domestic or private sector belongs to the woman and

public sector to the man. The belief in man's innate superiority and women's inferiority

resulted in exclusion and marginalisation of women in all walks of life. Tenkorang et. al
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(2016) attest that the cultural dynamic in Igbo communities have been related to a high

incidence of domestic violence where a percentage of 78.8 is noted, domestic abuse of a

female partner is widely acceptable and justified, it is therefore unquestioned and

naturalized. The menace of DV in Igboland has gotten to an unprecedented point, this

ugly incident tends to become a social phenomenon as husbands see it as their right to

control the affairs of their wives most times through coercive means which gives room to

domestic violence. World Health Organisation (2013) (WHO) observes that DV remains

underreported due to its sensitive nature, and the most documented forms include

psychological violence, physical violence, and sexual assault. The rate of DV in Igbo can

be seen easily through its adverse effects which include; death, broken marriage, health

consequences, affects women’s reproductive health, unwanted pregnancies, increases the

risk of sexually transmitted infections and trauma and so on.

Therefore, this reality requires that the church equipped with pastoral care is saddled

with the responsibility of alleviating the plight of the oppressed in the society. Including

women who experience domestic violence in their respective homes. Diara and Nche

(2013) Christian missions did not only constitute a religious factor on their arrival in

Igboland, they also constituted a veritable socio-cultural force acting on the traditional

life and practices which the people had lived and observed for years before their arrival.

The Christian missions trained their new converts to advance their evangelistic cause

by fighting against all forms of obnoxious traditional and cultural life in Igboland.
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Against this backdrop, this book attempt would be to explore areas of Church

intervention in the process of domestic violence focusing to proffer solution that would

be both enduring and to sustain peace and love in families in Igboland and to Nigeria at

large.

For proper understanding of this book, it is necessary to define some of the key

terms in the topic. Terms worthy of definition are; Church, Christian, domestic violence

and response,

Church

Ogbuehi (2017) quips that Church is an assembly of Christians who are called to

serve God and humanity. Church is simply defined as the body of Christ.

Christian

Flanner (2009) quips that the word Christian was given to the early followers of

Christ and the name has stuck to this day. A Christian is a person who accepts Jesus

Christ as personal Lord and Saviour.

Domestic Violence (DV)

Chhikara, Jakhar, Malik, Singla, and Dhattarwal (2013) define DV as a pattern

of abusive behaviors by one partner against another in an intimate relationship such as

marriage, dating, family, or cohabitation.

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Response

Hornby (2015) defines response as something that someone does as a reaction

to something. In this context, response means the role of Church in curbing domestic

violence in families.
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CHAPTER TWO

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE IN HUMAN SOCIETY

Although domestic has been in existence since the formation of human society

yet in Western countries it is considered as a crime. It may result in injury or even

death for the victim, but most times in African society the victim is unwilling to report

these incidents to law enforcement agencies. In Igbo society women and children are the

most vulnerable to DV, Coomaraswamy (2000) observes that women and children are

often in great danger in the place where they should be safest; within their families. For

many, homes are where they face a regime of terror and violence at the hands of

somebody close to them (husband/ father).

On the concept of domestic violence (DV) it could be observed that domestic

violence is an extremely complex and vicious form of abuse, committed most often

within the four walls of the family house. DV knows no age, socio-economic, religious,

racial, gender or educational, barriers. Meaning and detection of domestic violence itself

is the most demanding task. Oluremi (2015) avers that DV is not limited to obvious

physical violence, it can mean endangerment, criminal coercion, kidnapping, unlawful

imprisonment, trespassing, harassment and stalking. From Oluremi’s view DV is a

violent crime since Oluremi categorized it with other violent crimes above. Families

from all social, racial economic, educational and religious background experience

domestic violence in different ways. Violence against women in any form is a violation
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of the right of equality. Sinha (1989) affirms that United Nations (UN) General Assembly

adopted the declaration on the elimination of all forms of violence against women on

20th December 1993 which recognized that violence against women is a manifestation of

historically unequal power relations between men and women which have led to

domination over and discrimination against women by men and the prevention of the full

advancement of women. He further quips that Article 1 of the UN declaration defines

violence against women as means any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is

likely to result in, physical, sexual, or psychological harm or suffering to women,

including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether

occurring in public or in private life. According to Black's Law Dictionary (1999),

domestic violence means violence between members of a household, usually spouses, an

assault or other violent act committed by one member of a household against another.

From UN view about DV shows that it is a criminal offence since it infringes on the

fundamental human right of women. However, in Igboland and Nigeria at large

Uwadiegwu (2015) observe that many victims do not report to the law enforcement

agents for fear of reprisal from abusers or the belief that the police and the judicial system

cannot help, the police are also reported to frequently dismiss complaints of domestic

violence as a private matter. Consequently, the cases of violence against women mostly

go unreported because the victims prefer to suffer in silence (Adebayo and Kolawole,

2013).
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Tracing the history of domestic violence, Uwadiegwu (2015) foresight that early

history showed that the relegation of women to the second class status dates back to

several centuries ago and the human society has been a male dominated one of which the

Igbo society is part of. Giddens (2006) supports that the etiology of domestic violence

lies in the patriarchal structure of society in which systematic domination of females by

males is of central concern. According to Onyenucheya (2012) there is no doubt that in

history, the dignity of women has suffered exploitation, humiliation, degradation and

inhibition because of the domineering ignorance and prejudice. Fox (2002) affirms that

three great bodies of thought have influenced many societies’ views and treatment of

women: Judaic religious ideas, Greek philosophy and the Common Law legal code. All

three traditions have, by and large, assumed patriarchy as natural that is male domination

stemming from the view of male superiority. As part of the culture perpetuated by these

ideologies, violence towards women was seen as a natural expression of male dominance.

Lerner (1990) notes that from the third to the second millennium BCE, a system of male

dominance began to evolve and along with it an ideology of patriarchal privilege that

justified superiority of the victorious men over women. Fox (2002) observes that

throughout the ancient world, warfare, geography, and the development of a nation-state

gave rise to different forms of patriarchy, which often cross-fertilized and re-enforced

one another. Meyers (1988) traces that one of the earliest and most significant of the

patriarchal systems was the Hebrews, for the Hebrews created a theology, passed on in
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Western tradition, which proclaimed that God gave his male creation, Adam, the power

to name all that he, Yahweh has created. That power, in addition, included the naming

of his female helpmate, whom Adam called Eve therefore, it could be said that male

domination and control over the female is a divinely ordained. This has predominated for

thousands of years, reinforcing the subordinate position of women, a tradition continued

at least into early modern times and still effective among the Igbo who consider

themselves as a lost tribe of Jew who missed their way during the exodus from Egypt.

Fox (2002) posits that Biblical exegesis of female inferiority was supported by a science

developed by the Greeks, first by Aristotle, then perfected by Galen. The Greeks asserted

that humans were the most perfect animals and that among humans, men were more

perfect than women were since they were hot and women were cold. Lerner (1990)

argues that once justification of dominance is institutionalized in custom, law, and

practice, it is seen as natural and just by those dominated as well. Rawls (2010) posits

that:

In ancient Rome, men had the legal right to physically assault their wives for such

acts as walking in public without their face covered, drinking wine, or attending

public events without permission. This acceptance of a husbands’ legal and moral

obligation to physically control their wife’s behaviour continued into the modern

era. (p. 3).

In line with Rawls’ view, Iwe (1979) states that:

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In ancient and Republican Rome, the family head (pater familias) had what was

called “ius Vitae necisque” that is the right of life and death over his family

members including his wife. The dark Ages and feudalism placed women in a

very low state. The harsh early stages of the industrial Revolution and as

asperities and violence of the slave trade further degraded the status of

womanhood. (p.77).

According to Siegel (1986) by the end of the 19th century, England passed laws

to protect wives from being physically assaulted by their husbands, but these laws were

overshadowed by the traditional portrayal of wives as subordinate to their husbands and

subject to the physical control of their husbands. Husbands who physically Husbands

who physically assaulted their wives were subject to public ridicule, but limited

chastisement was still the rule.Domestic violence, it occurs in all socio-economic groups,

all religious groups, all races, all ethnic groups. Domestic violence could be seen as a

violation of the fundamental human right and degrading the dignity of human person.

According to the findings of Tenkorang, Nwabunike and Sedziafa (2016) Nigeria is

among one of the countries recording high incidence of female domestic abuse in sub-

Sahara Africa, where two-thirds of women are found to be suffering male partner

violence thus, women are more likely to experience marital violence as domestic violence

is in the majority of cases against women by the members of the family where they are

married to. In addition, Price (2005) views that its perpetration threatens women’s

societal freedom, dignity, and infringes on their fundamental human rights. This does not
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mean that some men are not victims of domestic violence. The supremacy of men in the

society makes one believe that they are not vulnerable to domestic violence. Battering of

men by their spouse and family members occurs in the society. According to Jaising

(2000):

Compared to violence against women, violence against men is less frequent but it

has already taken a deadly shape in many of the Western countries by now. Males

have reported incidences of assault against them like pushing, shoving, slapping,

grabbing, hitting which are intended to harm them and also take their lives on

many occasions. Recently, hundreds of husbands gathered in Chandigarh and

Shimla to voice their opinion for men’s rights and protection against domestic

violence subjected to them by their wives and other family members. The reasons

behind this form of domestic violence against men including; not abiding by the

instructions of the wives, inadequate earning of men, infidelity towards wives,

not helping the partner in household activities, not taking a proper care of

children, abusing the spouse family, infertility of men, spying the activities of

partner, doubting the partner all the time and not trusting her, revolt by the wife

when asked to look after in-laws. (p.12).

Although men suffer domestic violence, but the rate at which it occurs on the side

of the women in is alarming especially in this Igbo patriarchal society (Tenkorang,

Nwabunike and Sedziafa , 2016) where women are traditionally obliged to surrender

their entirety to their husbands, in addition to being domestically available to gratify male
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partner’s psychological, physical and sexual desires. Thus, women’s transgressions of

these expected roles lead to their beating, and coercion, in an attempt to restore traditional

gender order and male power. The worst of it all is that most women experiencing

domestic violence may not want to report or make it public because of the social stigma

attached to it thus, they suffer it continuously. Domestic violence is violent victimization

of women, within the boundaries of family, usually by men or his family members.

Domestic violence by its nature could cause harm to the victim thus, in many developed

countries, it is considered a crime and offenders when tried and found guilty are

punished.
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CHAPTER THREE

IGBO ETHNIC GROUP IN NIGERIA

Brief History of Igbo Ethnic Group

The origin of Igbo people not yet known with certainty and as such there are thus

diverse views about the origin of the Igbo. Ilogu (1974) posit that where the Igbo came

from and when, will remain for a long time a matter of conjecture because of the absence

of helpful records or archaeological findings by which we can determine the date of

settlement or place of origin. However, Iweadighi (2011) opines that archaeology,

linguistics (glotto-chronology) and ethno-history all these time have yielded useful but

non-conclusive evidence. In tracing the origin of the Igbo people, there have been four

archaeological findings in these towns: Ugwuele, Afikpo, Nsukka and Igbo-Ukwu, which

have become more relevant. Anozie (1979) argues that, Ugwuele site suggests that the

makers of the Ugwuele stone artifacts might have settled near the site, engaged in hunting

and gather. Okonkwo (1996) points to Nri myth of origin which holds that the earth

originated from Aro and from there dispersed. According to Nri myth of origin the

father of all Nri is Eri. All traditions (odinani) acknowledge that Eri came from God

(Chukwu). Anozie (1979) distinguishes three occupation layers with quartz flakes,

small stone tools and points at the lowest layer, followed by hoe-like implements,
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polished stone axe, red ochre, bored stone and pottery of red ware type. The upper layer

shows some quantity of grey wares. Iweadighi (2011) claims that the interesting thing is

the date, which ranged between 2935 BC and AD 15 at the top level. At its closing end of

Ugwuele site, two other stone cultures emerged at Nsukka and Afikpo. Onwuejiogwu

(1981) explains that the upper dates of Ugwuele overlapped with lower dates of Afikpo

and Nsukka, which had similar pottery types. The shreds recovered were fired and

associated with stone tools and in addition, the pottery is similar to contemporary Igbo

pottery found in both Afikpo and Nsukka today indicating a conservative community.

The picture that emerges is a Stone Age culture area extending from Nsukka to Aba and

from Okigwe to Abakaliki and Afikpo area, with its factory site situated at Ugwuele.

Iweadighi (2011) traces that the Igbo descended from the Jews in the Ancient Near East.

There was a migration from Egypt in 1870 BC as the conquest of Egypt by Hysos led

some Egyptians to settle in the Yoruba country of Oyo and in certain Igbo sub tribal

areas. In support of this view Basden (1996) affirms that there are certain customs which

rather point to Levitic influence at a more or less remote period, customs like sacrifice,

the practice of circumcision; the language also bears several interesting parallels with

the Hebrew idiom. These similarities in some Igbo cultural and characteristic traits with

that of the Jewish culture portrays the claims of a direct Jewish descent of the Igbo

people. The term Igbo is both used to represent an ethnic group in Nigeria and a

language spoken by that ethnic group.

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Geographical Location

The Igbo is located in South-Eastern Nigeria in West Africa. They occupy the

largest part of South-Eastern Nigeria and a small strip of land on the western bank of the

River Niger. Ikenga (1988) has it that the territory falls within the equatorial rain-forest

region, between latitude 5° and 7° north, and longitude 6° and 8° east, and occupy an area

of about 15,800 square miles. Uchendu (1956) avers that River Niger, before flowing

into the Atlantic Ocean demarcated the Igbo land into two unequal parts. The greater part

of Igbo land lies in what was formerly called the Eastern Region of Nigeria, while the

smaller portion lies west of the Niger in what was formerly called the Midwestern Region

of Nigeria but now called Delta state.

Religious Life

The Igbo people are truly and deeply religious people. They practiced African

Traditional Religion before the advent of Christianity in 1857 (Diara and Nche, 2013).

The Igbo people belief in the supreme god (Chukwu ) creator of all things in the universe

(uwa). Igbo religious world is divided into two parts; the visible world and the invisible

world. The visible world is the material world of men and the invisible world is the

spiritual world. Leonard (1966) notes that there is however a constant communication

and contact between these two worlds for the well being of the living. The content of
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these two worlds (uwa) ( material and spiritual) is divided into five categories. Iweadighi

(2011) explains these categories below:

The first category is Chukwu (the great God) because he creates as well as

sustains the human race. The second is the category of the spirits (muo). This is

the sphere of the gods, alusi, agbara; the ancestor gods (ndi nnanna) and the

spirits of the dead ancestral spirits, the living dead. The third category in the

world of the Igbo is the human beings (living). The fourth category is the world of

animals and plants. This category includes also all other forms of biological living

organisms. The fifth are appearances and things without biological life. (p. 35).

With the advent of Christianity many Igbo people are now Christians with few

who stick to indigenous religion.

Socio-Cultural Life

Traditionally, the Igbo society is guided by the traditional moral code (Omenala)

which contains the dictates of Chukwu,Ala (earth goddess) and ancestors which is

binding on every member and regulates their day-to-day activities. Iweadighi (2011)

opines that Omenala is the corpus of the legal, social, moral and ritual norms of the

people. According to Ilogu (1974) from the socio-cultural standpoint, tradition (Odinala)

is the measure for the social ethos and the continuity of the societal values from one

generation to another. Total keeping and observation of the tradition assures of peace and

tranquility between the living and their ancestral spirits. The guiding principles of
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tradition are Aru /Alu and Nsoala . A violation of any principle of the tradition is a sin

against earth goddess and the ancestral spirits which is abomination (Imeru nso ala or

Ime Aru/Alu) the offender performs purification rites ( Ikpu Aru/Alu) to appease the earth

goddess and the ancestors. Iweadighi (2011) avers that a traditional Igbo unit has four

main structures. The first, which incorporates the rest is the town (obodo), in the town

there is the village or native home; the patri/matrilineage (Umunna/Umunne) and the

extended family (Ezinulo Mbara). Mbiti (1989) asserts that the extended family

relationship or co-operation then is one of the strongest institutions and the strength of the

Igbo traditional society as well. This family relationship is based on either bond of blood

relationship or relationship through marriage between two families. If one has a problem,

one turns to the other side of the relationship ( Umunna) for help. The society is ruled by

the golden rule; live and let live (Egbe bere Ugo bere). Nobody carries his problem alone

as fortunes and misfortune are shared communally. According to Nwigbo (1996), the

centrality of the Igbo culture rests in the community spirit (otu obi, otu mmuo – one heart,

one spirit). Community consciousness in Igbo society is based on this philosophy I am

because You are and if You are then I am. It is also a reality of practical living. The Igbo

people believe very strongly in the power of togetherness ( Igwe bu Ike)

Many Igbo proverbs and idioms express this sense of communion: Ahapuru otu

onye uwa, ya ogbuo ya ( if one is left alone with the burdens of life, one dies under the

weight of it), Igwe bu ike (togetherness is strength).Onwubiko (1991) affirms that even

the training and bringing up of a child in the Igbo culture is not the affair of the parents
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alone. The extended family has a role to play as well. The child in Igbo culture is our

child ( Nworah) and not my child because certain decisions concerning the child cannot

be taken alone by the parents in most cases like in marriage. The Igbo people celebrate

many festivals and rituals such as Iri Ji Ohuru (New Yam Festival), Offala, Iru Mgbede

(Seclusion rite), Child naming, and traditional marriage (Igbakwu Nwanyi) ceremonies

and so on. In some communities, there are the freeborn (diala/ Nwa afo), cult slaves

(Osu), and domestic slaves (Ohu). Ekeh (1990) posits that the Osu were devoted to a

shrine and as such fulfilled important ritual functions, although the Osu were certainly

stigmatized, they were allowed to farm for themselves. And while Osu could not marry a

freeborn (diala/ Nwa afo), they could marry other Osu, and their children would also be

Osu. Osu were not sacrificed. When humans were sacrificed, those sacrificed were Ohu,

domestic slaves. With the influence of Christianity and Western culture many

traditional practices and institutions now receive low patronage.

Economic Activities

Pre-colonial Igbo economy had basically three foundations; agriculture, trade and

manufactures, as entrepreneurs Igbo people are found almost in all part of world.

Ikerionwu (2013) opines that agriculture was the mainstay of the people’s economy. It

was largely subsistence in nature and everyone, irrespective of gender, fully participated.

Yam (Ji ) was the stable crop and mainly harvested by men while cocoyam (Ede) was for

women others include palm products, cassava, maize, okro, melon, garden egg,

vegetables and many more. Ecological differences and varied vegetation were the major
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factors behind the development of local and regional trade amongst the Igbo. The

inhabitants of northern and central Igboland, whose soils were over farmed, resorted to

trade. Anene (cited by Ikerionwu, 2013) opines that the discovery of iron ore in Awka,

salt in Uburu and Okposi, and lead in Abakaliki encouraged mineral exploitation and the

growth of crafts and manufactures such as the famous blacksmithing forges in Awka.

Major commercial cities include Onitsha, Nnewi, Aba and others. There were

commercial links between the Igbo and their Benin, Igalla, Idoma, Ibibio and Ijaw

neighbours. As the climate was favourable tothe tsetse fly, there was hardly any cattle

breeding (only small livestock). They were also involved in slave trade. During colonial

rule and the subsequent development of infrastructure to boost European commercial

activity, the new Western way of life has become the primary hope of survival and

achievement for the younger Igbo, and for all Nigerians. Trade replaced agriculture and

manufacturing and became the preferred profession alongside civil service for Nigerians

and was noted as the quickest avenue of integrating into the monetized economy.

Political Activities

A striking feature of Igbo society was lack of centralized political structure.

According to Ohadike (1996) before colonialism the Igbo lived in autonomous villages

and towns, ruled by their elders with a few exceptions, they organized themselves in

patrilineages- lineage groups organized along lines of decent from father to son. The

Igbo communities were known as extremely democratic and egalitarian, yet they have

no centralized governments. However, in some communities kings did exist like Obi of
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Onitsha. They subscribe to the principle of direct participation in governments. Ohadike

(1996) notes that:

The traditional political structures include: Council of Elders. Matters affecting

lineage members were discussed at the meetings of its elders, Ndichie with the

assistance of the adult members of the lineage. The council is headed by the

oldest in the kindred who holds the offor (symbol of authority) and commands

respect from others in the kindred. Age Grade: This association is known as

Ogbo or Otu, was composed of men who were of about the same age. This group

was responsible to carry out special duties in their various communities like

clearing bushes that grow along stream paths, apprehend fugitives and try to

maintain peace and order among the grade. Secret Societies: These associations

were exclusively for some men and women and others for both sexes. Very little

is known about them because people who join these societies take an oath of

secrecy seriously. Many members of secret cults were mouthpiece of oracles,

they help to adjudicate and settle matters among community members or inter-

community conflicts.(pp.22-25).

Members live a moral and an exemplary life. Secret cults include Okonko, Ekpe,

Ndi Nze N’Ozo title holders, masquerade groups like egwugwu/ egungu and so on

Ohadike (1996) affirms that these political structures lost their appeal in the twentieth

century when colonial officers stripped traditional Igbo chiefs of their power and then

subordinated them to British appointed warrant chiefs and Western educated Africans.
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21

Ochereoma (2017) observes that in 1976 Obasanjo regime carried out a reform of the

local government system the outcome of which was put in the 1979 Constitution. This

created an avenue for traditional rulers to be constitutionally recognized. With the

division of the Nigeria into six geo political zones the Igbo society is politically

administered in what precisely known today as Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo

State. Although some indigens of the Niger Delta Region are part of Igbo speaking

ethnic group.
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CHAPTER FOUR

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN IN IGBOLAND

Nature and Characteristics of Domestic Violence

Domestic Violence is in the majority of cases, violence against a woman by the

members of the house where she resides. It can be the husband, his parents, or siblings or

any other resident who has the overt or covert latitude for actions that can cause physical

or mental agony to the woman. But, the most important aspect of this kind of violence is

the fact that it happens behind the closed doors and is most often denied by the very

woman who has been the victim of violence. It is this aspect of the crime that segregates

itself from all other kinds of social violence. Family and friends are indirect victims of

abuse. Jaising (2000) observes that the isolation and terror that victim lives with

deprives those closest to him or her from meaningful and fulfilling relationships. Often

the abuser will harm others close to the victim in an effort to hurt or control the victim.

Sood (1990) opines that an abuser may harm children, other family members, friends,

pets, personal belongings and the family home. Isolation keeps a victim trapped.

Frequently, a batterer isolates the victim from the family, socially, emotionally and

geographically. The victim is frequently forbidden to see trusted friends and family, and

is denied the opportunity to go to school or work outside the home. Hart (1993)

enunciates that there is little or no access to or control 'over finances, in the midst of this

terrible isolation, the abuser employs brainwashing tactics, and with no input to the
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contrary from anyone outside the relationship, there will be no way for the victim to test

reality.

Forms of Domestic Violence

There many types of domestic violence but we shall discuss the few below.

Physical Abuse

Physical abuse is abuse involving contact intended to cause feelings of

intimidation, pain, injury, or other physical suffering or bodily harm. It includes;

throwing things, punching, hurting, Pushing, shoving, grabbing, shaking, throwing things

at or slapping the victim., twisting arms, legs and fingers. Kicking, biting, hair pulling,

banging or shaking head. Choking, attempted strangulation, smothering. Beating up

(pinned to the wall/floor, repeated kicks and punches). Deep cuts with weapons, knives,

guns, poisoning the victim and other types of contact that result in physical injury to the

victim. Chhikara, Jakhar, Malik, Singla and Dhattarwal (2013) state that physical abuse

can also include behaviors such as denying the victim of medical care when needed,

depriving the victim of sleep or other functions necessary to live, or forcing the victim to

engage in drug/alcohol use against his/her will. If a person is suffering from any physical

harm then they are experiencing physical abuse. This pain can be experienced on any

level. It can also include inflicting physical injury onto other targets, such as children or

pets, in order to cause psychological harm to the victim.

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Emotional Abuse

Emotional abuse could be in the following ways: Rejection; direct or indirect

statements that create feelings of unworthiness. Hart (1993) explains that constant

rejection teaches a victim that she is unworthy of receiving loving behaviour. Rejection

could be used as punishment for not cooperating with an abusive partner. Abusers may

also employ rejection in an attempt to justify their anger towards the victim. Emotional

threats and accusations; direct or indirect statements made in an attempt to cause

emotional or physical harm to the victim. This includes lying about the victim's

behaviour, attitude or emotional state. Emotional blackmail; a statement or behavior that

uses fear, guilt, insecurity or confusion to trap a victim into giving the abuser power over

her. Possessive and punitive behaviour, perceiving another person as physical property

or an emotional extension of himself or herself. Behaviour includes jealousy, limiting

freedom, creating isolation, denying a person's capabilities or opportunities to develop.

Many times it includes using shame and guilt to prevent a victim from getting the

deserved support and protection. Basing relationships on unrealistic expectations; this

includes an assumption by the abuser that he or she knows what is best for the victim.

Denying someone the opportunity to discover and define himself or herself prevents the

possibility of a mutually beneficial and realistic relationship. Threats to harm or take

away children; one of the most common reasons given for resuming an abusive

relationship is the fear that the abuser will act on the threats of taking the children from

the victim, this will make the victim to still remain with the victimizer.
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Sexual Abuse

Sexual violence is any situation in which force or threat is applied to obtain

participation in unwanted sexual activity. Abu (2017 ) opines that sexual abuse usually

resulted to physical violence by forcing someone to engaged in a sexual activity. It could

be called marital rape which is the use of force to compel a person to engage in a sexual

act against once will. Marital rape occurs when a partner forces to take part in sexual act

without the victim consent. Coomaraswamy (2000) observes that sexual abuse and rape

by an intimate partner is not considered a crime in most countries, and women in many

societies do not consider forced sex as rape if they are married to, or cohabiting with, the

perpetrator. The assumption is that once a woman enters into a contract of marriage, the

husband has the right to unlimited sexual access to his wife. This idea is prevailing in

Igboland. It is very difficult for the victim to describe sexual abuse that may be coerced

by threats of further harm or actually accompanied by physical force. Most often a victim

is bullied into complying with the abuser's demands to engage in sexual acts, or at a time

when she is not physically fit for sexual activity, such as immediately after childbirth,

surgery or during illness. The shame a victim feels afterwards further ties her to the

batterer.
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Financial Abuse/ Economic Violence

Financial abuse involves victims who are financially dependent on abusers as they

have fewer resources for escape. Most times financial abuse is mostly implored by

husbands to weaken their wives economically. Economic violence is a form of violence

when one intimate partner has control over the other partner’s access to economic

resources. According to Aihie (2009), this includes stealing from or defrauding a

loved one, withholding money for essential things like food and medical treatment,

manipulating or exploiting family member for financial gain, preventing a loved one

from working or controlling his/her choice of occupation. Odimegwu and okemgbu

(2001) point out that domestic violence against women especially in form of wife battery

is women lack of money and access to sales from harvest of agricultural products. Abu

(2017) affirms that this is common in most developing society like Nigeria and

particularly the study area where agriculture is a major source of income. Many women

observe that they work in the farm with their husband and sometimes with their children,

but when the harvest comes, the sales benefits from the farm products been hijacked by

the husband and the husband control the resources to his benefits, this usually results to

violence against women in most rural areas. This happens in other family business

engagements. Husbands’ refusal for their wives to have access to family assets is

common in Igboland as they believe that women are incapacitated to handle such assets.
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Social Abuse

Social abuse is used to isolate the victim from others in the community this is

because the fewer people the victim is connected with, the more control the abuser has

over the victim. Examples of social abuse include; insisting that the couple spend all time

together, discouraging the victim from seeing friends or family, forbidding the victim to

see friends or family. Monitoring the victim's mail or phone calls, checking the odometer,

restricting access to the car or car keys, telling others the victim is crazy or abusive so

that they can distant themselves from the victim in order for the victim to feel lonely.

Causes of Domestic Violence in Igbo Society

Igbo Patriarchal System

The Igbo society just like other African society is patriarchal dominated.

According to Jakawa (2014) patriarchy is a social structure which arrogates power and

control to males while placing women at a subordinate position. It legitimises the power

of men over women, defines women in relation to men and has a pervasive influence on

how women are treated. Patriarchy is a force and an ideology that permeates all structures

and dimensions of life. It extends beyond the territory of the family. Ezema (1999)

points out that among the Igbo in the Eastern part of Nigeria, the cause of domestic

violence against women is because of patriarchy system that lays much emphasis on male

dominance which the husband is the main center of authority and decisions are taken by

men alone and this leads to violent at home. Violence arises from patriarchal notions of
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ownership over women's bodies, sexuality, labour, reproductive rights, mobility, and

level of autonomy. Deep-rooted ideas about male superiority enable men to freely

exercise unlimited power over women's lives and 'effectively legitimizes it too. Violence

is thus a tool that men use constantly to control women as a result of highly internalized

patriarchal conditioning which accords men the right to beat their wives and thus

ostensibly perform the duty of chastising them. Tenkorang, Nwabunike and Sedziafa

(2016) enunciates that in most Nigerian communities, the domestic abuse of a female

partner is widely acceptable and justified, it is therefore unquestioned and naturalized.

For instance, Odimegwu (2001) points to the Tiv- speaking people of Nigeria who

believe that wife beating is a sign of affection, and women have been socialised to accept

and sometimes encourage its presence. This belief is also made evident in the study

carried out by Oyediran and Isiugo-Abanihe (2005) which found out that more than half

of ever-married women accepted and justified wife beating and hitting as a necessary

male duty in order to assert manhood within the traditional family. The unequal and

hierarchical gender relation manifests itself clearly in the familial setup and is

accentuated by clear demarcation of sex roles and sexual division of labour. The

representation of women in Igbo can be said to be a product of gender socialisation.

Igbo society is characterised by a system of patriarchal and gender hierarchies that

portray the male as a model of power, authority and dominance. In Igbo, the family

structure (which also extends to the larger society) is such that there is a clear distinction

between men, women and children. Since power and control are assigned to men,
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especially the husbands may tend to exercise this control over their marriage partners.

Abu (2017) observes that in most patriarchal settings husbands are almost always older

than their wives, this notion operates on the assumption that age symbolises power and

authority. The age gap between husband and wife often reinforces the man’s dominance

and woman’s subordination. There is an underlying fear that if the wife is older she

would use the power and authority that age gives her over her husband. Gruber and

Szołtysek (2012) state that under strict patriarchy the headship of a household goes to the

senior male. Since patriarchy is associated with gender inequality, age differences

between men and women in marriage can be used to foster and maintain male

domination. There is no enough data to suggest that the family is the most physically

violent group or institution that the individual is likely to encounter, the perception that

the family is the most loving and supportive group or institution has blinded us from

seeing the violent side of family life. Steinmetz and Straus (1973) opines that the family

has been described as the cradle of violence and the marriage license as the hitting

license (Straus, Celles and Steinmetz, 1985). Traditional sex role socialization reinforced

the idea that the women's needs were fulfilled and their identities derived only directly

through men. Cultural norms encouraged the belief that the failure of the marriage

represented the women's failure as individuals. Thus, it is in the process of trying to save

the marriage at all costs, that women suffer from intense feelings of shame and guilt, and

this keep them trapped in their relationships (Straus ,1980). The Igbo woman is directly

or indirectly encouraged to sacrifice her own needs, feelings or interests constantly for
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the needs, feelings and interests of her children, husband or family. Ishola (2016) opines

that:

It is basically because most women look up to their husbands for everything. A

typical orientation is that women should only be concerned about women matters.

This has given the man great room to treat the woman as a piece of furniture and

to exercise control at all levels of her life. And as Africans, men cannot swallow

the pills when it becomes obvious that the woman is no longer submissive as a

slave, the man goes berserk resulting in abuse-beating. It could also happen the

other way round, that is, despite the woman’s contributions in the home, the man

remains unappreciative but suspicious of the good intentions of the woman. (p. 9).

Hence, the patriarchal system of Igbo society has fuelled domestic violence

against women.

Childlessness Problem/ Male-Child Syndrome

In Igbo culture, any marriage that is not blessed with children is not yet

considered to have achieved its aim. The Igbo value children in any wedlock. This is any

marriage without a child is not yet considered to be a fulfilled union. The reason a

woman might be ill- treated is because of the inability of the woman to bear children,

which which most times in Igbo culturr is seen as a fault from the woman rather than the

man, whereas the problem may be from both of them. The woman takes the whole blame

for the childlessness of the couple. Any woman who has not been able to bear children is
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seen as an enemy of progress and so she deserves to be treated harshly. Ishola (2016)

attests that in most cases, both her husband and in-laws can ridicule, abuse, and even beat

her at will. Many women have to contend with serious rivalry because the man is

permitted by tradition to take another wife who will bear him children. She could be

subjected to violence for not preparing meals on time, having, or being under suspicion of

having sexual relationship outside the marriage. Similar to the issue of childlessness is

the male-child syndrome.

Many Igbo men are obsessed with having male children. The failure of their

wives to give birth to male children can bring real problems for the women. According to

O. Agu (personal communication on September 1, 2019), my neighbour refused to visit

his wife in a hospital because she gave birth to a baby girl, he refused to pay the hospital

bills. The woman was abandoned to her fate. It was her family members that rescued the

situation. Therefore women who find themselves in this condition do not enjoy peace in

their matrimonial homes (Uwadiegwu, 2015). Most times when a wife has not given

birth to a male child the husband’s relatives may pressurize the husband to marry another

wife in support of this viewpointMbiti (1973) said that it is a duty, religious and

ontological for everyone to get married, and if a man has no children or only daughters he

finds another wife so that through her, children may be born who would survive him and

keep him on personal immortality. In Igbo worldview this is to uphold the phenomenon

of Ahamefula since the male children are progenitors. Childlessness has also been
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founded to be associated with a significant higher risk of intimate partner violence

(Koenig, Stephenson, Ahmed, Jejeebhoy, and Campbell, 2006)

Lack of Education and Economic Dependence of Women

Lack of education and economic dependence of women have encouraged the

greedy perpetrators of the crime. Many uneducated men have refused to accept reasons

they should not use their dominance over women negatively like wife battery and other

abuses of women in the society. Some husbands are not happy when their wives

excessively demand finance from them even if it will be used for the upkeep of the

children as they claim. So for some unenlightened husband the only way to limit this

excessive demand is to be hostile. Davies (1963) observes that women who are not

economically independent run greater risk of been abused as compared to those who are

not dependent on their husbands.

Social Stress

Stress may be increased when a person is living in a family situation, with

increased pressures. Social stresses, due to inadequate finances or other such problems in

a family may further increase tensions. Aneshensel (1992) observes that violence is not

always caused by stress, but may be one way that some people respond to stress.

Financial incapacitated families are prone to increased stress and conflicts as the

husband cannot discharge his duties of taking of the family and some wives who now

care for the family may not condone this, which can lead to disrespect, calling the
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husband all sorts of abusive names. The husband may resort to violence as way to

restore his dignity as the head of the house

Mental Illness

A husband who is not mentally stable could perpetrate domestic violence against

the wife. According to Chhikara, Jakhar, Malik, Singla, and Dhattarwal (2013), many

psychiatric disorders are risk factors for domestic violence, including several personality

disorders; all Cluster Bipolar Disorders (BPDs), (especially antisocial), paranoid and

passive-aggressive. Schizophrenia and poor impulse control are also risk factors. It is

estimated that at least one-third of all abusers have some type of mental illness (Worell,

2001).

Poverty/ Financial Issue

Lack of money has led to crisis in marriage relationships as it has destroyed many

families. Traditionally, the man is considered the bread winner of the home. He is

expected to make money available for the family upkeep. However, these days it has

become expedient for the woman to take on some kind of job either to fulfill her

professional goal or to supplement the family upkeep budget. Where this is not

forthcoming is the beginning of a danger signal, especially if the woman can ill afford to

make a substantial contribution. The danger becomes even more acute if the woman

believes the man makes more money but fails to give sufficient amount to feed the

family.
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Ishola (2016) foresights that:

The woman nags and complains in the presence of the children. She makes the

children feel that their father has failed in his duty and therefore, he is useless.

Quarrels usually ensue; even fighting, swearing and cursing become the order of

the day. Obviously, a poor emotional environment is created. The couple may

now be co-habiting and not really be living as a happy family. Love is lost and

respect is lost for one another. At this point, anything is possible. (p. 10).

On the other hand Ndungu, (2004) opines that the reproductive and productive

roles of women often place them at the bottom of the reproductive and productive roles

of women often place them at the bottom of the ladder. Uwadiegwu (2015) suggest that

women are mostly found in low paid jobs, which rob them of power to participate in

decision making, within the political, socio-economic, and cultural sphere of life as well

as in their homes. Jewkes (2002 ) asserts that families and couples in poverty may be

more likely to experience domestic violence.

Poverty in recent times has contributed to domestic violence especially nowadays

that the young generation is money centred coupled with the tendency with which the

society worships wealth without recourse to its source as it could be ascertained in this

popular Igbo saying mma nwoke bu ego. Thus, when in a home the husband cannot take

care of the family needs due to lack of money and the wife does; it may lead to the wife

trying to rub shoulder with the husband. In such a case the husband may think of

domestic violence as the only way to restore his dignity as the head of the family. Also
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some husbands consider getting money from their wives as a right and if their wives

refuse to give them it leads to beating them up or any other form of domestic violence .

Hence, Tenkorang, Nwabunike and Sedziafa (2016) assert that some intimate couples

learn to use violence to resolve disputes during stressful situations such as financial

problems

Family Upbringing and Moral Value

An individual’s upbringing and moral values play a major role in the way that a

person treats others, especially the family members. “Often, abusive parents grew up in

homes where their parents were emotionally uninvolved, physically absent, abusive,

involved in substance abuse or caught up in the world of success “(Rosenberger,1989:

29). This issue may be one of the least reasons for domestic violence but it seems to be

very foundational to the various causes of domestic violence. Ishola (2016) affirms that:

A man who grew up in a family where the father does not respect the mother or

grew up to believe that one can beat the wife because that was what the father

always did to the mother will equally do the same to his own wife; he will become

a wife beater. It is sad and so unfortunate that some husbands beat their wives

openly in the presence of their children. Some men even bring their sex partners

and concubines to their matrimonial homes and the wife dare not say a word, and

sadly their children are watching all of these. Such children will grow up and do

worse than the father unless God takes control of their lives. (pp. 8-9).
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Addiction to Hard Drugs and Alcohol

Addiction to hard drugs and alcohol is not only detrimental to health but could

give rise to domestic violence in marriage. Wells and Graham (cited by Ifeanyichukwu,

Paul and Duru, 2017 ) assert that there is a strong evidence of relationship between heavy

drinking and aggression. Some incidences of DV are traceable to drugs and alcoholism.

Here also the underlying premise is that men are ‘naturally’ violent and this is unleashed

by use of substances. Alcohol consumption is found mostly at the root of most DV in the

family. Alcohol lowers inhibition and increases feeling of aggression. According to

Awolowo (2013) when a person, it could be a man or woman is now doing drug, he or

she becomes a danger to those around him or her. Consumption of alcohol beyond the

capacity of the offender or victim has tendency of instigating heated argument, squabbles

and use of offensive languages, which may lead to violent confrontation between spouses

(Ifeanyichukwu, Paul and Duru, 2017). Oforchukwu (2010) posits that in the face of

alcohol abuse, the family falls into danger as alcohol has ruined some homes in the

Nigerian families. When a man gets drunk, he may beat up his wife and children under

the influence of alcohol or hard drug. Mouzos and Makkai (2004) argued that among

women who experience intimate partner violence, the most identifiable male perpetrators

behaviour was drinking habits. Many DV against women happen during alcohol related

incidents and many women are severely abused by perpetrators who use alcohol and

drugs frequently.
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Suspicion About Sexual Infidelity/ Jealousy

Cheating a spouse may lead to spousal relationship turning violent.

Ifeanyichukwu, Paul and Duru (2017) observe that:

Culturally, society sees men as philanderers whose sexuality cannot be checked

by their spouses. This could hurt a woman and also push her to explore the option

of extra-marital relationship in order to get back at her husband. Some women go

extra mile to bring their male friends into their marital homes or abandon marital

sanctity to open display of amorous attitude towards other men. There is no law

that says a woman whose husband is a cheat cannot do likewise, but it is advisable

for a woman to apply utmost discretion and decorum ingoing after revenge. Often

it is advisable for the woman to quit the union peacefully than to make a mockery

of her own family by engaging in immoral relationships outside marriage, for the

day you mock your spouse by engaging in amoral relationship with another man

or flaunt your extra-marital affairs to his face, that means you are already

preparing to return to your father's house or retire to your permanent resting place.

(p. 59).

Many cases of domestic violence against women occur due to jealousy when one

partner is either suspected of being unfaithful or is planning to leave the relationship

(Shorey, Cornelius and Bell, 2008).

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Bad Characters

In Igbo culture it is believed that Ezigbo agwa bu mma nwanyi the beauty of a

woman lies in her good characters. During Iju ese nwanyi ( pre-marital enquiry ), if it

is found out that the young lady does not have good characters the parents of the young

man will not approve such marriage as well as other relatives. Although nowadays Iju ese

nwanyi is neglected by many Igbo people. So any home where the women has bad

characters there is the possibility for her to experience DV either from the husband or

the husband’s relatives.

Effects of Domestic Violence Against Women

There are diverse effects of domestic violence which includes the following:

Physical Injury

Bruises, red or purple eye patches, broken wrists, legs, heads, are some of the

physical manifestations in the body of victims of domestic violence. Some of these marks

are deliberately done to leave a permanent or indelible mark on victims by their violators.

For instance, occasional sexual molestation, rape, forced sex, acid attacks, knife cuts and

use of other dangerous instruments in course of the act. Ifeanyichukwu, Paul and Duru

(2017) observes that often victims find it difficult to tell others of their experiences as

some are of the view that nobody will understand them and decide to bear their pain

alone, while some fear that exposing these abuses to other persons will incur more wrath

of the abuser.
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Death

Domestic violence could lead to death especially physical abuse of the victim.

Esplen (2006) notes that generally, across the globe, domestic violence against

women is carried out by men, inform of riots and account for the overwhelming majority

of fire arm related injuries and deaths. Victims of DV contact diseases like internal

bleeding, Sexually Transmitted Diseases which could lead to death. Most times the

victimizer may not allow the victim to take appropriate medical treatment which can

lead to death of victims. It could be that maternal deaths during pregnancy were as a

result of DV.

Impact on Women’s Reproductive Health

A growing number of studies show that DV affects the health of women in numerous

ways.

Trauma of Forced sex

In many parts of the world, marriage is taken as granting men the right to have

sexual relations with their wife and to use force and power to demand sex from the wife

even if she does not want sex. Sexual coercion ranges from rape to different forms of

pressure, force and fear that compel girls to have sex against their will. Heise and

Germain (1994) find out that:

Women agree to have sex even if they do not want it because of fear of violence

from their husbands, in many societies married women from the reproductive age
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group cannot refuse sex with their husband because of fear of beatings from

them. Forced sexual initiation could be extremely traumatic for many young

women. Studies in Africa show that many women experience forced sexual

initiation at very young ages. Even within marriage, the first sexual experience is

very traumatic for women, especially in those parts of the world where women are

not given adequate information on sex.

(p. 200).

Since Iru Mgbede (seclusion rite) seems to be neglected some young Igbo girls

have a vague idea of what to expect on the traditional/ wedding night. Khan (1999)

quips that married young girls may found their first sexual experience extremely

traumatic.

Unwanted Pregnancies

Lack of autonomy and powerlessness can lead to unwanted pregnancies among

the women as the women do not have the right to deny sex with their husbands nor ca n

they use any form of contraception. Khan (1999) finds out that abused women were

twice as likely to have four or more children than those who were not abused, forced sex

could lead to unintended pregnancies. Men who involved in forced sex with their wives

were likely than other men to cause an unplanned pregnancy.

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Increase Rate of Sexually Transmitted Infections

Domestic violence could lead to the victim to contact Sexually Transmitted Infections

especially tape. Ganatral (1998) observes that many studies have shown that women are

afraid to bring up the issues of contraception with their husbands because of the fear of

being beaten up. Husbands do not like their wives to use contraception in some cultures

because of the fear that this might encourage their wives to be unfaithful. Having many

children can be considered as a sign of virility by the husbands and the desire from the

wife to use contraception as a challenge to his masculinity. Unprotected sex can also

increase the risk of women who are unable to negotiate condom use with their partners to

a number of sexually transmitted diseases (STIs) and Human Immune Various (HIV)

especially when their husbands are having extra marital affairs.

Miscarriage and Bleeding

Domestic violence against pregnant women could lead to miscarriage and

bleeding. Heise and Germain (1994)note that women experiencing violence before

andduring pregnancy are found to be more likely to delay check-ups and treatment

duringpregnancy, have less weight gain, they are also prone to, vaginal and

cervicalinfections, kidney infections and bleeding during pregnancies . DV is also linked

with adverse pregnancy outcomes such as abortions, miscarriages, premature labour and

foetal distress. DV during pregnancy leads to low birth weight. It can also indirectly

affect the pregnancy by influencing the woman’s health behaviour such as alcoholism,
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smoking and substance abuse. Stress and anxiety because of DV can also affect a

pregnant woman leading to preterm deliveries, decreased food intake. Ishola (2016)

affirms that women who are battered during pregnancy are at higher risk of pre-mature or

more complicated delivery.

Economic Multiplier Effects

These take into consideration the economic impact of violence on the life of the

woman as well as on economic productivity. Violence has been found to lead to

decreased labour participation of the women, reduced productivity at work and lower

earnings affecting the quality of life of the woman. It could be that some women have

lost their jobs as a direct effect of abuse. They are burden by the troubles at home as such

may not concentrate in doing their business as normal, this may lead to the lost of

customers, failure to accomplish organizational goal, non cooperation in team work and

many alike which could lead to her dismissal from office. For others their husbands may

refuse them to work on the grounds of infidelity so they become house wives by force

and any attempt to engage in productivity their husbands may threat of sending them

back to their parents.

Divorce

Although this is rare in Igbo society, but many young couples especially the wives

file divorce cases on the grounds of domestic violence. The magistrate courts in Nigeria

are daily being inundated by divorce cases as one reads the daily newspapers, these cases
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of divorce are attributed to love lost in many homes (Awolowo, 2014) due to domestic

violence. Adekunle (2018) reports that pastor Ijeoma Okoli of Rhema Pentecostal Church

and Ifeanyi Okoli dissolved their 11years marriage over domestic violence.

Depression/Insomnia

Victims of domestic abuse are always in a state of depression. Experiences of

their ordeal in the hands of loved ones leaves them emotionally drained and induce

feeling of restlessness and temporary sadness. Ifeanyichukwu, Paul and Duru (2017)

attests that depressive feeling can also trigger other life threatening feelings in victims

such as helplessness, hopelessness, weight loss, loss in appetite, loss of interest in

activities going on around someone, unexpected bitterness and lack of ability to take

decisions, and in most extreme cases nurturing of suicidal tendencies or feeling of losing

the zeal to live. Often victims find it difficult to tell others of their experiences and end up

living with the trauma, pain and sense of disillusionment.

Stigmatization

Stigmatization is one of the factors that cause victims of domestic violence to

remain silent. Ishola (2016) confirms that:

Stigmatization is surely an issue as it causes victims to keep quiet and not cry out

for help. The greatest challenge however is the poor response from the criminal

justice system (police and courts) and social service providers (hospitals, social

welfare) to victims and their families/friends. (p. 13).

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This has caused many Igbo women who experience domestic violence to die in

silence.

Church Response to Domestic Violence

To every problem there is a solution and domestic violence as a family problem has

various ways it could be curbed to the barest minimum. Here, we shall examine the

effective role of the church to ameliorate domestic violence.

Church and Social Change in Igboland

The Church makes efforts to transform the society to greater heights. According

to Diara and Nche (2013) the team Church Missionary Society (CMS) with Crowther the

leader arrived at Onitsha on July 26, 1857, and on July 27 they were formally welcome

by the traditional ruler of Onitsha, Obi Akazua and his elders-in-council. The church was

then planted and the mission successfully inaugurated in Igboland. The CMS now church

of Nigeria (Anglican Communion) thus became the mother of the Christian mission in

Igboland in 1857.

Mike (2015) views that Jesus unfailingly respected the human dignity of women

and went off his way to help the most vulnerable women. Onyenucheya (2012) observes

that:

Christianity has always recognized the personality of the woman and the human

values they represent. In somewhat exaggerated but true manner, the American
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divine, Herrick John (1832-1913) has instructively pointed out that Christianity

has lifted women to a new place in human life. (p. 35).

In connection with the above assertion, Onyeidu (2004) states that “the

emancipation of women… is one of the most important contributions of Christianity to

our society” (p. 48). Iwe (cited by Onyenucheya, 2012) notes that in view of its human

character, Christianity has, in various nations demonstrated itself a custodian and

promoter of human values. This was witnessed in Igboland. In support of Iwe’s view

Onyenucheya (2012) affirms that the activities of the early missionaries in the East of the

Niger brought about so many changes in the lives of the Igbo people especially among

the women. Ozioko (2010) claims that Christianity brought about the emancipation of

women through the following ways: Christian education of women, restoration of

fundamental rights, religious and social emancipation, the struggle against early marriage

and many more. There are many Christian approaches to respond and to ameliorate DV

in Igboland. These approaches include:

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Marriage Seminars

The Church organizing marriage seminars for both married and intending

couples is paramount. During the seminar teachings about joy and pains of marriage

should be taught to them. Aihie (2009) avows that Churches should organize seminars

and outreach programmes where professional counselors are invited to enlighten her

members and the people on the need for a violence free society with the home as the

cradle. During marriage seminars Alokan(2013) opines that religious leaders should

vigorously teach against marital violence in their places of worship. Ishola (2016) points

that more emphasis should be laid on discipleship training by the church when believers

are well discipled they will see the evil in domestic violence and do everything possible

to avoid it in their homes. He further states that enlightenment and continuing

enlightenment in the form of seminars, workshops, talk shows, and Sunday sermons

should be organized regularly within and outside the Church and by various organs of the

Church to educate the congregation. This is cogent since Mbwirire (2017) observes that

lack of teaching on marriage life could be seen on couples failing to resolve minor issues

also majority of the marriages lack proper knowledge to use during difficulties they

experience in their marriage life. This will help to educate men and women on their

rights and responsibilities, and expose them to various facilities of government and

organizations that are involved in taking care of victims of domestic violence. The church

should encourage, as much as possible, couples to be open to each other in truth and

sincerity about financial and material management. Hence, effective teaching on marriage
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matters would help couples build stronger family ties and avoid domestic violence which

sometimes leads to divorce that is not supported by the church.

Transformative Preaching and Teaching on Love

Teaching about love in marriage is needful. Miriti (2009) elucidates that pastors

can play an important role in prevention of domestic violence through their sermons in

church. There is need to for the clergymen to thoroughly teach on the indices of love in

marriage in order for couples to understand the importance of love in marriage. An ideal

marriage is generally based on love which is the foundation of marriage and cordial

relationship in human relation. From the Christian perspective without love in marriage

such marriage will collapse hence, there is need to understand the intricacy of love in

marriage. It is the duty of the husband to love the wife Eph.5:25 while the wife is duty

bound to submit to the husband Eph.5:22 both duties must be done in love. It is only love

that can conquer the hurdles of marriage. When love exists in marriage it brings

forgiveness when there is an offence between couples 1Pet.4:8, it brings tolerance, self-

control, endurance, it removes jealousy, selfishness and anger between couples and so on

1Cor.13:4-7. If couples would understand the benefit of love in marriage and practice it

in their marital life, domestic violence would be curtailed.

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Effective Marriage Course/ Counseling and Mandatory Attendance

Marriage course is a tradition in most Nigerian churches. This should be made

more effective with compulsory attendance by intending couples. Ishola (2016)

enunciates that pre marital counseling should be made compulsory for intending couples

and should cover areas of domestic violence. This counseling session should be well

handled by the pastor, and if possible, it should be handled by an expert marriage

counselor. Alokan(2013) is of the view that comprehensive and extensive premarital

counseling should be given to intending couples on how to manage their marital

relationship Young couples planning to get married should be guided on the ways to

avoid violence in the intimate relationship of marriage.

Visitation and Prayer

The family is one of the basic institutions in the society, if the foundation is

shaken by family crisis like broken marriage and domestic violence it breeds trouble to

the entire society. The devil always use family crisis like broken marriage and domestic

violence to fight the institution of marriage in order for it not to be stable. This is

because if the family is stable children would be trained with moral values which will

help to reduce immorality in the society. The presence of family crisis has destroyed

many homes in the society. In Christian perspective, prayer is one of the spiritual

weapons to overcome the traps of the devil. The clergymen should visit and pray for

homes where family crisis is prevalent. Ishola (2016) confirms that:

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Visitation to homes by the church members where domestic violence is prevalent

will go a long way to helping such homes stop the evil. As church members visit,

counsel and pray with families experiencing domestic violence, they will be

helped to see the foolishness of the acts of domestic violence and thereby stop it.

(p. 14).

The church constant prayers on families experiencing DV will surely bring divine

intervention in such family and restore peace and happiness between couples.

Church Teaching on Equality

Christianity has clear stands on the treatment of women. Mike (2015) affirms that

Christianity teaches that men and women are created equal by God. Equality of all sexes

enhances self understanding and rationality of male and female counterparts and so

psychologically guaranteed a healthy relationship between them. The Bible should be

taught in such way that it will effectively promote cordial relationship and unity of

purpose between husbands and wives among Igbo Christians. By so doing, the rate of

DV would be curtailed in the society.

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Inculturation of Valuable Indigenous Practices Into Church Liturgy

The process of accepting valuable indigenous practices by the Church could be a

veritable tool to counter DV in Igbo society. According to Mike (2015):

This can be done by refining Igbo traditional worldview of women as subordinate

and second class citizens of the society. The cultural view that women are

property of men for production of children and weaker sexes could be

contextualized into Christian view of men and women equality. (p. 114).

The Church should accept, inculturate and encourage her members to practice

Iru Mgbede (seclusion rite). Nwankwo (2016) avows that:

Iru Mgbede is one Igbo socio-cultural institution that is set up with the view to

prepare girls for responsible adulthood and possible marriage. This seclusion

affords the younger ladies the opportunity to receive from the elderly women the

codes of cultural conducts and their roles as wives and mothers in various

communities. It molds the girl into a responsible, self-confident and hardworking

woman. (p. 166).

This will help to savage DV in homes and prevent divorce in marriages.

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Promotion of Women’s Rights

Human right is the compendium of human existence. Hence, women should be

given their due rights. Mike (2015) avows that:

Women have the dignity which should be respected by the government and the

society. The government should on his own part, promulgate into law

declarations, conventions and resolutions on women’s rights where the laws of the

land do not or make offences against women. Religious agencies and non-

governmental organizations such as National Orientation Agency, and Women’s

Right Advancement and Protection Alternative’s (WRAPA) should as their

primary missions improve the social welfare-and legal rights of Igbo women, by

removing various forms of deprivations, discriminations and degradation that

make it difficult for women to contribute rightfully to national development.

(p. 114).

Paul (1981) asserts that both men and women are human beings to equal degree.

The women have full and equal human rights both politically, economically, culturally

and ecclesial as benefits the human persons. All women and men are individuals worthy

of respect and dignity even in terms of marital rights.

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If these religious approaches are duly followed in handling domestic violence in

families, the occurrence of DV will be reduced to the barest minimum.

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CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION

Men, women, children and the elderly ones could be victims of domestic

violence of which women are the most vulnerable in Igboland. In Western society

domestic violence is considered as a crime against human dignity and laws are stipulated

to punish offenders. It is surprising that in Igbo society the justice system and the law

enforcement agencies do not take reported cases of domestic violence against women as

much serious as other violent crimes whereby the offender should be prosecuted. Rather

they conceive it as a family affair which should be settled within the family cycle. This

orientation has to be changed and justice should be allowed to its course against domestic

violence offenders. Women are indispensable and integral part of both the Church and

the society thus anything that would hinder their immense contribution to societal

development and the growth of the Church such as domestic violence should be put to a

stop by the Church. The Church with her strategic values should contribute immensely

to ameliorate domestic against women in Igboland .

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ON DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN IN GEORGIA, NATIONAL
RECCCCHHQQ@@@@@@@@@@@@222SEARCH ON DOMESTIC
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Nwaozuru, Johnmajor Chinecherem hails from Umukalu Ntigha in

IsialaNgwa North Local Government Abia State. His First School

Leaving Certificate was obtained at Golf Course Primary School II

while his West African Examination Certificate was at Adonai

College all in Aba. He obtained B.A in Religion and Human

Relations in Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka. He carried out his

NYSC programme in Furmi Magu Ward, Sardauna Local

Government, Taraba State 2019-2020. He is proficient in web

programming and development (frontend and backend), computer

networking, CCTV installation. He authored his first book in 2019

titled Socio-economic Appraisal of Football Betting Among Nigerian

Youths: Blessing or Burden. He has many other books and articles to

his credit listed below:

(1). Appraisal of Social Media Among Undergraduates in Nigeria: Blessing or Burden.

(2019).

(2) . The Menace of Petroleum Pipeline Vandalism: A Case Study of Osisioma Ngwa
Local Government Area, Abia State Nigeria. (2019).

(3). The Menace of Baby Factory in Nigeria: A call for Prompt Action. (2019).

(4). The Survival of African Traditional Religion Amidst Foreign Religions in Nigeria.
(2019)
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(5) Church and the fight against kidnapping in Nigeria. (2020).

(6) Students and sports betting in Nigeria. (2020).

(7) A Critical appraisal of Christian healing ministry in Nigeria. (2020).

(8) The menace of cultism among Nigerian youths. (2020).

(9) The predicaments of broken marriage on children. (2020).

(10) Christian appraisal of feminist ideologies among Nigerian women. (2020).

(11) Christian appraisal of feminist ideologies among Nigerian women. (2020).

(12) Church response to domestic violence against Igbo women of SouthEastern

Nigeria.(2020).

(13) A clarion call for proactive participation in politics by Nigerian Christians. (2020).

(14) The quest to get rich quick by Nigerian youths. (2020).

(15) My NYSC experience (focuse on some cultural practices of Mambilla and Kaka
ethnic groups) (2020).

ARTICLES

(1) Seychelles 2020 presidential election: A lesson for contemporary Nigerian

Christians.

(2) Biblical support to the use of plants for medicinal purposes: In African
perspective.

SOME OF THE BOOKS ARE AVAILABLE AT www.bambooks.io

FOR THE ARTICLES VISIT www.owupress.com and scribd.com
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