Computing Fundamentals Module Mergedby Jezza

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING
CHAPTER 1: COMPUTING ESSENTIALS

LESSON 1 – WHAT IS COMPUTER SCIENCE?
What is Computer Science?
As previously defined we said that Computer is a tool that does the
processing of data, right? But how about we go deeper to the science behind
this computer? Let’s now dig-in through the history of computer and later let’s
define what computer science is and who the father of computer science is?
In the early 1800’s, Charles Babbage an English mathematician

developed the first computer which is really intended to do only calculations.
This project of Mr. Babbage was funded by the English government and
unfortunately became a failure. But because of unending development, Mr.
Herman Hollerith in the year 1890’s designs the punch card system that is used
for the national census. Mr. Hollerith also established a company that eventually
became IBM in 1911.
Figure 1.1 – Picture of Mr. Babbage’s Invention (Left) and Picture of Mr.
Hollerith’s Invention (Right)
After the discovery of Mr. Hollerith; J.V. Atanasoff, physics and

mathematics guru and his graduate students decided to build the first computer
that they can use to solve equations simultaneously. Imagine, during as early as
this year, computers are already used for Mathematics computation.
In 1943, Mr. Mauchly and Presper began the development of the

Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC) which was known as
the grandfather of digital computers.
This ENIAC machine, which was officially completed on February

1946, “was enormous because it occupied the 50x30 ft. room where its 40
panels are arranged. It has approximately, 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000
resistors, 10,000 capacitors, 6,000 switches and 1,500 relays (Source:
Brittanica.com)”. Imagine how big the first computer is? But this computer was
first used to do the calculations for the construction of the hydrogen bomb. In
the same year, when the two gentlemen received a funding from the
government, they both leave the University of Pennsylvania to build another
version of ENIAC called UNIVAC, the first commercial computer for business
and government use.
Figure 1.2 – Pictures of Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator

(ENIAC) and Universal Automatic Computer 1 (UNIVAC)
In 1953, a lady name Grace Hopper develops the first computer

language called COBOL. While in 1954, the FORTRAN programming
language is also born. The Integrated Circuit (IC) known to be a Computer Chip
which is the heart of the computer was conceived in year 1958.
And in the year 1970, Intel Company unveils their first Dynamic
Random Access Memory (DRAM) chip. The following year, Shugart leads the
creation of the floppy disk, where data can be saved as external storage. In 1973,
a research staff from Xerox Company named Robert Metcalfe develops the
Ethernet. During the year 1975, IBM Company releases their first commercially
available portable computer that is called IBM 5100. While in 1976, Steve Jobs
together with Steve Wozniak start the Apple Computer.
Figure 1.3 – Pictures of the first floppy disk and the IBM 5100
In 1981, the first IBM personal computer was introduced to the market
and this computer uses Microsoft MS-DOS operating system and the rest was
history. If you will notice this brief history, the common use of computer was
to solve, or compute that’s why Computing Science indeed is a very huge topic.
And this module will be covering the Essentials or the Fundamentals of that
Science.
Now, let’s define what Computing Science is? According to

MerriamWebsite.com dictionary “Computer Science is a branch of science that
deals with the theory of computation or the design of computers”. So when we
say Computing Science it means that we will go deeper on what’s inside a
computer and what makes it work because for the next years in this program,
you will be learning a lot of this. Like from the basic programming to advance
object oriented techniques, from basic computer hardware parts to advance
computer troubleshooting, from configuring a single computer to connecting
different computer in one local area network (group of computers) and many
more.
That’s how big computing Science is? Just another fact: Do you know
who the Father of Modern Computer Science is? It’s Alan Turing. So let’s know
who this man was? According to ReadWrite.com “Mr. Alan Turing was born in
June 23, 1912 at Paddington, London.” He was considered the father of modern
computer science because of his great contribution to the computing world like
the Turing Machine and the cracking of German Enigma Codes during the
World War II.
Figure 1.4 – Picture of Mr. Alan Turing and the Turing Bombes
The next topics for this chapter will expose you to the different basic
terminologies in Computer Science and Information Technology/Information
Systems as preparation for your further studies.
LESSON 2 – INFORMATION SYSTEM VS INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Information System vs. Information Technology
Computer Science is a big bunch of knowledge and into it is this two

terms: Information Systems and Information Technology. It is commonly
debated that this two terms are just the same or similar and in this module we
will be discussing and differentiating them. But first let’s describe it one by
one.
Information System is an integrated set of components for collecting,

storing, and processing data and for delivering information, knowledge and
digital products. This definition came from the Britanica.com. It means that
when we study Information System we are dealing with a much bigger circle
than what we have in Information Technology because Information System is
not only focussing on the set of instructions or algorithm that the computer
can understand to process, store and deliver information in an organized
manner but it includes the people or the persons around doing the
interpretation of raw data into useful information.
And according to Computing Essentials book of O’Leary, Information

System is composed of five parts: 1) People, 2) Procedure, 3) Software, 4)
Hardware and 5) Data. Let’s discuss it one by one:
1) People – are commonly overlook as one part of the information

system because the reason why we are creating system is to make
people especially end-user more productive.
2) Procedure – The guidelines for people to follow when using the

software, hardware, and data. These procedures are organized in
manuals written by computer specialist. Software and hardware
manufacturers provide manuals with their products. This procedure
manual can be either in printed form or electronic form.
3) Software – A program consists of the step-by-step instruction that

tells the computer how to do its work. Software is another name for a
program or programs. The purpose of software is to convert data
Fig 1.5 –People, Procedure, (unprocessed facts) into information (processed facts).
Software, Hardware and Data
4) Hardware – The equipment that processes the data to create
information. It includes keyboards, mouse, monitor, system units and
other devices. Hardware is controlled by software.
LESSON 2 – INFORMATION SYSTEM VS INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
5) Data – the raw, unprocessed facts including text, numbers, images

and sounds. Processed data yields information.
We will elaborate more of that in the next chapters of this course

module. But now let’s define what Information Technology? A while ago, we
tell that Information System includes Information technology and according to
Merriam-Webster.com dictionary again “Information Technology involves the
development, maintenance and use of computer systems, software and
networks for the processing and distribution of data”.
With this definition, we can clearly say that Information Technology is

much more focus in the use of the computer technology than what we have in
general. In information technology, we directly deals with the parts of the
computer, components of a network, programming languages, compilers,
software and many more.
That’s why in the next part of this chapter, we will be discussing some
of the known software technologies.
LESSON 3 – SOFTWARE AND HARDWARE TECHNOLOGIES
Software Technologies
Software based on O’leary’s definition is the other term for program
and according to him program is the set of instructions that tells the computer
how to process data into the form you want. That’s why, softwares are not
only found in computers, it can also be found in other devices like TVs,
Refrigerators, Mobile Phones, Clocks and etc. Why? Because these devices
have Integrated Chips (IC) inside and inside those IC’s are set of instructions
(programs/algorithms) that allows it to function or move.
According to webopedia.com “Software is traditionally divided into

two different categories: System Software and Application Software. However,
in addition to the two categories, an entire new batch of wares has entered the
computer vernacular in recent years.”
Webopedia.com also defined the “System software as software that

sits directly on top of your computer’s hardware components. It includes the
range of software you would install to your system that enables it to function.
This includes the operating systems, drivers for your hardware devices, linkers
and debuggers. System software can also be used for managing computer
resources. System software is designed to be used by the computer system
itself, not human users.” System software according to O’leary is a collection
of software that is classified as Operating Systems, Utilities and Device
Drivers. Operating systems are programs that coordinate computer resources,
provide an interface between users and the computer and run applications.
Fig 1.6 – Logo of different Operating System and Application Softwares
While Application Software from webopedia.com is defined as

Software designed to be used by end-users. Application software, in essence,
sits on top of system software, as it is unable to run without the operating
system and other utilities. Application Software includes things like database
programs, word processors and spreadsheets, e-mail applications, computer
games, graphic programs and such. Generally, people will refer to
applications software as software. Application Software according to O’leary
is categorized as General-Purpose or Special-Purpose Applications. General
purpose applications or basic applications are kinds of programs that you have
to know to be considered as computer competent. And Special-Purpose
Applications or advanced applications are programs that are more narrowly
focused on specific discipline and occupations.
After we discussed some introduction concepts on software

technologies, let’s now proceed on the Hardware technology side.
Hardware Technologies
When we say Hardware, we are dealing with the physical computer
(tangible parts of the computer, which you can touch and see). Since the birth
of computer, it is classified into four types namely: Super Computer,
Mainframe Computer, Minicomputer and Microcomputer.
Let us define each types of computer and the definition I will be using
is based from byte-notes.com. So let’s now begin with Super Computer,
Super Computer according to byte-notes.com is the “most powerful computer
in terms of performance and data processing. These are specialized and task
specific computers used by large organizations. These computers are used for
research and exploration purposes, like NASA uses super computers for
launching space shuttles, controlling them and for space exploration purposes.
Super computers are very expensive and very large in size. It can be
accommodated in large air-conditioned rooms; some super computers can
span an entire building. Seymour Cray is the one who designed the first super
computer CDC 6600 in 1964.”
Fig 1.7 – Picture of Playstation Power Air-force SuperComputer

Now, let’s move on to Mainframe Computers. “Mainframe computers

are not as powerful as supercomputers, but certainly they are quite expensive
nonetheless, and many large firms and government organizations uses
mainframes to run their business operations. The mainframe computers can be
accommodated in large air-conditioned rooms because of its size. Super-
computers are the fastest computer with large data storage capacity,
Mainframes can also process and store large amount of data. Banks
educational institutions and insurance companies use mainframe computer to
store data about their customers, students and insurance policy holders. Some
of the popular mainframe computers are Fujitsu’s ICL VME and Hitachi’s
Z800.”
Fig 1.8 – Picture of IBM 360 Mainframe Computer
Next, in line are the Minicomputers. “Minicomputers are used by

small business and firms. Minicomputers are also called as “Midrange
Computers”. These are small machines and can be accommodated on a disk
with not as processing and data storage capabilities as super-computer and
mainframes. These computers are not designed for a single user. Individual
departments of a large company or organization use Mini-computers for
specific purpose. Some of the popular mainframe computers are K-202, Texas
Instrument TI-990, SDS-92 and IBM Midrange Computers.”
Fig 1.9 – Picture of Mini-Computer
Last but not the least is what we call Microcomputers.

“Microcomputers are widely used and fastest growing computers. It includes
desktop computers, laptops, personal digital assistant, tablets and smart
phones. These computers are the cheapest among the other three types of
computers. Micro-computers are specially designed for general usage like
entertainment, education and work purposes. Well known manufacturers of
Micro-Computers are Dell, Apple, Samsung, Sony and Toshiba.”
Fig 1.10 – Picture of Different Microcomputers
And those are the four classifications of computer. Now, you know
that what you have at home is only the micro-computers. I suggest if you want
to see how a mini-computer, super-computer and mainframe computers. You
can search Youtube.com for videos. In the next chapters, we will be dealing
with the parts of the computer and how to it works but for the next lesson, we
will be discussing on the Hierarchy of Data and what information is all about?
LESSON 4 – DATA AND INFORMATION
Data and Information

Data according to La Putt (1984) is any collection of facts. Thus, sales
reports, inventory figures, test scores, customers’ name and addresses, and
weather reports are all example of data. Even photographs, drawings, and
maps are considered data as well. Data can be numerical or non-numerical.
And with the so called Era of technology nowadays, Data are considered as
the asset of the ones company.
But what is the difference of Information with Data? According to

oxforddictionaries.com “Information are data that is processed, stored and
transmitted by a computer.” It only means that data are just raw inputs, maybe
fields from a survey form or registration form. But once this data is processed
or transferred into a computer this raw data became useful information that an
organization or institution should be treasuring of.
Are you familiar with what we call the Hierarchy of Data? According
to Wikipedia.com Hierarchy of Data or Data Hierarchy is the systematic
organization of data, often in a hierarchical form.
Fig 1.11 – Hierarchy of Data and Its Example

Now, let us discuss and define each hierarchy form, so that you will
have a clearer view on what it is?
1) Bits – According to techterms.com is the short for “Binary Digit”.

The smallest unit of measurement used to quantify computer data.
It contains a single binary value of 0 or 1. Later on in this chapter,
we will be discussing more of the number system.
2) Bytes - According to techterms.com is a unit of measurement used

to measure data. One byte contains eight binary bits, or a series of
eight zeros and ones. Therefore, each byte can be used to represent
2^8 or 256 different values. When we combine multiple bytes, we
can create a field.
3) Fields - According to webopedia.com is a space allocated for a

particular item of information. A tax form, for example contains a
number of fields: one for your name, one for your social security
number, one for your income, and so on. Thus, combining different
form fields can create a record.
4) Records – According to techterms.com is a database entry that

may contain one or more values. Group of records are stored in a
table, which defines what types of data each record may contain.
Databases may contain multiple tables which may each contain
multiple records. Records are often called rows since each new
record creates a new row in the table. Individual fields are
sometimes called columns since they are the same for each record
within a table. Multiple records can result to a file.
5) Files – According to About.com is a self contained piece of

information available to any number of individual programs. This
file is a collection of different records and the collection of files
can create a database.
6) Databases – According to Britannica.com is any collection of data

or information that is specially organized for rapid search and
retrieval by a computer.
And this ends our lesson about the hierarchy of data or the Data
Hierarchy. But the learning doesn’t stop in that because the next topic is
another crucial and important lesson in the world of computer science and that
is the Number System. In this next lesson, we will be discussing some of the
known number system in computing science like binary, decimal, octal and
hexadecimal. We will also be dealing with the steps on how to convert binary
to decimal, octal to decimal and etc. And lastly, is that in the next lesson.
Students will learn how to do the basic mathematical operations with these
new number systems that you will learn. So let us define now what a number
system is?
Number system also known as numeral system according to

Wikipedia.com is a writing system for expressing numbers, that is, a
mathematical notation for representing numbers of a given set, using digits or
other symbols in a consistent manner. It can be seen as the context that allows
the symbols “11” to be interpreted as the binary symbol for three, the decimal
symbol for eleven, or a symbol for other numbers in different bases.
Do you know that the most commonly used system of numerals is the
Hindu-Arabic numeral system! According to Wikipedia.com, Two Indian
mathematicians are credited with developing it. Some other names that is
incorporated with this numeral system are Aryabhata of Kusumapura who
developed the place-value notation in the 5th century and also Brahmagupta
who introduced the symbol for zero.
Fig. 1.12 – Photos of Aryabhata (Left) & Brahmagupta (Right)
According to La Putt (1984) In counting, the simplest system is not the

decimal system, but a one-to-one comparison between the objects to be
counted and the count, or tally. Thus, a checker makes a single mark each
time one bag of a shipment of cement bags is delivered to a warehouse and
keeps account of the delivery by tallying up the total number of marks and
that is called Unitary System. This system is still very popular for making a
count of things. In the unitary system, you add or subtract by making more
groups of single marks or by crossing some out, as necessary.
Another counting system that Mr. La Putt introduced in his book

Introduction to Computer Concepts is the Decimal System. The Decimal
system according to hm is the counting system that is widely used. It is based
upon the ten fingers of a man. In decimal system the following digits are used:
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. These symbols are called the Arabic numerals.
The decimal number system is simple since it is necessary to learn only the 10
basic numerals and the positional notation system in order to count to any
desired figure.
According to tutorialspoint.com, the value of each digit in a number

can be determined using the digit, the position of the digit in the number, the
base of the number system (where base is defined as the total number of digits
available in the number systems). Living in the Information Technology and
Computing Ages there are various number systems that we encounter like
Binary Number System, Octal Number System and Hexa-Decimal Number
System.So let us define and discuss it one by one.
1) Binary Number System – According to La Putt (1984) is a method of

notation that can be used to describe the setting of binary components.
This binary system is the positional numeration system to the base 2.
Binary notation uses only two symbols: 0 and 1. In any position of the
notation, the symbol 0 represents the absence of an assigned value; the
symbol 1 represents the presence of an assigned value. Now let’s
proceed with conversion of Binary numbers into Decimal numbers.
Using the tutorialspoint.com way of coverting Binary numbers to
Decimal, let us follow the step by step
Fig. 1. 13 – Steps in Calculating Binary to Decimal Digits.
2) Octal Number Systems – According to La Putt (1984) was adapted

because of the difficulty of dealing with long strings of binary 0s and
1s in converting them to decimals.Binary numbers are extremely
akward to read or handle. It requires many more positions for data than
any other numbering system and the octal number systems overcomes
this problem since it is essentially shorthand method for replacing
group of three binary digits by a single octal digit. Octal numbers are
important in digital computers although many computer specialist and
users are not thoroughly familiar with binary, octal and other
numbering system used by compters. The octal number system has a
base or radix of eight. The eight basic digits of the octal system are 0,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. These digits have exactly the same physical
meaning as decimal symbols. In order for us to convert octal to
decimal, let us follow the step by step procedure of tutorialspoint.com:
Fig. 1.14 – Steps in Converting Octal to Decimal
3) Hexa-Decimal Number System – According again to La Putt (1984),

Hexadecimal number system provides another convenient and simple
method for expressing values represented by binary numerals. This
system is a combination of the ten numbers, 0 through 9 and a choice
of six letters of the alphabet, which are also treated as numbers.The
letters representing digits 10 through 15 may be the alphabetic
sequence A through F. Any other six alphabets could be used equally
well, as long as the total adds up to 16 symbols to represent the 16
possible combination of 4 bits.Thus, each of the symbols in the
hexadecimal system exactly replaces one four-digit binary
combination, permitting direct conversion. Now after knowing the
concepts of the hexa-decimal, let us proceed and discuss the way on
how to convert Hexa-decimal to Decimal. For this we will again be
using the step by step procedure of tutorialspoint.com:
Fig. 1.15 – Steps in converting Hexadecimal into Decimal

After knowing the different Number system especially the one that we
use in the information technology world. Let us try to discuss some of the
basic mathematic operations with these types of data. Based on the book
Introduction to Computer Concepts by Juny Pilapil La Putt, there are four
different mathematic operations for binary numbers which is Binary
Addition, Binary Subtraction, Binary Multiplication and Binary Division.
Binary Addition is simple to learn since there are only two characters,
0 and 1, to consider. It is performed in the same manner as decimal
addition. There are only four possible combinations when adding these
two numbers and this is shown by the following table for binary addition.
0+0=0
0+1=1
1+0=1
1 + 1 = 0 Plus a carry-over of 1
To add two numbers, you can either count two digits in sequence or
you can simply remember the results of adding the four possible
combinations of digits, as given in the addition table. Carry-overs are
performed in the same manner as in decimal arithmetic. Since 1 is the
largest digit in the binary system, any sum greater that 1 requires that a
digit be carried over.Here are samples of binary addition also taken from
La Putt’s book.
a) BINARY DECIMAL
11 3
+100 + 4
111 7
b) BINARY DECIMAL
1010 10
+1100 +12
10110 22
c) BINARY DECIMAL
11.01 3.25
+101.11 + 5.75
1001.00 9.00
So now you practice by yourself converting binary to decimal then

adding two binary numbers as well as decimal numbers. Later on, we will
have a simple activity on Binary addition.
Next is Binary Subtraction, based on the same book: Binary

subtraction is a bit more complicated than that of addition. It is because of the
inverse operation of addition. Just as in decimal arithmetic, subtraction is
performed column by column. To subtract, it is necessary to establish a
procedure for subtracting a larger from a smaller digit. The only case in which
this occurs using binary number is when 1 is subtracted from 0. The remainder
is 1, but it is necessary to borrow 1 from the next column to the left. The table
for binary subtraction is as follows
0 - 0 = 0
1 - 0 = 1
1 - 1 = 0
0 - 1 = 0 with a borrow of 1
Binary numbers can also be negative, just like decimal numbers. If a

larger number is subtracted from a smaller number, the negative sign is
prefixed in the answer.
Here are some binary subtraction samples from the book

“Introduction to Computer Concepts by Juny Pilapil La Putt.”
a) BINARY DECIMAL
1010 10
- 100 - 4
110 6
b) BINARY DECIMAL
1111 15
-1000 - 3
111 7
c) BINARY DECIMAL
1000.11 8.75
- 11.01 - 3.25
101.10 5.50
So again, I will leave it up to you to practice on the binary subtraction

but don’t worry we will be having an activity with regards to this at the end of
this chapter. So next, is what we call the Binary Multiplication?
Binary multiplication based on the Introduction to Computer Concept

book is somehow the same as to the rule of decimal multiplication. But Binary
multiplication, in fact is much simpler since multiplying a number by the bit 0
or 1 yields respectively 0 or the number. According to La Putt “In any number

system, multiplication consists of adding a number to itself as many times as
is specified by the multiplier. Most computers refer to a multiplication table
stored in memory, thus avoiding the time consuming process of repetitive
addition. In actual practice, binary multiplication reduces to copying the
multiplicand (or writing zeros) whenever the multiplier digit is zero.
According to La Putt (1984) this is the table for binary multiplication:
0 x 0 = 0 0 x 1 = 0
1 x 1 = 1 1 x 0 = 0
And the following are the samples of binary multiplication from the
same book:
a) BINARY DECIMAL
111 (multiplicand) 7
X 101 (multiplier) x 5
111 35
000
111
100011
b) BINARY DECIMAL
11.00 3.0
X 10.10 x 2.5
0000 7.5
1100
0000
1100 .
111.1000
And last but not the least topic for the Binary Number Systems
Mathematic Operation is what we call the Binary Division. According to the
same book that we are using althrough-out the number systems, Binary
division is a very simple process. As in the decimal system, division is the
inverse of multiplication and division by zero is similarly meaningless.
Division is defined as the process of determining how many times one
number, the divisor, can be subtracted from the other number, the divident
while still leaving a positive remainder. The number of times this can be done
is the result, or the quotient.
There is ease in performing long binary division as compared with the

decimal system. In binary division we never need to try multiple of the divisor
to find the largest one that will go into the dividend. We are either able to
subtract the divisor, in which case the quotient digit is 1, or we are not able to
subtract the divisor, yielding a quotient digit of 0.
The division of binary fraction is handled the same way as the division
of decimal fractions; that is, one converts the divisor to an integer by moving
the binary point in both the divisor and the divident the same number of
places. The complete table for the binary division is as follows:
0 / 1 = 0 1 / 1 = 1
Now, let us look at the example given by Mr. La Putt in his book:
a) BINARY DECIMAL
1100 ÷ 100 12 / 4 = 3
= 11
Are you now ready to try it yourself? At the end of this chapter are
different activities that you can try to test your understanding about our topics
in Chapter 1. See you!
After discussing, lots of theories and concepts about Data and

Information. Let’s now move on to Network Connectivity fundamentals topic
of this chapter.
LESSON 5 – NETWORK CONNECTIVITY
Network Connectivity
When you heard of terms: Network, Internet or Connectivity, What
comes into your mind? When we say Network in computing terminology it is
a group of different computer or digital devices that is interconnected with
each other. And according to Techopedia.com, “Network Connectivity
describes the extensive process of connectinv various parts a network to one
another, for example, through the use of routers, switches and gateways, and
how the process works.”
On this lesson, we will be discussing some of the basic terminologies

about Network Connectivity such as intranet, extranet, internet, protocol,
LAN, WAN and packets. More advance terminologies will be discussed later
in the following chapters.
Let’s begin by defining the first three terminologies namely Intranet,

Extranet and Internet. Basically this three can be categorized as one because
of their similar networking method and according to Tutorialspoint.com;
“Intranet is a networking system in which multiple PCs are connected to each
other but are not available to the world outside the intranet.” Meaning intranet
is a type of network that is only available to the resources or computers inside
an organization. Most companies are utilizing this type of technology to
protect their data from the outside networks or outside intruders known to be
hackers.
So next is Extranet, if we define intranet as inside network then Extranet

can be defined as outside network. What do i mean about that? Extranet is
also a networking system that allows outside networks to connect to your
inside network securely. For example, you have an integrated inventory
system that has suppliers in it then you can allow your suppliers system to
connect securely into your system to provide you with their updated supplies
and as well as their available inventory.
And lastly, we have Internet; According again to Tutorialspoint.com,

Internet is a world-wide / global system of interconnected computer network.
It uses standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) and every computer in an internet
is identified by unique IP addresses. These IP addresses serve as the house
address of the computer to identify their location. A special Computer DNS
(Domain Name Server) is used to give name to the IP Address so that user can
locate a computer by a name.” So if i will to summarize the definition given
by TutorialsPoint.com, Internet only means WWW or World Wide Web and it
is the network that we use every now and then such as the Facebook, the
Twitter, the Google, the Yahoo and many more.
Fig 1.16 – Intranet, Extranet and Internet
Next thing to define is Protocol. What is protocol? According to

ComputerGuru.net, “A Network Protocol is a specialized language that
enables network computers to communicate. Different types of computers,
using different operating systems, can communicate with each other, and
share information as long as they follow the network protocols. A protocol
suite is a set of related protocols that come from a single developer or source.
While a protocol stacks is a set of two or more protocols that work together,
with each protocol covering a different aspect of data communication.”
With the definition given by ComputerGuru.net, we can say that Protocol

is like a common language we use to be understood and to understand people
from other countries. Like for example English Language, if we go to other
country like Japan, if we speak using our native language then people in that
country will not understand us but if we use English language then there will
be some people of that country that will understand us. And it goes the same
way with computers if we connect Mac Computers with Intel Computers and
they use their native protocols then they could not connect to one another but
if they will use common protocols then they can connect to one another.
After discussing what protocol is? We can now discuss the two different
type of Networks namely LAN (Local Area Network) and WAN (Wide Area
Network). LAN or Local Area Network according to Creative-Wisdom.com
is a smaller network that is within one location or between several buildings.
And when we say Local Area Network it can be in one room, several rooms in
a floor, between floors or can be between buildings but connected locally
meaning Local Area Network or LAN doesn’t use Service Providers to
transport data from one location to another location or from one building to
another building.
And WAN or Wide Area Network according to Creative-Wisdom.com is

a giant network spanning across several cities or even several continents. And
if we talked about Wide Area Network, we are also talking about several
Service Provider Technologies that can be used to transport the data from one
location to another location like Leased Lines, VPN, ATM, ISDN and many
more. To sum up the definition of LAN and WAN, LAN is contained in a
smaller area or smaller network while WAN is into a much wider
geographical scope that uses Service Provider Technologies.
Last topic for this lesson is Packets. And more advance topic for Network
Connectivity will be discussed in Chapter 4 of this course module. Packets
according to digitalocean.com are the most basic unit that is transferred over a
network. When communicating over a network, Packets are the envelops that
carry your data into pieces from one end point to the other. And Packet is the
protocol data unit for the Network Layer of the OSI Model.
And those are some of the basic terminologies when it comes to network
connectivity. Again, more of Data Communication and Network Connectivity
will be discussed in Chapter 4 of this course module. Now, let’s precede to the
last lesson of Chapter 1 which is People Behind these Systems.
LESSON 6 – PEOPLE BEHIND THESE SYSTEMS
People behind these Systems

This is the last lesson for Chapter 1: Computing Essentials and what
we will be discussing here are some of the career path that leads to
Information Technology or Computer Science. And for this lesson we will be
using the Computing Essentials Book of O’Leary.
According to O’leary, People are the most important part of an

information system. People are touched hundreds of times daily by computers
and the purpose of information systems is to make people, or end-users like
you, more productive. Here are some of the fastest growing career
opportunities in the field of information technology.
1) Webmasters – develop and maintain web sites and web resources.

Webmasters also monitors and initiates steps to increase the traffic at
web sites. Salaries range from $45,000 to $70,000.
2) Software Engineers – analyze users’ needs and create application

software. They have a background in programming and focus on the
design and development of programs. Salaries range from $50,000 to
$85,000.
3) Database Administrators – use specialized database management

software to determine the most efficient ways to organize and access a
company’s data. Additionally, they are responsible for maintaining
database security and backing up the corporate databases. Salaries
range from $35,000 to $75,000.
4) System Analysts – address specific organization need for information.

Working with end users and other computer professionals, they follow
the steps in the systems life cycle which includes preliminary
Fig. 1.17 – Webmasters, investigation, analysis, design, development, implementation, and
Software Engineers, maintenance. Salaries range from $35,000 to $70,000.
Database Administrators
5) Computer Programmers – create, test and troubleshoot program
and System Analysts
used by computers. Most programmers work for companies that create
and sell software, but programmers may also be employed in various
other businesses. Salaries range from $45,000 to $75,000.
Actually, there are still lots of different position or work

opportunities that is related to Information Technology and Computer
Science but we will just stick to what O’leary have discussed in his
book.
CHAPTER 2: INSIDE THE HARDWARE
LESSON 1 – COMPUTER COMPONENTS AND SYSTEM UNIT ARCHITECTURE
Computer Components
Basically Desktop Computer or Laptop Computer will not be a

computer without its physical components. In this lesson you will be able to
review how fast, powerful and versatile a particular computer is. Because
there will be a time that you will have a chance of watching a technician
opens up a computer and you’ll see that what inside it is basically a collection
of electronic circuitry.
The physical components of a computer can be classified into 3

categories namely: System Unit Components, Input and Output Components
and last but one of the most important part of it is the Storage Components.
And those three components is the main focus of this chapter. We will be
trying to define each category in the next lesson and at the same time we will
be discussing the parts or components that are related to it.
System Unit Architecture
When we say System Unit of a Computer, we can compare it to a

chassis of a car or a vehicle wherein different mini parts of it are connected. A
System Unit of a computer is where you can locate/see the different internal
components of a computer like the LAN Card, Hard disk, Memory, Optical
Drive and even the brain of the Computer which is the Processor. According
to Computer Essential Book of O’Leary, “System Unit can be classified into
six basic types:
1) Desktop system units – a type of system unit that is designed to be

placed either horizontally or vertically.
Figure 2.1 – Horizontal and Vertical Desktop System Unit
2) Media Center system units – it uses powerful desktop system

hardware with specialized graphics cards for interfacing with television and
other home entertainment devices.
Figure 2.2 – Media Center System Unit
3) Notebook system units – portable, much smaller one than Desktop

or Media Center and is usually refered to as Laptops.
Figure 2.3 – Notebook System Unit
4) Netbook system units – similar to notebook system units but less

powerful and less expensive. They are usually designed to support on-the-go
Web browsing and e-mail access.
Figure 2.4 – Netbook System Unit
5) Table PC system units – same as to notebook system units, they

are highly portable devices that supports the use of stylus or pen to input
commands and data.
Figure 2.5 – Tablet PC System Unit
6) Handheld computer system units – it is designed to be the

smallest and is designed to fit into the palm of one hand. These systems
contain an entire computer system, including the electronic components,
secondary storage, and input and output devices.
Figure 2.6 – Handheld Computer System Unit
And those are the six classifications of System Units together with
their samples and pictures. So now, Let’s move on to the different internal
components of a System Unit.
Processor
Processor also known as Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the heart
and brain of the computer because without this computer cannot do anything.
Not only in computers but also in other electronic devices, it needs to have a
processor but in their case, it is called IC chips or Integrated Circuit chips. So
let’s now seek the definition of Processor from the Internet, according to
businessdirectory.com “Processor is a microchip implanted in a CPU’s hard
drive that processes instructions sent to it by the computer and software
programs. Processors come in a number of sizes and are manufactured by
such corporations as Intel and Advanced Micro Devices. The greater the
gigahertz capacity of the processor, the quicker the computer will be able to
process instructions sent to it.”
According to Computing Essentials book of O’Leary Processor has
two basic components: 1) Control Unit – that tells the rest of the computer
system how to carry out a program’s instructions. And 2) Arithmetic-logic
unit – that performs two operations (arithmetic and logical).
Speed of the computer processor is expressed in word sizes and the
higher its bits, the more data it can process at a time. Processing speed of a
computer is represented by its clock speed (it is the number of time the CPU
can fetch and process data or instruction in a second).
Figure 2.7 – Popular Processor
And aside from the ordinary processor that we have in the market,
there is what we called specialty processors. The book Computing Essentials
by O’Leary cited some of what we call specialty processors like Coprocessors,
Smart Cards and RFID Tags.
Coprocessor according to techtarget.com “Is a special set of circuit s
in a microprocessor chip that is designed to manipulate numbers or perform
some other specialized function more quickly than the basic microprocessor
circuits could perform the same task. A coprocessor offloads specialized
processing operations, thereby reducing the burden on the basic
microprocessor circuitry and allowing it to work at optimum speed.” This
Coprocessor is commonly found in GPU or the Graphic Processing Unit.
Figure 2.8 – Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)

Next is Smart Card, Smart Cards according to webopedia.com “Is a

small electronic device about the size of a credit card that contains electronic
memory, and possibly an embedded integrated circuit (IC). Smart cards
containing an IC are sometimes called Integrated Circuit Cards (ICCs). Smart
cards are used for a variety of purposes, including: 1) Storing a patient's
medical records, 2) Storing digital cash, 3) Generating network IDs (similar to
a token) and in order for you to use a smart card, either to pull information
from it or add data to it, you need a smart card reader, a small device into
which you insert the smart card.” Nowadays, Smart cards are commonly used
by offices or even schools for identification. But some banks used it also to
store digital cash or e-money.
Figure 2.9 – Smart Cards
And last but not the least, as cited by O’leary in his book is RFID
Tags. RFID which is the acronym for Radio Frequency Identification Tag is
also a microprocessor chip that can store information. According to
technovelgy.com “RFID refers to small electronic devices that consist of a
small chip and an antenna. The chip typically is capable of carrying 2,000
bytes of data or less. The RFID device serves the same purpose as a bar code
or a magnetic strip on the back of a credit card or ATM card; it provides a
unique identifier for that object. And, just as a bar code or magnetic strip must
be scanned to get the information, the RFID device must be scanned to
retrieve the identifying information.”
Figure 2.10 – Radio Frequency Identification Tags
Imagine, aside from the ordinary processor like Celeron, Core Duo &
i5 created by Intel and Athlon & Phenom created by AMD. We have seen in
this chapter that there is also specialty processor like GPU, Smart Cards and
RFID Tags. Really, there are lots of things to learn about Computing Science.
So we’re already done with the Processor, Next for discussion is

Motherboard.
Motherboard
Motherboard is what we call the chassis of a computer because it is
where the internal parts of a system unit are interconnected. According to
Computing Essentials book of O’leary, “System Board also known as
Mother/Mainboard controls communications for the entire computer systems.
Every component within the system unit connects to the system board. All
external devices including the keyboard, mouse and monitor connect to the
system board. System Board has a variety of different electronic components
such as Sockets, Slots and Bus Lines.
Figure 2.11 – Parts of Motherboard

Let us discuss the sockets, slots and bus lines one by one.
Sockets (CPU Sockets) according to Wikipedia.com, is a mechanical

component that provides mechanical and electrical connections between a
microprocessor and a printed circuit board (PCB). This allows the CPU to be
placed and replaced without soldering.
Slots (Expansion Slot) according to Computerhope.com, is referred to
as a bus slot or expansion port, an expansion slot is an opening located inside
a computer on the motherboard or riser board that allows additional boards to
be connected to it. For example, if you wanted to install a new video card in
the computer you'd purchase a video expansion card and install that card into
the compatible expansion slot. There are several types of expansion slot and
this expansion slot may vary depending on the type of motherboard you are
using.
Types of Expansion Slots
1) AGP (Accelerated Graphics Ports)

2) AMR (Audio/Modem Riser)
3) CNR (Communications and Networking Riser)

4) EISA (Extended Industry Standard Architecture)
5) ISA (Industry Standard Architecture)
6) PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect)
7) PCIe (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express)
8) VESA (Video Electronics Standards Association)
Bus Lines according to Wisegeek.com, is a set of wires that allows

one part of the motherboard to connect and communicate with other parts of
the motherboard, including the central processing unit (CPU). It also serves as
an interface between the CPU and various external devices. The motherboard
bus can be one of two types – Internal and external.
An internal bus serves as the communication highway of the
motherboard. It links the different parts of the computer to the CPU and the
main memory. Its primary task is to send data and instructions to the different
parts within the motherboard, including the external bus.
The external bus, is also known as the expansion bus, serves as the
interface for peripheral devices like hard disks, CD-ROM drives, and flash
drives to get connected to the CPU. The shape of each interface is unique.
This prevents plugging a device to a wrong port, which could cause damage to
the device while being connected to the CPU.Software Technologies
Memory
If we will base on the definition coming from the Computing
Essentials book of O’Leary; “Memory is a holding area for data, instructions
and information. Like micro-processors, memory is contained on chips
connected to the system board.”
Memory has different types and we will be tackling in this lesson the
three well known types of memory; ROM (Read-Only Memory), RAM
(Random-Access Memory) and Flash Memory.
Read-Only Memory (ROM) is a memory chip that stores information

or data in it. Data is written to or programmed to a ROM by the Manufacturer
or Computer Engineer and the information inside it are commonly not
changeable. Unlike RAM, Read-Only Memory is non-volatile meaning; even
the electricity is not present in the chip, it still holds the information/data.
Figure 2.12 – Read-Only Memory
Random-Access Memory (RAM) is also a memory chip that holds a

data or information temporarily. RAM is commonly refered to as Volatile
Memory (meaning if the RAM is not powered by electricity, all data or
information stored in it will be deleted).
According to O’leary “Cache Memory improves processing by acting
as a temporary high-speed holding area between the memory and the CPU.
And having enough RAM is important because there are some applications
like Photo Editing Software that requires more memory.”
RAM can be classified into different types such as DRAM, SDRAM,
DDR and Direct RDRAM.
Figure 2.13 – Random-Access Memory
Flash Memory, according to Webopedia.com is a special type of

EEPROM that can be erased and reprogrammed in blocks instead of one byte
at a time. Many modern PCs have their BIOS stored on a flash memory chip
so that it can easily be updated if necessary. Such a BIOS is sometimes called
Flash BIOS.
Flash memory is also popular in modems because it enables the
modem manufacturer to support new protocols as they become standardized.
Flash memory is also called flash RAM.
Figure 2.14 – Flash Memory
So, were done again with the definition and types of memory and last
for this lesson is the discussion of other important internal peripherals.
Other Internal Peripherals
Other Internal Peripherals of a System Unit includes Ports and Power
Supply. Ports according to O’Leary’s book is a socket on a system unit that is
use to connect the external devices. Some of the ports are directly connected
to the Motherboard while some has cards that are inserted to the slots on the
system board. Ports are classified as Standard Ports, Specialized Ports, Legacy
Ports and Cables.
Standard Ports includes most of the common ports such as VGA

(Video Graphics Adapter) and DVI (Digital Video Interface) Port – both used
to connect monitors or projectors, USB (Universal Serial Bus) port – used to
connect I/O components such as mice, keyboards, printers and some external
storage devices, FireWire port – used to connect FireWire devices such as
camcorders and storage devices and lastly Ethernet Ports – used for
interconnecting different computers.
Specialized Ports includes S/PDIF (Sony/Philips Digital Interconnect

Format) ports – used to connect the computer to high-end audio and home
theatre systems, HDMI (High Definition Multimedia Interface) ports – used to
output high definition video and audio, MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital
Interface) – used to connect different musical instrument to a computer
system.
Legacy Ports are ports that is common to a legacy type of computers

and these ports are already been replaced by faster and much more flexible
ports. And the following are the examples of legacy ports:
1) Serial Ports – previously used to connect modem, mouse, keyboard

and other external devices. Serial Ports are actually good in sending
data for over long distance because it is sending data one bit at a time.
2) Parallel Ports – same as to serial ports it is also used to connect
external devices but for parallel ports it is commonly used for short
distance communication.
3) Keyboard and Mouse Ports – old enough but this was used before to
connect Keyboard and Mouse to the system unit. The problem with
this port is the limited compatibility with other devices.
4) IrDA (Infrared Data Association) – used before to provide wireless
data transfer between devices by directly aligning both IrDA devices
to one another, so that it can transmit data through infrared light
waves. And last but not the least is
5) Game Ports – used by many to connect Game controllers, Game
Simulators and the old school “JoyStick”.
Cables are used to connect external devices or i should say external

systems to a computer’s system unit. Below is a picture of the different cables.
Figure 2.15 – Different Types of Comptuer Cables
Power Supply according to about.com is the piece of hardware that is

used to convert the power provide from the outlet into usable power for the
many parts inside the computer case. The Power supply can either be for
Desktop Computer or for Notebook and Tablet PC. Desktop Computer uses
Power supply unit while Notebook and Tablet PC uses AC Adapter as their
power supply.
Figure 2.16 – Power Supply Unit & AC Adapter

LESSON 2 – INPUT AND OUTPUT
Input and Output
“No matter how powerful a computer system may be, its central
processing unit cannot function alone. Its performance depends largely on the
design and capabilities of the input and output devices that work with it.”(La
Putt, 1986)
This statement only means that computer is worth nothing if there will
be no data being inputted in it. That’s why in this lesson, we will be
discussing some of the I/O Components of a computer. By the way, I/O is a
common IT jargon or slang term for Input & Output. Input and Output devices
are use to give humans a connection to a computer system and when we say
Input devices, this are devices that allows any user to input raw data to a
computer system while Output devices are devices that present the processed
data into a meaningful format.
And now let’s dig deeper to this two by discussing it on by one. Let’s
begin with defining what Input is? And what are the Input Components of a
computer system followed by defining what Output is? And also discussing
what the different Output Components are?
What is Input? A while ago, in the introduction for this lesson I

defined Input device as devices that allows the user to input raw data onto a
computer system and according to O’Leary “Input (not device) is any data or
instructions that are used by a computer. They can come directly from users or
from other source. While Input devices are hardware used to translate words,
sounds and images and actions that people understand into a form that the
system unit can process. These include pointing, scanning, image capturing,
keyboard, and audio-input devices.” Let’s discuss in detail the different input
devices:
Figure 2.18 - Keyboard

Keyboard according to Study.com is an input device used to enter

character and functions into the compute system by pressing buttons, or keys.
It is the primary device used to enter text. A keyboard typically contains keys
for individual letters, numbers and special characters, as well as keys for
specific functions. A keyboard is connected to a computer system using a
cable or a wireless connection.
Here are the common types of keyboard from Computing Essentials

book of O’leary:
1) Traditional Keyboards – full size, rigid, rectangular keyboards that

include function, navigational and numeric keys.
2) Ergonomic Keyboards – similar to traditional keyboards. The

keyboard arrangement, however, is not rectangular and a palm rest is
provided. They are designed specifically to alleviate wrist strain
associated with the repetitive movements of typing.
3) Wireless Keyboards – transmit input to the system unit through the

air. By eliminating connecting wires to the system unit, these
keyboards provide greater flexibility and convenience.
4) PDA Keyboards – miniature keyboards for PDAs and smart phones to

send e-mail, create documents and more.
5) Virtual keyboards – display an image of a keyboard on a touch

screen device. The screen functions as the actual input device, which is
why the keyboard is considered virtual. Virtual keyboards are common
on tablet computers and mobile devices.
Mouse according to webopedia.com is a device that controls the

movement of the cursor or pointer on a display screen. A mouse is a small
object you can roll along a hard, flat surface. Its name is derived from its
shape, which looks a bit like a mouse, its connecting wire that one can
imagine to be the mouse's tail, and the fact that one must make it scurry along
a surface. As you move the mouse, the pointer on the display screen moves in
the same direction. Mice contain at least one button and sometimes as many as
three, which have different functions depending on what program is running.
Some newer mice also include a scroll wheelfor scrolling through long
documents.
Here also are the common types of Mice / Mice for Notebook from
Computing Essential book of O’Leary:
1) Optical Mouse – has no moving parts and is currently the most widely
used. It emits and sense light to detect mouse movement. An optical mouse
can be used on almost any surface with high precision.
Figure 2.19 – Different Types of Pointing Tool

2) Mechanical Mouse – has a ball on the bottom and is attached with a cord
to the system unit. As you move the mouse across a smooth surface, the roller
rsotates and controls the pointer on the screen.
3) Cordless or Wireless Mouse – is a battery-powered device that typically

uses radio waves or infrared light waves to communicate with the system unit.
These devices eliminate the mouse cord and free up desk space.
4) Trackball – also known as roller ball, to control the pointer by rotating a

ball with your thumb.
5) Touch pads – to control the pointer by moving and tapping your finger on
the surface of a pad.
6) Pointing Stick – located in the middle of the keyboard, to control the

pointer by directing the stick with one finger.
Aside from the said classification of mouse there are still other
pointing devices that are commonly used in the market like Touch Screen,
Joysticks and Stylus.
Scanning Devices (Scanner) according to techtarget.com is a device

that captures images from photographic prints, posters, magazine pages, and
similar sources for computer editing and display. Scanners come in hand-held,
feed-in, and flatbed types and for scanning black-and-white only, or color.
Very high resolution scanners are used for scanning for high-resolution
printing, but lower resolution scanners are adequate for capturing images for
computer display. Scanners usually come with software, such as Adobe's
Photoshop product, that lets you resize and otherwise modify a captured
image.
Aside from Scanners there are also different types of scanning device
such as Card Readers, Barcode Readers and Character and Mark Recognition
Devices.
Card Readers are devices that decode or interpret the data written in a
magnetic strips (Strips that can be found at the back of credit card, debit card
or even identification cards) or the RFID tags (microchip that can be found in
access card, price tags, passports and etc.).
Figure 2.20 – Smart Card Readers
Barcode Readers are devices that contains photoelectric cell that scan
or read barcodes. Barcodes according to computerhope.com are lines of
different widths and sizes representing data, that when read determine what
the scanned object is. Barcodes are often used to help organize and index
information or prices about an object. Barcodes used by the U.S. postal
service that helps speed the delivery of mail is another perfect example of how
a barcode could be used.
Figure 2.21 – Barcode Scanner

Character and Mark Recognition Devices are hardware that
recognizes special characters or markings. Typically there are three types of
CMRD; 1) Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition (MICR) – typically used by
banks to read unusual numbers or markings on the bottom of checks or
deposit slips. 2) Optical-Character Recognition (OCR) – used by department
stores or retail stores to read special preprinted character on price tags using
light source. 3) Optical-Mark Recognition (OMR) – used by schools or
institution to recognize markings in answersheet especially for examination
that is multiple choice.
Figure 2.22 – Different Charaacter and Mark Recognition Devices
Image Capturing Devices according to Encyclopedia.com is a

hardware that obtains a digital image from a vision sensor, such as a camera.
This device uses a hardware interface known as a frame grabber, which
captures single frames of video, converts the analogue values to digital, and
feeds the result into the computer memory.
The most common type of image capturing device is Digital Cameras

and Digital Video Cameras. According to Computing Essentials book “Digital
Cameras are similar to traditional cameras except that images are recorded
digitally on a disk or in the camera’s memory rather than on film and then
downloaded, or transferred to your computer.” And “Digital Video Cameras
record motion digitally on a disk or in the camera’s memory. WebCams are
specialized digital video cameras that capture images and send them to a
computer for broadcast over the internet. There are two types of WebCams: 1)
Built-In WebCam 2) Attached WebCam.”
Audio-Input Devices according to Wisegeek.com is a hardware that

allows a user to send audio signals to a computer for processing, recording, or
carrying out commands. Devices such as microphones allow users to speak to
the computer in order to record a voice message or navigate software. Others
are made to interface a computer with a CD audio source, digital audio, or
MIDI instrument such as a synthesizer.
We’re done discussing the Input Devices; let’s now move on to the
Output Devices. What is Output Devices? As i discussed earlier, Output is a
device or hardware that exhibit to human the processed data from the
computer whether by means of LCD Display, LCD Projector, Printed Output
and etc.
But let’s seek the dictionary to know what does Output device means?
According to Reference.com Output Device is an electronic or
electromechanical equipment connected to a computer and used to transfer
data out of the computer in the form of text, images, sounds or other media to
a display screen, printer, loudspeaker or storage device. Most modern storage
devices such as disk drives and magnetic tape drives act as both input and
output devices, others such as CD-ROM are input only.
Examples of Output Devices are Monitors, Printers, Audio-Output

Devices, Combination of Input and Output Devices. Let’s discuss it one by
one.
Monitors according to techterms.com are often used synonymously

with "computer screen" or "display." The monitor displays the computer's user
interface and open programs, allowing the user to interact with the computer,
typically using the keyboard and mouse.
Figure 2.23 – Different Monitors
Monitors may vary in shape and size. It may be a Cathode Ray Tube
(CRT) Monitors or it may be a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) / Light Emitting
Diode (LED) Monitors. According to Computing Essentials book “Basically,
all monitors have the same distinguishing features like Clarity, Resolutions,
Dot (Pixel) pitch, Refresh rates, Size and Aspect Ratio. Let us define each
features in this lesson.
Clarity – the sharpness and quality of the display images.
Resolution – is one of the most important features. Images are formed on a

monitor by a series of dots or pixels (picture elements). Resolution is
expressed as a matrix of these dots or pixels. For example, many monitors
today have a resolution of 1,600 pixel columns by 1,200 pixel rows for a total
of 1,920,000 pixels. The higher a monitor’s resolution (the more pixels), the
clearer the image produced.
Dot (pixel) pitch – is the distance between each pixel. Most newer monitors
have a dot pitch of .31mm (31/100th of a millimeter) or less. The lower the dot
pitch (the shorter the distance between pixels), the clearer the image produced.
Refresh rate – indicates how often a displayed image is updated or refreshed.

Most monitors operate at a rate of 75hertz, which means that the monitor is
refreshed 75times each second. Image displayed on monitors with refresh

rates lower than 75hertz appear to flicker and can cause eye strain. The faster
the refresh rates (the more frequent images are redrawn), the better the quality
of image displayed
Size or Active Display Area – is measured by the diagonal length of a

monitor’s viewing area. Common sizes are 15, 17, 19, 21 and 24 inches.
Aspect Ratio – is determined by the width of a monitor divided by its height.

Common Aspect ratio for monitors are 4:3 (standard, similar to traditional
television pictures) and 16:10 (wide screen).
Aside from CRT, LCD and LED Monitors there are also some special
type of monitor that is used for special functions. Three of the special purpose
monitor or device that displays data to the user are E-book readers (handheld,
book size devices that display text and graphics. Common E-book reader is
the Amazon Kindle), Data projectors (specialized device that is similar to
opaque projector but data projcetors should be connected to a computer in
order to work) and High-Definition Television (television or monitor that is
much clearer and more detailed than regular television but High-Definition
television also requires a specialized ports and specialized cable such as
HDMI).
Printers according to Businessdirectory.com is an external device that

communicates with another digital device to print what a user sees on a
screen. Printers use small pixels to transfer an image from the system to
another surface. Ink jet and laser printers are the most commonly used
varieties of this device, and are most commonly hooked up to a personal
computer. Some printers only print in black and white, but most include a
color option as well.
Ink Jet Printers according to computing essential book is a printer

that spray ink at high speed onto the surface of the paper. This process not
only produces a letter-quality image but also permits printing to be done in a
variety of colors, making them ideal for select special applications. Ink-jet
printers are the most widely used printers. They are reliable, quite and
relatively inexpensive. The most costly aspect of ink-jet printer is replacing
the ink cartridge. Common brands are Hewlett-Packard Deskjet 1510, Canon
Maxify iB4020, Epson Stylus Pro 3880 and etc.
Laser Printers are printers that used the same technology as to

photocopying machine. Laser printers use a laser light beam to produce
images with excellent letter and graphics quality. More expensive than ink-jet
printers, laser printers are faster and are used in applications requiring high-
quality output.
Figure 2.24 – Different Printers
Aside from this two major classification of printers, we also have Dot
Matrix Printers (this printers are used to print characters and images using a
series of small pins on a print head. A bit inexpensive and reliable but quite
noisy. Typically used for task where high-quality out put is not priority or
required.), Thermal Printers (printer that uses healt elements to produce
images on heat sensitive paper. Commonly used as Tape receipts in the
groceries, atm machines, fast foods and etc.), Plotters (special purpose printer
for printing wide specialized output like blueprints, sketches designs and large
drawings), Photo Printers (another specialized printers that is design to print
photo quality images) and Portable Printers (typically small and portable in
size where in you can bring anywhere with your notebook).
Audio-Output tools are hardware devices that output or convert audio

information into sounds that a human computer user can understand. Common
Audio-Output devices are Speakers and Headsets and this devices will not
work if not connected to a sound card. The sound card is used to record or to
playback sounds via audio-output devices. Voice Output are very common
because you can see it anywhere like in ATM machines, Telephones, Vendo
Machines, Cars and etc.
Aside from the speaker and headsets there are also what we called as
Digital Music Players which are specialized hardware used for storing,
transferring and playing audio files.
LESSON 3 – STORAGES
Storages
Aside from the CPU or the Central Processing Unit, another important
part of a computer is the Storage because it is where you put or save all your
processed data or data for processing. And in this lesson we will be defining
what a storage is? And what are the different types of storage?
Storage according to Techopedia.com is any computing hardware that
is used for storing, porting and extracting data files and objects. It can hold
and store information both temporarily and permanently, and can be internal
or external to a computer, server or any similar computing device.
This type of storage are considered as secondary storage because the
Memory of computers are referred to as the primary storage. The important
characteristics of the secondary storages as written in the computing essential
book of O’Leary is as follows:
1) Media are the actual physical material that holds the data and
programs
2) Capacity measures how much a particular storage medium can hold.
3) Storage devices are hardware that reads data and program from
storage media. Most also write to storage media.
4) Access speed measures the amount of time required by the storage
device to retrieve data and programs.
There are various types of Storages and we will be discussing it one by

one. Let’s begin with Hard Drives, Hard Drive also known as Hard Disk is an
electronic components of a computer that uses metallic platters that is stacked
one after the other to store data by altering the magnetic charges of the disk’s
surface. Characters written in a hard disk are represented by positive or
negative charges using the ASCII, EBCDIC, or Unicode binary codes.
Hard disk can also be classified into three types based on its materials
or based on the type of connection it use. The following are the types of hard
drives:
Solid State Drive (SSD) – According to PCMag.com is an alternative

to the traditional hard disk and is employed in myriad products
including mobile devices, iPods, cameras, laptops and desktop
computer. SSSDs are faster than hard disk because there is zero
latency (no read/write head to move). They are also more rugged and
reliable than hard disk and offer greater protection in hostile
environment.
Figure 2.25 – Solid State Drive

Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) Hard Disk – According to
Easeus.com is a standard electronic interface used between a computer
motherboard's data paths or bus and the computer's disk storage
devices. The IDE interface is based on the IBM PC Industry Standard
Architecture (ISA) 16-bit bus standard, but it is also used in computers
that use other bus standards. Most computers sold today use an
enhanced version of IDE called Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics
(EIDE). In today's computers, the IDE controller is often built into the
motherboard.
Figure 2.26 – IDE Drive and SATA Drive

Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA) Hard Disk -
According to Easeus.com is a serial link - a single cable with a
minimum of four wires creates a point-to-point connection between
devices. As an evolution of the older Parallel ATA physical storage
interface, SATA host-adapters and devices communicate via a high-
speed serial cable.
Next after Hard drives are the Thumb Drives and the External Hard
Disk. Thumb drives commonly known as USB Flash Disk or USB Thumb
drives, are one of the most compact way of transfer and storing data or
information because it can be transported even on a key ring. Thumb drive
capacity can be as small as 1 GB to 256 GB and of course the higher the
capacity the higher price of the USB Thumb drive. Aside from Thumb drive
another alternative will be what we call as the External Hard Disk, Same as to
the traditional internal hard disk. External Hard disk can be also SSD (Solid
State Drive) or the SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment) Hard
Disk but in this case External Hard disk is connected or linked to a PC using
USB cable and USB Ports.
When it come to traditional storage, we have the Optical Disk Drives.

I say traditional because Optical Disk is one of the common oldest method of
storing information to an external source. According to Webopedia.com,
Optical Disk is a storage medium from which data is read and to which it is
written by lasers. Optical disks can store much more data – up to 6 gigabytes
(6 billion bytes) – than most portable magnetic media, such as floppies. There
are several types of Optical disk like Compact Disc (CD), Digital Versatile
Disc (DVD) and Blu-ray Disc (This is based on the Computing Essentials
book of O’Leary).
Compact Disc (CD) is one of the most widely used optical format.
CD can store from 650 MB up to 1 GB of data on one side. There are three
basic types of CD: Read only (Common type of CD that you can buy in Music
Stores and as well as in Software Companies, wherein the CD only holds data
and available only for reading), Write once (Type of CD that is available in
Computer peripheral stores or Bookstore where in you can use the CD to hold
your data for future use or for transfer purposes), and Re-writeable (Same as
to write once type of CD, Re-writeable is a type of CD where in you can erase
and over ride the data that is written in it but most of Re-writeable CD have
maximum limits.
Digital Versatile Disc (DVD) also known as Digital Video Disc is a

newer format of the CD. The only difference they have is that DVD can carry
more data than CD. DVD can hold from 4.7GB up to 17GB which is 17x the
capacity of CD. Basic types of DVD is just the same as to CD.
Blu-ray Disc is the next generation optical disc. Because this type of
optical disc can hold high-definition video due to its high capacity. A typical
Blu-ray Disc can store a capacity of 25 to 100 GB. Imagine how large of
video data it can hold in one disc. Again, same as to the DVD and CD, Blu-
ray also has three basic types: Read Only, Write Once and Re-Writeable.
Figure 2.17 – Types of Optical Disk
And last for the common types of Storage is the Cloud Storage and the
Mass Storage Devices. Cloud Storage according to Webopedia.com means
“the storage of data online in the cloud,” wherein a company’s data is stored
in and accessible from multiple distributed and connected resources that
comprises a cloud. Cloud storage can provide the benefits of greater

accessibility and reliability; repid deployment; strong protection for data
backup, archival and disaster recovery purposes; and lower overall storage
costs as a result of not having to purchase, manage and maintain expensive
hardware. However, cloud storage does have the potential for security and
compliance concern”. Also based on the same reference, cloud storage have 4
different types:
1) Personal Cloud Storage – commonly known as mobile cloud storage

is a subset of public cloud storage that applies to storing an
individual’s data in the cloud and providing the individual with access
to the data from anywhere. It also provides data syncing and sharing
capabilities across multiple devices. Apple’s iCloud is an example of
personal cloud storage.
2) Public Cloud Storage – is where the enterprise and storage service
provider are separate and there aren’t any cloud resources stored in the
enterprise’s data center. The cloud storage provider fully manages the
enterprise’s public cloud storage.
3) Private Cloud Storage – a form of cloud storage where the enterprise
and cloud storage provider are integrated in the enterprise’s data
center. In private cloud storage, the storage provider has infrastructure
in the enterprise’s data center that is typically managed by the storage
provider. Private cloud storage helps resolve the potential for security
and performance concerns while still offering the advantages of cloud
storage.
4) Hybrid Cloud Storage – is a combination of public and private cloud
storage where some critical data resides in the enterprise’s private
cloud while other data is stored and accessible from a public cloud
storage provider.
Common provider of Cloud storage services are Google Drive, Certain

Safe, Code42 Crash Plan, IDrive, Microsoft One Drive, Box, Dropbox, Sugar
Sync, Apple ICloud and Hightail. That is according to PCMag.com.
Mass Storage Devices based on the Computing Essentials book are

specialized high-capacity secondary storage devices designed to meet
organizational demand for data. This Mass Storage has two types: Enterprise
Storage System and the Storage Area Network.
Enterprise Storage System are used by large organization to promote
efficient and safe use of data across the networks within their organizations.
Figure 2.27 – Enterprise Storage System and Storage Area Network
Some of the mass storage devices that supports this strategy are File
Servers (dedicated computers with relatively large storage capacities that
provide users access to fast storage and retrieval of data), Network Attached
Storage (similar to a file server except simpler and less expensive; widely
used for home and small business storage needs), RAID Systems (larger
versions of the specialized devices that enhances organizational security by
constantly making backup copies of files moving across the organization’s
network), Tape Library (device that provides automatic access to data
archives on library of tapes) and lastly is the Organizational cloud storage
(high-speed Internet connection to a dedicated remote organizational cloud
storage server).
Storage Area Network is an architecture to link remote computer
storage devices, such as enterprise storage system, to computers such that the
devices are as available as locally attached drives. The key to a SAN is a high-
speed network, connecting individual computers to mass storage devices.
Special file systems prevent simultaneous users from interfering with each
other.
CHAPTER 3: SOFTWARE IN GENERAL
LESSON 1 – TYPES OF SOFTWARE AND APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Types of Software
Before we discussed the major classification of Software let us first define
what the term software is? The term Software refers to the set of electronic
program instructions or data a computer processor reads in order to perform a
task or operation. In contrast, the term Hardware refers to the physical
components that you can see and touch, such as the computer hard drive,
mouse and keyboard.
If you will search for the term “Software” at Google search engine, “Software
is a program that run on a computer and performs certain functions. It is
something used or associated with and usually contrasted with hardware as the
entire set of programs, procedures, and related documentation associated with
a system and especially a computer system (computer program) or material
for use with audiovisual equipments.” And that definition is coming from
Merriam-webster.com.
With this definition, i can clearly and confidently say that a Computer
Program or Software is a set of instructions or algorithm that instructs the
computer system on what to do? What to Process? And lastly, what to output?
Software can be categorized according to what it is designed to

accomplish. And commonly there are two main types of software that is
System Software and Application Software. In the next lesson, we will be
defining what Application Software is and what are the different categories
under it it and its examples?
Application Software
Application software, or simply applications, are often called as productivity
programs or end-user programs because they enable the user to complete tasks
such as creating documents, spreadsheets, databases, and publications, doing
online research, sending email, designing graphics, running businesses, and
even playing games!
Application software is specific to the task it is designed for and can be as

simple as a calculator application or as complex as a word processing
application.
When you begin creating a document, the word processing software has
already set the margins, font style and size, and the line spacing for you. But
you can change these settings, and you have many more formatting options
available. For example, the word processor application makes it easy to add
color, headings, and pictures or delete, copy, move, and change the
document's appearance to suit your needs.
Figure 3.1 – Office Productivity Software
This figure above shows the different sample of application software such as
the Microsoft Word. MS Word is a powerful word-processing application that
is included in the software suit of applications called Microsoft Office. And a
software suite is a group of software applications with related functionality.
For example, office software suties might include word processing,
spreadsheets, database, and presentation and email applications. Graphic
suites such as Adobe Creative Suite include applications for creating and
editing images, while Sony Audio Master Suite is used for audio production.
Figure 3.2 – Logos of Different Web Browser
A Web browser, or simply browser, is an application specifically designed to

locate, retrieve and display content found on the Internet. By clicking a
hyperlink or by typing the URL of a website, the user is able to view Websites
consisting of one or more Webpages. Browser such as Internet Explorer,
Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, and Safari are just few of the many different
Web browsers.
This application software classification has many different categories and that
will be the focus of this lesson. So in the next discussion we will be discussing
the definition of each category and also its example.
9 Categories of Application Software

1) Information Worker Software – Information software allows users
to create and manage information, usually for individual projects
within a department, in contrast to enterprise management. Examples
include time management, resource management, documentation tools,
analytical, and collaborative. Word processors, spreadsheets, email
and blog clients, personal information system, and individual media
editors that may aid in multiple information worker tasks.
2) Content Access Software – Content access software is used primarily

to access content without editing, but may include software that allows
for content editing. Such software addresses the needs of individuals
and groups to consume digital entertainment and published digital
content (Examples include media players, web browsers and help
browsers.)
Figure 3.3 – Media Player and Help Browser
3) Entertainment Software – Entertainment software are programs that

run applications for amusement, leisure, or as a diversion. This
includes video games and screen savers.
4) Educational Software – Educational software is related to content

access software, but has the content and/or features adapted for use in
by educators or students. For example, it may deliver evaluations
(tests), track progress through material, or include collaborative
capabilities.
5) Enterprise Infrastructure Software – Enterprise software provides

common capabilities needed to support enterprise software systems
(Example includes databases, email servers, and system for managing
networks and security.)
Figure 3.4 – Logo of DBMS and Mail Exchange Software
6) Simulation Software – Simulation software simulates physical or

abstract systems for research, training or entertainment purposes.
7) Media Development Software – Media development software

generates print and electronic media for others to consume, most often
in a commercial or educational setting. This includes graphic-art
software, desktop publishing software, multimedia development
software, HTML editors, digital animation editors, digital audio and
video composition, some authoring tools and many others.
8) Product Engineering Software – Product engineering software is

used in developing hardware and software products. This includes
computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided engineering (CAE),
computer language editing and compiling tools, integrated
development environments, and application programmer interfaces.
Figure 3.5 – Computer Aided Design & Integrated Development Environment
9) Mobile Applications - Mobile apps were originally offered for

general productivity and information retrieval, including email,
calendar, contacts, stock market and weather information. However,
public demand and the availability of developer tools drove rapid
expansion into other categories, such as word processing, social media,
picture sharing, mobile games, factory automation, GPS mapping and
location-based services, banking, networking and file transfer,
education, video streaming, order tracking, ticket purchases and

recently mobile medical apps.
Actually, there are lot more categories for the application softwares but what
we stated and discussed above are the common classifications. Our next
lesson will be focusing on the discussion on System Software.
MODULE OF INSTRUCTION
Chapter 3: Software in General
If the human body has brain that controls and oversees

the operation or the movement of your body. Computer too has
a brain that does the processing of data. CPU or Central
Processing unit is the brain and heart of the computer. But the
big question is how does CPU control the operation of the
computer systems? And that will be the good topic of this
chapter.
CPU is just a chipset and it doesn’t know anything at

all. But how does CPU carries out to process different raw data
to produce useful information? Is there something at the back
of the CPU that instructs the different parts of the computer to
do this and do that?
Central Processing Unit is nothing if there is no

computer program or software that instructs it on what to
process and who to process first. So it means that Computer
program or Software plays a vital role in the operation of a
computer system.
And in this chapter, Software in General: students will be able

to learn what the definition of software is? What application software
is? And what are the different types of application software? Aside
from that we will also be discussing what system software is and what
are the different categories under system software? And lastly, in the
later part of this chapter we will also be tackling a bit of the history of
Operating system and what are the different operating systems that are
currently used in the industry?
Types of Software
Before we discussed the major classification of Software let us
first define what the term software is? The term Software refers to the
set of electronic program instructions or data a computer processor
reads in order to perform a task or operation. In contrast, the term
Hardware refers to the physical components that you can see and
touch, such as the computer hard drive, mouse and keyboard.
Introduction to Computing 1
Chapter 3: Software In General Introduction to Computing
If you will search for the term “Software” at Google search

engine, “Software is a program that run on a computer and performs
certain functions. It is something used or associated with and usually
contrasted with hardware as the entire set of programs, procedures, and
related documentation associated with a system and especially a
computer system (computer program) or material for use with
audiovisual equipments.” And that definition is coming from Merriam-
webster.com.
With this definition, i can clearly and confidently say that a

Computer Program or Software is a set of instructions or algorithm
that instructs the computer system on what to do? What to Process?
And lastly, what to output?
Software can be categorized according to what it is designed to

accomplish. And commonly there are two main types of software that
is System Software and Application Software. In the next lesson, we
will be defining what Application Software is and what are the
different categories under it it and its examples?
Application software, or simply applications, are often called
as productivity programs or end-user programs because they enable
the user to complete tasks such as creating documents, spreadsheets,
databases, and publications, doing online research, sending email,
designing graphics, running businesses, and even playing games!
Application software is specific to the task it is designed for

and can be as simple as a calculator application or as complex as a
word processing application.
When you begin creating a document, the word processing

software has already set the margins, font style and size, and the line
spacing for you. But you can change these settings, and you have
many more formatting options available. For example, the word
processor application makes it easy to add color, headings, and
pictures or delete, copy, move, and change the document's appearance
to suit your needs.
2

Figure 3.1 – Office Productivity Software
This figure above shows the different sample of application

software such as the Microsoft Word. MS Word is a powerful word-
processing application that is included in the software suit of
applications called Microsoft Office. And a software suite is a group of
software applications with related functionality. For example, office
software suties might include word processing, spreadsheets, database,
and presentation and email applications. Graphic suites such as Adobe
Creative Suite include applications for creating and editing images,
while Sony Audio Master Suite is used for audio production.
Figure 3.2 – Logos of Different Web Browser
A Web browser, or simply browser, is an application

specifically designed to locate, retrieve and display content found on
the Internet. By clicking a hyperlink or by typing the URL of a
website, the user is able to view Websites consisting of one or more
Webpages. Browser such as Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox,
Google Chrome, and Safari are just few of the many different Web
browsers.
This application software classification has many different

categories and that will be the focus of this lesson. So in the next
discussion we will be discussing the definition of each category and
also its example.
9 Categories of Application Software

1) Information Worker Software – Information software allows
users to create and manage information, usually for individual
projects within a department, in contrast to enterprise
management. Examples include time management, resource
management, documentation tools, analytical, and
collaborative. Word processors, spreadsheets, email and blog
clients, personal information system, and individual media
editors that may aid in multiple information worker tasks.
2) Content Access Software – Content access software is used

primarily to access content without editing, but may include
software that allows for content editing. Such software
addresses the needs of individuals and groups to consume
digital entertainment and published digital content (Examples
include media players, web browsers and help browsers.)
Figure 3.3 – Media Player and Help Browser
3) Entertainment Software – Entertainment software are

programs that run applications for amusement, leisure, or as a
diversion. This includes video games and screen savers.
4) Educational Software – Educational software is related to

content access software, but has the content and/or features
adapted for use in by educators or students. For example, it
may deliver evaluations (tests), track progress through
material, or include collaborative capabilities.
4
5) Enterprise Infrastructure Software – Enterprise software

provides common capabilities needed to support enterprise
software systems (Example includes databases, email servers,
and system for managing networks and security.)
Figure 3.4 – Logo of DBMS and Mail Exchange Software
6) Simulation Software – Simulation software simulates physical

or abstract systems for research, training or entertainment
purposes.
7) Media Development Software – Media development software

generates print and electronic media for others to consume,
most often in a commercial or educational setting. This
includes graphic-art software, desktop publishing software,
multimedia development software, HTML editors, digital
animation editors, digital audio and video composition, some
authoring tools and many others.
8) Product Engineering Software – Product engineering

software is used in developing hardware and software products.
This includes computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided
engineering (CAE), computer language editing and compiling
tools, integrated development environments, and application
programmer interfaces.
Figure 3.5 – Computer Aided Design & Integrated Development Environment
9) Mobile Applications - Mobile apps were originally offered for

general productivity and information retrieval, including email,
calendar, contacts, stock market and weather information.
However, public demand and the availability of developer tools
drove rapid expansion into other categories, such as word
processing, social media, picture sharing, mobile games,
factory automation, GPS mapping and location-based services,
banking, networking and file transfer, education, video
streaming, order tracking, ticket purchases and recently mobile
medical apps.
Actually, there are lot more categories for the application

softwares but what we stated and discussed above are the common
classifications. Our next lesson will be focusing on the discussion on
System Software.
System Software
System software refers to the files and programs that make up
your computer's operating system. System files include libraries of
functions, system services, drivers for printers and other hardware,
system preferences, and other configuration files. The programs that
are part of the system software include assemblers, compilers, file
management tools, system utilites, and debuggers.
The system software is installed on your computer when you

install your operating system. You can update the software by running
programs such as "Windows Update" for Windows or "Software
Update" for Mac OS X.
Sames as with the application software, system software has

also variety or category and that’s what we will discuss in this lesson.
System Software can be classified as System Utility Software, Device
Drivers and last but not the least Operating System. Let’s discuss them
one by one:
1) System Utility Software - The System Utilities software includes a

variety of PC utilities for managing and optimizing your computer
system, including the Registry, start-up applications, desktop, and
other settings. The software in this catalog may clean your local
drives, create backups and recover lost files, improve system
performance, securely delete documents, and monitor your hardware.
6
2) Device Drivers - A device driver is a computer program that

operates or controls a particular type of device that is attached to a
computer. A driver provides a software interface to hardware devices,
enabling operating systems and other computer programs to access
hardware functions without needing to know precise details of the
hardware being used.
A driver typically communicates with the device through the

computer bus or communications subsystem to which the hardware
connects. When a calling program invokes a routine in the driver, the
driver issues commands to the device. Once the device sends data back
to the driver, the driver may invoke routines in the original calling
program. Drivers are hardware-dependent and operating-system-
specific. They usually provide the interrupt handling required for any
necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interface.
Figure 3.6 – Device Drivers
3) Operating System - The operating system is the most important

program that runs on a computer. Every general-purpose computer
must have an operating system to run other programs. Operating
systems perform basic tasks, such as recognizing input from the
keyboard, sending output to the display screen, keeping track of files
and directories on the disk, and controlling peripheral devices such as
disk drives and printers.
For large systems, the operating system has even greater

responsibilities and powers. It is like a traffic cop -- it makes sure that
different programs and users running at the same time do not interfere
with each other. The operating system is also responsible for security,
ensuring that unauthorized users do not access the system.
Figure 3.7 – Logos of Different Operating System
And because Operating System is the most important program

that runs on a computer, let’s discuss more about Operating System.
First let’s discuss a brief of its history. Then, let’s discuss some of the
Desktop/Computer Operating system and also some of the Mobile
Operating System.
History of Operating System

An operating system is a program that runs on a computer to
simplify the use of the computer for the user. The operating system
manages the use of peripheral devices such as printers, monitors and
keyboards. In addition the operating system will run other programs
and display the results. In order to carry out these functions the
operating system has to require a systematic structure for the inputs
and outputs; there is a definite structure to files and there is a
systematic way in which the files are stored on the data storage
devices. Without an operating system a computer is largely an
unresponsive hunk of metal and wires.
Although now the concept of an operating system appears to be

a natural and obvious one, operating systems evolved over a
considerable period of time. The first electronic computers were
"hardwired" to carryout systematic computations. Initially the
computations were for ballistics table. The user would wire direct
connections between the various components of the computer through
a plug board. When the computations were finished the next user
would have to pull out the wires and rewire for the next set of
8
computations. This was monumentally cumbersome by today's

standard but a marvelous advance in speed and accuracy over hand
computations with pencil and paper.
The first technological breakthrough came with the creation of

internally stored programs. This involved memory with memory
locations with addresses. A program was then the loading of
information in a set of memory locations. The information at a
memory address consisted of two parts. One part was the code for the
operations which the computer could perform such as adding numbers
together. The second part was the address of the next memory location
in the sequence. Thus the computer would retrieve the contents of one
memory location which would tell it which operations to carryout and
which memory address to go to for instructions for the next step in the
computations. The idea for this internally stored program is generally
associated with the mathematician, John von Neumann.
Figure 3.8 – Picture of John Von Neumann
When computers became more technically complex the users

could not have direct access to the equipment. Instead it was necessary
for the users to record their programs on punched cards or punced tape
which would be given to professional computer technicians to run on
the computer. During this stage the computers filled a good sized room
and required air conditioning to control temperature and humidity.
The computer programs had to be run in batches and there had

to be seperate programs to handle the reading in of data and the output
of the results. One job had to be completed before the next could run.
It was efficient to arrange for the reading-in of programs to memory
storage while another program was running because the computation
time on the computer was often far quicker than the operation of
reading in the information for computation.
Sometimes one program would be paused while waiting for the

completion of some peripheral operation such as printing. Computer
systems designers created the systems programs to make it possible to
run another program for a short period while the first program's
computation was paused. And of course the second program could also
be paused so provision was made to bring in a new program when the
other programs were paused. The computer would have to go back to
previously initiated programs once they were ready to compute again.
This was called multiprogramming and the specific operation was
called spooling, which was the acronym for simutaneous pripheral
operation on line.
The next step was allowing several users to share the use of the
computer simultaneously. The computer would run one user's job for a
prescribed short period of time and then move on to the next user's job.
This was called time-sharing. It allowed for allocating the period of
computation on the basis of the priority rankings of the various job.
With time-sharing came the possiblity of interactivity. With the

users providing input from terminals one users might be paused for a
relatively long time while waiting for input from the user. The
computers were so fast that each user might not perceive any delay
from the computer switching among the other users' programs.
Time sharing was an enormous improvement for computer

users. Under the previous system of batch operation a user might have
to wait days to get the results back from a job. The result might be the
statement that the program did not run because of a programming error
or an error in the data. These were often errors that could be corrected
during an interactive time sharing session.
In the late 1960's M.I.T. had a time sharing operating system

called MULTICS, the name indicating it was a multiple user systems.
Ken Thompson was working at Bell Labs in New Jersey and was
given the use of a PDP-7 minicomputer. He decided to create an
operating system for the minicomputer for the convenience it provided
even though there would be only one user. Initially he called this
operating system UNICS in analogy with MULTICS but later changed
the spelling to UNIX. At the same time Dennis Ritchie was involved
in the creation of the programming language "C," so named because it
was modelled on the programming language developed in Britain
called "B." The collaboration between Ken Thompson and Dennis
Ritchie has been quite fruitful over the years. UNIX and C have also
been closely linked.
10
Figure 3.9 – Picture of Ken Thompson working at Bell Labs
UNIX was an important innovation in computer. It is awkward

but the computer professionals were perfectly willing to tolerate its
difficulties in order to get the power it gave them access to. UNIX's
shortcomings were not considered notable at the time. The concept of
user-friendly software came a decade later. UNIX users were more
concerned that something could be achieved at all rather than whether
it required use of non-mnemonic commands.
The use of UNIX spread around the country and initially Bell
Labs gave it away free. Later Bell Labs realized that UNIX had
commercial potential and arranged for the marketing of it.
With the concept of operating system widely popularized it

was standard practice to develop an operating system for each new line
of computers. About this time the personal computer was developed.
Gary Kildall of the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey,

California acquired one of the early personal computers and he
immediately proceded to develop an operating system for it. He called
the operationg system CP/M, for Control Processor Monitor. It was the
first operating system for a personal computer. The story of Gary
Kildall and IBM and Bill Gates and the Disk Operating System (DOS)
is told elsewhere.
At Apple Computer the personal computer was undergoing

major evolution. One element of that evolution was the creation of a
new operating system which utilized graphic input from a new
peripheral, the mouse. It was the most user-friendly of the systems up

to that date.
Figure 3.10 – Picture of Bill Gates and Gary Kildall
Microsoft rose to fame and power on the basis of the Disk

Operating System, one of the most dramatic business coups of the
twentieth century. But while DOS was great it lacked the ease of use
of the Apple system so Microsoft launched a project to create an
operating to achieve the ease of use of Apple's operating system. The
result was Windows. The first versions were not spectacularly
successful technically and commercially but Microsoft continued to
develop Windows until it became virtually the universal operating
system for personal computers. This was in part due to the technically
capabilities and ease of use of Windows but it was also due to the
marketing practices of Microsoft which resulted in every personal
computer coming with Windows so the acquisition of any other
operating system would superfluous and costly.
Figure 3.11 – Picture of Linus Torvalds (Linux Developer)
12
There has been some competition for Windows. A college

student in Finland, Linus Torvalds, developed a version of UNIX as an
operating system for personal computers. This operating system is
called LINUX after Torvald's first name. Linus Torvalds, in addition
to writing the code for components of LINUX himself, organized a
community effort among programmers to get the code created and
tested. LINUX was made free to the general public.
Sun Microsystems in the Silicon Valley has also developed the Solaris
operating system, which competes with Windows among computer
professionals, particularly the one using the work station computers
manufactured by Sun Microsystems.
After discussing a bit of the history of Operating System, Let

us now name some of the in demand Desktop/Laptop Operating
System. Here are the Top 10 Operating Systems based on
www.thetoptens.com:
1) Microsoft Windows 7
Based on wikipedia.com, “Windows 7 is a personal

computer operating system developed by Microsoft. It is a part
of Windows NT family of operating systems. Development of
Windows 7 started as early as 2006 under the codename
"Blackcomb." Windows 7 was released to manufacturing on
July 22, 2009 and became generally available on October 22,
2009, less than three years after the release of its predecessor,
Windows Vista. Windows 7's server counterpart, Windows
Server 2008 R2, was released at the same time.
Windows 7 was primarily intended to be an incremental

upgrade to the operating system, intending to address Windows
Vista's critical reception (such as performance improvements),
while maintaining hardware and software compatibility.
Windows 7 continued improvements on Windows Aero (the
user interface introduced in Windows Vista) with the addition
of a redesigned taskbar that allows applications to be "pinned"
to it, and new window management features. Other new
features were added to the operating system, including
libraries, the new file sharing system HomeGroup, and support
for multitouch input. A new "Action Center" interface was also
added to provide an overview of system security and
maintenance information, and tweaks were made to the User
Account Control system to make it less intrusive. Windows 7
also shipped with updated versions of several stock
applications, including Internet Explorer, Windows Media

Player, and Windows Media Center.
In contrast to Vista, Windows 7 was generally praised

by critics, who considered the operating system to be a major
improvement over its predecessor due to its increased
performance, its more intuitive interface (with particular praise
devoted to the new taskbar), fewer User Account Control
popups, and other improvements made across the platform.
Windows 7 was a major success for Microsoft; even prior to its
official release, pre-order sales for 7 on the online retailer
Amazon.com had surpassed the previous records. In just six
months, over 100 million copies had been sold worldwide,
increasing to over 630 million licenses by July 2012, and a
market share of 50.06% as of May 2014 according to Net
Applications, making it the most widely used version of
Windows.”
2) Windows 8
Based also on wikipedia.com, “Windows 8 is a personal

computer operating system developed by Microsoft as part of
the Windows NT family of operating systems. Development of
Windows 8 started before the release of its predecessor,
Windows 7, in 2009. It was announced at CES 2011, and
followed by the release of three pre-release versions from
September 2011 to May 2012. The operating system was
released to manufacturing on August 1, 2012, and was released
for general availability on October 26, 2012.
Windows 8 introduced major changes to the operating

system's platform and user interface to improve its user
experience on tablets, where Windows was now competing
with mobile operating systems, including Android and iOS. In
particular, these changes included a touch-optimized Windows
shell based on Microsoft's "Metro" design language, the Start
screen (which displays programs and dynamically updated
content on a grid of tiles), a new platform for developing apps
with an emphasis on touchscreen input, integration with online
services (including the ability to sync apps and settings
between devices), and Windows Store, an online store for
downloading and purchasing new software. Windows 8 added
support for USB 3.0, Advanced Format hard drives, near field
communications, and cloud computing. Additional security
features were introduced, such as built-in antivirus software,
14
integration with Microsoft SmartScreen phishing filtering

service and support for UEFI Secure Boot on supported
devices with UEFI firmware, to prevent malware from
infecting the boot process.
Windows 8 was released to a mixed reception.

Although reaction towards its performance improvements,
security enhancements, and improved support for touchscreen
devices was positive, the new user interface of the operating
system was widely criticized for being potentially confusing
and difficult to learn (especially when used with a keyboard
and mouse instead of a touchscreen). Despite these
shortcomings, 60 million Windows 8 licenses have been sold
through January 2013, a number which included both upgrades
and sales to OEMs for new PCs.”
3) Ubuntu
Based on SearchEnterpriseLinux.Techtarget.com,
“Ubuntu (pronounced oo-BOON-too) is an open source
Debian-based Linux distribution. Sponsored by Canonical Ltd.,
Ubuntu is considered a good distribution for beginners. The
operating system was intended primarily for personal
computers (PCs) but it can also be used on servers. The word
"ubuntu" is from the African Zulu language and translates as
"humanity to others."
The primary version of Ubuntu employs GNOME

(GNU Network Object Model Environment, pronounced gah-
NOHM), a graphical user interface (GUI) and set of desktop
applications for Linux. GNOME is intended to make Linux
easy to use for non-programmers and is similar to the Windows
desktop interface.
Several variants of Ubuntu are available in addition to

the regular distribution:
• Ubuntu Server Edition
• Ubuntu Studio, for multimedia applications
• Edubuntu, for educational institutions and home

schooling
• Kubuntu, a version that employs KDE (Kool

Desktop Environment) instead of GNOME
• Xubuntu, for computers with limited processing

power
• JeOS (just enough OS), a lightweight version

for virtual appliances.
Canonical Ltd. adds new releases of Ubuntu at six-

month intervals along with a minimum 18-month security-
update commitment for each release.
4) Windows XP Professional
According to Wikipedia.com, “Windows XP

(codenamed Whistler) is a personal computer operating system
produced by Microsoft as part of the Windows NT family of
operating systems. The operating system was released to
manufacturing on August 24, 2001, and generally released for
retail sale on October 25, 2001.
Development of XP began in the late 1990s as

"Neptune", an operating system built on the Windows NT
kernel which was intended specifically for mainstream
consumer use—an updated version of Windows 2000 was also
originally planned for the business market. However, in
January 2000, both projects were shelved in favor of a single
OS codenamed "Whistler", which would serve as a single OS
platform for both consumer and business markets. Windows
XP was a major advance from the MS-DOS based versions of
Windows in security, stability and efficiency due to its use of
Windows NT underpinnings. It introduced a significantly
redesigned graphical user interface and was the first version of
Windows to use product activation in an effort to reduce
software piracy.
Upon its release Windows XP received generally

positive reviews, with critics noting increased performance
(especially in comparison to Windows ME), a more intuitive
user interface, improved hardware support, and its expanded
multimedia capabilities. Despite some initial concerns over the
new licensing model and product activation system, Windows
XP eventually proved to be popular and widely used. It is
estimated that at least 400 million copies of Windows XP were
sold globally within its first five years of availability, and at
least one billion copies were sold by April 2014.
16
Windows XP remained popular even after the release of

newer versions, particularly due to the poorly received release
of its successor Windows Vista. Vista's 2009 successor,
Windows 7, only overtook XP in total market share at the end
of 2011.
Sales of Windows XP licenses to original equipment

manufacturers (OEMs) ceased on June 30, 2008, but continued
for netbooks until October 2010. Extended support for
Windows XP ended on April 8, 2014, after which the operating
system ceased receiving further support or security updates to
most users.”
5) Windows 8.1
Based on Wikipedia.com “Windows 8.1 (codenamed

Blue) is an upgrade for Windows 8, a version of Windows NT,
a computer operating system released by Microsoft. First
unveiled and released as a public beta in June 2013, it was
released to manufacturing on August 27, 2013, and reached
general availability on October 17, 2013, almost a year after
the retail release of its predecessor. Windows 8.1 is available
free of charge for retail copies of Windows 8 and Windows RT
users via Windows Store. Unlike service packs on previous
versions of Windows, users who obtained 8 outside of retail
copies or pre-loaded installations (i.e., volume licensing) must
obtain 8.1 through new installation media from their respective
subscription or enterprise channel. Microsoft's support lifecycle
policy treats Windows 8.1 similar to previous service packs of
Windows: It is part of Windows 8's support lifecycle, and
installing 8.1 is required to maintain access to support and
Windows updates after January 12, 2016. However, unlike
previous service packs, Windows 8.1 cannot be acquired via
Windows Update and only accepts 8.1-specific product keys.”
6) Macintosh OSX
According to Webopedia.com “The latest operating

system for Apple's Macintosh computers. Mac OS X is a
development platform that supports multiple development
technologies including UNIX, Java, the proprietary Cocoa and
Carbon runtime environments, and a host of open source, Web,
scripting, database and development technologies.
The Mac OS X Mountain Lion update (v10.8) is the

most recent release of the Mac OS X operating system,
following earlier updates for the OS: Cheetah (v10.0), Puma
(v10.1), Jaguar (v10.2), Panther (v10.3), Tiger (v10.4),
Leopard (v10.5), Snow Leopard (v10.6) and Lion (v10.7).”
7) Linux Mint
According to LinuxMint.com website itself “Linux

Mint is the most popular desktop Linux distribution and the 3rd
most widely used home operating system behind Microsoft
Windows and Apple Mac OS.
Some of the reasons for the success of Linux Mint are:
- It works out of the box, with full multimedia support

and is extremely easy to use.
- It's both free of cost and open source.
- It's community-driven. Users are encouraged to send

feedback to the project so that their ideas can be used to
improve Linux Mint.
- Based on Debian and Ubuntu, it provides about 30,000

packages and one of the best software managers.
- It's safe and reliable. Thanks to a conservative approach

to software updates, a unique Update Manager and the
robustness of its Linux architecture, Linux Mint
requires very little maintenance (no regressions, no
antivirus, no anti-spyware...etc).”
8) Android
Based on Wikipedia.com, “Android is a mobile

operating system (OS) based on the Linux kernel and currently
developed by Google. With a user interface based on direct
manipulation, Android is designed primarily for touchscreen
mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers, with
specialized user interfaces for televisions (Android TV), cars
(Android Auto), and wrist watches (Android Wear). The OS
uses touch inputs that loosely correspond to real-world actions,
like swiping, tapping, pinching, and reverse pinching to
manipulate on-screen objects, and a virtual keyboard. Despite
being primarily designed for touchscreen input, it also has been
18
used in game consoles, digital cameras, regular PCs (e.g. the

HP Slate 21) and other electronics.”
9) Windows XP
Definition of this Windows XP is the same as the above

stated, the only difference is the distribution version. The
version discussed a while ago is Professional which is much
suitable or applicable to companies or professionals while this
version is suitable for home use or personal use.
10) Fedora
According to Webopedia.com “Fedora is a Linux

operating system distribution developed and supported by the
Fedora Project, an open source community formed in 2003 as a
partnership between Red Hat and volunteer contributors. Red
Hat Enterprise Linux branches for commercial use are based on
Fedora, while the open source Fedora Linux OS itself is freely
available for use and customization.
The most recent release of Fedora Linux, Fedora 18,

debuted in January 2013 and is nicknamed the "Spherical
Cow." Fedora 18 utilizes GNOME 3.6.3 for its desktop
interface and includes, among its other new features and
additions, UEFI Secure Boot support, KDE 4.9, Xfce 4.10,
improved Active Directory support, and the OpenStack Folsom
open source cloud platform.”
Imagine you have lots of operating system to choose from, you

just need to identify which appropriate operating system to use on your
specific task or specific organization. Next lesson, will be focusing on
the Mobile Operating System which is very common to everybody
especially those who are using smart phones and tablets.
Mobile Operating System

A mobile operating system (OS) is software that allows
smartphones, tablet PCs and other devices to run applications and
programs.
A mobile OS typically starts up when a device powers on,

presenting a screen with icons or tiles that present information and
provide application access. Mobile operating systems also manage

cellular and wireless network connectivity, as well as phone access.
Examples of mobile device operating systems include Apple

iOS, Google Android, Research in Motion’s BlackBerry OS, Nokia’s
Symbian, Hewlett-Packard’s webOS (formerly Palm OS) and
Microsoft’s Windows Phone OS. Some, such as Microsoft’s Windows
8, function as both a traditional desktop OS and a mobile operating
system.
Most mobile operating systems are tied to specific hardware,

with little flexibility. Users can jailbreak or root some devices,
however, which allows them to install another mobile OS or unlock
restricted applications.
Key Terms
Android
Content Access Software
Device Drivers
Educational Software
Enterprise Infrastructure Software
Entertainment Software
Fedora
Information Worker Software
Linux Mint
Macintosh OSX
Media Development Software
Microsoft Windows 7
20
Mobile Applications
Mobile Operating System
Operating System
Product Engineering Software
Productivity Program
Simulation Software
Software
System Software
System Utility Software
Ubuntu
Web Browser
Windows 8
Windows 8.1
Windows XP
Windows XP Professional
References
Text References
Include list of books, journals and other online references that you used in
writing the module. Titles of sources should be written out in full.Text
References
Example :
Kerlinger, F.N. (1973). Foundations of behavioural research, 2nd Ed.

New York: Holt, Rinehard and Winston, Inc.
LESSON 1 – LAN, WAN, CONNECTIVITY, AND COMMUNICATION MEDIUM
Local Area Network and Wide Area Network

Have you heard before of the term Local Area Network or LAN? Maybe in
computer shops, school, office or even at home. Local Area Network (LAN)
is the smallest grouping among the Internet Technologies. According to
Webopedia.com “A local-area network (LAN) is a computer network that
spans a relatively small area. Most LANs are confined to a single building or
group of buildings, however, one LAN can be connected to other LANs over
any distance via telephone lines and radio waves. A system of LANs
connected in this way is called a wide-area network (WAN).”
Local Area Network (LAN) has different variety of standards and the most
common is known to be Ethernet. LANs using this standard are reffered to as
Ethernet LANs but it doesn’t stop there because there are also different variety
like Home Networks, Wireless LANs and Personal Area Network.
Figure 4.1 – Diagram of a Local Area Network
Home Network is a type of network that is being utilized nowadays by

individuals for their homes and apartments. This network allows all users to
connect and share resources.
Wireless LAN is somehow the same as with the Local Area Network but the
only difference is the way it is deployed. Wireless LAN uses radio frequency
to connect to different computer and devices. This type of network won’t
work without the Wireless Access Point that serves as the base station.
Personal Area Network is a type of wireless network that works within a very
small area – your immediate sorroundings. PANs connect cellphones to
headsets, PDAs to other PDAs, keyboards to cellphone, and so on.
Aside from the LAN or the Local Area Network, we also do have the Wide
Area Network. Wide Area Network (WAN) is a much bigger network than
LAN because if we talk about WAN we are talking about a large geographical
scope. According to ComputerHope.com “WAN is a collection of computers
and network resources connected via a network over a geographic area. Wide-
Area Networks are commonly connected either through the Internet or special
arrangements made with phone companies or other service providers. A WAN
is different from a MAN because of the distance between each of the
networks. In a WAN, one network may be anywhere from several hundred
miles away, to across the globe in a different country.” If you want to learn
more about WAN Technologies, it is much more detailed in the Data
Communication and Networking 4 (Wide Area Network Technologies).
Figure 4.2 – Diagram of Wide Area Network
Connectivity
When we say Connectivity, it is more on the network design, network model,
and network infrastructure or network architecture. Because connectivity
deals with the arrangement and coordination of different devices inside a
network. There are various technology that is associated in this topic and we
will be discussing it one by one.
Client-Server Model, according to Techopedia.com is a distributed

communication framework of network processes among service requestors,
clients and service providers. The client-server connection is established
through a network or the Internet.
The client-server model is a core network computing concept also building

functionality for email exchange and Web/database access. Web technologies
and protocols built around the client-server model are:
- Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

- Domain Name System (DNS)
- Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
- Telnet
Figure 4.3 – Client – Server Model
Clients include Web browsers, chat applications, and email software, among
others. Servers include Web, database, application, chat and email, etc.
A server manages most processes and stores all data. A client requests
specified data or processes. The server relays process output to the client.
Clients sometimes handle processing, but require server data resources for
completion.
While Peer-to-Peer Model, according to Computeworld.com is a network

created when two or more PCs are connected and share resources without
going through a separate server computer. A P2P network can be an ad hoc
connection—a couple of computers connected via a Universal Serial Bus to
transfer files. A P2P network also can be a permanent infrastructure that links
a half-dozen computers in a small office over copper wires. Or a P2P network
can be a network on a much grander scale in which special protocols and
applications set up direct relationships among users over the Internet.
Figure 4. 4 – Peer to Peer Model
Aside from the Client/Server and PeerToPeer Model, we also have different
topologies or network arrangement. But what is a Network Topology?
According to Computing Essentials book of O’Leary, Network Topology is
the way to arranged or configure a network. And it has 6 different common
types, such as Bus Network (a network arrangement wherein all devices are
connected into a common cable called Bus or Backbone), Ring Network (a
design wherein each computer or device is connected with other two computer
or device forming a ring), Star Network (each devices is connected directly to
a central network switch), Tree Network (each device is connected to a central
node, either directly or through one or more other devices. The central node is
connected to two or more subordinate nodes that in turn are connected to other
subordinates and so forth, forming a treelike structure), Hybrid Network
(combination of different topologies that is utilize by big organization for their
complex network) and Mesh Network (newest type of topology that does not
use a specific physical layout because mesh requires that each node have more
than one connection to the other nodes).
Communication Medium
Data transmission and other Networking technologies is nothing without the
bridge or the Communication Medium. This Communication Medium plays a
vital role in the data transmission or networking because they are the one who
carry the data from one point to another. Communication Medium can be
either wireless or wired (physical connection).
Wired (Physical Connection) uses tangible medium to link two different

devices communicating to one another. Wired Connection has variants such as
Twisted Pair Cable, Coaxial Cable and Fiber Optic Cable.
Twisted Pair Cable are pairs of copper thin copper wire that are literally
twisted together. Common application of Twisted Pair is the LAN Cables and
the Telephone Cable.
Figure 4.5 – Picture of a Twisted Pair cable
Coaxial Cable is a high-frequency transmission cable, which replaces the

multiple thin wires of UTP or STP. Coaxial uses a single solid copper core
and is usually applied in Cable Antenna Television.
Fiber Optic Cable is the thinnest type of cable because it utilizes fiber optics
which is usually 9micro meter to 65micro meter. Imagine, Fiber optic can be
much thinner than your hair. Fiber Optic uses light for transmission instead of
the electric current. Compared to Coaxial and UTPs, it transmits data much
faster, reliable and lighter.
Figure 4.6 – Picture of Optical Fiber cable
Wireless Connections is the opposite of Wired (Physical Connection)

because in wireless it uses radio frequency, microwave, satellite or even
infrared which cannot be seen by human eye.
Radio Frequency is a wireless transmission that uses electromagnetic waves to

transmit data through air. This transmission is usually measured in Hertz
(KHz, MHz or GHz). One Hertz is equivalent to one cycle per second.
Microwave is another type of electromagnetic waves whose frequencies is

between 1 GHz to 30 GHz. That is widely used for point to point
communication because of their small wavelengths (that allows antennas to
direct them in narrow beams).
Satellite is a communication system that act as a middleman or transponder to

transmit data from one point to another in a large geographica scope.
Figure 4.7 – Image of a Satellite

Infrared is still an electromagnetic waves whose wavelengths are longer than
the visible lights but shorter than the radio waves. In order to use Infrared you
need to make the two devices near to each other or their IR Transmitter and
Receiver should be facing one another.
Figure 4.8 – Application of Infrared

LESSON 2 – PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS, AND INTERNET ARCHITECTURE
Protocols and Standards

Before we go deeper to the different Protocols and Standards under the Data
Communication and Networking, let us first define what a protocol is and
what is a standard?
When we say Protocol? This are set of rules that governs a communication or
exchange of information. This can be the step by step procedure or can be the
guidelines to follow in communicating or exchanging information. According
to Computerhope.com “Protocol is a standards used to define a method of
exchanging data over a computer network such as local area network, Internet,
Intranet, etc. Each protocol has its own method of how data is formatted when
sent and what to do with it once received, how that data is compressed or how
to check for errors in data.”
We have different types of protocols and let’s us discuss some of the most
common protocols in the Data Communication that is based on
WikiBooks.com.
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol) is a set of

communication protocols used for the Internet and other similar networks.
The Internet Protocol suite, like many protocol suite, may categorized in a set
of layers.
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) is a communication protocol that is used

to resolve the Logical Address into Physical Address. Meaning using this
protocol network layer address are converted into data link layer addresses.
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is a network protocol used by

IP networks to dynamically distribute network configuration paramters like IP
address for interface and services.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a telecommunication protocol used to transfer

files or data from one device to another device over the TCP/IP Connection.
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) is one of the main protocols of the
Internet Protocol Suite used by network devices to send error message and
relay query messages.
POP 3 (Post Office Protocol 3) is an Internet Standard protocol used by E-

mail clients to retrieve information/data from an E-mail server through
TCP/IP connection.
SIP (Session Initiation Protocol) – VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) is

another communication protocol that is designed for Voice over Internet
Protocol. It is used for signaling and controlling multimedia communication
sessions.
Actually there are lots of different protocols that is associated with data
communication but i prefer not to tackle it here as it will also be tackled in
your Data Communication and Networking 1 subject in the future. So now,
let’s proceed in the discussion of the different standards that is used to allow
different devices or equipment from different manufacturer to communicate
with one another.
Let us first, define the reason why there’s a need for Standard or Standard
giving body? According to an article at what-when-how.com website
“Standards are necessary in almost every business and public service entity.
The primary reason for standards is to ensure that hardware and software
produced by different vendors can work together. Without networking
standards, it will be difficult – if not impossible – to develop networks that
easily share information. Standards also mean that customer are not locked
into one vendor. They can buy hardware and software from any vendor whose
equipment meets the standard.”
Imagine, if there are no standards or standard giving bodies then different

device coming from the different vendors can’t communicate with one another
and there will be no communication or transmission at all. Here are some of
the Standard giving bodies that is known in networking or data
communication:
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is an organization that is

based in Geneva, Switzerland. It promotes worldwide, proprietary, industrial
and commercial standards. One of the biggest contribution of this standard
giving body is the OSI or the Open System Interconnect that is widely used in
the Networking world.
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineer (IEEE) is a professional

organization that is composed of computer scientist, software developers,
information technology professional, physicist and even medical doctor. This
organization is focused in the advance technological innovation and
excellence. The greatest contribution of IEEE in the Data Communication is
the 802 which is the LAN/WAN Standards.
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is an international community of

network designers, operators, vendors and researcher that is focused in the
evolution of the internet architecture and the enhancement of the internet
Figure 4.9 – Different operation. IETF uses the RFC or the Request for Comment in their standards.
Standard Giving
Organizations International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is an agency under the United
Nations (UN) that is tasked to oversee and address the issues when it comes to
Information and Communication Technologies.
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is a private organization that is

responsible for the development of consensus standards for services, products,
systems, processes and even personnel in the United State of America.
This are just some of the standard giving body that is much known or very
popular in the Networking field. Now let us discuss the two different standard
model that is used nowadays. OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) and TCP/IP
(Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol) are the two well known
model in computer network.
Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) Model is one of the greatest contribution

of the ISO in the computer networking industry. This model is used by
company as reference because it characterizes and standardizes the internal
functions of a communication system into different layers.
According to Wikipedia.com “Open System is a set of protocols that allow

any two different systems to communicate regardless of their underlying
structure. The purpose of OSI model is to show how to facilitate
communication between different systems without requiring changes to the
logic of the underlying hardware and software. The OSI model isn’t just a
protocol but a model for understanding and designing a network architecture
that is flexible, robust and interoperable.”
Figure 4.10 – Open Systems Interconnect Model
OSI Model is divided into 7 layers namely: Physical Layer, Data Link Layer,
Network Layer, Transport layer, Session Layer, Presentation Layer and
Application Layer. Let us somehow discuss each layer briefly because deeper
discussion of this topic will be in your Data Communication and Networking
1: Networking Fundamentals.
Physical layer, according to Wikipedia.com is the layer that defines the

electrical and physical specifications of the data connection. It defines the
relationship between a device and a physical transmission medium. This
include the layout of pins, voltage, line impedance, cable specifications, signal
timings, hubs, repeaters, network adapters, host bus adapters and others. This
layer also defines the protocol to establish and terminate a connection between
two directly connected nodes plus it also define the protocol for flow control.
Data Link layer, provides node-to-node transfer (reliable link between two
directly connected nodes), by detecting and possibly correcting errors that
may occur in the physical layer. This layer is divided into two sublayer which
is Media Access Control (MAC) and the Logical Link Control (LLC).
Network Layer, is another layer that is responsible in providing functional and

procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences (called
datagrams) from one node to another connected to the same network. It
translates logical network address into physical machine address. A Network
is a medium to which many nodes can be connected, on which every node has
an address and which permits nodes connected to it to transfer message to
other nodes connected to it by merely providing the content of message and
the address of the destination node and letting the network find the way to
deliver (“Route”) the message to the destination node. Datagram delivery at
the network layer is not guaranteed to be reliable.
Transport Layer, provides the functional and procedural means of transferring

variable-length data sequences from a source to a destination host via one or
more networks, while maintaining the quality of service functions. This layer
controls the reliability of a given link through flow control,
segmentation/desegmentation and error control.
Session Layer, controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It

establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and
remote applications. It provides for full duplex, half duplex or even simplex
operations. Session Layer establishes checkpointing, adjournment, and
termination and restart procedure.
Presentation Layer, is a layer of the OSI that will establish context between
application-layer entities, in which the application-layer entities may use
different syntax and semantics if the presentation services provides a big
mapping between them. If a mapping is available, presentation service data
units are encapsulated into session protocol data units, and passed down the
protocol stack.
And last but not the least is the Application layer. It is the layer among the 7
OSI layer that is closest to the end user, which means both the OSI application
layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer
interacts with the software applications that implement a communicating
component. Application-layer functions typically include identifying
communication partners, determining resource availability and synchronizing

communications.
And those are seven OSI layers, you will be learning more of that in your Data
Communication and Networking 1. Now, let’s proceed to the discussion of
another known model / standard in networking that is the TCP/IP Model.
As I previously said OSI model is conceived and maintained by International

Organization of Standardization and TCP/IP model is maintained by the
Internet Engineering Task Force. TCP/IP is almost the same as with OSI but
TCP/IP is much simpler because instead of 7 layers TCP/IP is divided into 4
layers.
According to Wikipedia.com, TCP/IP Model provides end-to-end

connectivity specifying how data should be packetized, addressed,
transmitted, routed and received at the destination. Indeed, this functionality is
organized into four abstraction layers which are used to sort all related
protocols according to the scope of networking involved.
Figure 4.11 – TCP/IP Model
Like what I said a while ago, TCP/IP Model is divided into 4 different layers.
From lowest to highest, the layers are the Network Layer, Internet Layer,
Transport Layer and Application Layer.
Network Layer, is used to move packets between the Internet layer interface of
two different host on the same link. The process of transmitting and receiving
packets on a given link can be controlled both in the software device drivers
for network cards, as well as on firmware or specialized chipsets.
Internet Layer, has the responsibility of sending packets across potentially

multiple networks. Internetworking requires sending data from the source
network to the destination network. This process is called routing. Internet
Layer protocols performs two basic functions; 1) Host addressing and
identification: This is accomplished with a hierarchical IP Addressing system.
2) Packet routing: This is the basic task of sending packets of data (datagrams)
from source to destination by forwarding them to the next network router
closer to the final destination.
Transport Layer, establishes a basic data channel that an application uses in

its task-specific data exchange. The layer establishes process-to-process
connectivity, meaning it provides end-to-end services that are independent of
the structure of user data and the logistics of exchanging information for any
particular specific purpose.
Application Layer, includes the protocols used by most applications for

providing user services or exchanging applications data over the network
connections established by the lower level protocols, but this may include
some basic network support services, such as many routing protocols, and
host configuration protocols. And that is the 4 different layers of TCP/IP
Model.
And that is the two common model or standard that we are using for Data
Communication. In the next lesson, we will be discussing some of the internet
architectures.
Internet Architecture
What is Internet Architecture? According to livinginternet.com, is a meta-
network, a constantly changing collection of thousands of individual networks
intercommunicating with a common protocol. This architecture is based in the
very specification of the standard TCP/IP protocol, designed to connect any
two network which may be very different in internal hardware, software, and
technical design. Once two networks are interconnected, communication with
TCP/IP is enabled end-to-end, so that any node on the Internet has the near
magical ability to communicate with any other no matter where they are. This
openness of design has enabled the Internet Architecture to grow to a global
scale. Here are some terminologies that is related to Internet Architecture.
Routers is a specialized hardware that does the routing of data. This hardware
is commonly known as the Layer 3 Hardware because it uses logical addresses
to route the information from the sender to its destination. According to
Webopedia, A Router is a device that forwards data packets along networks.
A Router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or
WANs or a LAN and its ISP's network. Routers are located at gateways, the
places where two or more networks connect.
Figure 4.12 – Picture of a Router
Routers use headers and forwarding tables to determine the best path for
forwarding the packets, and they use protocols such as ICMP to communicate
with each other and configure the best route between any two hosts.
There are several brands of router like Cisco Systems, Juniper Networks,
Hewlett-Packard, Huawei Routers, Nokia Networks, ZyXEL, ZTE and more.
Domain Name Services is another terminology in the Internet Architecture

wherein using this service. DNS Servers translates the public IP addresses into
Domain Names. For example, if you will type http://www.facebook.com at
the web browser the DNS Server will be resolving this IP and will convert it
to 69.171.230.5 which is the public IP Address of Facebook.com.
According to NetworkSolutions.com, “Domain Name Servers (DNS) are the

Internet's equivalent of a phone book. They maintain a directory of domain
names and translate them to Internet Protocol (IP) addresses. This is necessary
because, although domain names are easy for people to remember, computers
or machines, access websites based on IP addresses. Information from all the
domain name servers across the Internet are gathered together and housed at
the Central Registry. Host companies and Internet Service Providers interact
with the Central Registry on a regular schedule to get updated DNS
information.”
Internet Service Providers depends on what country you are in but in

principles, Internet Service Providers are the companies that allows every
household or companies to access the World Wide Web or the Internet.
According to Wikipedia.com, “Internet service provider (ISP) is an

organization that provides services for accessing, using, or participating in the
Internet. Internet service providers may be organized in various forms, such as
commercial, community-owned, non-profit, or otherwise privately owned.
Internet services typically provided by ISPs include Internet access, Internet
transit, domain name registration, web hosting, Usenet service, colocation.”
Figure 4.13 – Internet Service Provider Diagram

CHAPTER 5: TROUBLESHOOTING, SECURITY, AND ETHICS
LESSON 1 – PHYSICAL, DATA, AND SOFTWARE MAINTENANCE
Physical Maintenance
Of course, every one of us doesn’t want our computer or laptops to
malfunction or get broken. In fact some of us are doing some extra efforts to
protect this machine, it is for a reason that this machine is a bit expensive and
also because this machine is somehow important in our studies or even in our
work.
If you want to sustain your machine, it requires a lot of work because you
need to keep it very clean as in physically clean. Dust at the office, school or
even at home is typically 2 to 10 µm (micro-meter) and even though its 20-
50times smaller than your hair. Once dust accumulates it can cause damage in
your motherboard because of short circuits.
Figure 5.1 – Cleaning the Keyboard

That’s why in this lesson, we will focus more on cleaning your machine,
whether external cleaning or even internal cleaning. Let’s start this lesson at
the keyboard. According to gcflearnfree.org, a dirty keyboard doesn't look
nice and can cause your keyboard to not work properly. Dust, food, liquid,
and other particles can get stuck underneath the keys, which can prevent them
from working properly.
That’s why you have to check the user’s manual if there are instruction
specific for your keyboard. Here are some of the tips you can follow to keep
your keyboard clean.
Of course, if you will be cleaning your keyboard. You need to first unplug it
from the PS/2 or USB port of your system Unit to avoid another trouble. After
that, gently shake the keyboard in an upside down position, so that the dust
and dirt will fall-out from the keys.
You may use compressed air to clean between the keys because if you will
just blow it by your mouth, water from your saliva might cause another
problem. Use a moist cloth to clean the top of the keys as much as possible
put rubbing alcohol in the cloth to make it more effective.
Lastly, reconnect the keyboard to your system unit and check if it is still
working properly.
Another thing, is how if there are spilled liquid in your keyboard?

Immediately, after you spill a liquid in your keyboard make the keyboard
upside down and let the spill drip off. Allow the keyboard to dry well before
reconnecting it in your computer.
Next thing, after cleaning your keyboard is your Mouse. If you are using
optical mouse, there is no need for in depth cleaning since it does not have any
mechanical parts inside that will accumulate dust. But if you are using
Mechanical Mouse, you need to do an in depth cleaning because it can
accumulate dust inside the mouse balls.
Figure 5.2 – Cleaning the Mechanical Mouse

Here is the steps to follow in cleaning a mechanical mouse. First, you need to
disconnect the mouse from your computer. Second unlocked the mouse ball
covering to remove the mouse ball. Using a moist cloth clean the tracking ball
and the inside of the mouse. Clean also the outside of the mouse to take away
some sticky substance. Third, let all the parts dry before you reassemble them
and connect it back to the computer.
Aside from the mouse, there is another external parts of the computer that
needs to be clean which is the Monitor or the Display. Monitors are clean to
fully utilize its clarity and vibrance because most of the time dust, dirts and
fingerprints tends to make our monitor not clear and a bit darker. In order for
you to clean the Monitor what you just need is either a cloth moist with a bit
water or a cloth with a monitor cleaning solution.
Figure 5.3 – Cleaning the Monitor
Of course, if you will clean the external parts, you also need to clean the
system unit itself. In cleaning a computer surface here are some of the tips
which I get from a website GCFLearnFree.org. Dust is your computer’s main
enemy. Use an antisatic wipe to lightly dust your computer casing. Don’t use
furniture cleaners or strong solvents. Use a can of compressed air with a
narrow nozzle to blow out debris from the air intake slots. Spray cleaning
solutions like diluted ammonia cleaner or glass cleaner on a paper towel or
antistatic wipe. Clean the monitor housing and case not the monitor screen by
wiping in a downward motion. A safe cleaning solution for computer surfaces
not computer screens is ammonia diluted with water or glass cleaner
comprised mostly of ammonia and water (check the label). The milder the
solution, the better.
When it comes to the inside of the system units I suggest you need to use a
small vacuum cleaner to do the dusting. And also don’t forget to always use
the antistatic gloves in order to avoid the damage in the IC’s, Resistors,
Capacitors and etc. So I presume, next time you are now ready to do this
preventive maintenance on your computer in order to maintain its quality.
Figure 5.4 – Cleaning the System Unit

Data Maintenance
Aside from maintaining or keeping the physical components of your computer
clean. Now, we can discuss the maintenance of the data inside your computer.
There are three factors that will affect the data maintenance and that is Back-
ups, Privacy and Cyber Crime.
Backup, according to Wikipedia.com it is the process of copying and

archiving the computer data so that it may be used to restore its original data
after a data loss event.
Most of the time, back-up is being neglected by home computer user and this
should be corrected in order to avoid future problem when data loss event
arrises. But for big institution, Backup is a must or it should be a routine since
they are processing a huge amount of data for their business transaction, that
should be accurate and real time.
There are two ways to do a backup, its either you backup locally or you use
internet also known as cloud to do the backup.
In doing a local backup, you can make use of different storage media and one
of the most inexpensive one is to use CD’s or DVD’s. This medium is
commonly used by user who wants to have a secure copy of their files, so that
when data loss events happen they have something to restore in their
computer. Another way to do the local backup is to use removable storage
such as flash drive or memory cards. This option is use if you are backing up
or copying a big amout of data from your computer.
Figure 5.5 – Cloud Backup
Next is using the Internet or the Cloud backup. Cloud Backup is the process
of copying your local files into a cloud storage for future use. There are
several companies that offers cloud backup at a minimal amount of price.
IDrive is an online backup company that offers 1 Tb storage in unlimited

number of computers at $59.50 USD per year. IDrive can do scheduled
backups, continuous backups, full disk backups, file sharing and folder
syncing.
CrashPlan offers online backup for $59.99 USD per year in each computer.
But the storage space of this company is unlimited compared to the 1Tb of
IDrive. It can do the same thing as IDrive can do except for the File Sharing,
Explorer Integration and Folder Syncing.
SOS Online Backup offers their service for only $59.99 USD per year in each
computer. Same as to CrashPlan it offers unlimited storage. It also has the
feature of IDrive except for Full Disk Backups and Explorer Integration.
SpiderOak is the company that offers online backup at a bit higher price.
SpiderOak offers 1Tb storage for unlimited computer at $129.00 USD per
year. It has the same feature as to the IDrive Company.
If there is a company that offers expensive backup plan, there is also a

company that offers it a cheap price. Nero BackItUp offers unlimited storage
for 5 computers at $14.99 USD per year. And because it is a bit cheaper than
others, Nero BackItUp has some limitation compared to IDrive like it cannot
do full disk backup, explorer integration, folder syncing and version saving.
Those are the different companies that offers online or cloud backup services.
Let us now discuss the next topic of this lesson which is Computer Privacy.
Computer Privacy, according to ComputerHope.com is “a term often used to

describe an individual's anonymity and how safe they feel in a location. When
referring to privacy on the Internet, this commonly refers to what information
is shared with the visiting site, how that information is used, who that
information is shared with, or if that information is used to track users when
on the website. Answers to these questions are commonly found on the
company or website privacy policy page.” This Privacy includes several
common risks that is much known to everyone: Pharming, Spyware, Phishing
and Malware.
Figure 5.6 – Computer Privacy

Pharming, is a hacking activity that redirects the website visitor from their
legitimate website into a fraudulent website without them knowing it.
Spyware, is software application installed inside your computer that spying in

your data, meaning spyware get’s information from you computer without you
knowing it and sends it to the attacker or the hacker.
Phishing, is another hacking activity wherein attackers make use of e-mail or

other method to get secure data from a person such as bank account number,
username and password, security PIN and or even credit card number.
Malware, coming from its name Mal and Ware which means Malicious
Software. This malware is a software application that brings potential harm to
your computer because it disrupt your computer operation by installing
Trojan, viruses, worms, spyware, adware and other software that does
malicious intent.
CyberCrime is somehow related to computer privacy because computer

privacy is just one issue under the CyberCrime. According to Interpol.int,
“Cybercrime is a fast-growing area of crime. More and more criminals are
exploiting the speed, convenience and anonymity of the internet to commit a
diverse range of criminal activities that know no borders, either physical or
virtual.”
Commonly, CyberCrime can be divided into three areas:
1) Attacks against computer hardware and software
2) Financial crimes and corruption
3) Abuse
Figure 5.7 – Cyber Crime

Software Maintenance
Your Computer systems won’t probably work without any software, programs
or applications inside it. And in order to maintain an efficient and good
running computer system we have to do some Software Maintenance. There
are several things we have to consider in order to do Software Maintenace like
maintaining the Operating System, doing some Software Updates and
knowing your BIOS.
According to OWU.edu “In order to keep your system running smoothly there
are few task you can perform. Regular maintenance will help your computer
up to speed and free of annoying problems.” Here are some of the routine that
you can follow:
Disk Cleanup – a maintenance utility included in Microsoft Windows that is

used to free up disk spaces on the computer’s hard drive. Using this system
utility it will first analyze the hard drive for its files that are not being used
anymore and then removes the unnecessary files. Here are the step by step
procedure coming from owu.edu website.
First, go to All Programs under the Start Menu, click Accessories and look for
the System Tools. Find the Disk Cleanup button to proceed in the calculation
of how much space it can free up. After the calculation, Disk Cleanup will
give you a list of categories of files to delete. Make sure that the following
options are checked: 1) Downloaded Program Files 2) Temporary Internet
Files 3) Microsoft Office Temporary Files 4) Microsoft Error Reporting
Temporary Files 5) Recycle Bin 6) Setup Log Files 7) Temporary Files 8)
WebClient / Publisher Temporary Files 9) Temporary Offline Files 10)
Compress Old Files. Click OK and it will ask you to confirm you’d like to
delete the files. Usually it will take around 5 – 15 minutes depending on how
big the file is.
Defragmentation (Hard Drive) – the process of physically organizing the

contents of the mass storage device into the smallest number of contiguous
regions (fragments). It also attempts to create larger regions of free space
using compaction to impede the return of fragmentation. Here is the step by
step process on how to defragment your hard drive:
First, click the start menu and look for all programs. Under all programs
Figure 5.8 – Disk Cleanup choose accessories then system tools. From there you will see the Disk
and Defragmenter Defragmenter utilities. On the Disk Defragmenter options, it will ask you on
what disk to defragment and click the analyze button. After the analyzation
process it will recommend if you need to defragment or not. If it suggest to
defragment then click the defragment button otherwise cancel and close the
utility.
Antivirus (Software) – is a software application that scans your whole

computer’s hard drives and folder for possible malware or virus infections.
Antivirus also prevents and cure the said virus by removing infected files out
of the system. There are different types of anti-virus and let us discuss the
common types like Worms, Trojan Horses, Rootkits, Spyware, KeyLoggers,
RansomWare and Adware.
Worms – is a virus or malware that replicates itself to infect the whole

computer. This type of virus is commonly used by hackers or attackers to
make a DoS or Denial-of-Service attack wherein instead of the computer
processing the valid applications and softwares, worms are consuming the
computer resources.
Trojan Horses – if you know the story of Troy and the Greeks in the early
years. This type of virus or malware uses the same technique that Troy uses to
win the battle. Typically, Trojan Horse Virus are malicious codes that is
attached to infected application programs or software which will execute a
different set of actions that will bring harm to your computer like for example
loss of data.
Rootkits - special type of software that are use to hide malware, bots and
worms. And in order for the attacker or hacker to attack a computer using this
type of technique, he needs to have a full access to the computer system to
install the said rootkits.
Spyware – Another type of malware that is installed on an infected computer

without the knowledge of its owner. In order to collect different data and
information from that specific computer.
KeyLoggers – a type of software application that is used for surveillance.

Wherein hackers make use of this to record or gather the keystrokes made by
the users of the infected computer. This software can record conversation,
personal information, pin codes, credit card numbers and etc.
RansomWare – a special type of application that prevents its user to access the
computer system without paying its creator or subscribing/buying to its
creator’s products or services.
Adware – software package that automatically renders advertisements in order

to generate revenue for its author.
Software Updates (Patch or Service Pack) according to

SuperAntiSpyWare.com, “is a piece of software release by software vendors,
mainly to address security vulnerabilities in their existing products. Software
updates occasionally contains bug fixes and product enhancements. These
updates are installed over the current installation and do not require
uninstallation or re-installation of the software in question. In simple words,
when you need to update a program, you don’t need to do anything other than
let the update do its thing.”
Next and last thing for the software maintenance is what we called the BIOS.
BIOS stands for Basic Input Output System, which is a type of firmware
used for the boot-up process of a computer system. According to
ComputerHope.com, BIOS has four main functions:
1) POST (Power-On Self Test) – Test the computer hardware and make sure
no errors exist before loading the operating system.
2) Bootstrap Loader – It locates the operating system. If a capable operating

system is located, the BIOS will pass control to it.
3) BIOS Drivers – Low level drivers that gives the compute basic operational
control over your computer’s hardware.
4) BIOS or CMOS Setup – Configuration program that allows you to

configure hardware settings including system settings such as computer
password, time and date.
LESSON 2 – SECURITY AND ETHICS
Security
When we talk about security, it is more on protecting and securing. Like for
example in a bulding, they hire security guards and install security cameras to
protect and secure the premises from intruders and burglar. Computer
security is how we protect our computer systems including the data in it that
we use.
According to UCSC.edu, “Computer Security is very important to learn

because it enables the people to carry out their jobs, education and research, it
supports critical business process and lastly it protect personal and sensitive
information.”
There are several terminologies and key terms that we need to discuss in order
to further understand what Computer Security is all abou like Firewalls,
Encryptions, Antivirus and Network Security.
Firewalls, this are hardware or software that serve as protection for the inside
network. Same as to the concept of house firewalls, that prevents the fire from
coming in your house. Firewall also prevents unauthorized entry to ones
network.
According to Microsoft.com, “Firewall is a software or a piece of hardware

that helps screen out hackers, viruses and worms that try to reach your
computer over the internet.” Like what I have previously said, Firewalls can
be hardware or software. For the software type, typically Microsoft have their
own firewall software enabled in their systems. While for the Hardware, there
are different types: Packet Filters, Stateful Inspection and Proxies.
Figure 5.9 – Firewall Hardware
Encryption is the process of converting a data or information into another

form also known as cipher text. Using encryption, hackers or attackers will
find hard time understanding the data or the information without the proper
cipher codes.
According to Webopedia.com, “Encryption is the translation of data into a

secret code. Encryption is the most effective way to achieve data security. To
read an encrypted file, you must have access to a secret key or password that
enables you to decrypt it. Unencrypted data is called plain text, encrypted data
is referred to as Cipher Text. There are two main types of encryption:

asymmetric encryption and symmetric encryption.
Antivirus as I previously discussed in the previous lesson is a software

application that scans your whole computer’s hard drives and folder for
possible malware or virus infections. There are several brands of Antivirus
and according to PCMag.com, here are the top 5 antivirus of 2015. 1) Bit
Defender Antivirus Plus 2015 2) Kaspersky Anti-Virus 2015 3) Malwarebytes
Anti-Malware 2.0 4) Norton Antivirus 2014 and 5) Panda Free Antivirus
2015.
And last but very important topic for this lesson is the network security.
Network Security, according to SANS.org, is the process of taking physical
and software preventative measures to protect the underlying networking
infrastructure from unauthorized access, misuse, malfunction, modification,
destruction, or improper disclosure, thereby creating a secure platform for
computers, users and programs to perform their permitted critical functions
within a secure environment. There are several terminologies that has relation
to Network Security like Honeypots and Honeynets.
Honey Pots is a clone system or clone server that is used to contain the
intruder or attackers into that system so that the Network Security Team will
have a chance to learn or gather information about that specific hacker.
According to SANS.org, “Honey Pots can be setup inside, outsider or in the
DMZ of a firewall design or even in all of the locations although they are
most often deployed inside of a firewall for control purposes.”
Figure 5.10 – Honey Pots Implementation
Honey Pots have what we call the levels of tracking and the common tracking
levels include the firewall, system logs and some other sniffer-based tools.
Honeynet is somehow the same as Honeypot except to the fact that Honey Net
talks about the whole set-up of the network infrastructure that has intentional
vulnerabilities to attract hackers or intruders. Data gathered by Network
Security analyst from this Honey nets are used to correct the vulnerabilities of
the network system.
Ethics
According to Wikipedia.com, “Computer Ethics is a part of practical
philosophy which deals with how computing professionals should make
decision regarding professional and social conduct. This Computer ethics has
3 primary influences: 1) Individual’s own personal code. 2) Any informal
code of ethical conduct that exists in the work place. 3) Exposure to formal
codes of ethics.”
So, it only means that computer ethics is the norms or the behavior of a
computer professional or IT professional towards computing. There are
several terminologies that you as IT student should learn at this moment and it
is the Copyright and Plagiarisim.
Copyright is not only associated with computing but it is also applicable to

traditional prints and even books. Copyright, from the two words Copy and
right which protects the intellectual property right of an author or a publisher
for their work. Like for example, this book or course module “Introduction to
Computing” is binded under a copyright to its author and its publisher. And as
stated to the typical copyright statement, “No parts of this book can be copied
and or reproduced in any manner without proper citation to its author and or
its publisher.”
According to Wikipedia.com, “Copyright is a legal right created by law of a

country that grants the creator of an original work exclusive rights to its use
and distribution, usually for a limited time. The exclusive rights are not
absolute; they are limited by limitations and exception to copyright law,
including fair use.”
And when we talk about Copyright, we should also be talking about

plagiarism. If copyright is the legal right of the author or the publisher,
Plagiarism is the act of violating the copyright.
According to Wikipedia.com, “Plagiarism is the “wrongful appropriation” and

“stealing and publication” of “another author’s language, thoughts, ideas or
expressions” and the representation of them as one’s own original work. The
modern concepts of plagiarism as immoral and originality as an ideal emerged
in Europe only in the 18th century, particularly with the romatic movement.”

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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING

CHAPTER 1: COMPUTING ESSENTIALS

In the early 1800’s, Charles Babbage an English mathematician

After the discovery of Mr. Hollerith; J.V. Atanasoff, physics and

In 1943, Mr. Mauchly and Presper began the development of the

This ENIAC machine, which was officially completed on February

Figure 1.2 – Pictures of Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator

In 1953, a lady name Grace Hopper develops the first computer

Now, let’s define what Computing Science is? According to

Information System vs. Information Technology

Computer Science is a big bunch of knowledge and into it is this two

Information System is an integrated set of components for collecting,

And according to Computing Essentials book of O’Leary, Information

1) People – are commonly overlook as one part of the information

2) Procedure – The guidelines for people to follow when using the

3) Software – A program consists of the step-by-step instruction that

5) Data – the raw, unprocessed facts including text, numbers, images

We will elaborate more of that in the next chapters of this course

With this definition, we can clearly say that Information Technology is

According to webopedia.com “Software is traditionally divided into

Webopedia.com also defined the “System software as software that

Fig 1.6 – Logo of different Operating System and Application Softwares

While Application Software from webopedia.com is defined as

After we discussed some introduction concepts on software

Fig 1.7 – Picture of Playstation Power Air-force SuperComputer

Now, let’s move on to Mainframe Computers. “Mainframe computers

Fig 1.8 – Picture of IBM 360 Mainframe Computer

Next, in line are the Minicomputers. “Minicomputers are used by

Fig 1.9 – Picture of Mini-Computer

Last but not the least is what we call Microcomputers.

Fig 1.10 – Picture of Different Microcomputers

Data and Information

But what is the difference of Information with Data? According to

Fig 1.11 – Hierarchy of Data and Its Example

1) Bits – According to techterms.com is the short for “Binary Digit”.

2) Bytes - According to techterms.com is a unit of measurement used

3) Fields - According to webopedia.com is a space allocated for a

4) Records – According to techterms.com is a database entry that

5) Files – According to About.com is a self contained piece of

6) Databases – According to Britannica.com is any collection of data

Number system also known as numeral system according to

Fig. 1.12 – Photos of Aryabhata (Left) & Brahmagupta (Right)

According to La Putt (1984) In counting, the simplest system is not the

Another counting system that Mr. La Putt introduced in his book

According to tutorialspoint.com, the value of each digit in a number

1) Binary Number System – According to La Putt (1984) is a method of

Fig. 1. 13 – Steps in Calculating Binary to Decimal Digits.

2) Octal Number Systems – According to La Putt (1984) was adapted

Fig. 1.14 – Steps in Converting Octal to Decimal

3) Hexa-Decimal Number System – According again to La Putt (1984),

Fig. 1.15 – Steps in converting Hexadecimal into Decimal

So now you practice by yourself converting binary to decimal then

Next is Binary Subtraction, based on the same book: Binary

Binary numbers can also be negative, just like decimal numbers. If a

Here are some binary subtraction samples from the book

So again, I will leave it up to you to practice on the binary subtraction

Binary multiplication based on the Introduction to Computer Concept

or 1 yields respectively 0 or the number. According to La Putt “In any number

According to La Putt (1984) this is the table for binary multiplication:

There is ease in performing long binary division as compared with the

After discussing, lots of theories and concepts about Data and

On this lesson, we will be discussing some of the basic terminologies

Let’s begin by defining the first three terminologies namely Intranet,

So next is Extranet, if we define intranet as inside network then Extranet