Advances in The Development of Cool Mate

Advances in the Development of Cool
Materials for the Built Environment
Editors
Denia Kolokotsa
Technical University of Crete
Greece
Mattheos Santamouris
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens
Greece
&
Hashem Akbari
Concordia University
Canada
CONTENTS
Foreword i
Preface iii
List of Contributors vi
CHAPTERS
1. Urban Heat Island and Mitigation Strategies at City and Building

Level 3
Nyuk Hien, Wong and Steve Kardinal, Jusuf
2. White or Light Colored Cool Roofing Materials 33

Afroditi Synnefa and M. Santamouris
3. Colored Cool Materials 72

Masakazu Moriyama and Hideki Takebayashi
4. Research on Thermochromic and PCM Doped Infrared Reflective

Coatings 83
Theoni Karlessi and Mattheos Santamouris
5. Cool Pavements 104

Theoni Karlessi, Niki Gaitani, Afroditi Synnefa and Mattheos
Santamouris
6. Materials Aspects of Solar Paint Coatings for Building Applications 120

Boris Orel, Ivan Jerman, Matjaž Koželj, Lidija Slemenik Perše and
Roman Kunič
7. Cool Materials Rating Instrumentation and Testing 174

Hashem Akbari, Ronnen Levinson and Paul Berdahl
8. Modeling Cool Materials’ Properties 195
Denia Kolokotsa, V. Dimitriou and A. Synnefa
9. Energy and Environmental Aspects of Cool Materials 231

Maria Kolokotroni and Denia Kolokotsa
10. Policy Aspects of Cool Materials 273

Julie Garman – Kolokotsa
11. Cool roofs Economics and Marketing Perspective 309

Robert Bird and Rebecca Tonkin
12. Cool Roofs’ Case Studies 333

Michele Zinzi and Emmanuel Bozonnet
Index 384
i
FOREWORD
Urban areas create their own climates by altering the soil-atmosphere interface’s
characteristics relative to those of the surroundings. Surface alterations include
changes in reflective, thermo-physical, and geometrical properties that can impact
the dynamic and thermodynamic processes in the boundary layer. Cities also
introduce sources of anthropogenic heat and air pollutant emissions. Collectively,
these changes can affect surface and air temperatures, oftentimes producing heat
islands that impact thermal comfort, energy use, emissions, and air quality. They
can also modify the flow patterns, sensible and latent heat fluxes, convective
cloud formation, and precipitation in and around urban areas.
Mitigation of urban heat islands, or simply cooling urban areas, is a strategy

aimed at countering the negative effects on energy demand and the environment.
From a portfolio of several heat-island mitigation strategies, one particularly-
effective measure is the control of urban albedo. Increasing the reflectivity of
roof, wall, street, pavement, and parking-lot materials is at the forefront of
techniques for urban cooling. Various modeling and field studies have quantified
the benefits from such measures, including emission reductions and air-quality
improvements. It must be stated, too, that these indirect effects of decreasing
urban heat-island intensities are additional, auxiliary, yet very important benefits
that are accrued in parallel and in addition to those of the direct effects of energy-
demand reduction.
This book presents the benefits of cool materials for the built environment. It is
structured so as to address the multiple aspects of these materials and their effects.
Areas covered include the physical characterization of cool materials, their
modeling, rating, testing, energy and environmental impacts, economics and
marketing, and related policy aspects.
The book is edited by top experts in the field and written by leaders in each
respective aspect of cool materials science and applications. The editors are
internationally recognized for their expertise and work in the areas of urban heat
islands, cool materials, energy and environment, energy efficiency and
management, energy and climate, and solar energy. The authors of the various
ii
sections in the book are international experts in the many aspects of cool materials
research, modeling, monitoring, marketing, and standards. They are leaders and
experts representing academia, national laboratories and institutes, and the
industry.
The book is scientifically thorough and provides hands-on knowledge that is

extremely useful for researchers and practitioners in the planning, design, building
sciences, energy, and engineering fields, who are interested in using cool
materials to achieve their energy and environmental benefits. It is a sweeping and
comprehensive document that can serve as a one-stop reference for understanding,
using, applying, and evaluating the multi-faceted effects of cool materials. It is a
valuable addition to library shelves in institutions, organizations, and practices
interested in integrated energy and environmental design of buildings and other
urban structures.
Haider Taha
Altostratus Inc.
iii
PREFACE
Energy is one of the most important factors that define the quality of urban life
and the global environmental quality of cities. The urbanization process
dramatically affects energy consumption.
Moreover buildings are a major economic sector in the world and the quality of
buildings shapes the life of citizens. Although there is an important increase of the
budget devoted to construction, more than one billion urban citizens, live in
inappropriate houses while in most of the cities in less developed countries
between one and two thirds of the population live in poor quality and
overcrowded housing. Even in the developed world the percentage of people
living in low income households is quite high.
Inappropriate housing is characterized by poor indoor environmental conditions

such as extremely low or high temperatures, lack of ventilation, etc. In parallel,
heat island conditions in dense urban areas increase ambient temperatures and the
thermal stress to buildings, especially during the summer period. Passive cooling
relies on the use of techniques for solar and heat control, heat amortization and
heat dissipation. The most important progress in passive cooling techniques
recently has been in the field of cool materials as a heat dissipation technique and
reduction of the energy demand in the built environment.
The purpose of this book is to offer urban planners, energy managers, engineers
and related stakeholders an integrated handbook for cool materials in the built
environment.
The book starts with an introduction to the urban heat island phenomenon and the
various mitigation strategies such as increase of greenery and cool material.
Chapter 2 overviews essential concepts of white and light colored cool materials
while Chapter 3 addresses the colored cool materials’ properties and
characteristics.
The contribution of thermochromic and phase change materials for the built
environment is analyzed in Chapter 4. Studies of the cool materials composition,
iv
color-changing phase and optical properties are discussed. Innovative materials

and new approaches such as cool asphalt associated with cool pavements are
included in Chapter 5. Furthermore, the materials available for cool coatings are
proposed and demonstrated in Chapter 6.
A detailed analysis of the rating and instrumentation procedure coupled with the
necessary standards for the assessment of cool materials is included in Chapter 7.
Chapter 8 overviews the various approaches developed to model the cool
materials’ optical properties.
Increasing the albedo of cities using materials for buildings and the urban fabric
that presents high reflectivity to the solar radiation has a positive impact on the
urban environment. To this end Chapter 9 provides a quantitative analysis of the
energy and environmental impact of cool materials in the built environment.
The policy domains related to cool materials products and technology are
presented in Chapter 10, while the economic aspects are discussed in Chapter 11.
A series of case studies from around the world are presented in Chapter 12. The
energy and environmental impact of the cool materials’ applications are analyzed
in order to reveal the technology’s contribution.
The following teams should be acknowledged for their valuable contribution:
 Athena Consulting Group, Belgium
 Department of Building, National University of Singapore
 Faculty of Science & Engineering, Setsunan University
 Heat Island Group, Concordia University, Montreal, Canada
 Huntsman Pigments
 Italian National agency for new technologies, Energy and sustainable

economic development ENEA, Italy
v
 Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, USA
 Mechanical Engineering, Brunel University, UK
 National Institute of Chemistry of Ljubljana, Slovenia
 National Kapodestrian University of Athens, Greece
 Technical University of Crete, Greece
 University of la Rochelle, France
We hope that this book will be a useful tool for designers, engineers and other
experts working in the field of built environment.
Denia Kolokotsa
Technical University of Crete
Greece
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens
Greece
&
Hashem Akbari
Concordia University
Canada
vi
List of Contributors
Denia Kolokotsa
Environmental Engineering Department, Technical University of Crete, Greece
Group Building Environmental Studies,
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens,Greece
Hashem Akbari
Heat Island Group, Concordia University, Montreal, QC, Canada
Paul Berdahl
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
Robert Bird
Huntsman Pigments
Emmanuel Bozonnet
University of la Rochelle, France
Vassilis Dimitriou
Technological Educational Institute of Crete, Greece
Niki Gaitani
Julie Garman - Kolokotsa

Athena Consulting Group, Belgium
Ivan Jerman
National institute of Chemistry, Ljubljana, Slovenia
Steve Kardinal Jusuf

Department of Building, National University of Singapore
vii
Theoni Karlessi
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece
Maria Kolokotroni
Brunel University, UK
Matjaž Koželja
National Institute of Chemistry, Ljubljana, Slovenia
Roman Kunič
Fragmat Tim, Slovenia
Ronnen Levinson
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
Masakazu Moriyama
Setsunan University Osaka Prefecture, Japan
Boris Orel
Lidija Slemenik Peršea

Afroditi Synnefa
Hideki Takebayashi
Setsunan University Osaka Prefecture, Japan
Rebecca Tonkin
Huntsman Pigments
Nyuk Hien Wong

Department of Building, National University of Singapore
viii
Michele Zinzi
Italian National agency for new technologies, Italy
Advances in the Development of Cool Materials for the Built Environment, 2012, 3-32 3
CHAPTER 1
Urban Heat Island and Mitigation Strategies at City and Building
Level
Nyuk Hien, Wong* and Steve Kardinal, Jusuf
Department of Building, National University of Singapore, 4 Architecture Drive,

Singapore 117566
Abstract: Extensive urbanization has resulted to economic, social, energy &

environmental challenges. The global population increase led to an increasing demand
for housing. Natural land has been replaced with artificial surfaces in most cities around
the world with undesirable thermal effects. This, together with industrialization growth,
has caused a deterioration of the urban environment. Urban heat island (UHI)
phenomenon has become a common problem in many major cities worldwide. Several
factors influence the urban heat island phenomenon, such as the continuous reduction of
green spaces, the changes of wind velocity due to high buildings’ density, the
anthropogenic heat release and the alteration of surfaces’ albedo. The aforementioned
factors lead to overheating problems in cities due to the absorption of solar radiation by
the various surfaces and buildings. Hence, urban climate is one of the most important
elements of urban physical environment, which is often ignored in urban planning. To
design a sustainable city, it is necessary to take into account the climatic conditions
holistically and strategically during the planning process. Since the 1970s, German
researchers have developed the concept of urban climate map (UC-Map) that has a
strong focus on applied urban climatology. UC-Map is an appropriate tool for
translating climatic phenomena and problems into 2-D images including symbols for
land use and spatial information suitable for the urban planner. Therefore this map is a
useful tool for urban planners, architects and governors in order for them to understand
more accurately and evaluate the effects of urban climatic issues on decision-making
and environmental control. At the micro-climate level, several UHI mitigations can be
implemented to reduce the UHI severity. First is greenery. The benefits of greenery to
the built environment have been widely investigated. Greenery dissipates the incoming
solar radiation on the building structures through its effective shading; it reduces long-
wave radiation exchange between buildings due to the low surface temperatures created
by plants’ shading; it reduces the ambient air temperature through evapotranspiration.
The role of building’s materials, mainly determined by their optical and thermal
characteristics, is crucial in reducing the thermal and solar hear gains, in the urban
environment. The so-called ‘cool’ materials, characterized by high reflectivity and high
emissivity, can improve the thermal conditions in cities by lowering the surface
temperatures that affect the thermal exchanges with the surrounding air. Urban
*Address correspondence to Wong Nyuk Hien: Department of Building, National University of Singapore, 4
Architecture Drive, Singapore 117566; Tel: +65-65163423; Fax: +65-67755502; E-mail: bdgwnh@nus.edu.sg
Denia Kolokotsa, Mattheos Santamouris and Hashem Akbari (Eds)

All rights reserved-© 2012 Bentham Science Publishers
4 Cool Materials for the Built Environment Wong and Jusuf
ventilation is another important strategy of UHI mitigation. It is important to understand

the nature of air flow regimes within urban canyons in order to make further progress in
describing the complex interactions between mesoscale forces and the built
environment that create the urban boundary layer.
Keywords: Urban heat island, mitigation strategies, urban climatic map, urban
greenery, urban ventilation, cool materials.
DEFINITION OF URBAN HEAT ISLAND
The world has experienced an unprecedented urban growth in the latest centuries. In
1800, only 3% of the world’s population lived in urban areas. This percentage
reached 14% and 47% in 1900 and 2000 respectively. In 2008, it was the first time
in history where more than half of the world’s population was living in the urban
areas. Moreover in 2003, United Nations estimated that by the year 2030, up to 5
billion people will be living in urban areas, which corresponds to 61% of the world's
population [1].
Extensive urbanization has resulted in economic, social, energy & environmental

challenges. The trend in global population increase leads to an increase in housing
demand. Natural land has been replaced by artificial surfaces in most cities around
the world with undesirable thermal effects. This issue, together with
industrialization growth, has caused a considerable deterioration of the urban
environment. Buildings in cities influence the urban climate in many ways [2]:
1. Softscape (trees, grass and soil) is replaced by hard surfaces (asphalt

and concrete);
2. The rounded, soft shapes of trees and bushes are replace by blocky,
angular buildings;
3. Anthropogenic heat from the buildings, air conditioning systems and

automobiles is released;
4. Surface infiltration is prevented due to efficient disposal of rain water

in drains, sewers and gutters.
5. Contaminants that create an unpleasant urban atmosphere due to the

chemical reactions are emitted.
Urban Heat Island and Mitigation Strategies at City Cool Materials for the Built Environment 5
The aforementioned factors influence the amount of incoming and outgoing

radiation and also affect the local wind speeds [3]. Their effects on local climate,
especially on environmental temperature and ventilation, are very critical.
Moreover they alter the radiative, thermal, moisture and aerodynamic properties
of the environment [4], causing heat concentration in urban areas compared to its
neighboring rural areas. This phenomenon is called the urban heat island (UHI)
effect (see Fig. 1).UHI has become a common problem in major cities worldwide
while the temperature difference between urban and rural areas can be more than
10K (Table 1).
Figure 1:Typical urban heat island profile (Source: Wong and Chen, 2009)
Table 1: UHI intensity in several countries around the world
City Intensity (K)

Shanghai, China [5] Up to 8.4
Tokyo, Japan [6] 3-8
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia [7] 4-6.5
Singapore [8] 4
Newark, USA [9] 3
London, UK [10] 8 (max)
Lodz, Poland [11] 12 (max)
The severity of the UHI effect is influenced by some important factors: [12-14]:
1. Canyon geometry: Urban canyons work as traps that decrease the loss of
both short-wave and long-wave radiation. This is attributed to the
complex exchange between buildings and the skyline screening. Urban
canyons also decrease the effective albedo of the overall area due to
multiple reflections of short-wave radiation by the canyon surfaces.
2. Building materials: Materials, such as concrete and brick, have large

heat capacity and more sensible heat can be stored during daytime.
The stored heat is then released back to the environment at night.
3. Greenhouse effect: The polluted urban atmosphere traps the long-

wave radiation that is emitted by the ground to the sky.
4. Anthropogenic heat source is generated by the industrial combustion,

traffic, air-conditioners and other human activities.
5. Evaporative cooling: Vegetation and water can mitigate the UHI

effect since more incoming heat can be transformed into latent heat
rather than sensible heat. Unfortunately, the lack of greenery in cities
deteriorates the UHI effect.
6. Urban ventilation: Wind is able to remove heat by turbulent and

convective transfer. However, such heat loss from urban streets is
reduced due to the obstruction of wind flow by the urban settings.
The UHI phenomenon is exacerbated by human energy release overheating and by

increasing demand of air conditioning, which leads to further heating and CO2 release
[15]. Simulation studies have shown that the possible increase in peak cooling
electricity load due to UHI could range from 0.5 to 3% for each 1K temperature
increase [16]. Meanwhile, another study in Singapore shows that 1K reduction of
urban air temperature reduces the energy consumption for cooling by 5% [17].
Many studies have been conducted around the world to mitigate the UHI in the
cities. This chapter discusses several UHI mitigation measures at the city, estate
and building level.
MITIGATION STRATEGIES
Urban Climatic Map at City Level
Countries need to develop their cities to stimulate economic growth and promote
their national development. Therefore the development of cities compared to the
various neighborhood towns and villages attracts more inhabitants, leading to an
aggravated need to further urban expansion and development. Due to climate
change, there is a vision to develop cities to be more sustainable and healthy for
their inhabitants. Urban climate, one of the elements of urban physical
environment, has gained its momentum as an important aspect of the urban
planning process together with economic and social aspects. Several studies
acknowledged the influence of urban forms towards urban thermal comfort [18-
20], urban temperature [21-22] and urban heat island intensity [23].
Climate is an important factor of the built environment and all studies regarding
urban climatic conditions are focusing on the improvement of the local climatic
conditions with the simultaneous reduction of the negative microclimate effects.
Two different difficulties appear in a climatic study at local level. Firstly, there is
no suitable meteorological data that are available in local level since the usual
meteorological measuring grid is too wide. Secondly, there is only a little or no
time for the planners to make decisions and so is the available time for the
meteorological investigation [24].
Germany is one of the leading countries in urban climate research. The first urban
climatic study was conducted in Berlin as early as in the end of 19th century and
was used by several methodologies in the later studies such as thermal imaging,
temporary weather station, car transverses, vertical soundings that led to the urban
climatic map (UC-Map) in the early 80s [25].
Among the various methods, UC-Map is found very useful for urban planning
purposes since it integrates the urban climatic factors and urban planning
considerations. Before the development of the UC-Map methodology, the
integration of urban planning and meteorology was a problem in many cities, due
to the different domains and aspects of knowledge. Meteorologists do not know
the planning requirements that should be considered in the urban microclimatic
study, while urban planners do not understand the type of climatic data that should
be provided for their planning purposes [26]. As an information and evaluation

tool, the UC-Map has two components, the Urban Climatic Analysis Map (UC-
AnMap) and the Urban Climatic Recommendation Map (UC-ReMap).
The UC An-Map compiles the meteorological data, land use data, building footprint
information, topography and vegetation information. The influence of these data on
thermal load and thermal comfort are analyzed and classified spatially into several
categories [27]. The UC-AnMap is also called “climatope map” and “synthetic
climate function map”, as it represents distinct local climatic conditions and defines
the climatopes. Climatopes are geographic areas in the urban space that have similar
microclimatic characteristics and similar relative significance towards their
surroundings. Moreover the specific tool operates on a spatial scale of several
dozens to hundreds meters. The characteristics are primarily distinguished by the
daily thermal variation, the vertical roughness, the topographical conditions or
exposure and more importantly by the type of materials [28].
Figure 2: Workflow of UC-AnMap development for Hong Kong (Source: CUHK, 2008)
In developing a city, planners are dealing with land-use changes that usually alter
the aforementioned urban characteristics and subsequently create new
microclimatic conditions. The modification of roughness parameter changes the
urban ventilation. An increase of roughness usually limits the air exchange rates
leading to an increase of the heat generated by the city. Moreover the pollutants
emitted by the near-surface sources are insufficiently dispersed. This phenomenon
causes critical environmental impacts to the inhabitants. The effects of inadequate
ventilation are critical during periods of extremely low prevailing winds and high
radiation [29]. The interaction between urban structures and climate becomes
more prominent when the city is not located in a flat terrain. The urban ventilation
or wind path within the city changes according to the topographic condition.
Therefore, it is not only the land use and the urban structures considered in the
UC-AnMap, but also the topography and its influence on the urban and rural
ventilation. Fig. 2 depicts the workflow and data required to develop UC-AnMap
for the urban climatic map of Hong Kong as an illustration.
Figure 3: UC-ReMap City of Stuttgart (Source: Ministry of Economy Baden-Wuerttemberg,

2008)
Urban Climatic Recommendation Map (UC-ReMap) targets to the planning

procedure. It provides strategic and city planning guidelines to improve the
microclimatic conditions based on the UC-AnMap and practical constraints. Similar
climatopes obtained from UC-AnMap are grouped into classification zones, where
each zone is represented in different colors and has specific planning guidelines, so
that the urban climatic conditions are not worsened. Hence, the collaboration
between the urban climatologist and the urban planners is very important in the
development of the UC-ReMap from the UC-AnMap [30]. The recommendation
map can be in a form of general guidelines for urban planners. For example the
Stuttgart climatic map includes a transformation of green spaces and vegetation to
preserve and reclaim natural vegetation in order to improve ventilation, reduce the
release of air pollutants and support fresh air provision (Fig. 3) [31]. The
recommendation map may also be in a form of more rigid guidelines. For example
the Kassel climatic map includes guidelines on the building coverage, the spacing
between buildings and their heights as well as the percentage of greenery [32]. The
implementation of the UC-ReMap involves not only the local government but also
the private sectors, such as industries and businesses. The scale of the UC-Map is
1:100000 for regional analysis and 1:5000 for district analysis. It provides an overall
analysis, in which, microclimatic study can be selected and conducted.
Urban Climatic Map at Estate Level

Urban climatic map at the estate level provides an analysis for more detailed
climatic conditions, i.e. urban air temperature, compared to urban climatic map at
city level and it usually has the scale of 1:5000 to 1:100000 with the resolution of
100m grid.
Known as temperature map, its methodology was developed based on the fact that
air temperature in urban areas is closely related to land uses [33], which
physically are related to the urban morphology characteristics, such as: sky view
factor [34-38], greenery condition [39-40], thermal mass of the built environment
[41-42] and building materials [43-45].
Daily minimum (Tmin), average (Tavg) and maximum (Tmax) temperatures of a

specific location are calculated as the result of temperature deviation from the
temperature measured at a meteorological station nearby. The deviation is mainly
due to the urban morphological characteristics, i.e. building, pavement and

greenery, within the radius of 50 meters. The independent variables for the models
can be categorized into:
1. Climatic predictors. Those are the daily minimum (Ref Tmin), the
average (Ref Tavg) and maximum (Ref Tmax) temperatures at a
reference point. Moreover the average of daily solar radiation
(SOLAR) is considered. For the SOLAR predictor, the average of the
daily solar radiation is used in the Tavg model, while the daily solar
radiation maximum is used in the Tmax model. SOLAR predictor is not
applicable for Tmin model.
2. Urban morphology predictors. Those are the percentage of pavement

area over a radius of 50m, the average height to building area ratio,
the total wall surface area, the Green Plot Ratio, the sky view factor
and the average surface albedo.
The planners are not able to modify the overall climatic conditions, but they can
modify the urban morphological conditions. With the temperature map, planners
are able to analyze the impacts of their design to the environment.
As an example, temperature maps are used to analyze and predict the impact of a
new master plan as compared to the existing conditions in a Singapore estate and
also to study two different greenery densities of the park, named as “Green Belt”.
The calculated maximum temperature is shown in Fig. 4. The changes of
maximum air temperature distribution pattern at different master plan models
(Model 1 and Model 2) are mainly due to the change of greenery and building
distributions. The removal of large greenery areas and its replacement with
buildings increases the average air temperature, as seen in the Vista Xchange
zone. The impact of the Green Belt in Model 2 (Fig. 4 right) that has a higher
greenery density as compared to Model 1 (Fig. 4 middle) seems more noticeable,
creating a larger “cool island” at the middle of the estate.
Researchers have conducted various investigations and measurements in relation

to the built environment. As a result, they have come out with various prediction
models for different purposes, including impact mitigation strategies, climatic
data predictions, improved weather and air quality forecasts [46]. Nevertheless,
these prediction models are too complicated for educated non-scientists, such as
urban planners. In the end, they are often kept in the shelves until the scientists are
engaged to do the assessment. By the time scientists finish their assessments, the
planners have no time to redesign their master plans based on the scientists’
findings. There is a gap between scientists and planners. Furthermore, at the
building design level, CAD software has been developed and integrated with
some simulation software, called the Building Information Modeling (BIM).
However, at urban or estate planning level, there is still no software or tool that
can equip planners to design and perform assessment at the same time. These
findings emphasize the need to develop a tool for planners.
Figure 4: The calculated average air temperature of current condition (Left), master plan model 1
(Middle) and master plan model 2 (Right).
The Screening Tool for Estate Environment Evaluation (STEVE) was developed
with a motivation to bridge research findings, especially air temperature
prediction models, and urban planners. STEVE is a web-based application that is
specific to an estate and it calculates the Tmin, Tavg and Tmax of a point of interest
for the existing conditions and future conditions (proposed master plans) of a
specific area or estate. The air temperature prediction models that have been
briefly mentioned above are used in this application. The map of estate’s existing
condition or future development is displayed in STEVE interface. The viewing
level of the map is set into three levels. In level 1 (Fig. 5), it displays a complete
estate map including the zoning boundaries, which are darkened when the mouse
is pointed to the selected zone. Users are able to zoom in the map into the second
view level by clicking either the selected zone or the zoom-in button (Fig. 6).
Figure 5: First viewing level of the map
Figure 6: Second viewing level of the map

Figure 7: Third viewing level of the map
The designated points appear for the users’ selection in this viewing level and
then, users are able to predict air temperatures condition by clicking the selected
point. A circle with the radius of 50 meters blinks to provide indication of the
urban morphological distribution that influence the air temperatures at the selected
point (Figs. 7 and 8).
Figure 8: Calculator interface

At the left hand side of the existing or proposed master plan map, the calculator
interface appears with preloaded values of different parameters for the selected
point (Fig. 8). The preloaded values can be changed according to the users’ needs
and the predicted air temperature results appear with a push on the “Calculate”
button.
URBAN GREENERY
Planting of vegetation in urban areas is one of the main strategies employed to

mitigate the UHI effect, since vegetation plays a significant role in regulating the
urban climate. It is an effective measure to create “oasis effect” and to mitigate urban
warming at both macro- and micro-levels. Trees alter the environment by
moderating the climate, improving air quality, conserving water and protecting
wildlife. Basically, greenery ameliorates the urban climate by moderating the effects
of sun, wind and rain. Trees cool the environment through shading and
evapotranspiration. Solar radiation is either absorbed or deflected by leaves during
hot shinny days and is transformed into latent heat converting water from liquid to
gas which in turn results in a lower leaf temperature, lower ambient air temperature
and higher humidity through the process of evapotranspiration. Hence, it feels much
cooler under trees’ shading than exposed to direct sunlight. The energy budget of
plants explains the whole evapotranspiration process [47], as follows:
Φn – C – λE = M + S
Where
Φn : Net heat gain from radiation (short-wave radiation and long-wave

radiation). This is often the largest part and it drives many energy fluxes.
C : Net sensible heat loss, which is the sum of all heat losses to the
surroundings by conduction and convection.
λE : Net latent heat loss, which is required to convert all water evaporated
from the liquid to the vapor state and is given by the product of the
evaporation rate and the latent heat of vaporization of water (λ = 2.454
MJ kg-1 at 20oC).
M : Net heat stored in biochemical reactions, which represents the storage

of heat energy as chemical bond energy and is dominated by
photosynthesis of respiration.
S : Net physical storage of thermal energy, which includes the energy

used for heating the plant as well as heat used to raise the temperature
of the air.
Some researchers reported that the energy transferred to latent heat through plants
can be very high. Almost 1460kg of water is evaporated from an average tree
during a summer sunny day, a cooling effect that is equal to five average air
conditioners [48].
A single tree has the capability to moderate the surrounding microclimate, but its
impacts are limited. Large urban parks, on the other hand, extend the positive
effects to the surrounding built environment. Chen and Wong studied two urban
parks in Singapore and concluded that a maximum 1.3K average temperature
difference was observed around the parks. The temperatures measured within
parks also have strong relationship with the density of plants, i.e. Leaf Area Index
(LAI). Plants with higher LAIs may cause lower ambient temperatures. Results
derived from the simulation study showed that a significant amount (almost 10%
reduction of the cooling load) of energy consumption for cooling may be saved
when buildings are built near parks [49]. A study in Japan [50] showed that even a
small area of 60x40m can create a notable cooling effect. The maximum
difference between inside and outside of the small greenery area was 3K. The
study also showed that the air temperature distribution was closely related to the
distribution of greenery in the city. Jauregui found that in a large urban park in
Mexico City, the ambient temperature was 2-3K lower than its surrounding built-
up area and its influence reached a distance of 2km, about the same as its width
[51]. Therefore it can be stated that groups of trees may effectively improve the
thermal environment of the urban area.
Trees have impressive shading effects towards the built environment. Dense
foliage trees are able to intercept the incoming solar radiation by 70% – 90% [52-
54]. The shading effect provided by the plants on the surface of the buildings
lowers the surface temperatures and subsequently lowers the cooling energy
consumption. Strategically located plants may reduce the cooling energy
consumption between 25% – 80% [55-61]. They can be in the form of trees
located at the eastern or western side of the building’s wall, as well as rooftop or
vertical greenery. Extra savings can be observed when air conditioning units are
well shaded by plants [62].
The development of roof and wall planting has also been increased in the recent
years, with a number of installations for roof gardens and vertical greenery in
various building types, such as airports, hotels, residential and educational
buildings, shopping malls and other facilities. Wong studied the impact of
intensive and extensive rooftop greenery to the buildings energy behavior and
environment [63]. Rooftop greenery can provide benefits not only to the building
but also to the ambient temperature conditions. With the intensive rooftop garden
system, the surface temperature may reduce up to 3.1K and the ambient
temperature at 1 m may reduce up to 1.5K as shown in Fig. 9. The impact of
rooftop greenery is even more pronounced for metal roofs. Without plants, the
metal surface can be up to 60-70°C during daytime and lower than 20°C at night.
With plants, it ranges only from 24°C to 32°C.
Figure 9: Comparison of surface and ambient temperatures measured with different plants
(Source: Wong, et al, 2007)
Rooftop greenery research in Japan concluded that the temperature above the
rooftop greenery can be reduced of around 2-5K compared to a hard surface [64-
65]. Meanwhile, the surface temperature under the plants is reduced of almost 25-
30K compared to the metal surface during the peak hour of clear days. Fioretti
investigated the rooftop greenery performance in Mediterranean climate of Italy.
The study also found a 5-6K temperature reduction above the green roof while the
foliage reduced the solar radiation incidence on the roof surface between 80%-
90% [66].
In the city, the amount of buildings’ façade surfaces is quite large compared to the
roof surfaces. Hence, greening of building façade surface, known as vertical
greenery system, has a great potential in mitigating the UHI effect through
evapotranspiration and shading [67]. Vegetation can dramatically reduce the
maximum temperature of a building by shading its walls from the sun, with daily
temperature fluctuation being reduced by as much as 50% [68]. In addition, a
façade fully covered with greenery is protected from the solar radiation intensity
in the summer and it can reflect or absorb by its leaf cover between 40% - 80% of
the received radiation, depending on the amount and the type of greenery [31].
A research in the humid climate of Hong Kong showed a maximum temperature

decrease of 8.4K by vertical greenery systems in an urban canyon [69]. The
reduction is significant as the distribution of ambient air in a canyon influences
the energy consumption of buildings. Higher temperatures in a canyon increase
the heat convection into the building and correspondingly increase the cooling
load [70]. Surface temperatures of vertical greenery systems have been observed
in different settings at the University of Toronto since 1996 [71]. These results
have consistently demonstrated that areas with vertical greenery are cooler than
light-colored brick walls and black surfaces that are typically found in urban
areas. In Japan, experiments show that vines can reduce the surface temperature of
a veranda with south-western exposure by 13-15K and the air temperature by 1-
3K [52]. In Africa, a temperature reduction of 2.6K was observed behind
vegetated panels of vines [72]. Therefore, together with the insulation effect of
vegetation, the temperature fluctuations at the wall surface can be reduced
between 10 - 60K to 5K - 30K [73].
In Singapore, eight different vertical greenery systems were studied versus their
thermal performance [74]. The reason of the differences in the thermal
performance of these vertical greenery systems can be a combination of various

factors, including the substrate type, the insulation of the system structure, the
substrate moisture content as well as the shading and insulation of greenery
coverage. At the same time, the interactions between leaf area, geometry, color
and other microclimatic parameters such as solar radiation are complex and may
result in different cooling efficiencies during day and night. Maximum reduction
of 11.58K in the wall surface temperature on clear days is observed by the vertical
greenery systems (Fig. 10) and a reduction of up to 3.33K in ambient air
temperature from a distance of 0.15m away (Fig. 11) compared to a regular
concrete wall.
Figure 10: Wall and substrate surface temperature of Vertical Greenery System no.5 (Source:
Wong, et al, 2010)
Figure 11: Ambient temperatures at a distance of 0.15m away from Vertical Greenery System no
1, 2 and 4 (Source: Wong, et al, 2010)
URBAN VENTILATION
Wind speed in the urban areas is seriously decreased compared to the undisturbed
wind speed. Moreover wind direction may be altered. The roughness of buildings
and urban structures (geometry) affects wind within the cities and slows down
wind speeds, thus decreases the natural ventilation potential and increases the
pollutants’ concentration. One of the causes of UHI is the reduced turbulent
transfer of heat within streets, due to the decrease of wind speed. The serious
reduction of wind speed in urban canyons hampers the application of airflow
through natural ventilation for dense urban environments [70]. The decrease in
outdoor ventilation increases the outdoor pollutant concentrations and creates
poor thermal comfort conditions. This has a trickling effect to the indoor
environments as well. Experimental evaluation of airflow reduction in urban
canyons has shown a reduction of 90% [75].
Natural ventilation is a good strategy for achieving acceptable thermal comfort,

dilution of pollutant concentrations and dispersion of heat flux. Air movements
determine the convective heat and mass exchange of the human body with the
surrounding air. Higher air velocities increase the evaporative rate of skin surface
and consequently enhance the cooling sensation [76].
Oke classified the wind variation with height over the cities with a two-layer
classification of urban modification, the ‘urban canopy layer (UCL)’ and ‘urban
boundary layer (UBL)’, see Fig. 12. As the air flows from rural to urban areas, the
boundary layer must adjust to the new boundary conditions defined by the skyline
of the city [77].
The ‘urban canopy layer (UCL)’ or ‘obstructed sub-layer’ extends from the
ground surface up to the height of the buildings. The climatic conditions inside the
UCL are determined by various urban configurations and material properties. In
general, the wind speed inside this layer significantly decreases relative to the
undisturbed wind speed. The turbulence decreases with increasing height due to
ground obstacles and thermal airflow instabilities. The ‘urban boundary layer
(UBL)’, or ‘free surface layer’, lies above the buildings’ roof tops. Its thickness
(from hundreds to thousands of meters) is determined by the gradient height at
which surface friction of the ground no longer affects the general wind flow. It
varies from one point to another because of the variable heights of the buildings
below and wind speed. It is also more homogeneous in its properties over the
urban area than the UCL. In the UBL, the complex terrain increases the roughness
of the surface and therefore increases the turbulence.
Figure 12: Schematic representation of the urban atmosphere illustrating a 2-layer classification of
urban modification (Source: Oke 1987)
In highly urbanized cities like Hong Kong or Singapore, most residential estates
have high canyon geometry ratios e.g. 2-3. According to Oke, 70-80% of daytime
radiant energy surplus within urban canyons is dissipated to the air through
turbulent transfer. The balance 20-30% is stored and released at night [78].
Some key parameters that affect the air flow in urban landscape [14, 79] are the
following:
1. The prevailing breezeway or air path. The overall permeability of the

district has to be increased at ground level. This is to ensure that the
prevailing wind travels along breezeways and major roads can
penetrate deeply into the district. This can be achieved by proper
linking of open spaces, creation of open plazas at roads’ junctions,
maintaining low-rise structures along prevailing wind direction.
2. Variation of building height. Varying the height of buildings

significantly improves the penetration of the airflow in the urban
landscape. Stepping building height in rows would also create better
wind at higher levels if the differences in building heights between

rows are significant.
3. Orientation and layout of the buildings/streets with adequate gaps

between buildings are essential for good airflow. The main streets and
breezeways should be aligned in parallel or up to 30° to the prevailing
wind direction, in order to maximize the penetration of prevailing
winds through the estate. Building axis should be parallel to the
prevailing wind to avoid obstruction (Fig. 13).
4. Increasing the permeability of building blocks by the provision of

void decks at ground level or at mid-span. This helps improve the
ventilation for pedestrians, and to remove the pollutants and heat
generated at ground level.
Figure 13: Orientation of street grids (Source: Ng E., 2009)
When the prevailing wind blows perpendicular to the street canyon, there are
three regimes of wind patterns, which are a function of building (L/H) and canyon
geometries (H/W) [70, 80-81]. These are the isolated roughness flow (IRF), the
wake interference flow (WIF) and the skimming flow (SF), see Fig. 14. Wind
flows are considered perpendicular when the predominant airflow direction is
approximately (±30°) to the long axis of the street canyon.
Figure 14: Perpendicular flow regimes in urban canyons for different aspect ratios (Source: Oke
1988)
The airflow pattern of the widely spaced buildings, i.e. H/W < 0.4 for cubic and <
0.3 for row buildings, is similar to the airflow pattern of the isolated ones(Fig.
14a). For a closer spacing, such as H/W up to 0.7 for cubes and 0.65 for row
buildings, the airflow pattern changes to wake interference flow (Fig 14b). It is
characterized by a reverse (with respect to upwind flow direction) horizontal flow
in the lower canyon and forward flow along the canyon top. A small vortex may
appear behind the upwind building but it is not dominant. An area of low wind
speed appears in the canyon center. Maximum wind occurs at the top of the
canyon and relatively high wind speed occurs down the face of the downwind
building. At the higher building geometry (H/W) and density, the main airflow
skims over the building rooftops and the bulk of the airflow does not enter the
canyon. This flow is named as skimming flow (Fig. 14c).
The relationship between the three principle airflow regimes and their respective
canyon H/W and L/H ratios has been summarized by Oke [80], as shown in Fig. 15.
Figure 15: Threshold for flow regimes in urban canyons as functions of urban canyon H/W &
L/W ratios (Source: Oke 1988)
Cool Materials
The optical and thermal characteristics of building materials that determine the
energy consumption in the built environment, is the solar radiation albedo and the
emissivity of long wave radiation. Those parameters have a very important impact
on the urban energy balance as seen in Fig. 16. The albedo of a surface is defined
as its reflectivity, integrated hemi-spherically over the wavelength. The usage of
high albedo materials keeps the surface temperature lower by reducing the amount
of solar radiation absorbed into the buildings and the ambient air temperature at
urban level [82]. Table 2 shows the albedo of various typical urban materials and
areas [70, 83-85].
Figure 16: Diagram of cool roof system (Source: U.S. Cool Roof Rating Council )
Table 2: Albedo of typical urban materials and areas [70, 83-85]
Surface Albedo
Streets
Asphalt (fresh 0.05, aged 0.2) 0.05 – 0.20
Walls
Concrete 0.10 – 0.35
Brick/Stone 0.20 – 0.40
Whitewashed stone 0.80
White marble chips 0.55
Light colored brick 0.30 – 0.50
Red brick 0.20 – 0.30
Dark brick and slate 0.20
Limestone 0.30 – 0.45
Roofs
Smooth-surface asphalt (weathered) 0.07
Asphalt 0.10 – 0.15
Tar and gravel 0.08 – 0.18
Tile 0.10 – 0.35
Slate 0.10
Thatch 0.15 – 0.20
Corrugated iron 0.10 – 0.16
Highly reflective roof (weathered) 0.60 – 0.70
Paints
White, whitewash 0.50 – 0.90
Red, brown, green 0.20 – 0.35
Black 0.02 – 0.15
Urban areas
Range 0.10 – 0.27
Average 0.15
Other
Light-colored sand 0.40 – 0.60
Dry grass 0.30
Average soil 0.30
Dry sand 0.20 – 0.30
Deciduous plants 0.20 – 0.30
Deciduous forests 0.15 – 0.20
Cultivated soil 0.20
Wet sand 0.10 – 0.20
Coniferous forests 0.10 – 0.15
Dark cultivated soil 0.07 – 0.10
Grass and leaf mulch 0.05
Extensive studies on cool coating materials for roofs or other buildings’ surfaces
as one of solutions to mitigate UHI have been conducted during the last decade.
Cool roof is identified as a roofing system that is able to deliver high solar
reflectance and high thermal emittance [86]. Cool roof system is purposed to
reduce heat load for air conditioning system, energy usage and CO2 released to
atmosphere. Bretz and Akbari [87] studied the relation between albedo of three
different coatings, which were applied on three buildings roofs, and building
energy consumption. From the two months up to six years measurements, it is
shown that the higher the roof albedo value, the higher the percentage of energy
savings. However, over the time, albedo values of the coated roofs dropped due to
the accumulation of dirt and microbial growth causing at the same time, a similar
reduction of the energy saving percentage. Experiments of washing the roof
showed that albedo value drops was only temporary and it would recover 90% of
its original value upon the washing although it may not be cost effective.
ENERGY STAR labeled roof products are able to reduce surface temperature up to
100F (equal to 37.79oC) and peak cooling demand by 10-15%. White or light colors
coated roofs have been promoted widely in the U.S. to achieve cooler roof surface
temperatures by increasing solar reflectance as a complementary alternative to metal
roofing system which has high thermal emittance but low solar reflectance [88].
Synnefa, et al [89] conducted a study on the thermal performance of non-white

cool colored coatings. Ten prototypes of cool colored coating tiles were compared
with standard coating tiles for a period of three months during daytime and
nighttime. The results show that cool colored coating tiles are more selective in
absorbing infrared band, resulting in higher solar reflectance and lower surface
temperature. From their experiment, there is a correlation between solar
reflectance and surface temperature during daytime. These cool coatings can be
applied to other building materials besides roofs.
Another experimental study done by Simpson and McPherson [90] on three

identical scaled model houses in Tucson, Arizona for period of three months
showed that white roof, which has a higher albedo compared to silver or gray and
brown roofs, reduced the surface temperature to almost 20oC compared to a gray
or silver roof and to almost 30oC compared to a brown roof. However, detailed
observation also showed that increasing building surface's albedo may not be
effective in reducing its temperature if the emissivity is also reduced.
The issues of aesthetic and maintenance require darker roof colors more desirable
than white or light coated color roofs. Karlessi, et al [91] conducted a comparative
study between thermochromic coatings, cool and common coatings. The research
showed that thermochromic coatings are able to respond thermally to the
environment. Thermochromic coating colors faded or became colourless when the
ambient temperature was higher than the transition temperature. Under these
conditions the surface reflects more solar radiation, hence, reduces the surface
temperature.
With similar principles with cool roofs, cool pavements have been promoted
aggressively the last years. Akbari, et al [92] believes that by implementing cool
roofs and cool pavements, the urban area’s overall albedo can be increased by
about 0.1. The study predicted that by increasing albedo of urban roofs and paved
surfaces worldwide offsets 44Gt of emitted CO2. Kinouchi [93] studied the
structure of pigment and coating with low reflectivity in the visible part of
sunlight spectrum and high reflectivity of near infra-red. The field measurement
on paint coated asphalt pavement indicated 15°C lower than conventional asphalt
pavement.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Part of information included in this chapter has been previously published in

author's own publication.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The author(s) confirm that this article content has no conflicts of interest.
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[89] Synnefa A, Santamouris M, Apostolakis K. On the development, optical properties and
thermal performance of cool coloued coatings for the urban environment. Solar Energy
2006; 81: 488-497.
[90] Simpson JR, McPherson EG. The effects of roof albedo modification on cooling loads of
scale model residences in Tucson, Arizona. Energy and buildings 1997; 25: 127-37.
[91] Karlessi T, Santamouris M, Apostokalis K, Synnefa A, Livada I. Development and testing
of thermochromic coatings for buildings and urban structures. Solar Energy 2008; 83: 538-
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[92] Akbari H, Menon S, Rosenfeld A. Global cooling: increasing world-wide urban albedos to
offset CO2. Climate Change 2009; 94: 275-86.
[93] Kinouchi T, Yoshinaka T, Fukae N, Kanda M. Development of cool pavement with dark
colored high albedo coating. In: American Meteorological Society, ed. Proceedings of the
fifth Conference on urban environment. 23-25 August 2004: Vancouver. American
Meteorological Society 2004.
CHAPTER 2
White or Light Colored Cool Roofing Materials
Afroditi Synnefa* and M. Santamouris
Group Building Environmental Studies, National and Kapodistrian University of
Athens, Section. of Applied Physics, Physics Dept., Building of Physics
5,University Campus 157 84 Athens, Greece
Abstract: This chapter is a state of the art report focusing on the aspects that concern cool
materials for buildings that are white or light colored. It is structured in four sections; in the
first section cool white or light colored materials i.e. materials characterized by high solar
reflectance and high infrared emittance are defined. Typical values of the two properties are
given according to independent studies, the U.S. Cool Roof Rating Council‘s database and
the European Cool Roof Council database. The Energy Star requirements for solar
reflective white materials are also reported. The impact of solar reflectance and infrared
emittance on the surface temperature is explained and performance examples according to
experimental results are compiled. The second section focuses on the types of cool white
colored materials that are commercially available per roof type. These include build up
roofs, single ply membranes, modified bitumen, tiles, coatings, metal roofs etc. A short
description of each technology is given and their main characteristics are reported. The
benefits of using cool white colored materials on buildings and the urban environment are
analyzed in the third section. The benefits include increased thermal comfort conditions in
buildings, reduced cooling energy consumption and peak electricity loads, increased life
span of the roof system, reduction of the air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions and
mitigation of the heat island effect. Each one of these benefits will be supported by
experimental and simulation data available in the bibliography. Finally, the problem of
ageing is analyzed. Exposure of cool materials to outdoor conditions has the effect of
changing their main properties: solar reflectance and infrared emittance, compromising
their performance. The main mechanisms (photo-degradation, thermal stress, deposition of
pollutants etc.) that are responsible for causing the ageing effect of the materials are
reported. Experimental results that estimate the aging effect of various types of materials
and for several outdoor conditions are presented. The case of artificial and natural ageing is
discussed as well as any effort to model the ageing effect of cool materials.
Keywords: White cool materials, cool roofs, optical properties.
INTRODUCTION
The temperature of the planet is increasing. According to Intergovernmental Panel
*Address Correspondence to A. Synnefa: Group Building Environmental Studies, National and

Kapodistrian University of Athens, Section. of Applied Physics, Physics Dept., Building of Physics
5,University Campus 157 84 Athens, Greece, Tel. +302107257533, E-mail: asynnefa@phys.uoa.gr

34 Cool Materials for the Built Environment Synnefa and Santamouris
on Climate Change (IPCC) an “unequivocal” warming trend of about of 0.74°C

has occurred from 1906 to 2005. Furthermore, observations verify that eleven of
the last twelve years (1995-2006) are ranked among the twelve warmest years in
the instrumental record of global surface temperature (since 1850) and that the
100-year linear trend (1906-2005) of 0.74 [0.56 to 0.92]°C is larger than the
corresponding trend of 0.6 [0.4 to 0.8]°C of the period 1901-2000 [1]. According
to Hansen et al, 2010 [2], a high global 12-month running-mean temperature was
recorded in 2010.
The addition in the atmosphere of global heat trapping greenhouse gases (GHG’s)
and aerosols, which absorb and emit heat, and reflect light, has changed its
composition. The changes in the atmosphere are mainly due to human activities
and they have likely influenced temperature, precipitation, storms and sea level [1,
3]. Current global warming projections indicate that the Earth’s global average
temperature is predicted to rise. Even if the concentrations of all GHGs and
aerosols had been kept constant at year 2000 levels, a further warming of about
0.1°C per decade would be expected [1].
Along with the warming of the planet, more changes and more extreme weather
conditions are expected to occur. Climatic extremes have a direct impact and
usually a damaging effect on the environment, economy, energy, society and
human health. One of these extreme weather conditions is heat waves, which are
expected to become more frequent, intense and longer lasting in the upcoming
period [3]. A number of recent studies have shown that the frequency and duration
of heat episodes has increased in Europe [4-8].
At city level, the urban heat island (UHI) effect, with temperatures at city centers
higher by several degrees compared to the surrounding rural areas, is becoming
increasingly more intense changing the urban microclimate (Fig. 1). The UHI
effect has been studied extensively and has been documented in over a hundred
cities worldwide [9-14].
The main causes of the UHI effect include increased building density with the
canyon geometry, the use of materials with inappropriate optical and thermal
properties, the lack of green spaces, increased anthropogenic heat and increased
air pollution [15].
White or Light Colored Cool Roofing Materials Cool Materials for the Built Environment 35
Elevated urban temperatures have significant socioeconomic, energy and

environmental effects, affecting the quality of life of citizens. UHIs, especially
during summer, cause thermal discomfort affecting the sensitive population in
particular. Furthermore, they exacerbate the impact of heat waves, intensifying
health problems (respiratory difficulties, non-fatal heat stroke, etc.) caused by
extreme temperatures, humidity and the usually increased air pollution that occur
during a heat wave. Extreme heat events can even contribute to heat related
mortality rates. The heat wave of summer 2003 in Europe caused unprecedented
ecological damage and thousands of excess human deaths. The same occurred for
the case of the heat wave in Chicago during 1995 [16, 17].
In addition, increased temperatures have the effect of increasing cooling energy

demand. This increased demand for electricity and peak electricity, especially
during heat waves, can potentially lead to systems’ overload and blackouts when
utility plants cannot meet the increased demand. This is also an economic
concern. According to the EEC [18], the mean European cost of a kWh off-peak is
close to 3.9 cents, while the mean cost during on-peak hours is 10.2 cents. As
reported during the July 2006 heat wave in California, the average homeowner
used about 28% more electricity [19]. In some cities in the U.S. with a population
higher than 100,000 inhabitants, peak electricity load increases by 1.5-2% for
every air temperature increase of 0.6°C during summertime. Especially, for Los
Angeles it has been estimated that the increased cooling power consumption due
to the UHI is 1–1.5GW, with a corresponding cost for consumers equal to $100
million annually [9]. In Tokyo, the increase of air temperature by 1°C during
summer, results to an increase in electricity consumption for cooling of 1.8GW
[20]. For the case of Athens, Greece it has been calculated that the cooling load in
the center of the city is almost double compared to suburban areas and the peak
demand is triple [21, 22]. A typical office building in London would have an
increased cooling load by 25% compared to the same office building situated at a
rural site [23].
Air quality is also affected by UHIs as increased temperatures contribute to

elevated levels of air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Power plants burn
more fossil fuel in order to cover the increased energy demand and this results to
increased emissions of air pollutants like carbon dioxide (CO2), which is a GHG,
sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM), carbon
monoxide (CO), and mercury (Hg). Furthermore, the rate of photochemical ozone
production is accelerated at higher temperatures and therefore the likelihood of a
smog episode, increases [24, 25].
Figure 1: The consequences of the urban heat island effect: A) increased temperatures, B)
increased energy consumption for cooling and C) increased air pollution (photos taken by A.
Synnefa)
It is important to point out that there is also a socioeconomic dimension to these

UHI consequences. The thermal quality of the building stock is usually correlated
to the income level. A significant number of low income people live in
inappropriate houses, (e.g. poorly or not at all insulated buildings), especially in
Southern Europe. They are exposed to poor environmental conditions and they
spend a significant part of their income in order to maintain a comfortable indoor
environment [26].
It is evident that UHIs and end extreme heat episodes affect negatively the
sustainability of urban areas. Further increase of urban temperatures is expected
due to the continuous urbanization but also due to the global warming effect and
therefore the adoption of mitigation measures at a global level is an absolute
necessity.
During the past years scientists have proposed several heat island mitigation
techniques: the use of cool materials, the increase of green spaces (trees and
vegetative cover), the installation of green roofs, the use of water spaces,
landscaping, increasing energy efficiency of systems and using renewable energy
sources etc. A lot of factors ranging from prevailing ambient conditions and
topography to existing policies and incentives affect the extent of the benefits of
the mitigation techniques for a specific urban area as well as the decision to apply
them. However, it should be pointed out that although each of these strategies
presents some advantages and disadvantages, they are not competitive to each
other and they can be used in combination in order to enhance their effectiveness.
Among these heat island mitigation techniques, cool roofs and pavements present
some important advantages. They have an important application potential. In most
urban areas, the 60% of urban fabric consists of roofs and pavements. The
materials commonly used on these surfaces are characterized by low values of
solar reflectance e.g. 0.2 for grey concrete and 0.05 for asphalt [27-30]. They can
be applied on new and existing buildings during renovation in order to avoid
additional costs. They are financially viable as their cost is comparable to
conventional materials. The users do not have to change their behavior. They are
environmentally friendly as they do not add any additional waste, on the contrary
they contribute to the reduction of waste as they prolong the lifetime of the
surfaces they are applied to. Cool materials are a cost effective, environmentally
friendly and passive technique that contributes to achieving energy efficiency in
buildings by lowering energy demand for cooling and improving the urban
microclimate by lowering surface and air temperatures.
This chapter focuses on highly reflective and emissive white and light colored
cool materials. The physical properties and typical values of such materials are
detailed and the main features of commercially available products are described.
The benefits of cool white and light colored materials are analyzed and finally the
ageing effect is discussed.
The Physical Characteristics of Cool Materials

In order to define cool materials it is useful to describe the main characteristics of
the typical solar energy that reaches the earth’s surface on clear summer
conditions. Fig. 2 shows typical values of the solar spectral irradiance of
terrestrial, near normal irradiance at an air mass of 1.5 by ASTM, 2003 [31].
1200
UV VIS NIR
Solar energy (W/m2nm)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
300 800 1300 1800 2300
wavelength (nm)
Figure 2: Solar spectral irradiance that arrives on the earth’s surface (ASTM Standard G159-91
[31])
The solar energy that arrives at the terrestrial level depends on extraterrestrial
perturbation, scattering by air and water molecules, dust and the absorption by
water, ozone and carbon dioxide [32]. Most of the sun’s energy falls between the
wavelengths of 300 – 2500nm. Its intensity varies with wavelength, with a peak at
about 600nm. The invisible ultraviolet (UV) range (300-400nm) contains about
5% of this energy. Although it is a small percentage, these are high energy
wavelengths and have a potential to degrade polymeric materials, but they are not
a major factor in heating a surface. The visible range (VIS) from 400 to 700nm
contains a significant proportion of the sun’s energy, while over 50% of the solar
energy falls in the invisible, near infrared part (NIR) between 700 and 2500nm.
The greatest contribution to solar reflectance comes from visible and infrared
energy reflectance.
ENERGY BALANCE OF THE ROOF
The scheme in Fig. 3 offers a simplified description of how a roof interacts with
electromagnetic radiation. When a surface (e.g. a roof) is exposed to the sun the
following physical processes take place and determine the surface’s temperature.
Figure 3: Energy balance of a roof exposed to solar radiation
The sun’s energy represents the main source of heating acting upon the roof
surface. A portion of that incident solar radiation is reflected or scattered in the
VIS region determining the particular color and gloss of the surface. Reflection is
also possible in the NIR region. The remaining portion of the incident solar
energy is absorbed by the surface. Some of this absorbed solar energy is re-
emitted by the roof to the outdoor environment, as radiation exchange occurs
between two surfaces (roof –“sky”) when one is warmer than the other and they
“view” each other [33]. This emitted radiation is at lower energy and hence higher
wavelength in the infrared part of the spectrum (around 10.000nm). In addition,
the roof surface exchanges energy by convection with the air above the roof.
Finally, heat is conducted through the layers within the roof (insulation etc.) from
the warmer side to the cooler side. The conduction induces a heat flow through
the roof, and hence the energy needed for heating or cooling, depends on the
insulation material and the temperature difference on either side of it.
COOL ROOF PROPERTIES
Two properties determine whether a roof is cool or not: Solar reflectance (SR) and
infrared emittance (e). A cool roof is a roofing system characterized by:
a) High solar reflectance, which is a measure of the ability of a surface material to

reflect solar radiation. The term solar reflectance designates the total reflectance
of a surface, considering the hemispherical reflectance of radiation, integrated
over the solar spectrum, including specular and diffuse reflection. It is measured
on a scale of 0 to 1 (or 0-100%)
b) High infrared emittance, which is a measure of the ability of a surface to

release, absorbed heat. It specifies how well a surface radiates energy away from
itself as compared with a black body operating at the same temperature. Infrared
emittance is measured on a scale from 0 to 1 (or 0-100%).
A clean, smooth white surface (e.g. a white elastomeric coating) reflects strongly
both the visible and the NIR radiation, achieving a reflectivity of 0.85. A black
asphalt shingle may have a reflectivity of 0.05. It should be noted however, that
because a significant portion of energy falls in the invisible NIR region, the
visible properties of a surface do not always indicate how cool it will be under
sunlight.
Fig. 4 shows the spectral reflectance of a white coating, a white membrane and a
white tile, that represent the coolest options for these type of roofing materials
compared to a black asphalt shingle. The white coating absorbs strongly in the UV
part of spectrum. The reflectance of the white coating is very high in the VIS
region because of the TiO2 used. It presents also a high reflectance in the NIR part
that decreases slowly with the wavelength. The absorption features in the NIR are
due to vibrations of hydrogen atoms in the coatings and the C-H bond in the
polymer [34]. The reflectance curves of the white membrane and concrete tile are
quite similar to that of the white coating, presenting high values of visible and
NIR solar reflectance. The black asphalt shingle reflects about only 5% over all
wavelengths.
Figure 4: Spectral reflectance curves of a white coating, black asphalt shingle, white membrane,
white tile.
Fig.5 shows the spectral reflectance curves of various aluminum coatings. These
coatings contain aluminum pigments and their spectral reflectance has the
tendency to increase with increasing wavelength and suddenly drop at around 800
nm.
Figure 5:Spectral reflectance curves of various aluminum coatings.
Concerning the infrared emittance, with the exception of bare metallic surfaces,
most roofing materials have emissivity values above 0.85, i.e. they are good at
releasing heat.
It should be pointed out that the thermal emittance of a roof is determined mainly
by the upper layer. This means that if a metal roof that has a low emittance is
covered by a high emissive material (e.g. coating), the emissivity of the roof will
be increased (Fig. 6).
Figure 6: The emissivity of an uncoated aluminum tile (e= 0.22) and of a coated aluminum tile
covered with a white coating (e=0.88).
The Solar Reflectance Index (SRI) is another indicator of how “cool” a material is.
SRI combines both the solar reflectance and the infrared emittance in a single value.
According to ASTM E1980-01 "Standard Practice for Calculating Solar Reflectance
Index of Horizontal and Low-Sloped Opaque Surfaces” [35], SRI quantifies how hot
a flat surface would get relative to a standard black (reflectivity 5%, emittance 90%)
and a standard white surface (reflectivity 80%, emittance 90%). The calculation of
this index is based on a set of equations [35] that require measured values of solar
reflectance and infrared emittance for specific environmental conditions. The SRI
has a value of zero (for the standard black surface) and of 100 (for the standard white
surface) and is calculated as follows:
(Tblack - Tsurface )
SRI = 100
(Tblack - Twhite )
where Tblack, Twhite and Tsurface are the steady state temperatures of the standard
black, white and material surface respectively.
From the definition of the SRI it is expected that very “hot” materials can actually
have negative SRI values and very cool materials can have values greater than
100. Several SRI calculators have been developed and are available on line [36-
38]
A number of studies report the solar reflectance and the infrared emittance values
of common and cool white and light colored roofing materials including coatings,
tiles, membranes, asphalt shingles etc. [34, 39, 40, 29, 30].
In addition, LBNL has developed a database of Cool Roofing material that

contains the values of solar reflectance, infrared emittance, and SRI [41].
Furthermore, Energy Star [42] for Roof Products is a voluntary program that has a
list of reflective roofing materials that meet certain criteria (low-slope roofs:
SRinitial>0.65 and SRaged>0.50, for steep slope roofs: SRinitial>0.25 and
SRaged>0.15, emissivity should be reported). The US Cool Roof Rating Council
[43] has a database providing information on the solar reflectance and the infrared
emittance of commercial roof products. Finally, in the framework of the EU Cool
Roofs project another database of European roof products has been developed
containing information on SR and SRI [44].
Thermal Performance of Cool Roofs
The solar reflectance and infrared emittance of a surface have a significant impact
on its temperature [45, 33]. If a surface with high solar reflectance and infrared
emmittance is exposed to solar radiation it will have a lower surface temperature
compared to a similar surface with lower solar reflectance and infrared emittance
values. If the cool surface is on the building envelope, this would result in
decreasing the heat penetrating into the building and for a surface in the urban
environment this would contribute to decrease the temperature of the ambient air
as the heat convection intensity from a cooler surface is lower (see Fig. 7).
The equation describing the thermal balance of a horizontal surface under the sun
i.e. a roof (Fig. 3) is the following [46, 47]:
dT
(1  R) I   (Ts4  Tsky
4
)  hc (Ts  Ta )  
dx
where:
I: insolation (W/m2)
σ: the Stefan–Boltzmann constant (σ=5.6685 x 10-8 W/m2 K4)
hc: convection coefficient (W/m2 K)
Tsky: sky temperature (K)
Tair: air temperature (K)
R: solar reflectance or albedo of the surface
ε: emissivity of the surface
λ: thermal conductivity of the surface (W/mK)

dT
: temperature gradient (in the x axis)
dx
If we consider that the roof is insulated underneath, the main factors affecting the
thermal performance of the surface are the solar reflectance and the infrared emittance.
During the day the dominant factor is the solar reflectance and the emissivity affects
less the surface temperature but during night-time the surface temperature and the
infrared emittance are strongly correlated, which means that emissivity becomes the
most important factor affecting the thermal performance [48, 30].
Figure 7: Cool material properties
Fig. 8 depicts a 24h profile of the surface temperature for four concrete slabs, one
unpainted (white) and three concrete tiles covered with a black, aluminum and a
white coating. Experimental testing was performed during summertime conditions in

Athens, Greece. The slabs are exposed to ambient conditions and they are insulated
underneath. During the day and comparing maximum temperatures, the tile covered
by the white coating (SR = 0.83) was warmer than the ambient air only by 4C while
the tiles covered with the aluminum (SR=0.56) and the black coating (SR=0.05) by
23 and 30C respectively. In addition the application of the coatings on the already
white concrete tile resulted in increasing its temperature by 21 and 13C for the
black and the aluminum coating respectively and in reducing its temperature by
7.5C for the white coating. During the night all the tiles had quite similar surface
temperatures (the aluminum coating’s surface temperature was about 1C higher)
and lower than the ambient air temperature. This is explained by the fact that all the
coatings had quite similar emissivities ranging between 0.68 for the aluminum
coating and 0.89 for the rest of the tiles [49].
Figure 8: 24h surface temperature profile for four concrete tiles (One white concrete tile and 3
concrete tiles covered with a black, an aluminum and a white coating) exposed to summer
conditions in Athens Greece. Tair is the ambient temperature.
The surface temperature of a material exposed to solar radiation can be

determined by the heat balance in steady state conditions, according to the
equation described above, for an insulated roof. The maximum roof temperature
(Tmax) is another indicator of a material’s capacity to stay cool under solar
radiation and it takes into account both the thermal emittance and the solar
reflectance (Fig. 9). The formula can be linearized and a number of assumptions
can be made [35]:
- The heat storage effect and the thermal mass of the roof are neglected.
The heavier the structure, the larger is the deviation in respect to the
real conditions.
- Solar flux is 1000 W/m2.
- The sky temperature is 10°C below the air temperature, which is

considered to be 37°C.
- The heat transfer coefficient for roof cooling by convection (hc) is

12.4 W/m2K corresponding to medium wind conditions (2-6m/s).
- The maximum temperature rise of an exposed black surface (SR=0.05

and ε=0.90) is 50 °C higher than the air temperature. This is an
empirical value with an associated uncertainty of 30%.
Figure 9: Visible and infrared images of a conventional roof (asphalt membrane with siliceous
aggregates), before (above) and after (below) the application of a white cool elastomeric coating.
The temperature difference between before and after the application reaches 30C on a hot
summer day.
A number of experimental studies carried out under typical mid latitude summer
conditions [30, 50-53] have demonstrated that surfaces with low solar reflectance
and high infrared emittance (e.g. black coating, asphalt shingle, black gravel
surface) can reach temperatures as high as 75-80C, surfaces with medium to high
solar reflectance and low infrared emittance (e.g. unpainted metal roofs,
aluminum coatings) can reach temperatures as high as 60 -75C and surfaces with
high solar reflectance and infrared emittance (cool white coatings, white
membranes etc.) can reach temperatures of averagely 45C, depending of course
on local ambient conditions. Synnefa et al, 2006 [30] have measured the optical
properties and the thermal performance of fourteen types of reflective coatings
(white and aluminum ones). They have found that a cool coating can reduce a
white concrete tile’s surface temperature under hot summer conditions by 4C and
during the night by 2C. It can be warmer, than the ambient air by only 2C
during the day and cooler than the ambient air by 5.9C during the night. Cool
coatings were found to have a superior thermal performance even compared to
other cool materials like white marble and white mosaic.
Based on the above mentioned sources of information Table 1 describes

conventional and cool roofing materials in terms of solar reflectance, infrared
emittance, SRI values and maximum surface temperature.
COOL ROOF PRODUCT FEATURES
Although roofing techniques vary according to country and construction period, in

general, there are two types of roofs: low and steep slope roofs. Several
techniques, cool or conventional, can be used for the building roofing mainly
depending on the roof’s tilt. The main aspects related to the two categories are:
- Low-slope or flat roofs with an inclination of less than 9.5° from the
horizontal [35]. Low slope roofs are found usually on commercial,
industrial, warehouse, office, retail, and multi-family buildings, as
well as some single-family homes. Cool options for low slope roofs
include coatings, membranes etc.
- Steep slope roofs with an inclination of more than 9.5° from the
horizontal [32]. They are found most often on residences and retail
commercial buildings and are generally visible from the street.

Ceramic or natural stone tiles, shingles and metal roofing are the most
common roofing materials used on steep-sloped roofs.
Most cool roofs focus on the low-sloped roofing sector, but cool roof options are
becoming available for the steep-sloped sector as well.
COOL ROOF PRODUCT TYPES
The most commonly used cool roofing materials categories are described below
[54-57] and analyzed also from a market point of view in Chapter 11. Those are
coatings, single-ply roofing, tile s, asphalt shingles, metal roof, built-up roofing
systems, and modified bitumen roofing.
Cool Coatings
Cool coatings can be classified as traditional coatings according to their [58]:
- Binder type: e.g. elastomeric and cementicious coatings. Cementitious

coatings contain cement particles. Elastomeric coatings include
polymers to reduce brittleness and improve adhesion. Some coatings
contain both cement particles and polymers. Both types have a solar
reflectance of 65 percent or higher when new and have a thermal
emittance of 80 to 90 percent or more. The important distinction is
that elastomeric coatings provide a waterproofing membrane, while
cementitious coatings are pervious and rely on the underlying roofing
material for waterproofing.
- Carrier type: e.g. water based or solvent based. A coating's carrier is a

liquid that is combined with the binder to reduce the coating's
viscosity to a workable level. The carrier generally evaporates during
curing of the coating. The carrier also generally dictates a coating's
installation process and cure time.
Cool coatings can also be classified into three categories according to their basic
characteristics (solar reflectance and infrared emittance values):
Table 1: Typical values of measured solar reflectance and infrared emmittance of commonly used
conventional and cool roofing materials. SRI and maximum surface temperature values are also
reported.
Solar Infrared Solar reflectance

Material T surface max (C)
reflectance emittance Index
Coatings
White 0.7 -0.85 0.8 -0.9 84-113 51 – 42
Aluminum 0.2 -0.65 0.25-0.65 -25 – 72 92 – 55
Conventional Black 0.04-0.05 0.8 -0.9 -7 – 0 85 – 82
Asphalt shingles
White asphalt shingle 0.2-0.3 0.8-0.90 15 – 28 77 -70
Black 0.04 0.8-0.90 -7 - -1 85 – 83
Cool colored asphalt
shingles (using a 2 0.18 – 0.34 0.8-0.90 11-37 78 – 68
layer process)
Tiles
Terracotta ceramic tile 0.25-0.4 0.85-0.9 23 – 45 74 -65
White clay tile 0.6-0.75 0.85-0.9 71 -93 56 – 47
White concrete tile 0.6-0.75 0.85-0.9 71 – 93 56 – 47
Grey concrete tile 0.18 -0.25 0.85-0.9 14 - 25 77 - 73
Membranes
White membrane 0.65-0.85 0.8 -0.9 76 – 107 53-42
Black 0.04- 0.05 0.8-0.9 -7 – 0 85-83
Metal roof
unpainted 0.2-0.6 0.05-0.35 -48 – 53 101-63
Painted white 0.6-0.75 0.8-0.9 69 – 93 56-47
Dark conventionally
0.05-0.1 0.8-0.9 -6 – 6 85-80
colored
Build up roof
With asphalt 0.04 0.8-0.9 -4 - -1 85-83
With dark gravel 0.08.-0.2 0.8-0.9 -2 – 19 83-75
With white gravel 0.3-0.5 0.8-0.9 27 – 58 72-60
With white coating 0.75-0.85 0.8-0.9 93 – 113 48-42
Modified bitumen
With mineral
0.10-0.2 0.85-0.95 4 – 21 81 - 74
Surface capsheet
White coating over 0.85-0.95
0.6 – 0.75 71 – 94 55-47
mineral surface
- 1st Category-White coatings : they contain transparent polymeric

materials, such as acrylic, and a white pigment, such as titanium dioxide
(rutile), to make them opaque and reflective. Other white pigments
sometimes used are the anatase form of titanium dioxide, and zinc oxide.
These coatings typically reflect 70 to 85 % of the sun's energy. Despite
the white appearance, these pigments strongly absorb the 5% or so of the
sun's energy which falls in the ultraviolet. Thus, the pigments help
protect the polymer material and the substrate underneath from UV [9,
30]. The time of maintenance is 10 years on average.
- 2nd Category-Aluminum coatings: generally employ an asphalt-type

resin containing "leafing" aluminum flakes. The term leafing refers to
the tendency of the aluminum flakes to accumulate at the exposed
upper portion of the coating, which is accomplished with specialized
coatings on the flakes. Thus the upper surface is a nearly continuous
aluminum layer, which protects the asphalt material from the sun's
ultraviolet rays. The aluminum flakes greatly enhance the solar
reflectance over the 4 % value for bare asphalt, to above 50 % for the
most reflective coatings. The industry regards a visible reflectance
above 50 % as a bright coating. While the 50 % solar reflectance of a
bright aluminum roof coating is a great improvement over the
performance of a black material, the aluminum content has the
offsetting effect of lower infrared emittance [9, 30].
- 3rd category- Cool colored coatings. This category is analyzed in

another chapter in this book
Single-Ply Roofing Systems

Single-ply roofing systems are pre-fabricated sheets and are applied in a single
layer to the roof. Single-ply roofs are a flexible or semi-flexible roof membrane,
typically made of rubber or plastic materials. Single-ply membranes can be
generally categorized into two groups: thermosets and thermoplastics. Many
typologies of membranes are available on the market, based on monomers or
polymers. The single ply roofing system can be applied hot or cold. Single ply
membranes can be categorized in the following types:
 Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer (EPDM) or "Rubber". EPDM is

a synthetic rubber material that is formulated with extensive flexibility
to be used as membrane sheet roofing. Conventional EPDM
membranes are black with a SR of about 10% and exhibit good
resistance to ozone, UV rays, weathering, and abrasions. White
EPDM membranes come in double layer with a highly reflective
white top over a black base. EPDM is a thermoset polymer it can
therefore only be bonded to similar material with an adhesive when
making seams.
 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) polymer is a low cost and easy to install

single ply material. It can have a high initial reflectance. The basic
chemical resin is a relatively hard material that requires the addition of
plasticizers to make it supple and pliable for use as flexible membrane
roofing. PVC roof membranes are fire resistant and have good
seaming characteristics. PVC is not chemically compatible with
bituminous materials. In [55] two main disadvantages are reported: In
some formulations, plasticizers migrate towards the materials’ surface
attracting dirt; and when it is heated it smokes releasing hydrogen
chlorine, which is a dioxin and highly toxic.
 TPO (Thermoplastic Roof membrane) roof membranes are

compounded from a blend of polypropylene and ethylene-propylene
rubber polymers. TPO membranes exhibit positive physical
properties, such as heat aging, cold temperature flexibility, puncture
resistance and tear strength. TPO is available in high bright white
colors with an initial solar reflectance of 70% and higher. It has the
ability to maintain a high solar reflectance over time. TPO is resistant
to the growth of microorganisms.
 Chloro Sulfonated Poly Ethylene (CSPE). CSPE provides good

weather resistance, fire resistance, and durability. The material is
thermoplastic when installed, so heat welds are applied to the seams;
the roofing cures to thermoset within days. It comes at a bright white
color with high initial solar reflectance.
Tile s
Tiles come in single elements. They are usually made of clay, natural stone, metal
(see metal roofing) or concrete. Tiles are normally flat rectangular shapes that are
laid in rows without the side edges overlapping. Particular tiles with overlapping
edges are used in some countries. The color of a tile may be dispersed throughout,
or it may be applied in the form of a coating. Perhaps the most venerable type of
roof tile is the Spanish style red barrel tile made from fired clay. The modern
version of this tile is sometimes a cement tile with a suitable coating. Advantages
of tiles include fire safety and durability. Disadvantages include increased weight
and cost compared with low-cost asphalt shingle roofs. Tile roofs often have
enhanced air circulation compared to other roofing types because ambient air can
circulate below as well as above the tile. A dark colored concrete tile can have a
solar reflectance of 0.05 -0.35 while a white one can reach a value of 0.70. Dark
colored clay tiles have, on average, solar reflectance values of 0.2 -0.4, while a
white clay tile can have a SR of 0.70. Emissivity values for all cases is high and
about 0.8 -0.9.
Asphalt Shingles
Asphalt shingles are individual overlapping elements made of bitumen embedded
in an organic or fibreglass mat, sometimes covered with aggregate. There are two
grades of asphalt shingles a) standard, 3- tab and b) architectural i.e. laminated or
dimensional. They are a low cost solution and they offer very good resistance
even in the harshest of climatic conditions. The solar reflectance of all
conventional asphalt shingles is rather low (0.04- 0.15) due to the limited amount
of pigment in the granule coating, the surface roughness and the fact that the very
absorptive black substrate is not totally covered. White shingles are about 30%
reflective. Levinson et al., 2007 [59] have developed methods based on one-coat
(substrate/ topcoat) and two-coat (substrate/ basecoat/ topcoat) systems depending
on the near infrared (NIR) reflectance of the substrate. A two coat process (TiO2
rutile white basecoat +topcoat colored by NIR-transparent organic pigments)
resulted in a NIR of 0.45 for asphalt shingles, and other colors reflect less.
Levinson et al., 2010 [60] also developed a novel technique based on a two-layer
spray coating process where both layers are pigmented latex paint based on
acrylic or PVDF/acrylic technology, that increases solar reflectance of asphalt
shingles. Instead of using thick white acrylic basecoats and cool color acrylic
topcoats as in the previous study, this factory applied method uses as a first layer a
TiO2 rutile white and as a second layer, a cool color topcoat with weak NIR
absorption and/or strong NIR backscattering. The results show significant increase
of the initial solar reflectance that for the cool colored shingles ranges from 0.18
(dark brown) to 0.34 (light green).
Metal Roof
Metal roof is a roofing system made from metal pieces or tiles. Metal roofs are
typically formed from galvanized steel or aluminum and usually have a pre
applied coating to provide corrosion resistance as well as aesthetics. Steel is
typically galvanized with either zinc or zinc/aluminum based coating, before the
factory-applied paint coating. Paint is applied by the coil coating process which
provides a very high quality reproducible and durable finish. The metal roof
comes in elements of different form: sheets, trims, ridge material. Several profiles
and styles are available on the market. There are many different profiles and styles
available. Metal roofing can be classified in three categories: corrugated,
standing-seam and 3D-profile. Metal roofing is commonly used in agricultural
(barns, utility buildings), residential and commercial applications. Prepainted
metal roofing products are characterized by high durability. While unpainted or
dark painted corrugated metal roofs have very low values of solar reflectance
ranging from 0.05 to 0.5, a white painted metal roof can have a solar reflectance
of 0.6 – 0.7 on average. It is important to point out that an unpainted metal roof is
characterized by low emissivity values ranging from 0.05 to 0.30. A prepainted
roof however achieves an emissivity value of 0.8 – 0.9.
Built-Up Roofing System

Built-Up Roofing (BUR) Systems are one of the oldest and most dependable roofing
systems on the market. The built-up roof system consists of multiple layers of
bitumen which are the waterproofing medium and fibreglass roofing felts, which are
the reinforcements combining to form a uniform solid surface. These various forms
permit the installation of Built-Up Roofing Systems over many different substrates.
They are usually applied hot and they are surfaced with roof aggregate and bitumen,
a liquid applied coating or a granule surfaced cup sheet. As reported by [56], a built-
up roof can have an initial reflectance of 0.04 if covered with a smooth, black asphalt
surface. The cooler options would be to apply white gravel (SR = 0.30 – 0.50), or
gravel and a white cementicious coating (SR = 0.50 – 0.70) or to apply a white roof
coating over the smooth asphalt surface (SR = 0.75 -0.85). Emissivity values for all
cases is high and about 0.8 -0.9.
Modified Bitumen Roofing system

Modified Bitumen Roofing is a system similar to BUR and Single-Ply membrane.
It is based on plastic or rubber. Modified Bitumen Roofing consists of composite
sheets of asphalt bitumen modified with polymers. They are installed in single or
multiple layers, and the layers are adhered with hot asphalt, torching down or cold
adhesive. The tenacious properties of the modified bitumen blend coupled with
high tensile polyester and/or fibre glass reinforcements provide excellent
resistance to foot traffic, punctures, dropped tools, hail storms and other hazards.
Modified bitumen roofing consists of two categories: Plastomeric bitumen
membranes, based on APP polypropylene (Atactic Polypropylene) modified
bitumen, that gives them high resistance to high temperature, UV radiation and
ozone and elastomeric bitumen membranes, based on SBS (Styrene-Butadiene-
Styrene), modified bitumen, which gives them considerable adhesion and
elasticity even under very low temperatures. They are able to follow large and
continuous expansions and contractions without fatigue. The solar reflectance of
conventional modified bitumen roofing with mineral surface cap sheet is 0.1- 0.2.
If a white coating is applied over it the solar reflectance increases to 0.6 – 0.75.
Emissivity values for all cases is high and about 0.8 -0.9.
Apart from white and light colored cool options the third category is the cool colored
roofing materials. This third category will be further analyzed in another chapter. In
brief, a range of cool colored materials (coatings, shingles, tiles etc.) has been
developed by manufacturers in recent years by using specialized, complex inorganic
color pigments that are dark in color but have the ability to reflect strongly the near
infrared (NIR) portion of the solar spectrum [61, 62]. Therefore, a cool non-white
material that absorbs in the visible range is highly reflective in the near-infrared part
of the electromagnetic spectrum in order to maintain a high solar reflectance [63,
64]. Cool colored materials are necessary for the cases that the use of white coatings
creates glare problems and for the cases that the aesthetic of darker colors is
preferred, especially for steep slope roofs.
Benefits of White or Light Colored Roofs

The benefits from the use of cool roofing materials arising from the resulting
lower surface temperatures can be accounted at building, city and global scale and
they are summarized below.
Improvement of thermal comfort conditions inside the building: If the building is

not air conditioned, the reduced heat transfer from the cooler roof results in lower
indoor temperatures and improved thermal comfort conditions. Various
monitoring and simulation campaigns indicate decrease of the indoor temperature
ranging averagely from 1-3C [65-67]. Two research studies that were carried out
in California [68] verify the fact that cool roofs contribute to the improvement of
thermal comfort conditions in buildings. In the frame of the first study, a
commercial building with thermal discomfort issues was covered by a cool
coating. The result was the reduction of the maximum indoor temperature by 3°C,
and a decrease of the discomfort hours by 10 hours. According to the second
study, the application of a cool roof on a 2- story residence with an insulated attic
and no air conditioning resulted in the reduction of maximum attic temperatures
by 16.5 – 22 °C and the reduction of air temperature by 2.2 °C and 1 °C for the
second and first floor respectively.
Reduction of cooling energy use: A large number of experimental and simulation

studies have been performed in residential and non-residential buildings
documenting savings that vary averagely from 10%to 40% depending on a lot of
factors like local climatic conditions, building configuration and use etc. AC savings
are more important for: hot climatic conditions, low levels of insulation, large roof
surface compared to other surfaces of the building. More specifically, Haberl and
Cho, 2004 [69] have performed a literature review and based on 27 articles, they
report that cooling energy savings from the application of cool materials (mainly
white roofing systems) on residential and commercial buildings vary from 2% to
44% and averaged about 20%. The literature indicated that the peak cooling energy
savings from cool roofs are between 3% and 35%, which depends on ceiling
insulation levels, duct placement and attic configuration. Levinson et al., 2005 [56],
have compiled several experimental studies on the impact of cool materials in non-
residential buildings in warm-weather climates and report measured summertime
daily air-conditioning savings and peak demand reductions of 10–30%. More
extreme values have been observed (2% - 40%). Akbari et al., 2005 [64] calculated
energy savings from increasing roof solar reflectance from a typical dark roof of 0.1
to a cool-colored roof of 0.4, for various climatic conditions worldwide. The
estimated savings range from approximately 250 kWh per year for mild climates to
over 1000 kWh per year for very hot climates.
Increasing the roof solar reflectance can potentially lead to the increase of heating
energy demand. Studies have shown that this increase is far less important than
the corresponding cooling energy savings, resulting into positive net savings for
warm/moderate climatic conditions. This is explained by the fact that during
winter, the sun is much lower in the sky and solar radiation arriving to a
horizontal surface less intense. There is a higher probability of overcast skies and
there is less solar availability (fewer hours of sunshine),so less total energy arrives
on a surface to be absorbed or reflected over the same period of time as during the
summer [70, 66, 67].
Reduction of peak energy demand for cooling and associated expenditures: The
literature indicated that the peak cooling energy savings from cool roofs are
between 3% and 35%. Lower peak demand not only saves on total electrical use
but also can reduce demand fees that some utilities charge commercial and
industrial building owners [71, 56].
Increased lifetime of the roof: This can be explained first because of their lower
temperature. The degradation of materials is associated with chemical reactions
that progress faster with higher temperatures. Furthermore, temperature swings
impose stresses due to differential thermal expansion. It has been demonstrated
that daily fluctuations of surface temperature for cool materials are much less
significant than those for a dark, absorptive surface. Therefore, the roof surface
suffers from less thermal fatigue [72, 55, 56].
For example, Synnefa et al, 2010 [67] have demonstrated that daily fluctuations
for a conventional dark colored roof material (SR=0.18) reach 25C during
summer and when this material is replaced by a cool one (SR=0.89) the daily
surface temperature fluctuations dropped to 8C (Fig. 10).
Reference building
Surface temperature (C)

60
40
20
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
simulation step [1h]
Cool Roof
Surface temperature (C)
60
40
20
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
simulation step [1h]
Figure 10: Hourly values of surface temperature for the period of one year for a school building
before and after the application of a cool roof. The roof was initially covered by cement gravel
screed (SR = 0.2) and then a white elastomeric coating was applied (SR=0.89).
Mitigation of the UHI: Large scale increases of urban albedo can affect the urban
microclimate by lowering air temperatures, due to less heat transfer from a cooler
surface to the ambient air, and thus, mitigating the heat island effect. Several
modeling studies have used mesoscale (and fine resolution meso-urban)
meteorological modeling in order to estimate the impact of surface modification
scenarios (increase of surface albedo and /or vegetation cover and report a
temperature change pattern consisting of a decrease during daylight hours of
averagely 1-3C and less significant decrease during the night for various U.S
cities, Toronto, Canada and Athens, Greece [73-81].
This decrease in air temperature resulting from the large-scale use of cool
materials can lead to a reduction of cooling energy use and peak cooling loads
[82, 83, 78]. Akbari and Konopacki, 2005 [84] have calculated the cooling energy
savings from the application of heat island mitigation strategies (application of
cool materials and increase in vegetation cover) for 240 regions in the United
States. It was found that for residential buildings, the cooling energy savings vary
between 12% and 25%, for office buildings between 5% and 18%, and for
commercial (retail stores) buildings between 7% and 17%.
Air temperature decrease from UHI mitigation leads to reduced air pollution and
green house gases emission both directly and indirectly [82, 85]. Direct reduction
of air pollution is due to the fact that less cooling energy is used; therefore fewer
power plant emissions are produced (mostly CO2, NOx, and PM10 particles).
Indirect air pollution reductions reflect the fact that the reaction of ozone
formation (that produces smog) accelerates at higher temperatures, therefore at
lower urban air temperatures the probability of smog formation is decreased [74].
More specifically, a number of measurements and simulation studies have
demonstrated that decreasing the air temperature of Los Angeles by 1.5°–2°C
using heat island mitigation strategies results in a reduction of 10%–20% in
population weighted smog (ozone) [86, 78, 79]. It should be pointed out however,
that that the occurrence of elevated ozone concentrations is a regional issue and
although there is a temperature threshold above which the likelihood of smog
events increases, other factors such as atmospheric and surface transport
mechanisms greatly influence the ozone distribution [87].
Observation data and analysis at local scale provided by Campra et al, 2008 [88],
conclude that widespread adoption of white-roofed greenhouse farming has
resulted in local climate cooling in south-eastern Spain.
Mitigation of global warming: At global scale, Akbari et al, 2009 [89] have
calculated that widespread adoption of high albedo structural surfaces (“cool
roofs” and “cool pavements ” that would increase albedo of urban areas 0.1) in
low- and mid-latitude cities world-wide would generate a significant negative
radiative forcing at a global scale, and they estimate that this could potentially
contribute to mitigating global warming effect by offsetting the equivalent of 44
Gt of CO2 emissions.
DEGRADATION OF COOL MATERIALS PROPERTIES DUE TO THEIR

EXPOSURE TO AMBIENT CONDITIONS
The solar reflectance and the infrared emittance of cool (and all) roofing materials
c modified over time due to their exposure to ambient conditions [90]. The
knowledge of the aged values of roofing materials’ radiative properties is very
important as it affects their thermal performance (Fig. 11) [30].
Figure 11: Visible and infrared images of an aged (above) and a treated (below) roof, under
similar summer conditions. The roof, in its initial condition, is covered by aged and weathered
white concrete tiles that have lost their high solar reflectance, leading to a high surface
temperature. After the maintenance of the roof, which consisted of the application of a bright
white coating, the roof surface temperature was significantly decreased.
The main environmental factors affecting these changes have been summarized by
[72, 91, 92]:
Α) Solar radiation and temperature fluctuations: If a material absorbs sunlight it

will be affected by it. The shorter wavelengths of solar energy (UV) posses higher
photon energies (>3eV) and are more strongly absorbed by most polymeric/
organic materials. Photons with such levels of energy can break chemical bonds
leading to the degradation of such materials.
B) Heat and temperature fluctuations: The increase of a material’s temperature

exposed to solar radiation can accelerate chemical reactions that are responsible
for the loss of volatile constituents and cause especially polymer materials to
soften invoking their degradation. Temperature variations cause stresses on a

material due to differential thermal expansion.
C) Moisture: Moisture and other phenomena like rain, hail, snow and ice can
affect the optical characteristics of materials. Water causes damage to materials by
both physical and chemical processes. If water is absorbed into a material, a
volume expansion causes stresses within the material. A wet period followed by a
dry period then causes a volume contraction of the surface layers setting up more
stresses within the material. Cycling of such stresses can eventually result in
fatigue. An example of the role of water in chemical decomposition is the
chalking of TiO2 pigmented coating. Rain can contribute to the cleaning of
surfaces from dust deposition restoring thus solar reflectance and infrared
emittance values. However, in cases of atmospheric pollution, rain can lead to the
deposition of pollutants or soiling on roofing materials. Water vapor is mainly
absorbed by building materials, wood in particular, and leads to the oxidation of
metallic materials. Hail, snow, ice etc. cause the degradation of materials due to
mechanical stress.
D) Wind: Large values of wind speed and/or periodic vibrations, i.e. kinetic
energy, exert forces on roofing materials and can lead to fatigue, cracking or in
extreme cases in their destruction.
E) Atmospheric gases and pollutants: Chemical reactions with atmospheric

oxygen and water vapor can result in the formation of oxides and hydroxides.
Moreover, other atmospheric constituents like CO2, SO2 and ΝΟ2 that are mainly
combustion products, when they are dissolved in water they form oxides that are
responsible for the corrosion of materials. Another pollutant, also a combustion
product is soot. Soot is not reactive but it can be deposited on materials resulting
in a decrease of their solar reflectance. Finally, the optical properties of roofing
materials are affected by the deposition of other substances like dirt, soil, or salt
(in coastal areas) etc.
Ε) Biological contamination : The growth of fungi on materials e.g. due to

moisture or the deposition of organic substances like pollen or grains that are
produced by microorganisms or plants, can also alter the optical properties of
materials. Periodic cleaning can be a solution for dirt pick-up, soiling, deposition
of pollutants and fungi.
Experimental procedures for determining the degradation of roofing materials

properties includes the following exposure methods [93, 94]:
a) Natural weathering : It consists of exposing samples to outdoor

ambient conditions (direct sunlight and other elements of weather).
There are a number of exposure sites (weathering farms) around the
world, each with different climatic conditions, which can be used for
the purpose of predicting the exterior durability of materials. Elements
like angle of exposure affect significantly the results and should be
clearly defined. It is important, during natural exposure evaluations to
monitor all related environmental conditions, e.g. ambient weather
conditions, radiation exposure, pollutant concentrations etc.
b) Accelerated weathering (outdoor exposure):The weathering of

materials can be further accelerated by a more efficient use of outdoor
exposure. For example Emmaqua (Equatorial Mounts with Mirrors for
Acceleration with a water spray) is an outdoor accelerated test method
that uses high levels of solar irradiance concentrated by a Fresnel
array of highly efficient reflectors onto the surface of the sample.
c) Artificial weathering : This type of weathering tests, are used in order

to accelerate the degradation and study the material’s behavior under
controlled environmental conditions in the lab and in a reasonably fast
time. There is a large number of commercial artificial acceleration
procedures available involving the use of light sources like the xenon
arc spectrum modified with specific filters, which gives a good
simulation of sunlight, fluorescent lamps etc.
There are several standards related to the weathering of materials (e.g. ASTM G7-
97 [95], ASTM D1669, 2003 [96], ISO11341 [97]). More specifically, for cool
materials, the U.S. CRRC in the Product rating program CRRC-1 [98] requires the
determination of the aged radiative properties of roofing materials to be reported.
Aged testing is a mandatory requirement and all materials should be sent to

approve test farm facilities where they shall undergo weathering exposure for
three (3) years according to the provisions defined. Aging testing is also
mandatory in order for a cool roofing material to receive Energy Star labeling
[99]. Three years exposure is required for the tested products either a) on 3
existing roofs where the material is installed, one of them being located in a large
metropolitan area. Measurements for the determination of the aged properties can
be done on site or on samples taken from the roof according to specific guidelines,
b) by outdoor exposure on accredited commercial or private weathering farms c)
by using the CRRC Color Family Program as defined in the Product Rating
Program Manual (CRRC-1) [98]. To expedite the introduction of new products to
market, there is an interest in accelerated soiling and weathering protocols that
can be applied to roofs and other building envelope surface materials to determine
their three-year-aged radiative properties. An ongoing research carried out by
Sleiman et al. 2010 [100] is aiming to develop an accelerated soiling protocol to
reproduce the main spectral reflectance features observed in naturally exposed
materials. First results indicate that the developed soiling protocol can be suitable
to reproduce natural soiling of roofing materials in a temperate climate.
A large number of studies report the degradation of cool roofing materials over
time. A research that was carried out with the aim to study the ageing and
weathering effect for 10 roofs in California showed that their solar reflectance can
be diminished by 0.15, especially during the first year of exposure to outdoor
conditions [45].
In an experimental study conducted by Synnefa, 2007 [49], fifteen white and

aluminum coatings applied on concrete tiles have been exposed to outdoor
environmental conditions near downtown Athens, Greece for a period of 2.5
years. The figure below (Fig. 12) shows that for most of the samples, the solar
reflectance decrease was more significant during the first six months of exposure.
Another research that was carried out by Levinson and Akbari, 2002 [101] for
Portland cement concrete, which can be used as a cool material instead of asphalt,
demonstrated that the initial solar reflectance of the 38 tested samples that varied
between 0.41- 0.77, was reduced after simulated weathering, soiling, and abrasion
by 0.06 and 0.05 and 0.19 respectively. The solar reflectance of eight white latex
coatings applied to low-slope roofing was reduced from 0.84 to 0.56 after two
years of exposure at an outdoor test facility in eastern Tennessee [102]. Berdahl et
al. 2002, have studied the effects of weathering on the solar spectral reflectances
of a light-gray PVC roofing membrane and a steel panel with a zinc-aluminum
coating. They concluded that their reflectances were decreased primarily by the
deposition of soot [103]. Washing with a mild soap solution removed the carbon
from the PVC membrane, but not from the steel panel.
Figure 12: Solar reflectance vs. time of fifteen samples exposed to outdoor ambient conditions for
2.5 years
Levinson et al, 2005 [104] have investigated the effect of soiling and cleaning on
solar reflectance and absorptance of light colored PVC roof membranes. It was
found that the ratio of solar reflectance to unsoiled solar reflectance (a measure of
cleanliness) ranged from 0.41 to 0.89 for the soiled samples; 0.53 to 0.95 for the
wiped samples; 0.74 to 0.98 for the rinsed samples; 0.79 to 1.00 for the washed
samples; and 0.94 to 1.02 for the bleached samples. In another study conducted in
Athens, Greece, the attenuation of a white and a cool colored coatings’ optical
characteristics, was experimentally tested after their exposure to outdoor
conditions for 2.5 and 1.5 years respectively. The attenuation of the spectral
reflectance of the cool coating samples varies between 0.01 and 0.19 resulting
from photo-degradation, material stress, due to thermal expansion, and deposition

of pollutants. The infrared emittance though was not considerably changed due to
outdoor exposure and its attenuation varied between 0–0.03 [105].
Fig. 13 and 14 depict the spectral reflectance of three samples. The samples in
Fig.13 (A and B) are white cool coatings while in Fig. 14 an aluminum roof
coating is depicted. The spectral reflectance of these samples was measured at
their initial condition (Rin), after their exposure to outdoor conditions for 2.5
years (Raged), and after washing them with water (Rres). In each graph, the
measured spectral reflectance of these three cases is reported. As it can be seen
from the graphs, the coatings present a different behavior concerning the decrease
in their solar spectral reflectance over time and its restoration after washing. In
general the attenuation of the spectral reflectance is more significant in the lower
wavelengths (in the VIS and lower wavelengths of the NIR) for the white
samples. More specifically, for the white sample (A), washing had the effect of
restoring the reflectance of the sample by a significant percentage. This probably
means that the observed reflectance due to weathering is mainly due to the
deposition of dust, soot or other pollutants that were removed after washing. On
the contrary, for the white sample B, washing with water had no effect in restoring
its reflectance. This could be explained if we consider that one of the factors
affecting the optical properties of materials exposed to outdoor conditions over
time is the absorption of UV radiation that can break polymer bonds changing
their properties. As it can be seen from the graphs in Fig.13, both white coatings
are very absorbing in the UV part of the spectrum.
A) Rin Raged Rres B)

Rin Raged Rres
100 100
R (%)
R (%)
50 50
0 0
300 1300 2300 300 1300 2300
Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm)
Figure 13: The spectral reflectance of two white coatingsat their initial condition (Rin), after their
exposure to outdoor conditions for 2.5 years (Raged), and after washing them with water (Rres)
Rin Raged Rres
100
R (%)
50
0
300 1300 2300
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 14: The spectral reflectance of analuminum coatingsat its initial condition (Rin), after
exposure to outdoor conditions for 2.5 years (Raged), and after washing with water (Rres)
A three-year study of metal roofing by ORNL provided information on the

interaction between reflectance and emittance related to this type of roofing material.
Samples were exposed in low slope and steep slope roof configurations and involved
PVDF pre-painted metal roofing samples. It was found that for the white pre-
painted PVDF metal roof sample, the initial solar reflectance which was SRinitial=
65% was decreased by less than 5%. In addition, it was found that the infrared
emittance increased slightly as exposure time increases. It was concluded that
climate does not appear to be a factor affecting the loss of solar reflectance or
infrared emittance of PVDF metal roofs. In general, the aging effect, the exposure in
atmospheric conditions, the deposition of dust, fungi and other pollutants, etc., do
not affect emissivity values as much as they affect solar reflectance values [106, 63].
Efforts have been made to increase the durability of cool materials. For example,
Daikin has produced a range of coatings that consist of a fluoropolymer and an
infrared reflective pigment. The coating system has a three layered structure that
achieves both outstanding ultra durability and solar reflectance. Outdoor exposure tests
conducted in Osaka, Japan for a period of 5 months have concluded that the developed
infrared reflective coating film is not susceptible to soiling in outside exposure and
maintains a satisfactory level of solar reflectance for a long period of time [107].
CONCLUSIONS
This chapter has provided an introduction to cool roofing materials, defining their
main properties and physical characteristics. The thermal performance of cool
roofing materials was analyzed. In addition, the most common white or light
colored roofing product types have been reported. The benefits of the application
of cool materials at building, city and global scale regarding energy savings,
thermal comfort and air quality were summarized. Finally, the issue of optical
properties’ degradation and its impact on the thermal performance of cool
materials due to their exposure to ambient conditions over time was discussed.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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72 Advances in the Development of Cool Materials for the Built Environment, 2012, 72-82
CHAPTER 3
Colored Cool Materials
Masakazu Moriyama* and Hideki Takebayashi
Abstract: This chapter provides a discussion on colored cool materials. The

relationship between the solar spectral irradiance and the solar spectrum reflectance for
colored cool paints is important for the performance of these paints. The majority of the
Japanese paint market is occupied by dark colored paints, which have an average solar
reflectance of around 20%. Paints with a solar reflectance of more than 20% probably
contribute to the urban heat island effect. However, reduction of solar reflectance by
adhesion of atmospheric particles is found to occur immediately after application of the
paints, and the solar reflectance of some colored cool paints is found to reduce to 60%
of the initial value within one year.
The roofs of most detached houses in Japan are covered with tiles; it is therefore
important to examine the effect of tiles on the urban heat island measures. The average
solar reflectance of areas of detached housing is estimated to be around 16%. Roof
materials with a solar reflectance of more than 20% probably contribute to urban heat
islands. Solar reflectance of an uneven tiled surface can be estimated from the surface
shape and the solar reflectance of a flat surface.
Keywords: Colored cool materials, spectrum solar reflectance, luminosity and

solar reflectance, Japanese roof tiles.
INTRODUCTION
The reduction of the solar radiation incident on the roofs of buildings and road
surfaces by a direct reflection to space, leads to a reduction of the generation of
heat on these surfaces, thus mitigating the urban heat island effect and conserving
the energy required in buildings. However, as the roof of a detached house can be
easily seen from ground level, the owners of the house may want to choose the
color of the roof depending on their preference. The solar spectral irradiance on a
horizontal surface is affected by the presence of gases such as water vapor and
carbon dioxide. The SPCTRAL2 [1] spectral model is used to estimate the solar
spectral irradiance for cloudless atmospheric conditions in August at Osaka,
*Address Correspondence to Masakazu Moriyama: Department of Living and Environmental Design,

Faculty of Science & Engineering, Setsunan University, Ikeda-nakamachi 17-8, Neyagawa City, Osaka
Prefecture 572-8508, Japan; Tel: 81-72-839-8137; E-mail: moriyama@led.setsunan.ac.jp

Colored Cool Materials Cool Materials for the Built Environment 73
Japan; these spectral irradiance values are shown in Fig. 1. The ratios in
ultraviolet, visible and near-infrared wavelength ranges in the horizontal global
radiation are about 4%, 49% and 47%, respectively. Even if solar reflectance in
the visible wavelength range is low, solar reflectance for all wavelength ranges is
high when the solar reflectance in the near-infrared wavelength range is high.
Paint manufacturers have developed colored cool paints that have high solar
reflectance over all wavelengths without changing the solar reflectance in the
visible wavelength range.
Ultraviolet
2
Visible Near infrared
Horizontal global irradiance
1.8
1.6
1.4
(kW/m2m)
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5
Wave length (m)
Figure 1: Solar spectral irradiance for cloudless atmosphere in August at Osaka, Japan
PROPERTIES OF COLORED COOL PAINTS

Spectrum Solar Reflectance
The spectrum solar reflectance values of colored cool paints and colored normal
paints are shown in Fig. 2. Solar reflectance in the visible wavelength range for
colored cool paints is the same as that for normal paints of the same color; solar
reflectance in the near-infrared wavelength range for colored cool paints is very
high, as is the case for white paints. Pigments mixed in the colored cool paints
play an important role in improving solar reflectance in the near-infrared
wavelength range. Solar reflectance over the entire wavelength range for cool
gray paints is approximately 25% higher than that for normal gray paints, while
solar reflectance over the entire wavelength range for cool black paints is
approximately 30% higher than that for normal black paints. Solar reflectance
over the entire wavelength range for cool white paints is the same as that for
normal white paints. Cool colored paints have higher solar reflectance without the
limitation of the owner’s color choice because the luminosity of cool colored
74 Cool Materials for the Built Environment Moriyama and Takebayashi
paints is the same as that of normal paints of the same color. Cool colored
tarpaulins that have higher solar reflectance have been developed based on the
same principle as that for cool colored paints.
100
80
Solar reflectance (%)
60
40
20
0
300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100
Wave length (nm)
Cool White Normal white Cool gray
Normal gray Cool black Normal black
Figure 2: Spectrum solar reflectance values of colored cool paints and colored normal paints,
obtained from Miki Coating Design Office
MARKET IN JAPAN
The volume of shipments of colored cool paints in Japan is shown in Fig. 3. As of

2009, colored cool paints constituted only 0.4% of the Japanese paint market.
Colored cool paints are mainly used on the roofs and walls of buildings, while their
use on roads is minimal. From the increasing volume of colored cool paint
shipments, it is clear that the use of colored cool paint is becoming more widespread
in Japan. Colored cool paints and colored cool tarpaulins are listed as eco-friendly
7000
The volume of shipment (ton)
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Building Road
Figure 3: The volume of shipments of colored cool paints in Japan, sourced from the Japan Paint
Manufacturers Association
supply products that are prioritized when a government office of Japan chooses a
product. Some local government systems such as those of Tokyo and Osaka have a
program supporting the use of cool paints and green roof materials.
The frequency of use of paint colors on building roofs in Japan in 2008 is shown
in Fig. 4. The largest frequency in the paint market of Japan is for dark colored
paints. The frequency of the paints with a luminosity of 2 to 3 is large, and the
solar reflectance for these paints is around 20%. Therefore, paints with solar
reflectance of more than 20% may contribute to the urban heat island effect. This
data is collected at the time of shipment, and the change of solar reflectance with
time, depending on adhesion of atmospheric particles, should be examined.
10
9
8
7
Luminosity
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0.0% 5.0% 10.0% 15.0% 20.0%
Frequency of the paints color on the building roofs
Figure 4: The frequency of use of paint colors on the roofs of buildings in Japan in 2008, sourced
from the Japan Paint Manufacturers Association
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LUMINOSITY AND SOLAR

REFLECTANCE
The relationship between luminosity and solar reflectance in all wavelength

ranges for colored cool paints and colored normal paints produced and sold in
Japan is shown in Fig. 5. The difference in solar reflectance for all wavelength
ranges between colored cool paints and colored normal paints is about 20% when
luminosity is between 4 and 7. The difference is smaller in the case of higher
luminosity because the solar reflectance of colored normal paints is also high.
90
80

70 Colored cool paints
60 y = 8.4 x – 3.7
R2 = 0.91 (N = 61)
50
40
30
20 Colored normal paints
10 Y = 0.47 x 2.21
R2 = 0.90 (N = 99)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Luminosity
Figure 5: Relationship between luminosity and solar reflectance for all wavelength ranges for
colored cool paints and colored normal paints, sourced from the Japan Paint Manufacturers
Association
The relationship between luminosity and solar reflectance in the near-infrared

wavelength range for colored cool paints and colored normal paints that are
produced and sold in Japan is shown in Fig. 6. The difference in solar reflectance
in the near-infrared wavelength range between colored cool paints and colored
normal paints is about 30 to 40% where luminosity is between 4 and 7. The
difference is slightly smaller in the case of higher luminosity, similar to the case
for all wavelength ranges.
100
90 Colored cool paints
80 y 2= 6.7 x – 26.0
R = 0.64 (N = 61)
70
60
50
40
30
20 Colored normal paints
10 Y = 1.69 e 0.4x
R2 = 0.72 (N = 99)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Luminosity
Figure 6: Relationship between luminosity and solar reflectance in the near-infrared wavelength
range for colored cool paints and colored normal paints, sourced from the Japan Paint
Manufacturers Association
Examples of the solar reflectance of several types of colored cool paints produced
and sold in Japan are shown in Fig. 7 [2]. Solar reflectance of cool white paints is
generally high, but solar reflectance of cool gray and cool black paints varies
depending on the product; some of them have lower reflectance than normal
colored paints. However, as consumers are not aware of these differences in solar
reflectance, it is necessary for a third party to evaluate the products and report to
the public. In Japan, a method of measuring spectrum reflectance on a paint
surface has been prescribed as JIS K5602 [3], and it is used to specify the JIS of
the product of the high reflectance paint. A performance evaluation has been
carried out by the Ministry of the Environment and an examination for
performance certification has been carried out in the Osaka Heat Island Measures
Technology Consortium (HITEC).
CHANGES OF SOLAR REFLECTANCE AFTER THE REVELATION
Solar reflectance of colored cool paints decreases with time after the revelation. It
has been pointed out that the primary cause is adhesion of atmospheric particles.
Changes in solar reflectance of cool colored paints after the revelation are shown
in Fig. 8 [4]. The revelation was carried out on an outdoor horizontal plane under
conditions of normal air quality in the suburbs of Tokyo. Solar reflectance of each
type of colored cool paint was measured by spectrum meter on three occasions:
Initial, immediately after application; four months later, from November to
March; and one year later, from November to November.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021
Sample number normal paint
White Gray Black
Figure 7: Observation results of solar reflectance of several kinds of colored cool paints, sourced
from Fujimoto, Okada, and Kondo
Reduction of solar reflectance in the visible wavelength range is higher for light
colors than for dark colors. Reduction of solar reflectance in the near-infrared
wavelengths is almost the same for each color. Reduction of solar reflectance in
the visible wavelength range is more than that in the near-infrared wavelength
range. Therefore, it is believed that the cause of the reduction of solar reflectance
is adhesion of atmospheric particles. Reduction of solar reflectance by adhesion of
atmospheric particles occurs immediately after application of the paints. Solar
reflectance of some colored cool paints for all wavelengths decreased to 80% and
60% of the initial value within four months and one year, respectively. Reduction
of solar reflectance generally ceases within one to two years of application.
100
Solar reflectance after the
75 %
75
revelation (%)
50 %
50
25
0
0 25 50 75 100
Initial solar reflectance (%)
Four months later One year later
a. Near-ultraviolet and visible wavelengths (300–780 nm)
100
75 %
75
revelation (%)
50 %
50
25
0
0 25 50 75 100
b. Near-infrared wavelengths (780–2500 nm)
100

75 75 %
revelation (%)
50 %
50
25
0
0 25 50 75 100
c. All wavelengths (300–2500 nm)
Figure 8: Changes in solar reflectance of cool colored paints after the revelation, sourced from
Fujimoto et al.
COOL ROOF EFFECTS OF JAPANESE ROOF TILES

Market in Japan
The roofs of most detached houses in Japan are covered with tiles. The tiles help
prevent the spread of fire in areas where there are many wooden houses.
Therefore, it is important to examine the effects of tiles on the urban heat island
measures. The market share of roof materials for detached houses in Japan is
shown in Table 1 [5]. These data are collected by a sub-group of the Osaka
HITEC, concerned with the roof materials of the house. This sub-group has
examined the certification standard of Osaka HITEC for the solar reflectance of
roof materials of houses. The largest market share in roof materials for detached
houses in Japan is in traditional clay tile, and the second largest share is in cement
slate tile. Average luminosity and solar reflectance for areas of detached houses
are estimated to be 4% and 16%, respectively. These are calculated by multiplying
the volume of shipments and luminosity, solar reflectance of each roof material.
The roof materials with solar reflectance of more than 20% may contribute to the
urban heat island effect. Generally, the reduction of solar reflectance by
atmospheric particles after the revelation is minor, because the roof of the
detached house has a slope. The sub-group of the Osaka HITEC, concerned with
the roof materials of houses proposed that a solar reflectance of more than 40%
should be used as a certification standard.
Table 1: The share in the market of roof materials of detached houses in Japan, sourced from the
sub-group of the Osaka Heat Island Measures Technology Consortium (HITEC), concerned with
the roof materials of houses
Luminosity Solar reflectance Area ratio Sub-working member

Clay tile 4.4 18.3 % 52.7 % Yes
Cement slate tile 3.4 9.3 % 24.3 % Yes
Press cement tile 3.8 36.6 % 1.0 % Yes
Metal Unknown Unknown 22.0 % No
Total (4.1) (15.7 %) (78 %)
Spectrum Solar Reflectance

The relationship between luminosity and solar reflectance for Japanese traditional
roof tiles is shown in Fig. 9. The Japanese tiles have a luster on the surface, as
they are burned with a glaze. Therefore, the solar reflectance in the near-infrared
wavelength range is slightly higher. This contributes toward the improvement of
solar reflectance for all wavelength ranges. The development of high solar
reflectance tiles has been performed by several tile makers, and the tiles have been
passed by the proof test of the Ministry of the Environment of Japan.
Near infrared wave length

(780-2500nm)
All wave length
(300-2100nm)
Visible wave length
(300-780nm)
Near infrared wave length
All wave length
Visible wave length
Luminosity
Figure 9: Relationship between luminosity and solar reflectance of Japanese traditional roof tiles,
sourced from the sub-group of the Osaka HITEC, concerned with the roof materials of houses
Solar Reflectance Affected by the Surface Shape

If the surface of an area under consideration is not flat, as is the case for a typical
Japanese tile, solar reflectance is reduced by multiple reflections from each
surface material. Solar reflectance of uneven tiled surfaces, estimated from
surface shape and flat surface solar reflectance, is shown in Fig. 10. The surface
shape is expressed by the view factor of the surface materials with respect to
another surface material. The shape assumes a triangular roof, such as is used for
factory roofs. An equal diffusion reflection surface is assumed in making this
chart, which is made by ray tracing calculations. If the shape of the triangular roof
is deep and the view factor between two surface materials is large, the reduction
of solar radiation from the flat surface is large because of the multiple reflections
of each surface material. Furthermore, the reduction of solar reflectance in the
case of large material solar reflectance is larger than for small material solar
reflectance. The view factors of surfaces on typical Japanese roof tiles are shown
in Fig. 11. The reduction of solar radiation by multiple reflections is small
because the view factors are small.
1
Solar reflectance of the non-flat
0.9 view factor

0.8 between
Flat surface two surface
0.7 materials
0.6 0
surface
0.5 Shallow (view 0.1

factor is small) 0.2
0.4 0.3
0.3 0.4
0.2 Deep (view 0.5
0.1 factor is large) 0.6
0.7
0
0.8
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0.9
Solar reflectance of the material
Figure 10: Solar reflectance of uneven tiled surface estimated from surface shape and flat surface
solar reflectance
Type J: about 0.09 Type S: about 0.16 Type F: about 0.00
Figure 11: The view factors of each surface on typical Japanese roof tiles
CONCLUSIONS
The relationship between solar spectral irradiance and solar spectrum reflectance
of colored cool paints is important for the performance of colored cool paints. The
largest market share in the paint market of Japan is in dark colored paints with an
average solar reflectance of around 20%. Paints with solar reflectance greater than
20% may contribute to the urban heat island effect. However, the reduction of
solar reflectance by adhesion of atmospheric particles occurs immediately after
application of the paint and solar reflectance of some colored cool paints
decreases to 60% of the initial value within one year.
The roofs of most detached houses in Japan are covered with tiles. It is important
to examine the effects of tiles on the urban heat island measures. Averaged solar
reflectance of areas of detached houses is estimated to be 16%. The roof materials
with a solar reflectance of more than 20% may contribute to the urban heat island
effect. Solar reflectance of uneven tiled surfaces can be estimated from surface
shape and flat surface solar reflectance.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES
[1] Bird RE, Riordan C. Simple solar spectral model for direct and diffuse irradiance on
horizontal and tilted planes at the earth's surface for cloudless atmospheres. J Climate Appl
Meteor 1986; 25: 87–97
[2] Fujimoto T, Okada T, Kondo Y. Reduction of solar heat gain by using reflective paints for
building envelops. J Environ Eng AIJ 2006; 601: 35-41
[3] Japanese Industrial Standards Committee. JIS K 5602 Determination of reflectance of solar
radiation by paint film 2008
[4] Fujimoto T, Itoh D, Takeda H, Kondo Y, Ashie Y. Investigation on reflective paints for
promotion Part 1 Experimental result of holding ratio of solar reflectance. Summaries of
technical papers of annual meeting AIJ 2010; D-1: 813-814
[5] Takebayashi H, Sugihara T, Moriyama M. Study on the cool roof effect of Japanese
traditional tiled roof. Proc. PALENC2010 2010
CHAPTER 4
Research on Thermochromic and PCM Doped Infrared Reflective
Coatings
Theoni Karlessi* and Mattheos Santamouris
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Department of Physics, Building
of Physics 5, University Campus, 157 84 Athens
Abstract: The present research investigates the development of thermochromic and

PCM doped infrared reflective coatings and the potential of their application on urban
structures in energy savings and improvement of the microclimate.
Thermochromic coatings were developed by using thermochromic pigments into an
appropriate binder system. The color-changing temperature was 30oC. The same binder
system was used for the production of highly reflective (cool) and common coatings, in
order to investigate and compare the thermal and optical characteristics of color-
matched thermochromic, cool and common coatings. The results demonstrated that
during the experimental period, surface temperatures of thermochromic samples were
lower than the temperatures of color-matched cool and common. Issues concerning the
photodegradationof thermochromic coatings are also discussed.
The performance of organic PCMs used as latent heat storage materials, when they are
incorporated in building coatings is also studied. Comparative testing proved that all
PCM doped infrared reflective coatings present lower surface temperatures than cool
and common coatings of the same color. Studying the daily temperature differences it
was noticed that peak temperature differences occur between PCM and common or cool
coatings from 7am-10am.These peak temperature differences are not noticed for
common and cool coatings. Moreover investigating the temperature gradient it was
shown that for this time period the values for the PCM coatings is much lower
compared to cool and common. Coatings containing PCMs store heat in a latent form
maintaining constant surface temperatures and discharge with a time delay.
Keywords: Phase change materials, thermochromic pigments, optical and thermal

properties.
INTRODUCTION
Mitigation of the urban heat island and reduction of energy consumption in the
building’s sector is a primary need, taking into account that buildings use almost
*Address Correspondence to ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

84 Cool Materials for the Built Environment Karlessi and Santamouris
40% of the world’s energy, while at the same time many cities around the world
suffer from the urban heat island effect with average daytime air temperature 2-
5oC higher than the surrounding rural areas [1]. Concerning these aspects, the
selection of appropriate materials plays a primary role. The thermal performance
of materials is mainly controlled by their solar reflectance and the infrared
emittance. Increased values of reflectance and/or emittance result in lower surface
temperatures. Regarding the building’s performance, lower surface temperatures
decrease the heat penetrating into the building and therefore decrease the cooling
loads while creating more comfortable indoor thermal conditions. Regarding the
urban environment, it contributes to the decrease of the ambient air temperature,
mitigating the heat island effect [2-5]. The development of innovative materials
which can change their optical and thermal properties in a dynamic way in order
to be reflective during summertime and absorptive during wintertime is proposed.
The thermochromic transition from lighter to darker tones is achieved by a
thermally reversible transformation of the molecular structure of the pigments that
produces a spectral change of visible color [6-8].
The reversible transformation is based on organic leuco dye mixtures whose three
main components are: the color former, basically a cyclic ester which determines the
color of the material in its colored state, the color developer, usually a weak acid that
allows the reversible color change and is responsible for the color intensity of the
final product and the solvent, an alcohol or an ester, whose melting point controls the
transition temperature at which the color change occurs [9-10].
The thermochromic pigment is colored in the solid form of the material because in
this state the color former interacts with the developer, possibly via an ion-pair
complex. Melting of the composite interferes with this interaction, leading to a
negative thermochromic effect and a loss of color.
Thermochromic pigments have been developed as three-component organic mixtures

and they were incorporated into common white coating [11-12]. Measurements of the
solar reflectance spectra of thermochromic building coatings have been carried out
and the results showed that the absorption of solar energy is higher below the
transition temperature of 20oC and lower above 20oC [12]. After an hour of exposure
to solar radiation and for ambient temperatures below 20oC the thermochromic
Research on Thermochromic and PCM Cool Materials for the Built Environment 85
coating could absorb almost the same amount of solar energy as an ordinary colored
coating, but when the temperature was above 20 oC it could reflect more solar energy,
presenting 4oC lower temperature than the ordinary colored coating [11].
The integration of the phase change material (PCM) into building materials has
also been investigated as a potential technology for reducing the cooling and
heating loads in building [13-15]. PCMs store heat in a latent form. They use
chemical bonds to store and release the heat. The thermal energy transfer occurs
when a material changes from solid to liquid, or liquid to solid. This is called a
change in state or phase [16-18].
Relevant study [19] proves that the maximum temperature in a wall with PCM
appears about 2 hours later than in the one without PCM, i.e., the thermal inertia
of the wall is higher. During the melting process, the specific heat of the PCM
increases to more than 100 times to absorb large quantity of energy, and during
the solidification process, the stored energy is released. The selection of the PCM
is mainly based on the PCM’s melting temperature. The PCM melting
temperature should be within the operating temperature of the thermal system and
depends on the climatic conditions [20-21].
This chapter presents the testing that has been conducted regarding the
incorporation of innovative thermochromic material and PCMs in building
coatings and the investigation of their performance aiming at reduction of energy
consumption and mitigation of urban heat island.
THERMOCHROMIC COATINGS
The thermal and optical characteristics of 11 developed thermochromic coatings

to be used in buildings and urban structures have been studied. Coatings have
been produced using available organic thermochromic pigments incorporated into
an appropriate binder system to develop a thermochromic paint. The coatings
produced have been experimentally compared against common and highly
reflective coatings of the same color.
Outdoor measurements of surface temperature were carried out in an hourly basis

for two summer months using temperature sensors on concrete tiles coated with
thermochromic, cool and common paint. Furthermore, the spectral reflectance was
measured and the solar reflectance of the samples was calculated. Aging of the
thermochromic coatings is also studied and discussed.
PRODUCTION OF THERMOCHROMIC COATINGS
Organic water based thermochromic pigments were used to develop the

thermochromic coatings All pigments were colored in their cold state and translucent
in their warm state having a transition temperature of 30oC. Pigments were
microencapsulated with an average particle size of 5 microns. An appropriate binder
system that should not itself absorb infrared radiation was produced for the
development of the thermochromic coatings. In order to examine the behaviour of
thermochromic pigments without the interference of any other type of pigments and
simultaneously avoid transparency of the coating at the warm state, two groups of
thermochromic coatings were prepared: the first one comprised of the
thermochromic pigments and the binder, and the second of the thermochromic
pigments, the binder and titanium dioxide (TiO2). For each of the six colors, two
coatings were prepared, one with the addition of TiO2, and the other without TiO2.
Especially for brown, only the coating with TiO2 was examined because the color of
the thermochromic coating without TiO2 did not match with any cool brown coating,
so 11 thermochromic coatings in total were developed.
In Fig. 1 (a),(b), on the left, color-changing phase of thermochromic brown

coating with TiO2 is shown. On the right, the tile with the common coating of the
same color is shown as well. Fig. 1a) depicts the color of the tiles 15 min after
their exposure to outdoor conditions at a warm day with clear sky and ambient
temperature of 35oC. When the surface temperature is increasing above 30oC, the
thermochromic coating has started changing color from brown to white due to its
temperature increase. The coating has turned almost white 20 min after outdoors
exposure, as it is shown in Fig. 1b), when its surface temperature has become
42oC. Thermochromic blue coatings are presented at the left side of Fig. 1 (c), (d),
(e), with TiO2 on top, without TiO2 on bottom, becoming white and transparent
respectively as surface temperature rises above 30oC. Fig. 1c depicts their color
7min after outdoor exposure where the color has started to change. The color
change is becoming more obvious in Fig. 1d) 10 min after outdoor exposure. The
thermochromic coatings are completely decolorized 20 min later as their surface

temperature has become 42oC (Fig.2e)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Figure 1: Transition phase of thermochromic brown (a), (b), and blue (c), (d), (e) coatings.
Thermochromic coatings are on the left side, becoming white as temperature rises above 30oC. On
the right side color-matched common and cool coatings are presented.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The coatings were applied on white concrete tiles placed on an unshaded

horizontal platform insulated from below. The size of the tiles was 33cm x 33cm.
For the investigation of the thermal and optical performance of the coatings, the
following equipment was used:
i. Temperature sensors, connected to a data logging system, measuring

the surface temperature of the samples on a 24 hr basis.
ii. An infrared camera was used for observing the temperature difference
between the samples.
iii. UV/VIS/NIR spectrophotometer (Varian Carry 5000), was used for

measuring the spectral reflectance of the samples.
Meteorological data recorded from a station near the experimental area, (National
Observatory of Athens), including ambient temperature, relative humidity, wind
speed, global and diffuse solar radiation on a horizontal surface have been used to
characterize outdoor climatic conditions (Table 1). During the experimental
period, high temperatures, clear skies and low wind speeds were the dominating
meteorological conditions.
Table 1. Meteorological parameters during the experimental period
THERMAL PERFORMANCE
Visible and infrared images were taken at the time of maximum temperature of a
representative summer day in order to reveal the temperature differences between
thermochromic, cool and common coatings. Fig.2 depicts brown and blue samples
with TiO2 at the visible and the infrared part of the solar radiation. High ambient
temperatures result in high surface temperatures of the samples. Thus the
thermochromic samples have become white. As shown at the infrared scale
thermochromic samples present lower temperatures than cool and common.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2: Temperature differences of thermochromic, cool and common coatings: visible and
infrared images of brown (b) and blue (a) coatings.
In order to observe the temperatures that the thermochromic coatings demonstrate

and to compare them with the temperatures of the corresponding cool and
common coatings, the mean daily and mean maximum daily (6:00-20:00) surfaces
temperatures of the samples were calculated from the measured data. The average
value of the instantaneous (every 10min.) measured temperatures from 6:00 to
20:00 for each day and for each sample was calculated and used for obtaining the
mean daily surface temperature for each month. Mean maximum daily surface
temperatures for each month are obtained by the average of the maximum daily
temperature values.
The results for each sample are demonstrated in Table 2, for August. For each
color and type of coating during the experimental period the samples with TiO2
(lighter tones) demonstrate lower temperatures than the samples without TiO2
(darker tones). Light colored common coatings correspond to thermochromic and
cool coatings with TiO2, while dark colored common coatings correspond to
thermochromic and cool coatings without TiO2.
Table 2:. Mean daily and mean maximum daily surface temperatures (oC) for thermochromic,
cool and common coatings in August
Mean daily surface temperatures range from 31oC to 38.4oC for the
thermochromic coatings, from 34.4 oC to 45.2 oC for cool coatings and from
36.4oC to 48.5oC for common coatings in August. Comparing the group of
thermochromic, cool and common coatings with TiO2 the following are observed:
 Mean daily surface temperatures of thermochromic coatings are lower

than cool and common coatings. During August, temperature
difference range from 2.2oC for thermochromic and cool yellow to
9.2oC for thermochromic and cool brown and from 4.2oC for
thermochromic and common yellow to 11.4oC for thermochromic and

common green. In August, thermochromic coatings demonstrate 10-
15oC lower mean max daily temperatures than cool coatings, and 18-
20oC lower than common coatings. Comparing the group of
thermochromic, cool and common coatings without TiO2 the
following are remarked:
 Thermochromic coatings demonstrate lower mean daily temperatures

than cool and common coatings. In August temperature difference
range from 2.8 oC for thermochromic and cool yellow to 8.9 oC for
thermochromic and cool grey and from 3.9 oC for thermochromic and
common yellow to 12.5 oC for thermochromic and common green.
 In August, mean maximum daily surface temperatures are 10-16oC

lower for thermochromic coatings compared to cool coatings except
from yellow coating which demonstrates 2.9oC lower temperature.
Compared to common coatings, thermochromic coatings exhibit 13-
20oC lower temperatures, except from yellow coating whose
temperature difference is 5.6 oC.
Fig. 3 presents an indicative daily profile of the black common, cool and
thermochromic coatings. Maximum temperature difference between common and
thermochromic coatings is ΔΤ(common-thermo)=15.3oC and ΔΤ(cool-thermo)=8.3oC
between cool and thermochromic coatings.
Figure 3: Daily temperature profile of black coatings

OPTICAL PERFORMANCE
Spectral reflectance of common, cool and thermochromic coatings at their colored

and colorless state was measured. The results from the spectrophotometric
measurements of the brown samples are presented in Fig.4. In the visible range,
the spectral curves of the thermochromic coating in its colored state and the
corresponding cool and common coating coincide, meaning that they are of the
same color.
All thermochromic coatings are highly reflective in the near infrared (NIR). The
reflectance curves of each color in the colored and the colorless state match as
near infrared properties are mainly influence by the pigments [22]. The
comparison between reflectance curves of thermochromic coatings at their
colored phase (below the transition temperature of 30oC) and their colorless phase
(above the transition temperature of 30oC) indicate that thermochromic building
coatings can absorb solar energy at lower temperatures and reduce the absorption
at higher temperatures.
thermo-colored phase common

thermo-w hite phase cool
100
UV VIS NIR BROWN+TiO2
80
R e fle c ta n c e ( % )
60
40
20
0
300 800 1300 1800 2300
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 4: Spectral reflectance of brown coatings
Data of the spectral measurements were used for the calculation of the solar
reflectance of each sample. The calculation was performed by the weighted
averaging method, using a standard solar spectrum as the weighting function. The
spectrum employed is the one provided by ASTM (ASTM E90396, ASTM G159-
98). Table 3 presents the values of solar reflectance (SR) for each sample.
Thermochromic coatings at both colored and colorless phase present higher solar
reflectance values than cool and common color-matched coatings, according with
lower temperatures that thermochromic coatings exhibit. Thermochromic samples
with TiO2, being light colored, present higher values of solar reflectance than the
samples without TiO2. The same applies to the colorless phase, where the coatings
with TiO2 become white, while the coatings without TiO2 become translucent.
Table 3. Solar reflectance of thermochromic, cool and common coatings
However, photodegradation is a major problem for thermochromic materials when

exposed to outdoor environment. Interaction with solar radiation cause the breaking
and/or crosslinking of the polymer chains, leading to altered chemical and
mechanical properties, and loss of the reversible thermochromic effect [10], [23].
Various techniques have been tested to decrease the degradation of the

thermochromic coatings and improve their outdoor performance. Experiments
proved that when UV absorbers are incorporated in the thermochromic coatings
the optical efficiency is not improving and the ageing problems remain. Efficiency
is improved when the UV protectors are applied on the surface of the coatings but
still the problem of degradation is important. UV filters with a transmittance at the
UV part of the solar radiation close to zero have also been used for the
photostabilization of the thermochromic coatings. Results however showed that
although the optical performance improves considerably but the problem remains.
This indicates that not only the ultraviolet but also the visible part of the solar
radiation interacts with the molecular bonds, having a negative effect on
thermochromism.
UV and visible optical filtering techniques have been used using different coating
techniques and the results after one month of accelerating ageing are very
promising.
The cost of thermochromic materials is currently high, since they are not used for
the building sector yet. The production of thermochromic materials by the
construction industry would reduce significantly the price. The advantages that
can be derived from their color changing properties concerning energy efficiency
in buildings, indoor air environment and urban microclimate encourages further
investigation [10].
PCM DOPED INFRARED REFLECTIVE COATINGS
The present study investigates the thermal performance of phase change materials
(PCM) when incorporated into building coatings. The coatings have been
produced using organic paraffin PCMs incorporated into an appropriate binder
system. The PCM coatings have been experimentally compared against common
and highly reflective (cool) coatings of the same color.
Outdoor measurements of surface temperature were carried out in an hourly basis

for two summer months using temperature sensors on concrete tiles coated with
PCM, cool and common coatings.
COMPARATIVE OUTDOOR TESTING
Organic paraffin PCMs were used for the production of building coatings.
Pigments were microencapsulated with an average particle size of 17-20 microns.
An appropriate binder system that should not itself absorb infrared radiation was
produced for the development of the thermochromic coatings. Materials of three
different melting temperatures were used (18oC, 24oC, 28oC) at different

concentrations (20%w/w, 30%w/w). Coatings of six different colors were tested:
blue, green, brown, black, grey and golden brown were tested. For each color 8
coatings were produced: 1 common, 1 cool, 2 PCM 18oC (20%w/w, 30%w/w), 2
PCM 24oC (20%w/w, 30%w/w), 2 PCM 28oC (20%w/w, 30%w/w). Cool
pigments were used at PCM coatings at the half of the quantity that was used for
the production of the cool coatings.
The coatings were applied on white concrete tiles placed on an unshaded

horizontal platform insulated from below (Fig.5).
Figure 5: Tested tiles coated with common, cool and PCM coatings
For the investigation of the thermal characteristics of the coatings, temperature

sensors, connected to a data logging system, measuring the surface temperature of
the samples on a 24 h basis were used.
Meteorological data recorded from a station near the experimental area, (National
Observatory of Athens), including ambient temperature, relative humidity, wind
speed, global and diffuse solar radiation on a horizontal surface have been used to
characterize outdoor climatic conditions (Table 1). During the experimental
period, high temperatures, clear skies and low wind speeds were the dominating
meteorological conditions.
THERMAL ANALYSIS OF PCM COATINGS
Mean max temperatures of the samples were calculated based on the surface
temperature measurements. Results show that PCM coatings demonstrate lower
surface temperatures than cool and common of the same color (Table 4). The
mean surface temperature difference vary from 1.7 oC to 4 oC compared to
common coatings and from 0.3 oC to 2.7 oC compared to cool ones. Mean
maximum temperature differences vary from 1 oC to 3.5 oC between PCM and
cool coatings.
Fig. 6, 7 present maximum and minimum temperatures differences for common-

PCM and cool-PCM coatings respectively. Surface temperature of a black PCM
coatings can be 13% lower than common black and 5% of a cool black coating.
Mean daily temperature profiles of the samples are also studied. Picks at
temperature difference between PCM with cool and PCM with common coatings
are noticed while this doesn’t occur for common with cool coatings (Fig. 8). Max
values of temperature difference reveal the time lag for the temperature increase
of PCM coatings. During this time period the phase change material stores heat in
a latent form maintaining its temperature stable.
Table 4 Max surface temperatures of black, blue and green samples
Black Blue Green

Tmax
common 67.9 63.1 64.7
cool 62.2 58.6 61.5
PCM 28/20% 59.6 56.2 58.8
PCM 24/20% 61.1 57.8 60.1
PCM 18/20% 60.9 57.1 60.7
PCM 28/30% 593 56.5 59.4
PCM 24/30% 613 57.4 59.6
PCM 18/30% 60.7 56.7 60.4
ΔΤ common-PCM
common - -
cool 5.7 4.4 3.2
PCM 28/20% 8.3 6.9 5.9
Table 4: cont….
PCM 24/20% 6.8 51 4.6

PCM 18/20% 7.1 5.9 4.0
PCM 28/30% 8.1 6.6 5.2
PCM 24/30% 6.6 5.6 5.1
PCM 18/30% 7.2 6.4 4.3
ΔΤ common-COOL
common · ·
cool · ·
PCM 28/20% 2.6 2.4 2.6
PCM 24/20% 1.1 0.9 1.4
PCM 18/20% 1.3 1.4 0.8
PCM 28/30% 3.5 2.1 2.0
PCM 24/30% 0.9 1.1 1.9
PCM 18/30% 1.5 1.9 1.1
∆Τ(common-pcm)_solid/∆Τ(cool-pcm)_dotted
8
13% 12.5%
7 10% 10%
6
7.4%
5
∆ Τ (C )
6.2%
4 5% 5%
4.5% 4.5%
3
2.6% 2.6%
2
1
0
PCM 28/30% PCM 28/20% PCM 28/20% PCM 24/20% PCM 28/30% PCM 28/30%
Figure 6: Maximum temperature differences between PCM, common and cool coatings
∆Τ(common-pcm)_solid/∆Τ(cool-pcm)_dotted
8
7
9%
6 9%
5 6.5%
6.5%
∆ Τ (C )
4 5.5%
5.2%
3
2 1.6% 1.6%
1.2% 1.3% 0.8% 1.6%
1
0
PCM 24/30% PCM 28/20% PCM 18/20% PCM 28/20% PCM 2430% PCM 18/30%
Figure 7: Minimum temperature differences between PCM, common and cool coatings
MEAN SURFACE TEMPERATURE

golden brown
70
common
60 cool
PCM 24/30%
50
T e m p e r a tu r e o C
40
30
20
10
0
0:00 4:48 9:36 14:24 19:12 0:00
time
(a)
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE ∆Τ
golden brown
12
common-cool
10 common-PCM
cool-PCM
6
∆Τ
0
0:00 4:48 9:36 14:24 19:12 0:00
time
(b)
MEAN SURFACE TEMPERATURE
black
80
common
70
cool
60 PCM 28/30%
te m p e r a tu r e o C
50
40
30
20
10
0
0:00 4:48 9:36 14:24 19:12 0:00
time
(c)
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE ∆Τ
black
12
common-cool
common-PCM
10
cool-PCM
6
∆Τ
4
0
0:00 4:48 9:36 14:24 19:12 0:00
time
(d)
Figure 8: Mean daily temperatures and temperature differences for golden brown (a),(b), and
black (c), (d) coatings
In order to investigate the PCM coating’s behavior during the time that the phase
change material melts the temperature’s gradient is calculated and presented at
Fig. 7 comparatively with the gradient of the cool coatings. From 07.00-9.40
PCM stores energy, thus the temperature gradient is lower than the gradient of the
cool coating (Fig.9 (a), (c)). From 10.00-11.40 energy is stored as latent heat, so
the temperature gradient decreases and becomes equal to the gradient of the cool
coating (Fig.9 (b), (d)).
DT/dt golden brown

07.00-09.40
2.00
cool y = 14.019x - 4.1435
PCM
1.50 Linear (cool)
Linear (PCM)
1.00
0.50
y = 7.1259x - 2.2196
0.00
6:43 7:12 7:40 8:09 8:38 9:07 9:36 10:04
-0.50
(a)
DT/dt golden brown

10.00 -11.40
3.50
cool
3.00 PCM
Linear (PCM)
2.50 Linear (cool)
2.00
y = -20.788x + 10.952
1.50
1.00
y = -4.5425x + 3.1441
0.50
0.00
9:50 10:19 10:48 11:16 11:45
(b)
DT/dt black
07.00-9.40
2.00
cool
PCM 28/30%
1.50
Linear (cool) y = 17.248x - 5.0719
Linear (PCM 28/30%)

1.00
o C /1 0 m in
y = 10.306x - 3.0396
0.50
0.00
6:43 7:12 7:40 8:09 8:38 9:07 9:36 10:04
-0.50
time
(c)
DT/dt black
10.00 -11.40
3.00 cool
PCM 28/30%
2.50 Linear (PCM 28/30%)
Linear (cool)
2.00
o C /10m in
y = -10.996x + 6.6555
1.50
1.00
y = -6.192x + 4.115
0.50
0.00
9:50 10:19 10:48 11:16 11:45
time
(d)
Figure 9: Temperature gradients for golden brown (a), (b), and black (c), (d) cool and PCM
coatings
CONCLUSIONS
Innovative thermochromic and PCM materials have been used for the
development of building coatings.
Thermochromic systems can function as energy saving systems. For high

temperatures, during summertime thermochromic coatings have the ability to
reflect solar energy, reducing the surface’s temperature, while in wintertime
absorb solar energy, increasing the surface’s temperature as reversible color
change takes place. Applied thus on external building surfaces, they have the
potential for the reduction of heating and cooling loads, contributing to the
reduction of urban temperatures, fight heat island and reduce air pollution. Further
research is being conducted in order to improve the thermochromic coating’s
performance by preventing photodegradation with the use of innovative
technologies.
The tests of the thermal performance of PCM doped infrared reflective coatings,
showed their potential to reduce and delay the peak heat load while reducing room
temperature fluctuation. This leads to important energy savings in buildings and to
a thermally comfortable indoor environment.
The application and further investigation of these technologies can be significant

for improving the building’s energy and environmental performance, contributing
at the same time to a better urban microclimate.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES
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Progress in Polymer Science 2000; 25: 1261-1335.
CHAPTER 5
Cool Pavements
Theoni Karlessi*, Niki Gaitani, Afroditi Synnefa and Mattheos Santamouris
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Department of Physics, Building

of Physics 5, University Campus, 157 84 Athens
Abstract: Surface temperature of the urban fabric plays an important role in the
microclimate, the energy performance of the buildings and the comfort conditions of
city dwellers. Pavements (roads, parking spaces etc.) cover a significant percentage of a
city’s surface and their thermal characteristics play a dominant role in the formation of
the urban heat island effect, which refers to the temperature increase in urban areas
compared to rural settings. This paper reports the technologies related to cool paving
materials, their thermal and optical properties and the benefits of their use in the urban
structures. It also presents the experimental assessment of cool colored thin layer
asphalt and the estimation of the potential to improve the urban microclimate.
Keywords: Missingggggggggggggggggggggg
INTRODUCTION
Urban heat island phenomenon deteriorates the microclimatic conditions that are
characterized by increased ambient temperatures, longer duration of hot spells and
more frequent heat waves [1, 2]. Urban heat island refers to increased temperatures
in cities compared to the surrounding environment because of the positive urban
thermal balance [3-5]. It is the most documented phenomenon of climatic change,
and is associated with a very important increase of the cooling energy demand of
buildings and a global deterioration of the local environmental conditions [6-8].
The microclimate of a city is strongly influenced by surface temperature as it

modulates the air temperature of the lowest layers of the urban atmosphere,
determining energy exchanges and indoor conditions [6]. Paved surfaces as roads,
squares etc., have an important part in the total city’s surface and affect strongly
urban heat island effect. They contribute to the heating of the air near the surface
due to solar radiation and they transfer heat downward to be stored in the
*Address Correspondence to ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

Cool Pavements Cool Materials for the Built Environment 105
pavement subsurface and rereleased it during nighttime [7-9]. It is proved that the
pavement heat flux in Tokyo is equal to about half the energy consumption rate of
the city [10]. The solar reflectance of conventional pavements as concrete and
asphalt ranges between 0.04 and 0.45 and the surface temperature can reach
temperatures of 48oC-67oC during hot summer conditions [2, 9, 11-13].
The use of materials in the urban structures with appropriate thermal and optical
properties is a major factor contributing to the amelioration of the heat island
effect and the improvement of the thermal conditions of the increases the heat
island effect causing thermal discomfort and increased energy demands.
COOL PAVING MATERIALS
The application of materials that present high reflectivity during summer period
has gained a lot of interest during the last years as a mitigation strategy of the heat
island effect [14, 15].
Cool materials are characterized by high solar reflectance and infrared emittance
values resulting in lower surface temperatures. At building scale this means that
the heat penetrating into the building decreases. At city scale this contributes to
decreased air temperatures as the heat transfer from cooler surfaces is lower [16].
Cool pavements refer to a range of established and emerging materials that tend to
store less heat and have lower surface temperatures compared to conventional
materials [9].
TECHNICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COOL
PAVEMENTS
Cool paving materials technology is under development and no official standards

in this field exist.
Materials that are usually used to pave urban surfaces are concrete and asphalt
while frequently other materials like stone, rubber, marble, pebble are also used.
Conventional paving materials can reach surface temperatures of 48-67oC [2, 7, 8,
13]. Solar reflectance of some common paving materials is presented in Table 1
[2, 11]. Black common asphalt ranges between 0.04-0.06 demonstrating very low
solar reflectance values.
106 Cool Materials for the Built Environment Karlessi et al.
Possible mechanisms for creating a cool pavement are (a) increased surface
reflectance, which reduces the solar radiation absorbed by the pavement; (b)
increased permeability, which cools the pavement through evaporation of water;
and (c) a composite structure for noise reduction, which also has been found to
emit lower levels of heat at night [17].
The main focus of the present study is on the mechanism of increasing

reflectance. Several methods on this have been proposed. Concerning asphalt
pavements, one technique is the use of white or light colored aggregate eg. gravel
or pigment in the asphalt mix, increasing solar reflectance by 0.3. Two other
techniques called white topping and chip seals are used mainly in the US. White
topping consists of overlaying a thin layer of concrete over existing pavement
increasing the solar reflectance to that of a concrete (0.3-0.45). Chip seals is a
maintenance technique that consists of pressing rock chips over an asphalt binder
so that the solar reflectance of the solar reflectance of the road is determined by
the reflectance of the light color aggregate. Concrete pavements can become
cooler if lighter color binders, aggregates and sands [18, 19, 20].
Table 1: Solar reflectance of common paving materials
Increasing the solar reflectance of pavements can potentially cause glare and
reduce visibility which can be either dangerous or inappropriate in places where
people will be uncomfortably exposed to the reflected radiation for long periods.
For this reason there is an effort to develop cool colored pavements, e.g.
pavements that absorb in visible part of the spectrum in order to be dark in
appearance but exhibit high reflection in the NIR part of the solar spectrum.
Researchers have developed a new type of pavement that satisfies both high albedo
and low brightness based on the application of an innovative paint coating on
conventional asphalt pavement. The developed pavement is characterized by low
reflectivity in the visible part of the spectrum (23%) and high near-infrared
reflectivity (86%) [21].
BENEFITS OF COOL PAVEMENTS
Increasing the solar reflectance of a paved surface keeps it cooler as exposed to

solar radiation, reducing convection of heat from pavement to air and also thereby
decreasing the ambient air temperature. Lower air temperatures decrease cooling
energy demand and slow the formation of urban smog. Reports from measured
indicate that increasing the pavements’ solar reflectance by 0.25 causes significant
decrease of the pavement temperature by 10oC. Simulations of the influence of
pavement albedo on air temperature in Los Angeles predict that increasing the
albedo of 1250 km2 of pavement by 0.25 can reduce air temperature by 0.6oC,
which would result in significant benefits in terms of energy use and ozone levels.
More specifically, it would result in cooling energy savings worth $15 million per
year, and smog-related medical and lost-work expenses reduction by $76 million
per year [22, 23]. At global scale, increasing urban albedo can result in less
absorption of incoming solar radiation by the surface-troposphere system,
countering to some extent the global scale effects of increasing greenhouse gas
concentrations. It has been estimated that increasing pavement albedo in cities
worldwide by 0.15, could achieve reductions in global carbon dioxide (CO2)
emissions equivalent to 20 Gt, worth about $500 billion [24]. Apart from these
benefits it has been shown, that reduced pavement surface temperatures can result
in increasing the useful life (durability) of pavements and reduce waste from
maintenance. Furthermore, reflective pavements can enhance visibility at night,
potentially reducing lighting requirements and saving money and energy [25, 26].
It should be pointed out that although the application of cool pavements can
contribute to the reduction of surface temperatures, it is important that a thorough
study is carried out in order to estimate the impact of such surfaces at a specific
site on the surrounding microclimate, avoiding increased glare or unwanted solar
gains and ensure optimum application of such materials.
TESTING OF COOL COLORED THIN LAYER ASPHALT
In an effort to examine the performance of cool paving materials, five different

colored thin layer asphalt samples were developed to be applied over new or
existing asphalt pavements in good condition, in order to increase solar
reflectance but maintaining a dark color. The study reports the results of the
spectral analysis based on the measured optical properties of the samples, the
analysis of the thermal performance of the samples under summer weather
conditions and the evaluation of the impact of applying the samples in outdoor
spaces using a computational fluid dynamics model [27].
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Five color thin layer asphalt samples have been developed by an industrial partner
of the University of Athens and were submitted for testing. The color thin layer
asphalt samples were produced by mixing an elastomeric asphalt binder
(colorless) and adding special pigments and aggregates of special sizes and colors
(green, red, yellow, beige and off-white). The tested samples are shown in Fig. 1.
Figure 1: The tested color thin layer asphalt samples (1. beige, 2. off-white, 3. green, 4. red, 5.
yellow)
Additionally, a sample of conventional black asphalt was also tested and used as
reference.
The asphalt samples have been applied on asphalt membranes at a thickness of 0.5
cm. Samples of 33x33 cm were used for the temperature measurements. In order
to study the optical properties and the thermal performance of the coatings the
spectral reflectance and the surface temperature were measured. The instruments
used were the following :
a) A UV/VIS/NIR spectrophotometer (Varian Carry 5000) fitted with a

150 mm diameter, integrating sphere (Labsphere DRA 2500) that
collects both specular and diffuse radiation. The reference standard
reflectance material used for the measurement was a PTFE plate
(Labsphere). Spectral reflectance measurements were performed
according to ASTM E903-96 : Standard Test Method for Solar
Absorptance, Reflectance, and Transmittance of Materials Using
Integrating Spheres.
b) An equipment consisting of surface temperature sensors

(thermocouples type K) connected to a data logging system.
Instantaneous values were measured and saved on a computer hard
disc every 15 min in a 24 hour basis. The temperature sensors were
placed on the centers of the surfaces of each tile.
c) An infrared camera (AGEMA Thermovision 570, 7.5-13 mm

wavelength) was also used to depict the temperature differences
between samples.
For the testing of their thermal performance the samples were placed on a
specially modulated, horizontal and unshaded platform covering a surface of 20
m2, insulated from below in order to eliminate the heat transfer effects between
the platform and the samples. The experiment was carried out a hot summer
month. Measurements of the ambient climatic conditions were recorded from a
meteorological station near the experimental site (National Observatory of
Athens). Mean values for the experimental period are the following:
 Ambient temperature: mean 28.7 oC, max 39.3 oC, min 20.5 oC.
 Relative humidity: 44%

 Wind speed: 3.7m/sec
 Monthly average daily direct solar radiation on a horizontal surface:

6536 W/m2.
 Monthly average daily global solar radiation on a horizontal surface:

8004 W/m2.
ANALYSIS OF THE OPTICAL PERFORMANCE OF THE SAMPLES
The results from the spectrophotometric measurements for all the samples
comparatively are presented in Fig. 2. Spectral reflectance data were used to
calculate the solar reflectance of each sample. The calculation was carried out by
weighted-averaging, using a standard solar spectrum as the weighting function.
The spectrum employed is that provided by ASTM (see standards ASTM E903-96
and ASTM G159-98). Additionally, the solar reflectance values for the ultra violet
(UV, 300-400 nm), visible (VIS, 400-700 nm), and near infrared (NIR, 700-2500
nm) part of the spectrum were calculated. These values for each sample are shown
in Table 2.
100 off-white
S p e c tr a l R e fl e c ta n c e R (% )
80 yellow
60 black
common
40 green
beige
20
red
0
300 800 1300 1800 2300
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 2: Spectral reflectance of the tested samples

Table 2: Solar reflectance values of the tested samples
The reflectance of the color thin layer asphalt samples was found to be higher than
the reflectance of the conventional black asphalt in all the cases as it appears in
Table 2 and Fig. 3. The solar reflectance of the samples ranges between 27% (red
and green samples) and 55% (off-white sample), and the solar reflectance of the
conventional black asphalt is 4%. Furthermore, all the samples present quite high
absorptance in the UV (300-400 nm), ranging from 90% to 96% (Fig. 2 and Table
2). In the visible part of the spectrum, the reflectance depends on the specific
color. The highest visible reflectance was measured for the off-white colored
sample (45%) and the lowest for the black conventional asphalt (3%). As it is
shown in Table 2 and Fig. 2, all the color thin layer asphalt samples demonstrate
quite high reflectance values in the near infrared part of the spectrum, ranging
from 39% to 56%. For all thesamples the NIR solar reflectance is significantly
higher compared to the visible reflectance. Even the dark colored samples (low
visible reflectance), have high near infrared reflectance. For example, the green
thin layer asphalt sample is characterized by a very low visible reflectance (10%),
its near infrared reflectance reaches 39%. On the contrary, the conventional black
asphalt sample demonstrates very low visible reflectance (3%) and also very low
near infrared reflectance equal to 4%. This high near infrared “invisible”
reflectance, explains the fact that the color thin layer asphalt samples are
characterized by high solar reflectance values. This is because although sunlight is
more intense in the visible range, it also emits a substantial amount of energy in
the invisible ultraviolet (UV) and near infrared (NIR). In fact, about half of all
solar power arrives as invisible near-infrared radiation.
60
50
40
SR (% )
30
20
10
0
off-white yellow green beige red black common
Figure 3: Solar reflectance of the tested samples
ANALYSIS OF THE THERMAL PERFORMANCE OF THE SAMPLES
The diurnal surface temperature for each sample was calculated and the results are
presented in Table 3.
Table 3: Mean and mean max diurnal temperature and temperature differences of the tested
samples
The differences of the mean and the mean maximum surface temperature between the
conventional black asphalt and the five color thin layer asphalt samples are also shown in Table 3.
All the samples demonstrate surface temperatures that were higher than the
ambient air temperature. The 5 colored thin layer asphalt samples demonstrate
lower surface temperatures compared to the black conventional asphalt. The mean
diurnal temperature of the color thin layer samples ranges from 39oC for the off-
white asphalt sample to 43.6oC for the red sample. The corresponding temperature
for the black conventional asphalt sample is 46.7oC. The mean maximum diurnal
surface temperature of the colored thin layer samples ranges from 48 oC for the
offwhite asphalt sample to 55.8 oC for the red sample. The corresponding
temperature for the black conventional asphalt sample is 60 oC, which means 12
degrees higher than the off-white sample. The red sample has a maximum surface
temperature that is by 7% lower compared to the surface temperature of the black
conventional asphalt, the green sample by 8%, the beige and yellow by 13% and
15% respectively, and the greatest difference was
recorded for the off-white sample that equals 20%. Given the fact that all the
samples are characterized by similar (about 0.9) values of thermal emittance then
these temperature differences between the samples can be explained if we take
into account the solar reflectance values of the samples. More specifically, the
higher the solar reflectance, the lower the surface temperature, as less solar
radiation is absorbed by the sample.
Infrared imaging was used to examine the temperature distribution of the samples
and to depict the differences in their thermal performance. Figs. 4, 5 represent a
visible and an infrared image of the six tested coatings respectively. It was found
that the sample temperatures were quite uniform. The visible and IR photos were
taken during peak surface temperature time and for a hot summer day. The results
indicate that, as expected, the black conventional asphalt sample that presents the
lowest solar reflectance (0.04), appears as the hottest, having surface temperature
above 70oC, followed by the red (SR Ό 0.27), the green (SR=0.27) which present
temperatures around 70oC, while the yellow (SR=0.40) and the beige (SR =0.45)
are about 8 degrees cooler, as shown at the temperature scale of Fig. 5. The off-
white thin layer asphalt sample with the highest solar reflectance (0.55) appears to
have the lowest temperature, around 55oC.
Figure 4: Visible images of the tested samples 1. off-white, 2. yellow, 3. green, 4. black
(common), 5. beige, 6. red
Figure 5: Infrared images of the tested samples 1. off-white, 2. yellow, 3. green, 4. black
(common), 5. beige, 6. red
EVALUATING THE APPLICATION OF THE SAMPLES IN OUTDOOR

SPACES
In order to evaluate the possible decrease of the ambient temperature when thin
layer asphalt is applied, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) techniques have
been used. The exact impact of cool asphalt on air temperatures at local scale
between a base case where conventional asphalt was used and another case using
the off-white (SR=0.55) sample has been investigated. The evaluation of the
current as well as the proposed situation after the application of the examined cool
material for microclimatic modification was achieved with the use of PHOENICS
CFD (http://www.cham.co.uk/) model. Simulations were performed for the
summer period for a leading north wind of 1 m/s at 10 m height (representative
summer conditions) and the measured surface temperatures and solar reflectance
of the samples reported in Sections 3.2 and 3.3 have been taken into account in
the model. For the ambient temperature the mean daily maximum value for the
summer period has been used in order to investigate the maximum impact of the
materials. The considered urban area is located in the historic centre of Tirana.
The specific location has been chosen because a lot of field data were available
from an experimental campaign carried out in the area in the framework of a
project. The solution domain is illustrated in Fig. 6b. The grid of the calculation
domain has dimensions 1380(x) × 1704(y) × 150(z) m and consists of 180 × 140
× 50 cells at each axis respectively.
According to the results of the simulations for the case where the conventional
black asphalt (SR=0.04 and maximum surface temperature 60oC) is applied on the
road, the air temperature at 1.5 m height, ranged between 28oC and 32oC. For the
second case, where the off-white thin layer asphalt (SR=0.55 and maximum
surface temperature 45oC) was applied on the road, the air temperature at 1.5 m
height, ranged between 26.9 °C and 31 °C with an average value close to 30.5°C.
Fig.7, describes the air temperature field at 1.5 m height for the simulated area for
the case of the black asphalt (A) and for the case of the off-white thin layer
asphalt (B).
Figure 6: Satellite image (a), geometry and calculation domain (b) of the simulated area
Figure 7: Air temperature field at 1.5m height in the case of (A) black asphalt (SR=0.04) and
(B)the off-white thin layer asphalt (SR=0.55).
Comparing the results of the first and second case it can be concluded that the
application of the off-white thin layer asphalt on the road resulted in a significant
air temperature reduction in the simulated area equal to 2.3oC on average under
low wind speed conditions. Higher wind speeds may decrease the thermal
contribution of cool asphalt as warm air will be transferred to the area by
advection processes. This is explained by the fact that a surface with higher solar
reflectance (e.g. off-white thin layer asphalt) will remain cooler under the sun
compared to the surface covered with conventional absorbing dark asphalt, as it
was verified experimentally.
CONCLUSIONS
The materials that are used in the urban structures determine the thermal balance
and the microclimate of a city. The use of materials presenting high reflectivity to
solar radiation and high emissivity values contributes highly to the reduction of
the convective and radiative thermal gains in the urban environment and the
mitigation of the heat island phenomenon.
Considering the fact that, in most urban areas pavements cover a large percentage
of the surface; the selection of appropriate paving materials is of primer concern.
The thermal and optical characteristics of cool paving have been analysed and
related technologies have been introduced. The research on new asphalt
pavements has also been presented. It was found that all the new colored thin
layer asphalt samples demonstrate higher solar reflectance values and lower
surface temperatures compared to conventional black asphalt. CFD simulations
showed that replacing conventional asphalt in a road could lead to an average air
temperature decrease of 2.3oC under low wind speed conditions. The results of
this study indicate that the use of color thin layer asphalt in roads and pavements
can have significant impact in lowering surface and air temperatures, mitigating
thus the heat island effect and its consequences. It should be pointed out that
although cool pavement technologies like the one investigated in this paper are
already available, local governmental agencies lack the information and incentives
to apply these in a coordinated and consistent way throughout city areas. It is
important to create a strategic plan to promote cool pavements including
measurement standards, defined rating and evaluation procedures as well as and
financial incentives and policies for their application.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Part of information included in this chapter has been previously published in author's
own publication http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03601323100
02039
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CHAPTER 6
Materials Aspects of Solar Paint Coatings for Building
Applications
Boris Orel1,*, Ivan Jerman1, Matjaž Koželj1, Lidija Slemenik Perše1 and
Roman Kunič2
1
Laboratory for spectroscopy of materials, National institute of chemistry,
Hajdrihova 19, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia and 2Fragmat Tim, d.d., Spodnja Rečica
77, SI-3270 Laško, Slovenia
Abstract: This chapter consists of two parts. In the first one a brief historical overview
of the development of solar paint coatings is given together with the basic principles
that make paint coatings spectrally selective. Distinctive properties of Thickness
Sensitive Spectrally Selective (TSSS) and Thickness Insensitive Spectrally Selective
(TISS) are outlined and the use of the latter paint coatings as cool paints is proposed and
demonstrated. Materials’ aspects of the colored cool TISS paint coatings are given by
the description of cool pigments, metallic and metallized flake pigments and polymeric
resin binders which are used for the production of solar paint coatings. Second part
contains information about the chemistries of the paint production showing how to
achieve with the help of dispersant molecules uniform distribution of the finely ground
pigment particles in the polymeric resin binder. Intentionally, we focused on
organo(silicon) i.e., silane dispersants because they enable the stabilization of many
different nanoparticle systems and also commercial pigments. Basics of the sol-gel
chemistry of silanes are given and the preparation of polyhedral oligomeric
silsesquioxane (POSS) molecules is described and the dispersive effect of the latter on
pigments demonstrated. The importance of the POSS molecules representing a new
multifunctional nanocomposite materials is revealed by describing paints and lacquers
with hydrophobic and oleophobic properties and the possibility to attain antisoiling
properties of cool paints is also discussed.
Keywords: Spectral selectivity, Absorbers, Building facades, Paint formulation,

Lifetime prediction
INTRODUCTION
Mankind has been using paints in various forms since prehistoric times: red
pigment was smeared over a dead body to inspire life in it, prehistoric man left
*Address correspondence to Boris Orel: Laboratory for spectroscopy of materials, National institute of
chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; Tel: +38614760276; boris.orel@ki.si

Materials Aspects of Solar Paint Coatings Cool Materials for the Built Environment 121
marks of his spiritual life on the walls of caves, and ancient monuments and
precious objects in medieval churches were painted in order to conjure through
beauty the magnificence of the church, but only in the last 50 years have paints
also become important for the exploitation of solar radiation.
Paints are capable of modifying the optical properties of the surfaces of objects by
dictating the interactions between the bulk materials and solar radiation. In
general, solar radiation striking the surface is partially reflected (rs - s indicates
total solar radiation), partially absorbed (as), while the rest is transmitted (ts)
through the paint layer. Paints are applied on an opaque object ts = 0, which
enables expression of the optical properties with just a single measurable
parameter, i.e., hemispherical solar reflectivity rs = 1 - as. Absorption inevitably
heats up the surface of the object; black painted metal surfaces heat more than
those painted with light color paints. Black surfaces usually exhibit as values close
to 0.93 - 0.96, while the as values of white surfaces are rarely higher than 0.10 -
0.20. The absorption as is, therefore, a measure of the amount of energy,
expressed by the resulting temperature change. The maximum stagnation
temperatures of a surface exposed to solar radiation vary accordingly: from 40°C
for white, up to 65°C for black painted surfaces [1]. In addition to conduction and
convection (both mechanisms depend linearly on the temperature difference and
the geometry and thermal constants of the materials), the heated surface loses its
energy by re-emitting its heat in the form of thermal (infrared) radiation. The
magnitude of this energy transfer - according to Boltzman’s law - depends on the
4th power of the absolute temperature, geometry and thermal emissivity (eT).
In an ideal case, when conduction and convection losses are not taken into
account, stagnation temperatures are limited and depend on the thermal emittance
(eT) of the surface. An ideal black surface (eT = 1) emits radiation as described by
Planck’s law, but even most painted surfaces emit up to 90% of that energy (eT ~
0.90). In contrast, metals exhibit the lowest eT values (Cu ~ 3 - 4%, followed by
Al ~ 6 - 8% and stainless steel ~ 12 - 14%). Black metallic surfaces (as ~ 0.91, eT
~ 0.15) are called spectrally selective [2-3] because the absorption of the solar
radiation and the re-emitted thermal infrared radiation appear in well separated
spectral regions, i.e., solar region (0.3 - 2.5 μm) and thermal infrared region
(λ > 2.5 μm). Spectrally selective coatings for solar absorbers in solar thermal
122 Cool Materials for the Built Environment Orel et al.
collectors have been made for more than 40 years and the production of domestic
hot water and air is considered to be mature technology for many applications.
Through the development of vacuum technologies, various cermet (ceramic-
metal) coatings have been invented in the past and their properties studied
extensively [4]. Many reports have been published since 1990 demonstrating their
properties, showing that cermets are undoubtedly the materials of choice for solar
thermal applications. However, recent findings have revealed that vacuum
technologies will not be able to satisfy the foreseen needs for solar thermal
collectors (i.e., at least 0.5 m2 of solar thermal collector per occupant of a
building) expressed in Vision 2030 by the European Solar Thermal Technology
Platform [5]. Vacuum technologies are too expensive and, according to the
predicted growth of these technologies, it will not be possible to manufacture
enough cermet coatings to satisfy all the needs for building heating and cooling
applications.
PVD cermet coatings, even though they are made by a continuous coil-coating
process, have certain disadvantages. Their solar absorptance depends on the
thickness of the applied coatings and the thermal emittance of the substrate. They
are called Thickness Sensitive Spectrally Selective (TSSS) coatings. They are thin
(~ 100 - 120 nm) and therefore vulnerable to mechanical tearing, can be easily
abraded, require careful handling and are not cheap. Copper and aluminium are
preferred as the substrate (lowest eT), but stainless steel and mild steel protected
with zinc already exhibit thermal emittance values up to 13 and 16%, respectively.
Due to their small thickness, PVD coatings are not suitable for unglazed solar
absorbers placed on building roofs. Sputtered coatings are not robust and also
degrade fast in saline environments. Perfect corrosion resistance of sputtered
TSSS coatings cannot be obtained, except for CrONx cermets on copper that have
been coated with sol-gel based nanocomposites corrosion protective coatings (~
20 - 30 nm) [6]. However, in terms of building applications, one of the most
annoying properties common to all kinds of sputtered TSSS coatings is their need
to be black to produce heat. Sputtered coatings with a grey colour have recently
been made by Schueler et al. [7]. This is a multilayer thin coating (i.e., TiO2/SiO2
in combination with an additional antireflective Al2O3/SiO2) deposited on glass,
showing enhanced reflectivity in the visible range. The results are promising,
because the overall solar transmittance can be varied between 0.89 - 0.45 and
reflectivity is sharp in the visible range. However, the colour of interference
coatings is angularly dependent, which might be unsuitable for certain
applications. Reproducibility and long term stability are critical issues that need
resolution before industrial application can commence. Obviously, TSSS paint
coatings are not appropriate for cool coatings for building applications, for the
many reasons mentioned above, but the main drawback is their low thermal
emittance.
Other materials and spectrally selective coatings are therefore needed for solar
cool coatings. Paint coatings seem to be the right way of satisfying cooling needs
but the concept of spectral selectivity has to be adopted in order to ensure the
expected high reflectance of NIR solar radiation combined with various visible
colors and high thermal emittance (eT). Accordingly, in the first part of this study,
Thickness Sensitive Spectrally Selective (TSSS) and Thickness Insensitive
Spectrally Selective (TISS) paint coatings are briefly overviewed and the use of
the latter demonstrated for cool coating applications.
OPTICAL PROPERTIES AND SPECTRAL SELECTIVITY OF SOLAR

PAINT COATINGS
TSSS Paint Coatings
Paint coatings for solar absorbers have attracted interest since the introduction of
the concept of spectral selectivity [8]. According to this concept, practically any
paint can serve for the fabrication of at least moderately spectrally selective
coatings. In principle, spectral selectivity is achieved – by analogy with sputtered
TSSS coatings – by applying (spraying, brushing) a sufficiently thin layer of the
paint onto a low emitting metal substrate [9-10]. Even though this principle is
simple and promises easy fabrication of TISS paint coatings, their mass
production has only recently been achieved by German company Alanod-Solar
GmbH&Co. KG [11], although the first formulations of paints and corresponding
selective coatings were reported nearly 40 - 50 years ago [12] and [13] claimed
for coatings made of paints consisting of a silicone resin binder with dispersed
carbon soot or inorganic pigment (CuFeMnOx spinel black) a solar absorptance
(as) of ~ 0.90 and thermal emittance (eT) from 0.18 up to 0.25 (depending on the
thickness). Orel et al. [14] later showed that the cited two main ingredients of
paint coatings are optimal: silicone resin binder exhibits the highest temperature
stability of all organic resin binders (~ 300°C) and UV stability, while the thermal
emittance of black CuFeMnOx spinel pigment is lower than other black pigments,
such as organic soot or iron oxide; its vibrational modes appear below 600 cm-1
[15-16], i.e., outside the region in which a heated solar absorber emits the
maximum amount of thermal radiation. Standard solar absorbers equipped with
vacuum deposited cermet PVD coatings with as ~ 0.91 and eT ~ 0.07 heat up to
210°C when exposed to sun. With increasing eT values, the stagnation temperature
drops, reaching 120°C for painted solar absorbers with spectrally non-selective
(as ~ 0.92, eT ~ 0.90) paint coatings.
We have recently succeeded in developing spectrally selective paint coatings [17]

that are currently produced under the trade name MIROSOL TS by ALANOD on
their coil-coating line. The coating is thin (~ 1 - 1.5 μm) and its optical properties
are satisfactory (as ~ 0.91, eT ~ 0.15), although it does not reach the spectral
selectivity of cermet coatings. Spectral selectivity is the result of many parameters
orchestrated together: proper pigment loading in the resin binder (i.e., pigment-to-
volume ratio, PVC), with the selected materials (resin binder and pigments), their
proper surface functionalization and the thickness of the applied coatings,
affecting the spectral selectivity to the largest extent. The influence of the coating
thickness on spectral selectivity can be inferred from the variation of as and eT
values (Fig. 1). The change of spectral selectivity is due to the increased
absorption of the thicker layer of the coating (Fig. 2), seen as a drop in the
reflectivity curve at those wavelengths at which the absorption bands of the resin
binder appear. The thickness has a far-reaching effect on the solar thermal
properties of the coatings. Thicker coatings (more resin binder), whose spectral
selectivity (eT = 0.338, as = 0.924) is inferior than thinner coatings (eT = 0.146,
as = 0.902) exhibit – as expected – a stagnation temperature in standard solar
collectors [18-19] of about 165°C but thinner coatings can reach 175°C. The
absorption of the coatings obviously depends – in addition to the optical
properties of the pigments and the resin binders – on the pigment loading, i.e., the
pigment-to-volume ratio (PVC). The variation in the amount of resin binder, i.e.
PVC ratios, enables modulation of the coatings’ thermal emittance from low to
high values. This is important for cool paint coatings and is discussed in more
detail below.
0.50
0.99
0.45
0.40 0.97
0.35
0.95
0.30
0.93
aS
0.25
eT
0.20 0.91
0.15
0.89
0.10
0.87
0.05
0.00 0.85
1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.00
2
Thickness (g/m )
Figure 1: Variation of thermal absorbance (as - dotted line) and emittance (eT – solid line) as a
function of thickness of the paint (in g/m2) for paint made with modified pigment. Resin binder:
fluoropolymer, pigment: black CuFeMnOx spinel. The paint was applied by spraying.
1.0
0.9
0.8
UV VIS NIR
0.7
Reflectance
0.6
0.5
0.4
vibrational band
0.3
0.2
thick TSSS eT=0.338, as=0.924
0.1 thin TSSS eT=0.146, a s=0.902
TISS eT=0.368, as=0.897
0.0
1 10
Wavelength/m
Figure 2: as and eT of Mirosol TS (ALANOD) TSSS paint coatings and the corresponding
reflectivity spectra. Mirosol TS was produced via a continuous coil-coating process in the
ALANOD factory (DE). (A) thin: as = 0.902, eT = 0.146) and (B) thick: as = 0.924, eT = 0.338.
TISS paint coatings is shown for comparison.
TISS PAINT COATINGS
Thickness Insensitive Spectrally Selective (TISS) paint coatings are another but
less well-known version of spectrally selective coatings. These coatings are
considered to be a good starting point for cool paints, since they can be
transformed into cool paints after specific modifications are done.
The concept of TISS coatings was introduced in solar thermal technologies by

Tabor [8] and Telkes [10] and realized later by Hoeflaak in 1980−85 [20]. The
paints consisted of black pigment (CuFeMnOx spinel, PK 3060, Ferro Company)
incorporated in a silicone resin binder, while Al flakes provide low thermal
emittance. The spectral selectivity of the corresponding black TISS paint coatings
is moderate, with as = 0.90 and eT = 0.45 - 0.50. The idea of achieving spectral
selectivity of paints by the addition of low-emitting metal flakes has been
extensively tested during the last few years in our laboratory [21-23]. Black TISS
paint coatings (Fig. 2) are currently used by the ALANOD company as a cheaper
version of TSSS black coatings paint. The spectral selectivity of ALANOD
coatings is as = 0.90 and eT = 0.35. Both values can show some shift but the
difference as – eT stays close to 55 % (Fig. 3A). Coloured TISS paint coatings
(Figs. 3B-D) are used by the Slovene factory Solar Thermal Systems (Celje, SI)
for the production of solar air collectors for building facades.
Basically, TISS paint coatings comprise solar radiation absorbing pigment (black
or any other colours) and metallic flakes (bare or any other colours [24]), which
provide the coating with low thermal emittance (Fig. 4). While the pigments
absorb solar radiation, the metallic flakes scatter NIR solar radiation but, due to
the high reflectivity in the thermal infrared region, also impart low thermal
emittance to the coatings (Fig. 4). Because the low emittance metallic flakes are
distributed throughout the entire volume of the coating, the ensuing spectral
selectivity does not depend on the coating thickness. In effect, TISS paints are
metallic bronzes. TISS coatings therefore combine the advantages of paints
(longevity and chemical resistance achieved by a high thickness of the applied
layer, variety of colours and simple application) with spectral selectivity.
1.0 1.0
UV VIS NIR thermal IR UV VIS NIR thermal IR
0.8
A
0.8 B
Reflectance
Reflectance
light 0.6 blue
0.6
as=0.701, eT=0.188 as=0.805, eT=0.322
green
0.4 dark 0.4
as=0.844, eT=0.361
as=0.881, eT=0.341
0.2
red
0.2 medium as=0.832, eT=0.395
as=0.805, eT=0.245
Black 0.0
Dark colours
0.0
1 10 1 10
Wavelength (µm) Wavelength (µm)
1.0 1.0
UV VIS NIR thermal IR UV VIS NIR thermal IR
0.8 C 0.8 D
Reflectance
Reflectance
blue
0.6 as=0.734, eT=0.313 0.6 green
green as=0.545, eT=0.248
0.4 as=0.775, eT=0.310 0.4 red
as=0.455, eT=0.289
red blue
0.2 as=0.742, eT=0.336 0.2
as=0.565, eT=0.260
0.0
Medium coloured 0.0
Light coloured
1 10 1 10
Wavelength (µm) Wavelength (µm)
Figure 3: TISS paint coatings made of uncoated (bare) Al flakes (A) and coated Al flakes (red,
blue and green) with different colours : dark (B) and medium (C) shade of colours were obtained
by the addition of black pigment in (D).
Scattering at
Additional reflections
the edges of
on surfaces of
flakes
metallic flakes A
absorbing pigment
B C
> 20µm
Pigment
Al
Figure 4: Composition of TISS paint coatings with added Al flakes: schematic presentation (A),
cross-section (B) and surface morphology of the coatings (C).
Many combinations of metallic flakes and pigments are possible, enabling the
production of coatings with different optical properties in the solar and thermal
spectra regions, the properties of which can easily be tailored to meet the plethora
of practical needs. For example, paints that contain only Al flakes (not shown
here) exhibit low eT values (~ 0.14 - 0.16) but, after the addition of various
amounts of black pigment, solar absorptance increases, changing their colour to
grey, anthracite and finally to black, without significantly impeding their low
thermal emittance properties (Fig. 3A). TISS paint coatings consisting of
absorbing black pigments are exclusively intended for solar heating applications.
For cooling applications, Al flakes can be mixed with other pigments of various
colours that weakly absorb NIR solar radiation (paint version 1). A typical
example of a coloured TISS paint coating is the yellow paint consisting of
uncoated Al flakes with added -FeOOH (Bayferrox 3920) pigment shown in Fig.
5A. Al flakes ensure the high NIR reflecting background required to diminish
solar heating. The best option for cool TISS paint coatings is obviously cool
pigments the properties of which are discussed below (Table 1).
1 .0
YELLO W
YELLO W +LACQ UER
A
0 .8
Reflectance
0 .6
0 .4
0 .2
U V V IS N IR
0 .0
1 10
W avelen gth (  m )
1.0
LIGHT BLUE 1.0
LIGHT BLUE + LACQUER
B C
INDIGO
0.8
0.8 INDIGO+LACQUER
Reflectance
Reflectance
UV VIS NIR
0.6 UV VIS NIR 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
1 10 1 10
Wavelength (m) Wavelength (m)
Figure 5: Reflectivity spectra of (A) yellow TISS paint coatings with and without a transparent
lacquer (paint version I) and (B) blue and (C) indigo coatings (paint version II) with and without a
transparent lacquer.
Specifically for cool paint coating applications, in addition to metallic pigments

that show high reflectivity over the NIR and thermal infrared regions, metallic
silver coated (sub-micron layer) spheres or flakes (thickness of about 5 m) can
be used (Fig. 6) (manufactured by Shepherd) [25]. They have high brilliance and a
sparkling appearance, since the layer of silver is fairly uniform around the core
material and they have fairly high NIR reflectance. These pigments are resistant to
stress and shear. They have a very narrow particle size distribution for maximum
contrast. The orientation of these particles results in excellent reflection,
prominence in sunlight and producing dazzling effects on custom automobiles,
motorbikes, bicycles, boats, skis and swimming pools. These pigments also find
applications in cosmetics, apparel,
Table 1. Solar (rs), ultraviolet (rUV), visible (rVIS) and NIR (rNIR) reflectances of various TISS paint
coatings together with as and eT values before and after the application of transparent lacquer.
rUV rVI S rNIR rs as eT

Light blue 0.33 0.21 0.46 0.34 0.66 0.25
Light blue 0.23 0.23 0.33 0.28 0.72 0.87
+ lacquer
Indigo 0.08 0.10 0.31 0.20 0.80 0.36
Indigo 0.08 0.09 0.28 0.18 0.82 0.88
+lacquer
Yellow 0.12 0.40 0.65 0.50 0.50 0.25
Yellow + 0.12 0.40 0.63 0.49 0.51 0.88
lacquer
White 0.18 0.90 0.85 0.82 0.18 0.93
White + 0.18 0.92 0.86 0.83 0.17 0.92
lacquer
Red (Lum. Fr) 0.15 0.32 0.79 0.53 0.47 0.13
Red (Lum. 0.14 0.31 0.78 0.52 0.48 0.69
FR) +binder
Al-3100 0.72 0.70 0.75 0.73 0.27 0.69
Al-3100 0.69 0.70 0.75 0.72 0.28 0.24
+binder
Dark blue 0.09 0.11 0.25 0.18 0.82 0.44
Dark blue+ 0.08 0.09 0.21 0.14 0.86 0.90
lacquer
Green 0.07 0.10 0.19 0.14 0.86 0.48
Green + 0.09 0.10 0.17 0.13 0.87 0.91
lacquer
Brown 0.08 0.09 0.17 0.12 0.88 0.48
Brown+ 0.07 0.08 0.15 0.11 0.89 0.92
lacquer
Bare al 0.77 0.79 0.83 0.81 0.20 0.11
Al+binder 0.74 0.72 0.75 0.73 0.27 0.90
Con. Copper 0.20 0.41 0.78 0.57 0.43 0.22
Con. Copper 0.17 0.41 0.77 0.57 0.43 0.57
+binder
Green (Lum. 0.10 0.39 0.77 0.55 0.45 0.15
Az)
Green (Lum. 0.13 0.41 0.74 0.55 0.45 0.53
AZ) +binder
Green 0.38 0.40 0.62 0.50 0.50 0.22
Green 0.51 0.51 0.60 0.55 0.45 0.82
+binder
Red 0.20 0.24 0.50 0.36 0.64 0.35
Red+binder 0.12 0.24 0.46 0.34 0.66 0.77
Note: rs was computed as the weighted average of its rUV, rVIS and rNIR according to ref. [34].
sunglasses and cell phones. Silver coated glass flake pigments are thus used to achieve brilliant
effects without the limitations of conventional metallic pigments. They can be incorporated in any
coat of the paint system, in combination with transparent or opaque colorants [22]. Silver coated
cenospheres are suitable for making camouflage coatings important for military applications [26].
Figure 6: Principle of backscattering of transmitting particles (cenospheres). Particles can be

coated with silver or without a metallic coating.
Another coating exists that combines NIR reflectivity and low thermal
conductivity, patented by Anthony David Skelhorn et al. [27]. Coatings are
pigmented with various extenders (calcium carbonate, crystalline and amorphous
silica, silicate minerals such as talc, kaolin, calcined clay, wollastonite, nepheline
syenite, feldspar, mica, attapulgite clay, bentonite and organically modified
bentonite, alumina trihydrate, aluminium oxides, barytes and lithopone)
embedded in water-based, solvent-based, single component or multi-component,
cement or gypsum based binder systems. Various paint compositions are claimed
to have NIR reflectivity, comprising hollow micro-spheres, such as glass micro-
spheres of various glass compositions, with various diameter to wall thickness

values and various particle diameters, ceramic micro-spheres such as 3M's Zlight
Spheres, Cenospheres, fly ash; or micro-spheres based on organic polymer
composites (polymers or copolymers of acrylic materials in the form of dry
powder, or dispersions such as Rhopaque by Rohm and Haas). Hollow uncoated
micro-spheres (Fig. 6) reduce the thermal conductivity of coatings, whereas the
NIR reflective pigments and extenders increase the infrared reflectivity of the
coatings. These coatings combine excellent infrared reflectivity with low thermal
conductivity.
On the other hand, various colours of TISS paint coatings can be obtained just by
using prefabricated coloured metallic flakes (paint version 2) (Fig 5B and 5C)
without the addition of coloured pigment. Fig. 3C shows coloured TISS paint
coatings made of green and blue varieties of coloured metal flake pigments
without an added black solar absorbing pigment [21-22]. Flakes are of large
dimensions (~ 50 μm) and the colour is obtained during the fabrication process by
the application of a thin and strongly adhered layer of phtallocyanine blue and
green pigments; they are distinguished by their high transparency in the NIR and
strong absorption in the VIS spectral region.
1.0 RED (Luminor-FR) 1.0

RED (Luminor-FR)+binder
0.8
0.8
Al
Reflectance
Al+binder
Reflectance
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
1 10 1 10
Wavelength (m) Wavelength (m)
Figure 7: Low emittance flake pigments with various colours and the corresponding reflectivity
spectra.
Metallic flake pigments appear that differ in colours and flake dimensions (Fig.
7), enabling the fabrication of very efficient coloured TISS paint coatings. The
corresponding coatings exhibit eT values from 0.15 to 0.30 (Figs. 5 and 7). It
should be stressed again that larger metallic flake pigments simultaneously ensure
appropriate visible colours and high NIR solar reflectance. This type of cool paint
is easy to make, since many coated metallic flake pigments exist on the market.
O’Keefe recently described coloured infrared reflective pigments [28].
To conclude, the drawback of paint version 1 and 2 TISS paint coatings produced
from bare or coloured metallic flakes or spheres for cooling applications are their
inherent low thermal emittance (eT ~ 0.20). This must be compensated (Figs. 3C,
5 and 7) in order to convert them into coloured cool paints. This has been
achieved in our laboratory by applying an additional layer of transparent lacquer
on top of the TISS paint coating. The lacquer was applied in a layer that was
sufficiently thick to change the thermal emittance of the composite coating stack
from low to high values, preferentially above 0.9. The comparison between the
composition of cool paint coatings reported by Levinson et al. [29] and the
coating system outlined above is shown in Fig. 8.
Two- coat system for NIR

absorbing substrate
Cool top coat

Two-coat system with transparent e.g. FeOOH(ochre)
lacquer and coloured TISS coatings
NIR reflective
B Background e.g. TiO2
Tranparent lacquer d ~10 micrometers
Opaque bacground
e.g.grey granule
Coloured TISS coating d~20-40 micrometers
One –coat system for NIR
Reflecting substrate
C
Cool top coat
e.g. FeOOH(ochre)
A
Opaque substrate
e.g. aluminium
Figure 8: Components of various types of cool paint systems: (A) one-coat system suitable for
opaque metallic substrates (Al, zincated steel, copper), (B) two coat system whereby the opaque
ground needs an additional NIR reflecting coat and (C) system consisting of a coloured TISS with
transparent lacquer.
PROPERTIES OF LACQUERS
Lacquers are ranked among coatings that are transparent for the visible and most
of the NIR solar radiation. Many varieties of polymeric binders are commercially
available but, for solar cool paint coatings, lacquers based on fluoropolymer resins
are the materials of choice. The coatings exhibit eminent stability (more than 30
years when exposed to a saline environment on building facades). A typical
fluoropolymer binder for lacquers and paints is Lumiflon (Asahi Glass, Company,
Jpn), the structure and infrared spectra of which are shown in Fig. 9.
LF 200 C-F
1220
Absorbance
A vibrational modes
CH3,CH2
2940
A v e r a g e a b so r b a n c e
4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500

-1
Wavenumber [cm ]
B)
Fgiure 9: (A) IR spectra of fluoropolymeric binder (LF200). (B) Schematic presentation of the
structure of PVdF polymer and fluoroethylenevinylidene (FEVE) (Lumiflon) polymer binder. The
main difference lies in the hidden organic groups (vinylidene) in the Lumiflon, while the acrylic
groups are exposed in the case of PVdF.
Lacquers do not contain pigments (no scattering) but mainly consist of the polymeric
resin binder, UV absorbers (not so essential for Lumiflon fluoropolymer) and
rheological additives such as fumed silica (Aerosil, thixotropic agent), which
facilitate their application. For cool paint coating applications, it is important to
know how fast their thermal emittance with the thickness of the applied top layer, in
order to achieve eT > 0.9. Namely, for commercial reasons, it is beneficial for high eT
values to be achieved after the application of the thinnest possible top-coat of the
lacquer on the surface of the TISS paint coatings. This problem is reduced with the
determination of the absorption coefficient (k) of the lacquer, because k is an
inherent property of material.
Thermal (infrared) absorption originates from vibrational modes (phonon modes),

which atoms or group of atoms in molecules exert due to their thermal motion
(Fig. 9B). Branched polymers containing various polar groups (-C-O-C, -C=O, -
NH-C=O…), exhibit a number of vibrational bands and their intensities are higher
than for less polar and simpler polymeric structures (hydrocarbons, for example).
The absorptance (A) of all the vibrational bands in the infrared spectra are
therefore measured, summed and averaged over the thermal spectral region (Aaver)
[23]. Alternatively, averaging over the black body emission curve can also be
used. Average absorption coefficients (Kaver) correspond to the Aaver/d ratios and
are obtained by plotting average absorptance values (Aaver) vs. the coating
thickness (d in μm) (Fig. 10). As expected, polar polyurethane based lacquers
absorb more than fluoropolymers, indicating that thinner top layers of the former
lacquer are needed in order to achieve the same enhancement of the thermal
emittance of the TISS base coating.
0.18
0.16
0.14
y = 0.0287x
0.12
y = 0.0356x
0.1
0.08
y = 0.0078x
y = 0.0191x
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 5 10 15
d (m )
Figure 10: Kaver values (y = Kaver x) of various resin binders ( polyurethane, fluoropolymers (■
LF 200, ▲ LF 552, x silicone (SIL 60))
Most polymeric resin binders used for transparent lacquers are fairly good
absorbers (Fig. 7) and their thermal emittance comes close to 1 when the thickness
is 10-20 μm.
Conversion of TISS paints to cool paints is therefore cheap and easily done and,
in fact, increases the environmental stability of existing paint coatings. A typical
example of TISS paint coatings, for the preparation of which this strategy was
applied, is shown in Figs. 3, 5, and 7. The cooling effect of the coloured TISS
paint coatings is further improved by the incorporation of the cool pigments
(section 2.5). Before cool pigments are discussed, a few remarks about the
environmental stability of various resin binders with the potential to act as high
thermal emittance top-coats are given below.
THERMAL STABILITY OF LACQUERS AND PAINT COATINGS
Prediction of the lifetime of solar coatings is an extremely broad topic that must
be briefly mentioned here, since all coatings exposed to solar radiation degrade
during the time of their exposure. Since the lifetime of solar coatings is expected
to be at least 25 years, an assessment of the actual service life must be obtained
from accelerated tests. For selective coatings intended for use in solar thermal
collectors, IEA SHC programme Task 10 and Task 27 [19] prescribes the
accelerated test procedure. This procedure is based on evaluation of the activation
energy obtained from Arrhenius plots corresponding to the degradations observed
at two (or more) different degradation loads (temperature, humidity, UV, etc)
[30]. A thermal stability of coatings that allows exposures of 600 h at
temperatures well above the stagnation temperatures of the solar collectors, is
obviously of paramaunt importance for solar thermal applications. For TSSS
black paint coatings, Tstgn ~ 175°C, which means that the coating is exposed for
600 h at 250°C continuously and the degradation of the coating is assessed. The
coating is acceptable if the changes of as and eT values do not exceed 1% of their
initial values. The pre-determined time of exposure stems from the fact that, over
a service life of 25 years, the solar collector is expected to be exposed to
stagnation conditions for at least two years, i.e., ~ 600 h. Degradation is evaluated
by various means: as the change in thermal emittance and solar absorptance of the
coatings or merely by measuring the degradation of the resin binder structure,
reflected in a reduction of the vibrational band intensity of the resin binder (Figs.
11 and 12).
1.0
TSSS-thick-220°C
0.8
Reflectance
0.6 vibrational bands

initial (eT=0.338, as=0.924)
0.4 36h (eT=0.319, as=0.909)
75h (eT=0.318, as=0.923)
0.2 150h (eT=0.307, as=0.919)
300h (eT=0.302, as=0.922)
600h (eT=0.292, as=0.92)
0.0
10
Wavelength (m)
TSSS-thick-240°C
Reflectance
initial (eT=0.333, as=0.923)

36h (eT=0.308, as=0.91)
75h (eT=0.301, as=0.924)
150h (eT=0.293, as=0.92)
300h (eT=0.283, as=0.925)
600h (eT=0.280, as=0.923)
10
Wavelength (m)
Figure 11: Reflectance spectra of black TSSS paint coatings deposited on Al substrates using a
coil coating application and thermally treated at Tn = 220 and 240°C. The reflectance spectra were
measured for the initial paint coating and after thermal treatment of various durations (up to 600
h). The whole spectral region from 4000 to 400 cm-1 was taken into account for assessment of the
variation of eT values.
0.0000
Emissivity eT (changes) -0.0200
220°C
-0.0400
240°C
-0.0600
-0.0800
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00
Testing time (days)
Figure 12: The variation of eT values of TSSS black paint coatings after exposure to different
temperature loads.
Table 2: Expected lifetimes of the TSSS paint coatings shown in Fig. 11.
S ervi ce
T estin g time eT
time
T t t t
I nitial After Ch an ge
( oC) ( days) (h ) (y ear s)
1.5 0 36 0 .33 8 0 .319 -0.0 19 0.0 0
3.1 3 75 0 .33 8 0 .318 -0.0 20 1 5.9 9
2 20 6.2 5 150 0 .33 8 0 .307 -0.0 31 3 3.3 2
1 2.50 300 0 .33 8 0 .302 -0.0 36 6 6.6 3
2 5.00 600 0 .33 8 0 .292 -0.0 46 1 33.2 6
1.5 0 36 0 .33 3 0 .308 -0.0 25 0.0 0
3.1 3 75 0 .33 3 0 .301 -0.0 32 4 1.7 3
2 40 6.2 5 150 0 .33 3 0 .293 -0.0 40 8 6.9 4
1 2.50 300 0 .33 3 0 .283 -0.0 50 1 73.8 7
2 5.0 00 600 0 .33 3 0 .280 -0.0 53 3 47.7 5
The correlation between the thermal loading and the expected lifetime is shown in
Table 2 and Fig. 13. For example, exposing a coating to thermal load at 220°C for
12.5 days leads to the same degradation as when the coating is exposed for 66.3
years at operating conditions for the coating on a solar collector.
1.000
equiv. 220 °C and 150 hours
equiv. 240 °C and 75 hours
100
Ageing (log years)

10
0
80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Temperature (°C)
Figure 13: Expected life time of the TSSS black paint coatings (see also Table 2).
It is clear that this type of accelerated test cannot reasonably be performed for
cool paint coatings. In order to provide customers with a guarantee of long
service-life, thermal load tests should be combined with other degradation
indicators, such as changes of water and oil contact angles, indicating the extent
of soiling of the coatings, abrasion and scratch resistance, UV tests, etc. Although
the paint industry provides a valuable pool of test procedures, there remain many
possibilities for improvements [31].
PROPERTIES OF COOL PIGMENTS
The solar absorptance (as) of free standing paint film with incorporated pigment,
is expressed as as = 1 – rs – ts, where s indicates the solar spectrum and t, r and a
are transmittance, reflectance and absorpance, respectively. Specifically, pigments
for colour cool paints should have low as values but the corresponding NIR
reflectance and NIR absorptance can be either low or high. When a cool paint is
needed over a black background, the pigment that is used must have high NIR
reflectance, otherwise no cooling effect can be expected. A cooling effect
combined with different colours is much easier to obtain when coloured cool paint
coatings are applied over a white background. In this case, any pigment that
exhibits high NIR transmission (i.e., low absorptance) works well because
reflection of NIR solar radiation becomes predominant. For the basic principles of
the functioning of cool paints see also Fig. 8.
Many pigments are IR reflecting (Table 3): sulfides such as cadmium

sulfoselenides, chromate yellow pigments, iron(3+) and chromium(3+) metal
oxide pigments and some organic pigments all have extraordinary external
stability, low toxicity and they definitely are, and are expected to remain, the
highest volume pigments for cool paint coating applications. They provide
acceptable NIR performance in a variety of applications, at moderate cost. High
performance NIR reflecting and visible colour absorbing pigments provide the
ability to attain neutral black, a grey shade and visible colours [32].
Pigments for a high NIR reflecting background. An NIR reflecting (white)

background (Fig. 8) is essential for cool paint coatings to function properly and
TiO2 pigment is the material of choice for this application. Rutile has a lower
band gap than anatase but higher refractive index (n = 2.73, while the refractive
index of anatase is n = 2.55) [32]. Accordingly, rutile based coatings look
yellowish, since rutile starts to loose reflectivity close to the edge of the visible
spectral region (400 nm), while the reflectivity edge for anatase is shifted to
shorter wavelengths (~ 330 nm) and looks white.
Until the 1939s, white lead carbonate [2PbCO3.Pb(OH)2] was widely used as a
white pigment but, due to its relatively low refractive index (n = 1.94) and low
hiding power (one-tenth of rutile), its use dropped rapidly after the introduction of
rutile. Similarly, ZnO, even though it is not as toxic as white lead carbonate, could
not compete with rutile, because its refractive index is 2.2. ZnS is another white
pigment important at one time but nowadays largely obsolete. Its refractive index
is slightly higher than that of ZnO, i.e., 2.37. ZnS was often combined with
BaSO4 giving litopone (ZnS/BaSO4).
Doped rutile titanate pigments are another class of high NIR reflecting pigments
with various colours made by solid state reaction [31]. Their different colours
(yellow and brown) are obtained due to doping with chromofores (Ni+3, Cr+3,
Mn+3) in the presence of charge neutralizing atoms (Sb+5). In spite of being
coloured, their NIR reflectivity is practically the same as that of rutile (~ 80%).
More complex pigments exist. A typical example is a white pigment with attached
colorants. The inorganic core (usually TiO2) has NIR reflectivity but their visual
colours are changed by coating the surface of the core pigment with various
organic colorants [33]. The NIR reflective component is therefore the inorganic
part (TiO2). The colorants are of organic origin (such as azo, anthraquinone,
phthalocyanine, perinone/perylene, indigo/thioindigo, dioxazine, quinacridone,
isoindolinone, isoindoline, diketopyrrolopyrrole, azomethine and azomethine-
Azo). These pigments are then used in combination with various extenders (zinc
white and extenders, such as calcium carbonate, barium sulfate, alumina, silica,
clay, activated clay, aluminium powder, stainless steel powder, and organic plastic
pigments). It should be noted that the colorants are attached to the surface of the
pigment with the help of different dispersants (i.e., high molecular weight
components obtained by copolymerizing hydrophilic monomers, such as acrylic
acid, methacrylic acid, dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate with styrene or
methacrylate ester, having hydrophilic end groups) and the surface of the NIR
reflecting pigment is then modified with the corresponding dispersant with
attached colorants. The surface modification of pigments with different
dispersants is discussed below.
Coloured pigments for top-coats. The design of cool top-coats is more complex
and affects the cooling effect of colored cool coatings. Various colors are
undoubtedly essential when the coatings become visible, broadening the use of
cool paint coatings from roofs to building facades. An overview of the infrared
reflecting pigments that serve as top coatings has been provided by Bendiganavale
and Malshe [1] and their optical properties have been investigated extensively by
Levinson et al. [34-35]. The latter studies provide a detailed understanding of the
optical properties of various pigments in terms of their absorption, reflection
(scattering) and transmission in the visible and NIR spectral regions, as well as
giving guidelines for their applications. The authors have reported about eighty-
seven different pigments. The paints have been made, applied over black and
white backgrounds and their visible and NIR reflectance assessed [35]. Due to the
importance of these studies, the results are briefly summarized below.
It has been found that white, yellow, brown/black, red/orange, blue/purple and
pearlescent pigments exhibit weak NIR absorptance (i.e. aNIR < 0.1) (Group I),
and that black/brown, blue/purple, green, red/orange, yellow and pearlescent
pigments having aNIR < 0.2 (Group II) are considered to be cool pigments (Table
3). In order to obtain the maximum cooling effect, paints made of these pigments
must be deposited on top of an NIR reflecting background (white), since they
transmit NIR solar radiation (Fig. 8). The end effect is quite good for white,
yellow, black/brown, red/orange, green and blue/purple families of the pigments,
which offer NIR reflectivity up to 0.7 when applied on an opaque white
background.
Coatings made of other pigments in the blue/purple, black/brown and green color
families have NIR reflectance in combination with the same opaque white
background of at least 0.5. However, few other pigments (some members of
white, yellow, black/brown, red/orange, pearlescent and green color families)
(Group III) exhibit strong enough NIR scattering to provide NIR reflectance of at
least 0.3 (and up to 0.64), even over a black background.
Highly NIR transmitting yellow (-FeOOH) TISS paint coatings with an applied
layer of transparent lacquer are a typical example of colored TISS paint coatings
that also exhibit high thermal emittance (Fig. 5).
Table 3: List of cool pigments [31].
Pigment CI number Chemistry

Undoped rutile White 6 TiO2
V9415 Yellow 53 (Ti, Ni, Sb)O2
10411 Brown 24 (Ti, Cr, Sb)O2
10550 Yellow 164 (Ti, Mn, Sb)O2
Red iron oxide Red 101 Fe2O3
V-10117 Brown 29 (Cr, Fe)2O3
10363 Brown 33 Zn(Cr, Fe)2O4
10520 Yellow 119 ZnFe2O4
10358 Black 12 Fe2TiO4
V-10117 Green 17 (Fe, Cr)2O3
10204 Green 17 (Fe, Cr)2O3
V-775 Green 17 (Cr, Fe, Mn)2O3
Chrome oxide green Green 17 Cr2O3
10430 Green 17 (Cr, Fe)2O3
-Cr rich
10204 Green 17 (Fe, Cr)2O3
-Fe rich
Table 3: cont….
10456 Black 30 (Ni, Mn)(Fe, Cr)2O4

10335 Black 27 Co(Cr, Fe)2O4
V-7710 Black 28 CuCr2O4
10201 N/A Bi2Mn4O10
10202 N/A SrMnO3
10203 N/A YMnO3
N/A N/A Cu2MgO3
10446 Blue 28 CoAl2O4
V-9248 Blue 36 Co(Cr, Al)2O4
Phthalocyanine blue Blue 15 Phtalocyanine blue
Ultramarine blue Blue 29 Ultramarine blue
Cr2O3 Green 17 Cr2O3
Green leaf N/A Chlorophyll
V-12600 Green 26 CoCr2O4
V-12650 Modified green 17 (Cr, Al)2O3 + modifiers
V-11633 Green 50 Co2TiO4
PIGMENT DISPERSIONS
General Remarks About Pigment Dispersions
Paints are complex systems [36]. Many parameters influence the quality of the
coatings: the chemistry of the resin binders, a pigment’s surface properties, which
determine their compatibility with the polymeric hosts, the stability of the pigment
dispersions in a liquid state and their solidification in the course of drying.
Physical parameters are also important and act in accordance with the chemistries
of the paints. Rheological properties – if not properly chosen in terms of the type
of application (brushing, spraying, coil coating, etc) – can greatly affect the
coatings’ properties, leading even to disastrous effects on their quality if not
properly adjusted.
Paints are composites consisting of pigment particles evenly distributed

(dispersed) in a polymeric (organic) resin binder, additives and solvents. The
reason for dealing here with dispersants is that the preparation of the pigment
dispersion is considered to be the most crucial step in the production of any paint.
Dispersants are materials that are capable of providing the compatibility of the
pigment particles with the polymeric phase by modifying their surface, which
means altering it from hydrophilic to organophilic.
The state and the quality of a pigment dispersion dramatically affect the properties
of spectrally selective heat and cool paints; the coatings should be constructed of
pigment particles, arranged if possible in a well defined layer, laterally assembled
and linked one to another with an adequate (below the critical pigment–to–volume
ratio) amount of polymer binder to bond the particles together without excessive
parts at which no pigment covers the substrate (Fig. 14).
PROBLEM
sun
heat (IR)
Figure 14: Schematic presentation of coatings with non-evenly distributed pigment, stemming
from the agglomerated pigment particles.
Such a situation should be avoided at all costs, since it leads to uneven pigmentation
and undesired coating colours. Moreover, coatings should be the proper thickness in
order to have the right level of NIR reflectivity (scattering) and transmittance. The
solution must be sought in pigment dispersions with uniformly and finely dispersed
pigment particles (Fig. 15). The size of the pigment particles is obviously also
important but it will not be treated here [34]. The preparation of such pigment
dispersions, with non-agglomerated and finely distributed, uniformly sized particles,
is not easy and requires a careful selection of dispersants capable of providing
appropriate interactions with the pigment particle surface, as well as adequate
compatibility with the polymer binder system.
Figure 15: An example of bad (left) and good (right) dispersions: silica spheres the surface of
which has been modified with heptaisobutyl trisilanol (IB7 T7(OH)3 ) POSS dispersant (see text)
(by courtesy of M. Gaberšček).
Basically, the process of dispersing the pigment involves the functionalization of

pigment particles. Surface modification can be performed either by modification
of the pigment surface by physical interaction, or modification by chemical
interaction. Surface modification based on physical interaction – just mentioning
them briefly – is usually made with surfactants or macromolecules [36], which are
attached to the surface of the pigment. The principle of surfactant treatment,
irrespective of the surfactant type and the nature of its interactions with the
pigment surface, is the preferential adsorption of a polar group of the surfactant or
macromolecule, due to electrostatic interactions (Fig. 16).
POLYMER BINDER
UNCOATED
COATED
DISPERSANT PIGMENT
Figure 16: Schematic presentation of the expected effect of the dispersant on the pigment
particles. Trialkoxysilane ((R-Si(OR’)3) based dispersant was used here as an example of a
dispersant molecule. Since trialkoxysilane possesses three reactive silanol groups, they can interact
among themselves and on the pigment surface, forming a complex structure around the pigment
particle (see Fig. 19).
The process of functionalization is performed by intense mixing or ball milling of

the pigment in the presence of a surfactant or macro-molecules, which become
attached to the pigment surface. The pigments should not be over ground (the
usual pigment particle size is 200 – 300 m) (Figs. 17 and 18) because additional
grinding will break the elementary particles, affecting the colour and infrared
reflectivity of the pigments.
To conclude, even though the quality of cool paint coatings seems to depend
mainly on the pigment used, inappropriate dispersion of the pigments in the resin
binders can have a disastrous effect on the cool coating properties.
A B
50 nm 10 nm
C
B
10 nm
Figure 17: TEM micrographs of analyzed TiO2 (rutile) particles at two magnifications (A and B)
and corresponding EDSX spectra of the (C). The particle size is about ~270 nm. The weak signal
of the carbon and copper derives from the conductive grid used for the deposition of the particles
(by courtesy of Cinkarna Celje).
B
C
A
B
Figure 18: TEM micrographs of analyzed PK 3060 (black CuFeMnOx spinel, Ferro Company)
pigment (A) and corresponding EDSX spectra of the (B). The particle size is about ~300 nm. The
weak signal of the carbon and copper derives from the conductive grid used for the deposition of
the particles.
PROPERTIES OF SILANE DISPERSANTS
Modification of the pigment surface by chemical reactions [36] relies on chemical

interactions between the modifiers and the pigment surface. The surface modifiers
treated here are alkylakoxysilanes.
Alkylalkoxysilanes (silanes, for short) are (organo)silicon compounds that are

capable of forming, under mild processing conditions, metal oxides, which
comprise organic moieties. They are formed as a result of the hydrolysis (Eq. 1)
and condensation (Eq. 2) of functionalized trialkoxysilanes e.g., R-Si(OR’)3 with
hydrolysable -OR’ groups (-usually alkoxy) [37].
R  M (OR' )3  3H2O  R  M (OH)3  3R'OH

(1)
R  M (OH ) 3  R  M (OR ' ) 3  (2)
 R  M (OH ) 2  O  M (OR ' ) 2  R ' OH
Figure 19: Organic-inorganic hybrid made by sol-gel processing. The red crosses represent silica
clusters, the blue connecting line depicts the polymeric phases, linking the two parts of the
nanocomposite by means of string covalent bonding.
The organo-functional ends (R) can bear either non-reactive (methyl, isobutyl,
phenyl, etc) or (preferentially) reactive groups (R- epoxy, acrylato, vinyl,
carboxy….) [38] used since 1966 (Fig. 19). The latter groups enable the
polymerization of the organo-functional ends and links with the inorganic (silica
phase) are established. Since both components (inorganic silica phase and organic
polymeric phase) are mixed on a molecular scale, an organic–inorganic hybrid
nanocomposite forms (Fig. 20). Covalent bonding between the silica and
polymeric phases is assured because the inorganic phase is formed in situ during
the condensation process (Eq. 2). Excessive agglomeration of the inorganic phase
in the nanocomposite is easily controlled by appropriate processing conditions
(catalyst, solvent type, precursor, etc) [39]. It should be noted that a well
dispersed inorganic phase in the organic polymeric phase is achieved by a bottom-
up approach, contrasting with the dispersion of pigments in resin binders, as is the
case for paints. Sol–gel based materials are fairly promising coatings that could in
future replace ordinary paints prepared by the incorporation of pigments in
polymeric resin binders.
OR
1 OR
2 O Si
OR
OR
Si H3C OR
O
OR
3 OR 4 OR
OR O OR
HS Si O Si
OR OR
5 OR
OR
H2N Si
OR
Figure 20: Various silane precursors (R-Si(OR’), R = vinyl, acryloxy, mercapto, glicidoxy, amino)
that are used as dispersants capable of forming nanocomposites as shown in Fig. 19 after the
addition of a suitable organic cross-linker.
In general, hydrolytic condensation of alkyltrialkoxysilanes (Eq. 1 and Eq. 2),

depending on the synthesis conditions, leads to organic-inorganic hybrid
nanocomposites in basically three different forms [39]: randomly connected
siloxane networks (T-resin) (Fig. 21A), bridged polysilsesquioxanes (Fig. 21B)
and polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxanes (POSS) (Fig. 22), the last named being
the most ordered product of condensation (often called zero-dimensional
nanocomposites).
Silane based dispersants. Silane modifiers capable of surface modification of

pigments are usually bifunctional alkoxysilanes (R-Si(OR’)n) with organo-functional
ends (R), as shown in (Fig. 19). The non-hydrolysable group, R, can be used to tune
the chemical and physical properties of the layers formed around the pigment
particle, providing compatibility with the organic resin binder in the paint, while the
hydrolysable alkoxy groups in the presence of acid catalysts give reactive silanol (Si-
OH) groups, enabling the establishment of siloxane (Si-O-Si) bonds and ensuring
adequate interactions with the other metal centres on the surface of the pigments by
forming covalent M-O-Si bonds (M = Al, Sn…). Some of them have also been used
for the preparation of TSSS or TISS paint coatings [40].
A B
R-Si (OR’)3 Si(OR’)3 -R-Si(OR’) 3

Figure 21: Schematic presentation of sol-gel based hybrid nanocomposites formed after the
condensation of silane with the non-reactive organic end (A) and trialkoxysilanes, whereby the
reactive ends are linked via the organic polymer (B). The latter silane also leads to the
nanocomposites shown in Fig. 19.
It is clear that the covalent modification of pigment surfaces with alkoxysilanes in

many respects follows the formation of ultrathin organic or alkoxysilane self-
assembled (SAMs) coatings [41], enabling control of wetting, adhesion,
lubrication and corrosion on the surfaces and interfaces [42-44]. The
functionalization of nanosilicas [45], magnetic nanoparticles [46], TiO2
nanoparticles [47], WS2 fullerene-like particles [48], composite of antimony
doped tin oxide conductive nanoparticles and acrylate by grafting 3-
methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane [49], are typical examples of using silanes
for modification of the particle surface in order to provide stable and non-
agglomerated dispersion of nanoparticles and for tailoring their properties, such as
viscosity [50], and for better understanding of the behavior of various products
[51].
A
octameric inorganic B
R core Si-O3/2 R
V=0,082 nm3
V=1,685 nm3
Figure 22: Schematic presentation of homoleptic octameric polyhedralsilsesquioxane molecule

(octametyl silsesquioxane-Me8T8 POSS). For the preparation of heteroleptic POSS see Fig. 23.
POSS based dispersants. POSS consist of a silica core –(SiO3/2) and organic
corona (Fig. 22). The variety of organic groups (epoxy, amino, isocyanato, alkyl,
etc) that are located at the corners of the silsesquioxane polyhedra, could be
attached on the POSS cage (Fig. 23) giving an enormous number of heteroleptic
POSS with multifunctional properties. Among common organic functionalities
(epoxy, amino, isocyanato, alkyl, etc), POSS with one or more alkoxysilyl groups
can be made, which makes it possible to apply them for making novel
nanocomposites with embedded, well defined POSS materials [52-54]. For
dispersing the pigment particles another variety of POSS has been used i.e.,
R7T7(OH)3 POSS (R = isobutyl, isooctyl) with an open corner of the cube, as
shown in Fig. 24.
OMe
m = 4 R Si OMe R 2
R
OMe 1
Si OR Si
R O O
OMe aqueous NH Si O Si
n = 2 R1 Si OMe
3 O O
+
other isomers,
O
MeO
THF, high temperature O R
Si O Si 1
other cages ...
O O R
OMe 2
Si O Si
R
o = 2 R2 Si OMe R
OMe ideal case

m+n+o = 8
Figure 23: Presentation of the synthesis of heteroleptic POSS molecules. Many varieties of
heteroleptic POSS are possible by choosing different amounts of alkylalkoxysilane precursors for
their synthesis.
R R
Si O R Si
R O O
Si O Si CH3
O O R=
OH H3C CH3
O
Si O Si
O R HO R
Si OH
R
Figure 24: Structure of heptaisobutyltrisilanol silsesquioxane (trisilanol POSS).
IB7 T7(OH)3 POSS (trisilanol T7 POSS, for short) (Fig. 24) belongs to the family
of more common octasilsesquioxanes (T8), discovered in 1946, when the molecule
was the first produced from the cohydrolysis of methyltrichlorosilane with
dimethylchlorosilane [55]. In brief, octameric T8 also consists of cluster-like
oligomers of the type (R-SiO3/2)n (n = 6, 8, 10, 12,…). They have a cage-like
structure, in contrast to the open cage structure of trisilanol T7 POSS, with a stable
inorganic Si-O core surrounded by organic corona (represented by substituent R),
resembling in this respect organically functionalized nanosized particles of SiO2
[56-57]. The diameter of these monodispersal particles ranges from 1 to 3 nm
(Fig. 22), depending on the composition of the cage. The substituents can be
varied widely to provide a range of different properties or to increase or reduce
compatibility with a polymer matrix, or they can be made reactive to allow
copolymerization or graft polymerization with a wide range of monomers. For
example, POSS have been already used for the modification of polyolefines [58],
polycarbonates [59], acrylates [60] and thermosets, the last named mainly in
relation to epoxy resins [61]. In general, these copolymers exhibit
organic/inorganic hybrid properties, demonstrating to various degrees an
enhanced modulus, stiffness, flame retardancy, and thermal stability in
comparison with the base materials.
The use of trisilanol T7 POSS, called superdispersants

(www.Hybrid.Plastics.com) also bearing Si-OH functionality, represents a step
forward in making solar paint coatings. Trisilanol T7 POSS has been tested and
used recently in the modification of nanosized TiO2 particle pigments, which were
then incorporated in polypropylene (PP) polymer [62]. The results revealed that
the silanol groups of the IB7 T7(OH)3 POSS cage are bound to the surface of the
TiO2 particles, creating a layer of isobutyl POSS that improved the compatibility
with the PP matrix. Importantly, it was also demonstrated that fuctionalization
with IB7 T7(OH)3 POSS leads to a reduction of the average size of the TiO2 (from
70 nm for neat TiO2 to 50 nm for chemically treated particles), thereby increasing
the covering efficiency of TiO2/PP blends. Chemically similar trisilanol phenyl
POSS has also been incorporated in PMMA with good success and blended into
polycarbonate (PC) but, conversely, trisilanolisooctyl POSS makes bulk PC
opaque, indicating poor dispersion of the POSS [59].
POSS silanols possess several distinct advantages over traditional silane surface
modifiers. A POSS molecule has three reactive silanol groups per molecule
(Fig. 24), which enables the establishment of a robust pigment/POSS interfacial
bonding (Fig. 25), exceeding that which is usual for simple silane coupling agents.
Strong interactions are also expected due to the enormous surface area to volume
ratio of POSS; the polymer–POSS interaction increases dramatically compared to
other coupling agents, such as silanes. They can be applied in a single step onto
the pigment surface, since they form stable trisilanol moieties. They do not
interact readily with one another by forming siloxane bonds (Si-O-Si), but
preferentially lead to the formation of only a monolayer of POSS on the pigment
surface (Fig. 25). By avoiding the formation of oligomers (and other condensation
products), the agglomeration of the pigment particles is thus minimized (Fig. 14
and 15).
i-Bu
Si
O O
i-Bu i-Bu
Si O Si
i-Bu
Si O
OOO
O O
Si
Si i-Bu Si i-Bu
i-Bu
HO HO O O HO
HO HO O HO HO
M M M M M
M M M M M
Figure 25: Idealized view of IB7 T7(OH)3 POSS on a pigment surface.

Surprisingly, no reports on the modification of other pigment particles used for

the manufacture of commodity paints (including cool paints) can be found in the
literature, even though POSS silanols possess several distinct advantages over
traditional silane surface modifiers. Accordingly, in this study, PK 3060 (Ferro
black CuFeMnOx spinel) and rutile (TiO2, Cinkarna Celje, SI) pigments were
functionalized with trisilanol T7 POSS and corresponding dispersions were used
for making paint coatings. In order to demonstrate the effect of the dispersant,
SEM and TEM micrographs combined with EDSX measurements are shown
below, confirming that the trisilanol T7 POSS was chemically bonded onto the
corresponding pigments. Accordingly, in order to establish the pigment
surface/trisilanol bonding, the infrared spectra of as-received pigments and
pigments treated with trisilanol T7 POSS were measured.
SURFACE MODIFICATION OF RUTILE AND BLACK SPINEL

PIGMENTS WITH TRISILANOL POSS
The majority of coloured cool pigments (Cool Colour, Eclipse, Ferro, for
example) and other inorganic pigments (titanium, ZnO, rare-earth metal oxides
and other Mo- and V-containing oxide systems) are relatively easy to disperse in
polymeric organic resins. They have hydroxyl-hydrate coverage stemming from
the presence of coordinatively unsaturated sites located around crystallite sharp
corners and cusps. These sites are reactive, enabling the attachment of H2O
molecules. Silanes in hydrolyzed form are tethered [63] to defects on the
imperfect surface sites of the nanoparticles, replacing water molecules, and
become attached to the surface hydroxyl groups by establishment of Si-
O….pigment bonding. However, adsorption of silanes is a complex phenomenon
because many different bonds can form: hydrogen, acid-base (Lewis or Brönsted)
and siloxane bonds. Most alkoxysilanes hydrolyze and quickly condense, forming
not just the silane/pigment bonding but also interacting among themselves,
making control of the modifier monolayers difficult.
The build-up of the modifier layer around the pigment particles can be followed
either by inspection of the infrared spectra of the pigment [50], or it can be
inferred from the vibrational bands of the surface modifier, the intensities of
which depend on the number of pigment surface sites occupied by the modifier
(see below). The alkoxysilane modifier-pigment interactions can be ascertained

from the disappearance of the silanol (Si-OH) bands and the concurrent presence
of the Si-O-substrate [64] and the siloxane (Si-O-Si) modes. However, the latter
modes complicate the situation, since they signal condensation reactions and the
consequent formation of a silsesquioxane layer around the pigment particles. In
this regard, silanol groups of open-cage POSS (Fig. 23) may be an exception
because they do not spontaneously lead to condensation like silanols of other
simple alkoxysilanes but preferentially interact with active sites on the surface of
the pigment. In this case, a build-up of monolayers around the pigment particles is
more likely to be established. Infrared spectra and transmission electron
microscopy are used for verifying this, as shown below.
Infrared spectra measurements. A standard procedure for the assessment of the

extent of the surface modifier on the pigment surface has been elaborated by
Rehaček [65]. This procedure consists of equilibrating the pigment in a solution
containing various amounts of dispersant the interactions of which with the
surface of the pigments is wished to establish. The amount of the adsorbed
dispersant is obtained by measuring the amount of the dispersant present in
solution after the equilibration has been done. The amount increases with an
increasing concentration of dispersant in the solvent/dispersant mixture but finally
levels off. Alternatively, when the amount of a dispersant coverage of the pigment
surface is determined from the infrared spectra, as shown below, the infrared
spectra of the pigment equilibrated in dispersant/solvent mixtures (containing
0.6%, 1.25%, 2.5%, 5% and 10% of trisilanol T7 POSS modifier, washed 3 times
with THF, dried) was recorded (Fig. 26), the characteristic vibrational bands of
the attached dispersant indentified and their intensities established.
In order to extract information about the amount of attached dispersant and to

assess the interaction sites, the infrared spectra of the pigment and dispersant must
be known [66].
Comparison of the infrared spectra of the trisilanol T7 POSS (Fig. 26h) and
modified PK 3060 pigment (Mn-Fe-Cu spinel, see XPS results) revealed that the
silanol band at 893 cm-1 (reactive silanol band) was not present in the spectra of
the modified pigment but could still be seen in the spectra of the unwashed
pigment (Fig. 26g). This band has comparable intensity with the band at 1228 cm-
1
(-CH3 deformational mode) and its absence from the spectra of all but the
washed modified pigments, confirmed without doubt the establishment of strong
interactions between the trisilanol T7 POSS and the surface of the pigment.
asSi-O-Si
1115
Absorbance
2954
Si-OH
0.05
893
2870 1638
h
g
f
e
d
c
b
a
4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500

-1
Wavenumber [cm ]
Figure 26: IR transmission spectra of PK 3060 pigment equilibrated in a trisilanol POSS/hexane
mixture containing different concentrations of trisilanol POSS and, after ball milling for 2 hours,
washed 3 times with THF before the spectra were recorded: (a) as received (b) 0.6%, (c) 1.25%,
(d) 2.5%, (e) 5%, (f) 10% w/w, (g) unwashed pigment in 10% w/w of modifier in hexane and
trisilanol POSS and (h) IB7 T7(OH)3 POSS.
Even though the bands attributed to the trisilanol T7 POSS were weak, closer
inspection of the peak intensity of the band at 2954 cm-1 and the gradually
increased area of the band at 1228 cm-1, indicated the progressive occupation of
accessible sites on the pigment surface (Fig. 27). Because the modified pigment
was thoroughly washed before spectra measurements, it can be assumed that, at
lower concentrations, the trisilanol T7 POSS molecules formed a discontinuous
layer on the pigment surface. Above the saturation limit (~ 2 - 3% conc. of
POSS), complete coverage of the pigment was achieved and a monolayer of
trisilanol T7 POSS formed on the pigment surface. Higher trisilanol T7 POSS
coverage was possible but, in this case, the surplus layer of the modifier was
easily washed off leaving only the monolayer firmly attached to the pigment
surface.
-1
-1
Peak heigh at 2954 cm

0.06
Peak area 1228 cm

0.010
0.05
0.008
0.04
0.006
0.03
Peak area 1228
0.004
0.02
Fit curve 1
Peak heigh at 2954 0.002
0.01 Fit curve 2
0.00 0.000
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
w/w [%]
Figure 27: Variations of the peak area (band at 1228 cm-1) and peak height (band at 2954 cm-1) of
trisilanol POSS equilibrated in trisilanol POSS/hexane mixtures.
It should be noted that the corresponding interactions are very probably covalent
in nature, due to the higher reactivity of the POSS trisilanols with respect to
simple silanes and their tendency to condense and to bond via the establishment of
Si-O-M (M - Al, Cu) interfacial bonding to the pigment surface.
XPS spectra. In order to obtain additional and independent proof of the

establishment of the trisilanol T7 POSS/pigment surface interactions, XPS depth
profiles of variously treated pigments were measured. The XPS depth profiles
were first determined for as-received commercial PK 3060 pigment, followed by
measurements of the same pigment washed 3 times with THF, while the third
sample corresponded to pigment modified with trisilanol T7 POSS. The last
named sample was then put in an oven and heat treated at 400°C for 24 h for the
removal of surface water molecules.
The XPS depths profiles are shown schematically in Fig. 28. As expected, the as-
received PK 3060 pigment showed the composition of Mn-Fe-Cu spinel, with a
small amount of silicon, suggesting the presence of inorganic silicate in the spinel
structure, or merely on the pigment surface. This problem was beyond the scope
of this study. After washing, a small part of the oxygen was removed and,
consequently, the carbon and silicon concentrations increased. Functionalization
of the PK 3060 pigment with trisilanol T7 POSS increased the concentration of
silicon considerably, from 0.8 at.% to 2.15 at.% and increased further to 3.7 at.%
after heat-treatment. These changes were accompanied by a decrease in the
concentration of carbon, in line with the thermal decomposition of the surface
modifier. The results of the XPS spectra were conclusive and fully supported the
results obtained from analysis of the infrared spectra of PK 3060 pigment (Fig. 7).
100
POSS modified PK 3060 and 3x washed

PK 3060 as recived and 3x washed
heated at 400 °C / 24 h PK 3060

90
POSS modified 3x washed and

at. concentration [%]
80
PK 3060 as recived
70 B
G1
60
F1
50 E1
D1
40 C1
30
20
10
Figure 28: Schematic presentation of XPS depths profiles analysis (in atomic %) obtained for the
as-received and washed PK 3060 pigment and the washed (3x) functionalized pigment and the
same pigment after heat-treatment at 400 °C (24h).
Figure 29: TEM micrographs of the surface modified pigment grains (spinel CuCoMnOx) at
different magnifications ((A) 100 nm, (B) and (C) 20 nm). The blurred contour at the edge of the
grain marked with a broken line represents a layer of trisilanol POSS modifier.
TEM and EDXS measurements of surface modified pigments. TEM micrographs

(Fig. 29) of the functionalized pigment showed agglomerates of the pigment
particles, with dimensions up to a few hundreds of nm (Fig. 29A). At higher
magnifications, a thin contour was noted at the edge of the agglomerates and on
the surface of the grains, contrasting with the sharp edges observed in TEM
micrographs of the as-received pigment (Fig. 18). The width of the blurred edges
matches well the size of the POSS molecules (i.e., ~ 1.8 - 2.4 nm) (Fig. 29B). We
attributed these contours to the POSS layer. In order to confirm this, EDXS
analysis of the treated pigment was performed on selected sites, as shown in
Fig. 30.
A
Figure 30: TEM micrographs (black spinel (CuCoMnOx) pigment) of the analyzed areas marked
with circles (A) and corresponding EDXS spectra of the functionalized pigment PK 3060 (B)
(arrow pointing on Si signal).
Examination of the EDXS results (Fig. 30B) revealed silicon and carbon signals,
indicating the existence of a POSS cage, together with other signals attributed to
the CuFeMnOx spinel pigment. The existence of all expected signals in the XPS
depth profile analysis substantiated by the results inferred from the infrared
spectra (Fig. 26 and 27) supported the establishments of a dispersant layer on the
surface of the pigment particles.
SEM micrographs. The effect of the functionalization of the PK 3060 pigment

particles with trisilanol T7 POSS can be inferred from the SEM micrograph shown
in Fig. 31, revealing well separated and evenly distributed pigment particles with
a particle
It should be noted that the pigment dispersion is fairly stable and there were no
signs of pigment sedimentation for months. The POSS dispersant firmly anchored
onto the pigment surface, since so-called solvent shock was not observed. Solvent
shock appears when the solvent is added in excessive amounts, leading to a
reduction of the average adsorbed layer thickness, which became displaced by the
solvent. This indicated that the pigment particles are well stabilized and did not
show any sign of flocculation, i.e., unwanted agglomeration.
Figure 31: SEM micrograph of cured TISS coating surface.
Trisilanol T7 POSS was also used for the preparation of pigment dispersion with
rutile pigment (Fig. 32).
POSS NANOCOMPOSITES AS ANTISOILING ADDITIVES FOR PAINT

COATINGS
Cool paint coatings certainly reduce cooling demands in a conditioned building

and increase the comfort of the occupants but the question arises of how long their
high NIR reflectivity and adequate colours are maintained during the service life
of the building components [67]. The initially high (~ 0.8 - 0.7) NIR reflectance
fairly soon becomes lower due to atmospheric pollutants (soot, dust), which
become deposited on the initially clean paint coating surface and algae and fungi
start to grow. The result is a decrease of the initial optical properties and, during
the course of aging, total solar reflectivity drops to 0.6 and often even below 0.5
[68].
A B
10 nm
Figure 32: As-prepared rutile pigment (A) and the pigment treated with trisilanol POSS dispersant
(B). Blurred edges shown in (C) indicate the layer of trisilanol POSS, contrasting with the sharp
edges in (A).
Soiling is ubiquitous for all surfaces exposed to the environment. In order to retain
a clean surface, the free surface energy should be as low as possible, i.e., it must
repel water and oils. This is demonstrated by high water and oil contact angles,
exceeding 150°. Such high contact angles for water and oils promote cleaning by
assuring low (< 10°) sliding angles of water and the creation of a water drop,
which, rolling on the inclined surface, collects dust and possibly also organic
contaminants. Surfaces that display such high wetting angles are called
superhydrophobic and superoleophobic. The combination of high water and high
oil contact angles is essential for ensuring anti-soiling (self-cleaning) properties of
surfaces. Another, but completely opposite way of keeping the surface clean is by
photocatalytic self-cleaning, which is not discussed here.
Most polymers used for paint binders are hydrophilic and adhere well on various
surfaces, in contrast to bulk polymers which can exhibit surprisingly low surface
free energies and concurrent high water and oil contact angles. Some of them have
been selected and their surface free energy values determined from the measured
contact angles of various test liquids with known surface energy values.The
results revealed that most of the selected polymers have total surface free energy
higher than 20 mJ/m2 (Fig. 33) and very few of them exhibit contact angles for
water higher than 100° (Fig. 34).
50
[mJ/m ]
2
40
TOT
Surface free energy 
30
20
10
0
PP
PP-S
PM-O
PMP
PC M A
PA
PE
PET
PET-G
PVN
E T DF
FEFE
PF P
PSA
PEU
PAS
PP S
PES
PEEK
PI I
Sample
Figure 13: Total surface free energy for various polymeric materials.
120
Contact angle for water [°]
100
80
60
40
20
0
PP
PP-S
PM-O
PMP
PC MA
PA
PE
PET
PET-G
PVN
ET DF
FEFE
PFP
PSA
PEU
PAS
PPS
PES
PEEK
PI I
Sample
Figure 34: Contact angles (water) for various polymeric materials.

In nature, surfaces with low free energy endow a species with advantages in an
ecosystem, enabling birds to fly and plants to breathe, at the same time ensuring
the maintanence of a clean surface. Leaf surfaces coated with wax prevent
desiccation and allow survival in extremely dry habitats. In order to make surfaces
superhydrophobic and superoleophobic (contact angles ~ 150°) they must exhibit
a nanostructured morphology, combined with inherent low surface energy
stemming from their chemical composition.
Nevertheless, superhydrophobic surfaces exist in nature. Leaves of water lilies,

which are not wet by water, are nanostructured due to their bi-hierarchical surface
morphology and structure, created by a coarser roughness of 10 μm and a fine
roughness of 100 nm. Air captured between the papillae because of the
appropriate coarseness prevents wetting and hydrophobicity is additionally
increased by epicutular wax, which the plant secretes on the surface of the leaf.
Superhydrophobic surfaces appearing in nature obviously do not provide a
solution for anti-soiling properties (sliding angles for water and oil < 10°) of the
man-made surfaces required for solar systems [69]. Fluids such as alkanes (for
example, decane (lv = 23.8 mJ/m2) or octane (lv = 21.6 mJ/m2)) wet
superhydrophobic surfaces easily [70]. However, there is great potential for
creating anti-sticking, anti-contamination and self-cleaning properties of various
materials. Such functionalized surfaces can have an influence on other
phenomena, such as biofouling with sea organisms, preventing blood clotting in
artificial veins, freezing of water on surfaces, preventing ice attaching to antennas,
windows, solar absorbers [40], intelligent textiles (water resistant, stain resistant)
[71-73], antimicrobial bonds [74] and self-cleaning architectural coatings and
anti-corrosion protection [42].
Anti-soiling surfaces thus require low surface energy and an exactly defined
surface roughness. In order to achieve superhydrophobicity and
superoleophobicity at the same time, the chemical composition of the surface and
its surface morphology must be orchestrated in a very precise manner. A detailed
explanation of these effects is reported in [75]. Accordingly, we shall limit
ourselves to understanding how to attain low surface free energy values for flat
surfaces characteristic of polymeric resin binders (lacquers ). They are used as
top-coats (lacquers) and are essential for converting TISS paint coatings into cool
paint coatings. As demonstrated below, POSS molecules are a very efficient way
of attaining surfaces with enhanced hydrophobicity, providing easier cleaning of
surfaces of cool paint coatings.
CONTACT ANGLES AND SURFACE PROPERTIES OF

FLUOROPOLYMERIC BINDERS
Contrary to expectations, Lumiflon LF 200 and Lumiflon LF 552 resin binders

(Fig. 9) used as lacquers for TISS paint coatings are not superhydrophobic and
only weakly oleophobic, and water and n-hexadecane readily spread on their
surface. Lumiflon LF 200 exhibited water contact angles close to 85-90° and
contact angles for n-hexadecane were not higher than 5-10°, i.e., similar to those
of polyurethane coatings. The introduction of the curing agent (DICH-
diisocyanatohexyl), used for curing the paint system, also did not change the
surface energy properties of the corresponding paints. Expectedly, LF 552
exhibited higher water values, agreeing with higher Kaver (Fig. 10) stemming from
the presence of a higher number of polar groups.
Various POSS compounds functionalized with amino, –CH3, –CF2 or both groups
(Fig. 35) were added to the resin binders and the corresponding water values were
measured (Figs. 36 and 37) [23].
H 2N(H2C)3
i-Bu
Si i-BuO Si
H2N(H2C) 3 O O
Si O Si
O O
O O F
F F
Si O Si F
F
O i-Bu O F
Si O Si F
F
F F
F
i-Bu F F
F F
F
F
F F
F F
F
F
F F
F
Figure 35: An example of POSS molecule functionalized with amino, isooctyl and perfluoro
groups (AP2IO4PF2 T8 POSS) used as additive in flouroplymeric resin binders for increasing their
anti-wetting properties.
The results revealed that relatively low concentrations of POSS were needed to
obtain maximum water values (~ 2 - 4%). However, the contact angles strongly
depended on the type of POSS compound added. Octameric POSS functionalized
only with alkyl groups (IB8 T8 POSS) showed a water value of 105° but PF8 T8 POSS
consisting only of perfluorooctyl groups showed the highest water values (> 112°).
As expected, POSS that also contained amino groups, without perfluoro groups,
showed smaller water contact angles, which did not exceed 100°. Interestingly, water
values for IB7 T7(OH)3 POSS used as dispersant were close to 100°, important for
obtaining fairly highly hydrophobic paint coatings without any additional low
surface energy compound, since the pigment particles were functionalized with this
POSS. It is noteworthy that PK 3060 (CuFeMnOx spinel) pigment floats on the
water surface, while non-surface modified pigment sinks (Fig. 38).
110
A Contact angle hexadecane [°] 60
Contact angle water [°]
105 B
50
100
40
95
30
90 LF 200
LF 200
85 LF 552 20
LF 552
80 10
75 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
AP 2 IO 4PF 2 T 8 POSS additive [%] AP 2 IO 4 PF 2 T 8 POSS additive [%]
Figure 36: Contact angles for water (A) and n-hexadecane (B) of fluorocarbon binders
(Lumiflon 200 and Lumiflon 552) as a function of the amounts of AP2IO4PF2 T8 POSS added.
115 PF8 POSS

Contact angles for water [°]
IB8 POSS
AP2IO4PF2 POSS
110
IB7 T7(OH)3 POSS
AP2IO6 POSS
105 Zonyl
100
95
90
85
0 1 2 3 4 5
Additive [%]
Figure 37: Contact angles for water (water) obtained for LF 200 by the addition of hydrophobic and
oleophobic POSS and commercial Zonyl FSO-100 additive as a function of their concentration.
Figure 38: Trisilanol T7 POSS dispersant imparts PK 3060 pigment water repellent properties
(right).
It should be noted that the commercial Zonyl additive [76] imparted only poor
hydrophobicity to all resin binders, expressed by water angles not higher than 90 - 95°. To
conclude, none of the POSS low surface energy additives assured an anti-soiling effect but
only increased the water repellent properties of hydrophilic resin binders.
INTERACTION OF HYDROPHOBIC POSS WITH THE RESIN BINDER

SYSTEM: SEM MICROGRAPHS AND OPTICAL TRANSMISSION
Various POSS molecules have been designed and synthesized in order to achieve
anti-wetting properties. Octafluorodecyl T8 POSS is the material that exhibits the
highest hydrophobicity known so far [77]. The contact angle for water on a flat
surface made of this compound is ~ 136°, exceeding the water contact angle of
octaperflyorooctyl T8 POSS (PF8 T8 POSS, for short) (Fig. 39) (~115°) synthesized
in our laboratory [72]. Its low surface energy is comparable to that of Teflon (17.5
mJ/m2) and also to its water contact angle (126°). The high hydrophobicity of
octaperflyorooctyl T8 POSS originates from relatively long perflyuorooctyl groups
attached to the POSS cage, making a fairly symmetric molecule (Fig. 39), the
structure of which has been identified from the 29Si NMR spectra (Fig. 40).
Figure 39: Structure of octaperfluorooctyl T8 POSS.

PF8 T8 POSS
-66.7
-67.4
Intensity
100
-62 -64 -66 -68 -70 -72

 [ppm]
0 -20 -40 -60 -80

 [ppm]
Figure 40: 29Si CP-MAS-NMR spectra of PF8 T8 POSS.
However, from the point of view of application, octameric perfluoro POSS

compounds are not very useful, since they lack anchoring groups needed for firm
incorporation of the molecules within the polymeric resin binders. In this respect,
amino (AP) functionalized POSS, i.e., AP2IO4PF2 T8 POSS bearing also perfluoro
(PF) and isooctyl (IO) pendant groups is particularly important (Fig. 35) since the
amino groups present enable the anchoring of the POSS compounds in a resin
binder cured with DICH, while other groups impart hydrophobic properties to the
coatings. DICH hardener performed a dual function, assuring the curing of the LF
and polyurethane binders and, at the same time, also providing chemical bonding
with AP2IO4PF2 T8 POSS (Fig. 35). In order to obtain information about the
distribution of these additives, SEM micrographs of LF 200 and LF 552 binders
with added AP2IO4PF2 were made (Figs. 41 and 42). The surface of the lacquers
was treated in oxygen plasma, which removed most of the organics, and the more
resistant organic-inorganic POSS network became clearly visible.
A B
Figure 41: SEM micrographs of LF 552 binder cured with DICH with added AP2IO4PF2 POSS
(2%): before (A) and after etching (B).
A B
Figure 42 SEM micrographs of LF 200 binder cured with DICH with added AP2IO4PF2 POSS
(2%): before (A) and after etching (B).
The results revealed that AP2IO4PF2 POSS was distributed differently within the
cross-linked Lumiflon lacquers ; a more uniform distribution of the AP2IO4PF2
POSS was obtained in LF 552/DICH/POSS coatings, while larger spherical
aggregates appeared in LF 200/DICH/POSS coatings. The surface texture noted
for LF 200 and LF 552 coatings caused scattering of solar light, resulting in
opacity of the corresponding coatings. For both binder films, the opacity increased
with the amount of POSS added, but this effect was more pronounced for the LF
200 than for the LF 552 coatings. This could easily be observed with the naked
eye. The observed opacity was in agreement with the SEM micrographs (Fig. 31)
showing a more even distribution of POSS in the LF 552/DICH/POSS coatings.
100
90
80 A
Transmittance [%]
70
60
50 B
40
30
20
10
0
300 400 500 600 700 800
Wavelength [nm]
Figure 43: UV-VIS spectra of LF 552 (A) and LF 200 (B) cured with 4% of AP2IO4PF2 POSS.
The measured visible transmission spectra of the coatings confirmed the opacity
observed for these two coatings (Fig. 43). The direct optical transmission slowly
increased with an increase in the POSS concentration for the
LF 200/AP2IO4PF2/DICH coatings, indicating a relatively strong scattering on
domains formed on the surface, but a faster increase of direct optical transmission
was noted for LF 552/DICH/AP2IO4PF2 coatings, in which the optical opacity
was not so pronounced. The appearance of surface effects meant that the POSS
and the LF binders were not fully compatible and could therefore only be mixed
to a limited extent. This cannot be considered to be a drawback, since POSS and
the resin binder system were chemically interlinked via the DICH cross-linker, as
reported for Lumiflon binders incorporated in polyester resin binders [78]. The
immiscibility of Lumiflon and polyester resins led to the formation of polymeric
alloys serving as clear coatings, with increased opacity for solar radiation. This
effect has not been yet exploited in solar transparent lacquers and their application
in cool coatings.
CONCLUSIONS
TISS paints are produced (Helios, Tblus, SI) from various coloured pigments
embedded in the temperature and environmentally stable resin binders with the
added various metallic flake pigments. The latter impart TISS paint coatings NIR
reflectance and also low thermal emittance. In order to convert them from heat to
cool paint coatings additional top-coat made of transparent lacquer is applied on
top of the TISS paint coatings. The thickness of the top-coat of the lacquers is not
critical and can be varied according the specific properties of the lacquers but
should not be below 10 μm. TISS paint coatings act as a coloured layer which
means that the additional top-coating made of coloured cool pigments is not
needed. Reflectivity of the TISS paint coatings in NIR and thermal infrared
spectral regions is attained due to the well balanced loading of coloured vs.
metallic flake pigments and the proper amount of the resin binder i.e., the
corresponding PVC ratios. Coloured Thickness Insensitive Spectrally Selective
(TISS) paint coatings developed so far and described here enable to make cool
coatings without the applications of white NIR reflecting base coating. They could
be applied on any type of metallic or mineral substrates without precise
adjustment of the coating thickness (d ~ 20 – 40 m), contrasting standard cool
paint coating where the desired visible colours and NIR reflectivity is attained
after quite rigorous thickness control during the paint application. Standard cool
paint coatings are in this respect similar to the TSSS paint coatings for solar
absorbers.
Pigment dispersions characterized with high pigment loading having appropriate

viscosity and which do not exhibit solvent shocks form the base for the production
of all types of paints. Despite the numerous dispersants available commercially,
organo(silicone) (silane) based dispersant have proven themselves to cope with
the complexity of the solar paint systems. It has been demonstrated that properly
functionalized polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane molecules (POSS) act as
excellent dispersant for pigments enabling their compatibility with the resin
binder systems, which are relevant for the solar paint coatings. We showed also
that the POSS compounds are versatile paint modifiers providing paint coatings
with low free surface energy reflecting in their hydrophobic properties and water
contact angles up to 120°. Various POSS molecules have been already tested as
hydrophobic and oleophobic additives for TSSS and TISS solar absorber coatings
and their application can be easily expanded to the standard cool paint coatings.
Soiling of the latter is important issue which requires immediate action.
To conclude, paints provide cheap and high quality products with well defined
optical and mechanical properties and their mass production is assured by using
automatic and continuous deposition technique such as coil coating. Beyond
doubt paint coatings have bright future in solar heating and cooling technologies
and will be used for many years to come.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was financed by the Slovenian Research Agency within the frame of a
MULTIFUNCOAT project (contract no. 3211-09-000029), Programme P1-0030
and R&D project Hybrid Nanocomposites for Multifunctional and Intelligent
Paint Coatings (HNA). Authors wish to thank Mohor Mihelčič and Helena
Spreizer for technical support and helpful discussions.

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CHAPTER 7
Cool Materials Rating Instrumentation and Testing
Hashem Akbari1,*, Ronnen Levinson2 and Paul Berdahl2
1
Heat Island Group, Concordia University, Montreal, QC, USA and 2Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
Abstract: The scope of the present chapter is to present the cool materials rating
techniques as extracted and followed by specific technical standards. The methodology
to measure solar reflectance and infrared emmitance are presented in detail.
Keywords: Cool materials rating; UV-VIS-NIR spectrophotometer,

emmissiometer.
INTRODUCTION
Material surfaces are always in exchange of thermal energy with their surrounding
environment. The energy transfer mechanisms for a dry surface are conduction,
convection, and radiation. A wet surface also transfers energy to the environment
by evaporation of water.
Surfaces that have high solar reflectance (high ability to reflect sunlight) and high
thermal emittance (high ability to radiate heat) tend to stay cool in the sun. In
developed countries, over 50% of urban surface areas are either roofs or paved
surfaces ([1]-[4]) Substituting a cool roof for a non-cool roof can decrease cooling
electricity use, cooling power demand, and required capacity of cooling
equipment. Cool roofs may slightly increase heating energy consumption. By
reducing heat flow from urban surfaces to the outside air, widespread installation
of cool roofs and cool pavements can also lower the outside air temperature,
slowing ozone formation and increasing human comfort in summer [5]
Many monitoring studies in California and Florida have demonstrated that

increasing roof solar reflectance to 0.60 from the range of 0.10 to 0.20 results in
*Adress correspondence to Hashem Akbari: Heat Island Group, Concordia University, Montreal, QC,
USA; Tel: +15148482424; ext. 3201, E-mail: hakbari@bcee.concordia.ca

Cool Materials Rating Instrumentation and Testing Cool Materials for the Built Environment 175
building cooling-energy savings in excess of 20% [5]-[12] estimate that the United
States could save more than US$750 million per year in net energy expenditure
(cooling energy cost saving minus heating energy cost penalty). In a more recent
study, [13] have provided an updated energy saving estimated for cool roofs in the
U.S. They estimate that retrofitting 80% of the 2.58 billion square meters of
commercial building conditioned roof area in the United States would yield an
annual cooling energy saving of 10.4 TWh (1 TWh = 36 PJ); an annual heating
energy penalty of 133 million therms (1 therm = 105.48 MJ); and an annual energy
cost saving of US$735 million. It would also offer an annual CO2 reduction of 6.2
Mt, offsetting the annual CO2 emissions of 1.20 million typical cars or 25typical
peak power plants; an annual NOx reduction of 10 kt, offsetting the annual NOx
emissions of 0.57 million cars or 66 peak power plants; an annual SO2 reduction of
26 kt, offsetting the annual SO2 emissions of over 800 peak power plants; and an
annual Hg reduction of 126 kg. These cost savings account for only the direct effect
of cool roofs, and would double once the values of indirect energy savings and smog
reduction from cooling of the ambient air are included [5]
Many institutions (states, countries, organizations) have developed codes and

standards for implementing cool roofs in order to take advantage of these potential
savings in energy and peak-demand [13]. For example, ASHRAE standards 90.1-
2004 (new commercial buildings) and 90.2-2007 (new residential buildings) offer
credits for installing roofs with high solar reflectance [15]-[16]. More recently,
ASHRAE 90.1-2010 prescribes cool roofs in several climate regions in the U.S.
[17]. California’s 2005 “Title 24” building energy efficiency standards prescribe a
minimum initial solar reflectance of 0.70 and a minimum initial thermal emittance
of 0.75 for low-sloped roofs on nonresidential buildings, with somewhat lower
thermal emittance requirements for roofs of especially high solar reflectance. The
2008 Title 24 standards prescribe a minimum solar reflectance and a minimum
thermal emittance for steep- and low-sloped roofs on practically all residential and
non-residential buildings [18]-[20].
These standards need to rely on accurate methods for measurements of solar

reflectance and thermal emittance of materials. The Cool Roof Rating Council
(CRRC), a collaborative industry and public organization, was established in 1998 to
measure and label roofing materials for their solar reflectance and thermal emittance.
176 Cool Materials for the Built Environment Akbari et al.
California’s Title 24 requires that the solar reflectance and thermal emittance of
roofing products be labeled by the Cool Roof Rating Council (CRRC). ASHRAE
standards also accept CRRC label for their compliance requirements.
METHODS TO MEASURE SOLAR REFLECTANCE
There are several methods to measure the solar reflectance of surface materials. The
current methods accepted by the CRRC include solar reflectances measured using
ASTM standards E903 (spectrophotometer ), C1549 (reflectometer), and/or E1918
(pyranometer). ASTM E903 : Standard test method for solar absorptance,
reflectance, and transmittance of materials using integrating spheres ASTM 1996
[21] uses a spectrophotometer with an integrating sphere to measure the solar
spectral reflectance of an area approximately 0.1 cm2. The solar spectral reflectance
is then weighted with a solar spectral irradiance to calculate solar reflectance. ASTM
C1549 Standard test method for determination of solar reflectance near ambient
temperature using a portable solar reflectometer (ASTM 2009) [22] uses a
reflectometer to measure the solar reflectance of an area approximately 2 cm2. E903
and C1549 are each best applied to surfaces that are flat and homogenous. ASTM
E1918 : Standard test method for measuring solar reflectance of horizontal and low-
sloped surfaces in the field (ASTM 2006) [23] uses a pyranometer to measure the
solar reflectance of an area larger than 10 m2, and is best applied to large surfaces
that may also be rough and/or non-uniform. Levinson et al. (2010a,b) present a
critical review of each of these methods [24]-[25].
Measuring the solar reflectance of a heterogeneous flat surface (or quasi-flat

surface, such as that of a fiberglass asphalt shingle) requires variations to those
techniques applied to a uniform flat surface. A statistical sampling method
(“C1549MC”) has been developed to measure the solar reflectance of a variegated
and approximately flat surface via repeated application of ASTM standard C1549
[22][26]. C1549MC, also called CRRC-1 Test Method#1, was adopted by the
CRRC for the measurement of the solar reflectance of fiberglass asphalt shingles
and other flat (or quasi-flat) variegated samples.
The solar reflectance of a high-profile (curved) tile assembly cannot be accurately

measured with C1549 or C1549MC because (a) a reflectometer is not well-suited
to measuring the reflectance of a curved surface; and (b) light reflected from a
curved tile may be absorbed by a neighboring tile, decreasing the reflectance of
the assembly. It is also difficult to replicate the same blend of colors contained in
a full tile assembly when taking spot measurements with a reflectometer.
E1918 may be used if the target is at least 4 m in diameter or 4 m on a side. The

difficulty of transporting such large samples for the natural-exposure weathering
makes the sample size requirements of E1918 costly and inconvenient. Akbari et
al.2008 [27] have proposed method “E1918A,” a variation on E1918 which uses a
pyranometer and a pair of black and white masks of known reflectance to measure
the solar reflectance of a surface as small as 1 m2. This permits the measurement
of the solar reflectance of samples whose areas are less than that is required by
E1918, such as prototype shingle panels and tile assemblies.
SOLAR REFLECTANCE MEASUREMENT WITH A SPECTROPHOTO-

METER (ASTM E903)
ASTM E903: Standard test method for solar absorptance, reflectance, and
transmittance of materials ([21]) uses a spectrophotometer with an integrating
sphere to measure the solar spectral reflectance and/or transmittance of an area
approximately 0.1 cm2. E903 can be used to measure both specular and diffuse
optical properties of materials. The measurements by an integrating sphere
spectrophotometer provides values for spectral near normal-hemispherical
reflectance (or transmittance) over the spectral range of approximately 250 to
2500 nm. The solar transmittance, reflectance, or absorptance is obtained by
calculating an average weighted by a standard solar spectral irradiance.
A spectrophotometer has three major components: (1) light sources producing

light in the range of 250 to 2500 nm, (2) several diffraction grating and mirrors
where the light is refracted to create a monochromatic ray, and (3) an integrated
sphere (coated inside with a highly reflective material) in which the reflected or
transmitted light is collected (see Fig. 1). The spectrophotometer is calibrated with
a white standard with known spectral reflectance. Sensors read the brightness of
the integrated sphere and compare to that produced with the calibrated standard to
compute the spectral reflectance,  ( ) , or transmittance,  ( ) , of a sample. The
spectral absorptance     can be computed by      1           .
Figure 1: Components of a spectrophotometer. An spectrophotometer is made of light sources

capable of producing light in UV-VIS-NIR range, several mirrors and diffraction gratings for
creating monochromic lights, and an integrating sphere to collect the reflected (or transmitted
light) from the test sample. (Source: Perkin Elmer, Inc).
A spectrophotometer measures the optical properties of a very small region of a

sample, about 0.1 cm2. Spectrophotometer measurements accurately characterize
flat and uniform (single color) samples. To measure the reflectance of a flat, non-
uniform, large sample, spot measurements on many locations can be made. The
spot measurements can be averaged to obtain a mean value for the sample.
The choice of solar spectral irradiance can lead to different values of the solar
reflectance of the same sample. Levinson et al. [24][25] have analyzed and
compared the solar reflectances of many samples calculated using several solar
irradiance spectra. They found that clear-sky air mass one global horizontal
(“AM1GH") solar reflectance Rg,0 (solar reflectance of a surface calculated using
the global horizontal solar spectral irradiance with the sun at zenith) is a simple and
easily measured property that accurately predicts solar heat gain of a surface. Rg,0
predicts the annual peak solar heat gain of a roof or pavement to within 2 W m-2.
Rg,0 is well suited to rating the solar reflectances of roofs, pavements and walls.
SOLAR REFLECTANCE MEASUREMENT WITH A REFLECTOMETER

(ASTM C1549)
ASTM C1549: Standard test method for determination of solar reflectance near
ambient temperature using a portable solar reflectometer (ASTM 2009 [22] uses a
commercially available reflectometer (Devices and Services, 2009 [28], Fig. 2) to
measure the solar reflectance of an area approximately 2 cm2. In version 5 of the
SSR, “A Tungsten Halogen source provides diffuse illumination and reflected
energy is measured with four broadband filtered detectors roughly covering the
UV, Blue, Red, and near IR. A solar reflectance value is estimated by adding best
fit weighted fractions of the four detector outputs. Solar reflectance values are
calculated for air mass 0, 1, 1.5 and 2 direct irradiance”[28].
In version 6 of the SSR, two “virtual” detectors are added to the four actual
detectors, generating a good match to a variety of solar irradiances.
The solar reflectance for the desired air mass is selectable from the instrument’s
keypad. The reflectances measured by the individual detectors are also available
from the keypad and digital readout. The instrument is calibrated using a black body
cavity for a reflectance of zero and one or more surfaces of known solar reflectance
provided by the manufacturer. A surface to be evaluated is placed firmly against the
2.5 cm (1.0 in.) diameter opening on the measurement head and maintained in this
position until constant readings are displayed by the digital readout.
The portable solar reflectometer is calibrated using specimens of known solar

reflectance. This technique is supported by comparison of reflectometer
measurements with measurements obtained using ASTM E903. This test method
is applicable to specimens of materials having both specular and diffuse optical
properties. It is particularly suited to the measurement of the solar reflectance of
opaque materials.
ASTM C1549 provides a quick and accurate measurement of a small area of a

sample, typically about 2 cm2. C1549 is best suited for measuring the solar
reflectance of uniform samples. However, many roofs and paved surfaces are non-
uniform in nature and spot measurements of solar reflectance do not necessarily
provide an accurate representation of the solar reflectance of a large roof (or
pavement). To measure the solar reflectance of a large surface using C1549, we

devised and tested a method (C1549MC) that uses a sampling technique to
measure the solar reflectance at several randomly selected locations and average
the measurements.
Figure 2: Solar reflectometer. Shown in the figure are: reflectometer measuring head, display and
keyboard, and calibration standards. (Source: Devices and Services, Inc.)
C1549MC offers a technique for estimating the mean solar reflectance of a flat,
opaque, and heterogeneous test surface, such as a variegated, granule-covered
asphalt roofing shingle. The mean solar reflectance of the test surface is
determined by averaging the solar reflectances of randomly located spots (small
regions) measured with a commercial portable solar reflectometer in accordance
with ASTM C1549.
C1549MC procedure involves measuring solar reflectances in accordance with

ASTM C1549 at a series of randomly located, non-overlapping spots (small areas)
until the sample mean standard error is small enough to use the sample mean as an
estimate of the mean solar reflectance of the test surface. A random generator
algorithm can be used to pre-select the coordinates of each spot to measure. In this
approach, usually a minimum of 30 measurement points is required to calculate
the mean solar reflectance of the sample. C1549MC is currently used as an
approved method by CRRC to measure solar reflectance of large, flat, variegated
surfaces [26].
SOLAR REFLECTANCE MEASUREMENT WITH A PYRANOMETER

(ASTM E1918 )
ASTM E1918 -06 (Standard Test Method for Measuring Solar Reflectance of
Horizontal and Low-Sloped Surfaces in the Field) [23] details the use of a
pyranometer to measure the clear-sky global solar reflectance of a horizontal or
near-horizontal surface (pitch ≤ 2:12) when the sun angle to the normal from the
surface (θ) is < 45°. Neglecting shadow, background and instrument errors, the
conventional pyranometer technique can measure solar reflectance to within 0.01
for surface slopes up to 5:12 [θ = 23], and to within 0.02 for surface slopes up to
12:12 [θ = 45]. In summer, the time window during when θ ≤45°can be quite
wide. For example, on June 21 (the summer solstice), this condition is satisfied for
a horizontal surface from about 08:45 to 15:20 local standard time (LST) at a
mainland-U.S. middle latitude of 37°N. During the winter, however, the condition
of θ ≤45° may never occur. Angular sensitivity narrows the interval during which
one can use a pyranometer to accurately measure solar reflectance at large θ. A
related concern is that the pyranometer may be imperfectly leveled, especially in
field measurements with portable equipment. We note that installed roofs and
pavements are immovable and cannot be tilted toward the sun to reduce solar
incidence angle.
Measuring solar reflectance with a pyranometer requires a sensitive instrument to

measure radiant energy over the entire solar spectrum (0.3-2.5 μm band)1. A
typical first class pyranometer yields a linear output of ±0.5% between 0 and 1400
W m-2 and a response time of one second. Specific characteristics can be obtained
1
The state of the art of global radiation measurements has changed in the last decade. For
measuring the total flux on a horizontal surface, a pyrheliometer is used to measure direct and a
pyranometer with a shading disk to measure the diffuse part. For measuring diffuse flux, a
correction is made to account for radiative cooling of the glass dome(s).
based on calibration by the manufacturer of the pyranometer. Other suitable

pyranometers are discussed in Zerlaut (1989) [29]. The double-dome design of a
typical first class payranometer minimizes the effects of internal convection
resulting from tilting the pyranometer at different angles. For this reason, the
double-dome pyranometer is especially suitable for this test, since measurement
of solar reflectivity requires the apparatus to alternatively face up and down. The
analog output from the pyranometer is converted to digital output with a readout
meter that has an accuracy of better than ±0.5% and a resolution of 1 W m-2.
To measure solar reflectance using ASTM E1918, the pyranometer is mounted on

an arm and a stand that places the sensor at a height of 50 cm above the surface to
minimize the effect of the shadow on measured reflected radiation. The arm and
stand shall be strong, cast the smallest possible shadow, and allow the
pyranometer to be turned upward and downward easily as shown in Fig. 3.
Most pyranometers are pre-calibrated in the factory. To ensure accuracy, the

pyranometer should be calibrated regularly (typically once every year or two),
preferably by the manufacturer.
Cloud cover and haze significantly affect the measurements. The measurement of
solar reflectance shall be conducted on a clear sunny day with no cloud cover or
haze during the individual measurements. As discussed earlier, the test shall be
done in conditions where the angle between the solar beam and the surface normal
is less than 45 degrees.
Figure 3: Schematic of a pyranometer and its stand for measuring solar reflectance of large low-
sloped surfaces in the field
The measurement procedure is as follows.
1. Align the stand such that the arm points toward the sun to minimizes
the effect of the shadow from equipment. There should be no other
shadow on the measurement area other than the minimal shadow cast
by the pyranometer and the stand. The pyranometer shall be parallel to
the test surface.
2. Face the pyranometer "upward" (i.e. looking directly away from the
surface) to read incoming solar radiation. Flip the pyranometer
"downward" to read reflected solar radiation. Make sure the readings
are constant for at least 10 seconds. The measurements of incoming
and reflected radiation shall be performed in a time interval not to
exceed 2 minutes. Solar reflectance is the ratio of the reflected
radiation to incoming radiation. Repeat the pairs of incoming and
reflected solar radiation measurements at least three times. The
calculated solar reflectance from all the measurements shall agree
within 0.01 in a reflectivity scale of 0 to 1.
The solar reflectance of most exterior surfaces is inherently variable due to

variations in the materials themselves, weathering conditions, and a broad range
of environmental contaminants. To adequately represent the solar reflectance of
these surfaces, a minimum of three measurements from widely spaced areas must
be collected, and the detailed condition (surface condition, location, and
surrounding objects) of each sample are to be recorded.
The following criteria shall be used to establish the suitability of the measurement
conditions:
1. Haze: As long as the solar disk is visible and solar flux is not
changing rapidly during the test, the measurements can be performed
with reasonable accuracy.
2. Clouds: The impact of clouds close to the sun is larger than that of
clouds in the horizon. It is important to make the measurements in a
stable solar condition. The best way of determining stability is to
make several measurements (each performed within a two-minute

period) and ensure that the calculated solar reflectance is repeatable
within the measurement period.
E1918 may be used for measuring solar reflectance of large target areas. Akbari et
al. [27] describe the development of “E1918A,” a variation on E1918, which uses
a pyranometer and a pair of black and white masks to measure the solar
reflectance of a surface as small as 1 m2. This permits the measurement of the
solar reflectance of samples whose areas are about 1 m2, such as prototype shingle
panels and tile assemblies.
The solar irradiance (power per unit area; hereafter, simply “irradiance”) incident
on the sensor of a horizontal, downward-facing pyranometer is a weighted
average of the sunlight reflected by the target area and that reflected by its
surroundings (see Fig. 4). E1918A determines the reflectance of a target area from
three consecutive measurements of reflected sunlight. In the first configuration,
denoted by subscript 1, the target area is exactly covered by a thin, solar-opaque
white surface (hereafter, “white mask”). In the second configuration, denoted by
subscript 2, the target area is exactly covered by a thin, solar-opaque black surface
(hereafter, “black mask”). In the third configuration, denoted by subscript 3, the
target area is uncovered. The E1918A reflectance of the target area is then
determined from the following equation:
I3  I 2
Rt  Rb  ( Rw  Rb ) (1)
I1  I 2
where Rt is the calculated solar reflectance of the target area, Rb and Rw are the
solar reflectances of the solar-opaque black and solar-opaque white masks
measured via ASTM E903, and I1 , I 2 , and I 3 are irradiances incident on the
pyranometer sensor in configurations 1, 2, and 3.
As in ASTM Standard E1918, a pyranometer on along arm (about 1-1.5 m) is

extended over the center of the target area at a height of 0.5 m (Fig. 4). The
pyranometer (always horizontal) is faced upward to measure global horizontal
insolation; faced downward to measure the sunlight reflected in each of the three
configurations; and then faced upward to re-measure insolation.
To carry out E1918A measurements, the stand is aligned such that the arm points
toward the sun (the observer shall stand such that the edge of his shadow falls
away from the center of the target area). There should be no moving shadow
within 2 m of the center of the target area other than the minimal shadow cast by
the pyranometer and its stand. The pyranometer should be leveled such that it is
parallel to the surface where measurement is conducted.
1. The pyranometer positioned over the center of the target area.
2. The target area is obscured with the black mask, and then the black
mask is obscured with the white mask, such that the white mask must
exactly cover the black mask.
3. The pyranometer is faced upward to measure incoming horizontal

global solar irradiance ( I H ).
4. With the pyranometer faced downward, the reflected solar irradiance (

I1 ) incident on the pyranometer sensor in configuration 1 (target
exactly covered by opaque white mask) is measured. Next, the
reflected solar irradiance ( I 2 ) incident on the pyranometer sensor in
configuration 2 (target exactly covered by opaque black mask) is
measured. Finally, the reflected solar irradiance ( I 3 ) incident on the
pyranometer sensor in configuration 3 (target uncovered) is measured.
5. The pyranometer is faced upward to re-measure incoming solar

radiation ( I H' ). If I H'  I H > 20 Wm-2, previous steps are repeated.
6. All five pyranometer measurements ( I H , I1 , I 2 , I 3 , I H' ) are performed

in a time interval not to exceed 10 minutes. For each measurement, 30
seconds is allowed for the pyranometer to stabilize.
7. The solar reflectance of the target area (Rt) is then calculated using Eq 8
The utility of the E1918A method depends on the fact that many surfaces are
Lambertian, or at least have an angular distribution of reflected radiation that is
similar to the reference white mask. Akbari et al. (2008) [27] have compared the
measurements of solar reflectance of several tile assemblies using E1918 and

E1918A (Fig. 5). For 10 large (about 10 m2) tile assemblies whose E1918 solar
reflectances ranged from 0.10 to 0.50, the magnitude of the difference between
the E1918A and E1918 measurements did not exceed 0.02 for unicolor
assemblies, and did not exceed 0.03 for multicolor assemblies.
Figure 4: Schematic of E1918A measurement using a pyranometer
Figure 5: Comparison of the E1918 and E1918A solar reflectances of six unicolor and four
multicolor large tile assemblies. For ease of comparison, the equality line is shown.
METHODS TO MEASURE THERMAL EMITTANCE
Surfaces emit radiation based on the Stefan-Boltzmann equation of
q   Ts4 (2)
Where q is emitted radiation from surface (W m-2 ), Ts is absolute surface

temperature (K),  is the broadband emissivity (total hemispherical) of the
surface and  is Stephan Boltzmann constant (5.67 10-8 W m-2 K-4). A surfaces
near ambient temperature (around 300 K) will emit almost entirely thermal
infrared radiation (4 - 80 µm). Hence, the relevant broadband property for such a
surface is “thermal” emittance.
The terms emittance and emissivity are often used interchangeably by most
authors. Surfaces emit infrared radiation to the sky and to their surrounding
Surfaces have a thermal emissivity ranging from 0 to 1. A blackbody is defined as
an ideal body or surface that completely absorbs all radiant energy falling upon it.
By Kirchhoff’s law, the spectral absorptance of a surface is equal to its spectral
emittance; hence, for a blackbody  =1. Most non-metallic surfaces have a
thermal emittance in the range of 0.75 to 0.95. Most metallic surfaces have a
thermal emittance ranging from 0.05 to 0.25. Typically, the shinier a bare metal
surface the lower its thermal emittance. Usually, one wants to know the
hemispherical emittance, whereas some methods yield the normal emittance. For
precise work the distinction is important, but the two parameters usually have a
similar magnitude and the distinction is sometimes ignored.
There are currently two ASTM standards for measuring the thermal emittance of
materials: (1) ASTM C1371 (Standard Test Method for Determination of
Emittance of Materials Near Room Temperature Using Portable Emissometers)
and (2) ASTM E408 (Standard Test Methods for Total Normal Emittance of
Surfaces Using Inspection-Meter Techniques). Both these standards are used to
measure hemispherical thermal emittance. It should be noted that the thermal
emittance of the calibrated standards are those of the hemispherical values. In
addition to these ASTM standards that are suitable for measuring an average
thermal emittance, there are other techniques and instruments such as Fourier
Transfer Infra-Red (FTIR) spectroscopy that provide detailed spectral
measurement of the emittance as a function of thermal radiation wavelength, λ.
Here we briefly discuss each of these methods.
THERMAL EMISSIVITY MEASUREMENT USING A PORTABLE

EMISSIOMETER (ASTM C1371)
ASTM C1371 uses a portable differential thermopile emissometer for measuring

the thermal emittance of materials (Fig. 6) [31]. The method is most suitable for
measurements of opaque, highly thermally conductive materials near room

temperature. The instrument is designed and calibrated to measure hemispherical
thermal emittance. Samples are placed on the flat surface of a heat sink to
minimize the heating of the samples during the measurement (see Fig. 6). This
instrument provides estimate of the thermal emittance of a surface with an
accuracy of 0.02. This instrument measures thermal emittance of an area of about
15 cm2. Most non-metallic surfaces have a uniform thermal emittance. Thermal
emittance of metallic surface can vary from a location to a location depending on
dust on the surface, surface corrosion, and pollutant accumulation on the surface.
Figure 6: Emissometer with scaling digital voltmeter (Source: Devices and Services, Inc.)
THERMAL EMITTANCE MEASUREMENT USING INSPECTION

METER TECHNIQUES (ASTM E408)
ASTM E408 (initially developed in 1971) discusses two methods for measuring
the neat normal thermal emittance of a surface [30]. These methods are based on
then (1971) commercially available portable instruments in the market. One
instrument measures thermal radiant energy reflected from the specimen (Test
Method A) and the other measures thermal radiant energy emitted from the
specimen (Test Method B).
In Test Method A, “the surface to be measured is placed against an opening (or

aperture) on the portable sensing component. Inside the sensing component are
two semi cylindrical cavities that are maintained at different temperatures, one at
near ambient and the other at a slightly elevated temperature. A suitable drive
mechanism is employed to rotate the cavities alternately across the aperture. As
the cavities rotate past the specimen aperture, the specimen is alternately
irradiated with infrared radiation from the two cavities. The cavity radiation
reflected from the specimen is detected with a vacuum thermocouple. The vacuum
thermocouple views the specimen at near normal incidence through an optical
system that transmits radiation through slits in the ends of the cavities. The
thermocouple receives both radiation emitted from the specimen and other
surfaces, and cavity radiation which is reflected from the specimen. Only the
reflected energy varies with this alternate irradiation by the two rotating cavities,
and the detection-amplifying system is made to respond only to the alternating
signal. This is accomplished by rotating the cavities at the frequency to which the
amplifier is tuned. Rectifying contacts coupled to this rotation convert the
amplifier output to a d-c signal, and this signal is read with a millivoltmeter”. The
meter reading is calibrated with known reflectance standards to obtain reflectance
values on the test surface. Total normal emittance is then calculated by subtracting
the thermal reflectance from unity. Some instrumentation for Method A is
believed to still be in use; however it has not been manufactured for several
decades. Recently, however, at least one new instrument that works by measuring
thermal reflectance has come on the market. Method A and the new reflectance-
based measurement have the advantage that temperature drift of the sample under
test is not a significant error source, whereas it can be important in the C1371
method.
In Test Method B, the surface to be measured is placed against the aperture on the
portable sensing component. “Thermal radiant energy which is emitted and
reflected from the specimen passes through a suitable transmitting vacuum
window and illuminates a thermopile. The amount of energy reflected from the
specimen is minimized by cooling the thermopile and the cavity walls which the
specimen views. The output of the thermopile is amplified and sensed by a
suitable meter”. The meter is calibrated with standards of known thermal
emittance.
ASTM Standard E408 (2008) provides details on the limitation and accuracy of
each test method.
THERMAL EMITTANCE MEASUREMENT USING A FTIR

SPECTROMETER
Advances in instrumentation and spectrometry allows measurements of thermal

emissivity of materials as a function of wavelength,  ( ) . Most FTIR (Fourier
Transform Infrared) instruments allow measurement of spectral optical
[reflectivity,  ( ) , and transmissivity,  ( ) ] properties of material in the range
of 2.5 – 100 μm in intervals as small as 5 nm. Then  ( ) is calculated by
 ( )  1   ( )   ( ) . Measured  ( ) can be averaged over a thermal range of
interest to obtain thermal emissivity.
The equation relating normal thermal emittance  N to wavelength and spectral

normal emittance [  N ( ) ] is
 
 N   Lb ( , T ) N ( )d  /  Lb ( , T )d  (3)
0 0
where,
Lb ( , T )  Planck’s blackbody radiation function = c1 1 5 (ec2 / T  1) 1
c1 = 3.7415 x 10−16 W·m2
c2 = 1.4388 x 10-2 m·K
T = absolute temperature, K
λ = wavelength, m

0
Lb ( , T )d  = σπ-1T4, and
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant =5.67 x 10-8 W·m-2·K-4.
The spectrophotometer technique just described works particularly well for

smooth materials such as glass. For diffusely reflecting materials another
approach can be used. This alternative method uses heated samples mounted on a
post. The emitted thermal radiation can then be admitted by way of a port into the
FTIR in place of the usual internal globar radiation, and intensity is measured as a
function of wavelength by the interferometer in the usual way.
SOLAR REFLECTANCE INDEX (SRI)
The steady-state surface temperature (Ts) under the sun is correlated to solar
reflectivity and thermal emittance of the surface. For equivalent ambient and solar
conditions, the Ts of dark surfaces (high solar absorptance) is higher than light-
colored surfaces (low solar absorptance); and surfaces with low thermal emittance
have higher Ts than surfaces with high thermal emittance. ASTM E1980 discusses
a procedure recommended that allows a direct comparison of Ts of surfaces under
the sun [32]. E1980 introduces a Solar Reflectance Index (SRI) which measures
the relative Ts of a surface with respect to the standard white (SRI = 100) and
standard black (SRI = 0) under the standard solar and ambient conditions. Note
that SRI is not a temperature scale (since SRI increases as Ts decreases), but
rather a coolness scale in which SRI = 0 means as hot as standard black, and SRI
= 100 means as cool as standard white. SRI can be less than 0 or greater than 100.
Standard E1980 uses a variation of Eq. 2 to calculate the steady state temperature
of a surface exposed to the sun. Assuming that conduction into the material is zero,
the steady-state surface temperature is obtained by
 I   (Ts4  Tsky
4
)  hc (Ts  Ta ) (4)
where,
 = solar absorptance = 1 - solar reflectance
I = solar irradiance, W m-2
 = thermal emissivity
 = Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.6685 10-8 Wm-2K-4
Ts = steady-state surface temperature, K
Tsky = apparent sky temperature, K

hc = convective coefficient, Wm-2K-1
Ta = air temperature, K.
For a given solar reflectivity and thermal emittance of a surface, and the
convective coefficient, Eq. 5 can be solved iteratively for surface temperature.
Then the Solar Reflectance Index (SRI) is defined as
Tb  Ts
SRI  100 (5)
Tb  Tw
where Tb and Tw are the steady-state temperature of black and white surfaces.
For the purpose of this calculation, standard conditions are defined as a solar
irradiance of 1000 W m-2, ambient air temperature of 310 K, and sky temperature of
300K. Three convective coefficients of 5, 12, 30 Wm-2K-1, corresponding to low-
speed (0-2 m/s), medium-speed (2-4 m/s), and high-speed (4-6 m/s) wind conditions,
respectively, are considered. However, SRI is virtually always reported for the
medium-speed wind. The reference black is defined as a surface with solar
reflectance of 0.05 and thermal emittance of 0.90. The reference white is defined as a
surface with solar reflectance of 0.80 and thermal emittance of 0.90 [33].
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Declared none.
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[27] Akbari H, Levinson R, Stern S. Procedure for measuring the solar reflectance of flat or
curved roofing assemblies, Solar Energy 2008; 82(7): 648–655.
[28] Devices and Services. Solar Spectrum Reflectometer Version 6.0. Technical Note TN09-1.
Devices & Services Company, Dallas, Texas, 2009.
http://www.devicesandservices.com/TechNotes/TN09-1.pdf
[29] Zerlaut G. Solar Radiation Instrumentation. In: Solar Resources, R.L. Hulstrom, ed., MIT
Press Cambridge MA 1989; pp.173-308.
[30] ASTM E408: Thermal emissivity measurement using inspection meter techniques.
American Society for Testing and Materials 2008,West Conshohocken, PA.
[31] ASTM C1371: Thermal emissivity measurement using a portable emissiometer. American
Society for Testing and Materials, 2010; West Conshohocken, PA.
[32] ASTM C1980: Standard Practice for Calculating Solar Reflectance Index of Horizontal and
Low-Sloped Opaque Surfaces. American Society for Testing and Materials 2011; West
Conshohocken, PA.
[33] Cool roof material database. http://eetd.lbl.gov/CoolRoofs/
CHAPTER 8
Modeling Cool Materials’ Properties
Denia Kolokotsa1,*, V. Dimitriou2 and A. Synnefa3
Energy Management in the Built Environment Research Unit1, Environmental

Engineering Department, Technical University of Crete, GR 73100,Chania,Crete,
Greece; 2Technological Educational Institute of Crete, Department of Natural
Resources and Environment 3, Romanou str., 73133, Chania, Crete, Greece and
3
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece, Physics Department Section
of Applied Physics, Physics Department, Build. Physics 5, 15784, Athens, Greece
Abstract: Optical properties (i.e. reflectance, transmittance, etc) of light scattering

materials can be described using two approaches. In the first approach, the interaction of
light with the matter’s particles is modeled (microscopic approach) while in the second,
the light fluxes into and out of bulked considered matter is modeled(macroscopic
approach). Kubelka-Munk (KM) is the most common theory of macroscopic modeling,
for calculating the change of light fluxes (two-flux theory) as a function of scattering,
absorption, and distance. Modified KM Models, for calculating the optical properties of
rough surfaces, revised KM theories as well as, inversion methods from KM analysis
are presented. A KM and Mie microscopic model is used for emmitance calculations of
coating layers. Three flux models track two diffuse fluxes and one collimated flux,
while four flux models track two diffuse and two collimated fluxes. Maheu-
Letoulouzan-Gouesbet (M-L-G), multilayered, and other generalized four-flux models
are shown. A number of applications of the discussed models in pigments (such us
polymer coatings), light scattering from TiO2 and red particles are also presented.
Keywords: Kubelka-Munk model, Four Flux Model, N-Flux model, optical

properties models.
INTRODUCTION
Urban regions are defined by ‘a complex mix of natural elements including air,
water, land, climate, flora and fauna, and the built environment that is constructed
or modified for human habitation and activity, encompassing buildings,
infrastructure and urban open spaces [1]. The most apparent impact of urban
*Address correspondence to Denia Kolokotsa: Energy Management in the Built Environment Research
Unit, Environmental Engineering Department, Technical University of Crete, GR 73100, Chania, Crete,
Greece; Tel:+302821037808;E-mail: dkolokotsa@enveng.tuc.gr

196 Cool Materials for the Built Environment Kolokotsa et al.
development on the environment is the rearrangement of its biophysical attributes. By

altering the nature of the surface and generating large amounts of heat, urbanized areas
modify the microclimate and the air quality. The urban heat island phenomenon,
which serves as a trap for atmospheric pollutants, deteriorates the quality of life and
has a socio-economic impact in the urbanized areas [2,3] Important research has been
accomplished over the last hundred years to quantify its impact on the urban
climate[1,4-5]. Important heat island studies have been performed in Europe during
the last 15 years [2]. Urban heat island and increased urban temperatures [6,7]
exacerbate the cooling load of buildings, increase the peak electricity demand for
cooling and decrease the efficiency of air conditioners, [4, 5, 8].Moreover the urban
agglomeration has a negative impact on the cooling effectiveness of natural and night
ventilation [9] and contributes to the increase of outdoor pollutants’ concentration
[10]. The local or regional meteorological conditions can influence significantly the
strength and extension of the phenomenon [11, 12].
Among the various mitigation strategies for the urban heat island phenomenon, cool
materials and coatings have gained a significant attention by the researchers. Coatings
with specific optical properties, i.e. increased reflectance and/or emittance, resulting
in lower surface temperatures are developed and tested. Those coatings range from
cool materials, thermo chromic, spectrally selected materials, etc. [13-17].
The scope of the present work is to analyse the various approaches developed to
model the coatings’ optical properties and to evaluate and validate via experimental
results the accuracy of the four flux models in determining the cool materials
reflectance and emmitance. More specifically, the paper is structured in 4 more
sections. Section 2 provides a short review to the background of the subject matter
and to the scientific efforts for modelling coatings optical properties. Section 3
presents the four flux model and the derived solutions. Section 4 provides the N
flux models. Finally, section 5 summarizes the conclusions and discusses issues for
future consideration, research and development.
MODELING COATINGS OPTICAL PROPERTIES
In general, materials hold the properties for emissivity  (radiation emission

compared with the black body’s radiation),absorptivity  (fraction of energy
Modeling Cool Materials’ Properties Cool Materials for the Built Environment 197
absorbed) and reflectivity  (reflected energy). Detailed explanations about these

properties as well as about their relations are included in the literature [18]. Light
is an electromagnetic wave and as it impinges at real materials the classical
electromagnetic theory indicates that a fraction of an energy wave is attenuated by
the matter as it travels through it. Electromagnetic extinction coefficient  of the
wave is the attenuation term that is connected tocomplex refractive index by:
n  n  i , where is the simple refractive index. A useful relation between α
and κis given by [19]:
4   
    (1)

Based on κ, materials may be divided to:
i) Perfect dielectrics (insulators) with   0 reflection and refraction

behaviour.
ii) Imperfect dielectrics, metals and semiconductors with,   0

reflection, refraction and with absorption behaviour, as the waves
attenuate in these materials. Real materials, excluding metals, do not
have an optically smooth surface referred as optical roughness  0 / 
where σ0 is the root-mean-square surface roughness. If the roughness
heights of a real surface are less than the wavelengths of the incident
radiation then the surface is considered as optically smooth and vice
versa [18,19].
Another coefficient is the spectral extinction coefficient that consists of two

parts, the spectral absorption coefficient and the spectral scattering
coefficient and:
K   k  s (2)
Layers (such us painted coatings) can be considered as thin films if their depth is
small fraction of millimetre that transmits, reflects or absorbs light [18, 19]. For
the determination of thin films due to their passage of light through them can be
into three special cases; (a) the transparent film that permits all the light to pass
through it but some absorbed; (b) the middle case-translucent film that the light
passes through and it is scattered to both directions; and (c) the opaque-film that
the concentration of the colorants particles is high and a fraction of light is
absorbed and an the other is scattered back to the top. Particles can be divided to
spherical or spheroid, cylindrical, etc., depending their shape. Regarding the size
of spherical particles, the radius r can be compared to the wavelength λ of the
incident radiation namely size parameter [18-21] denoted as:
2 r
x0  (3)

In a part of the literature, the wavelength of the surrounding medium is adjusted to

the size parameter. If the size parameter is small enough x0  0.3 then these
particles are considered as small and are treated by Rayleigh theory. If the size
parameter x0 belongs to [0.3, 0.5], then the particles are considered larger and are
treated by Mie theory (known also as Lorentz-Mie) scattering theory. Mie
scattering theory (or Mie solution) is an analytical solution of Maxwell equations
for the scattering of electromagnetic radiation by spherical particles [18, 19].
A most significant assumption in scattering problems is the independent scattering

approach. If the particles are far enough between them and the scattering
phenomena are able to be studied by one particle, then the study belongs to
independent scattering. Each situation is treated (or not) by the independent
scattering, applying the Brewster-Tien criterion [20], which is given by:
cd x0  0.905  fV 1/3 
 (4)
0  fV 1/3
with fV the particle volume fraction, cd the average minimum distance of particles
and 0 the radiation wavelength of light in vacuum. If for the inter particle
c
spacing holds that: d  0.30 , the situation drops to dependent scattering else if:
cd 0
 0.30 , the situation belongs to independent scattering. When light strikes a
0
particle it scatters light. The scattered light beam is characterized by the angle 
figured by the direction of propagation of the incident light and an azimuth angle
 . The angular dependence of the radiation scattered by a single particle can be
described by using the single particle phase function which is actually a function
of direction.
The phase function p    can be expressed in terms of Legendre polynomials

Pn    of the first kind:

p      n Pn    (5)
n 0
where:
P1      ,
1
P2    
2
 3 2  1 ,
1
P3    
2
 5 3  3  , etc.
Which may be also written in Lorentz-Mie terms with incorporating the scattering
amplitudes S1    , S 2    as:
2
p   S1    2  S 2    2  (6)
x0 Qext 
2 
with   cos 
Another term is the asymmetry parameter g which defines the directivity of the
scattered light and is often denoted as:

1
g  cos  
20  p    cos   sin  cos d
0
(7)
With 0 , the single scattering albedo, p    cos   the phase function, and θ the
scattering angle [18-20].
Debye (1909) [21] introduced g  cos  in terms of Lorentz-Mie theory (LMT)

by inserting the classical LMT scattering coefficients an and bn in a way that:
 n  n  2 
 Re  an* an 1  bn*bn 1   
 n 1

4
g LMT 
0 Qsca
2   2 n  1


(8)
  n  n  1 Re  anb n 
n 1 *

 
with n  1, 2,3 the nth Transverse Magnetic/Transverse Electric TM/TE modes

to the expansions of electric and magnetic fields [22].
The forward-scattering ratio (denoted often in literature as FSR) is the energy

f
scattered by the particle in the forward hemisphere Csca
divided by the total scattered energy Csca , hence

f
Csca
FSR    (9)
Csca
The backward-scattering ratio is then
BSR  1   (10)
For collimated incident radiation the FSR can be calculated by the single particle
phase function as Legendre polynomials:
1
 p    d   1 1  g  

c    (11)
0 n n

1
  2 
 p
1
 d  n 1 0 
where
1
g n   Pn    d  (12)
0
For diffused radiation the FSR can be obtained by:
1   g 2 
 d ( i )  1   n n  (13)
2  n 1 0 
The single scattering albedo is a ratio of the scattering cross-section with the
extinction cross-section and it is denoted as [23]:
Csca Qsca s
0    (14)
Cext Qext k  s
Where Qsca and Qext are the Mie scattering and extinction coefficients respectively
and k , s are the absorption and scattering coefficients.
The average crossing parameter ξ (or average path-length parameter) is defined by

saying that when the diffused light crosses a length dz the average path length which is
travelled is actually ξdz is introduced by Maheu et al [23] and revised by Vargas [24].
Layers (such us painted coatings) can be considered as thin films if their depth is
small fraction of millimetre that transmits, reflects or absorbs light [18,19]. For
the determination of thin films due to their passage of light through them can be
into three special cases; the transparent film that permits all the light to pass
through it but some absorbed; the middle case-translucent film that the light
passes through and it is scattered to both directions; and the opaque-film that the
concentration of the colorants particles is high and a fraction of light is absorbed
and an the other is scattered back to the top.
The optical properties’ macroscopic models can be distinguished by the number

of fluxes, either diffuse or collimated tracked within the coating. Those models,
that vary within two flux models (very simple approach) and N flux models
(sophisticated approach) are presented in the subsequent sections.
THE BOUGUER-LAMBERT LAW
Ideally, in transparent films the intensity I of the light gets only absorbed and not
scattered ( s  0 and K   k ). In Bouguer’s law (or Bouguer-Lambert law)
considers a light intensity I suffered a weakening dI when passing through an
infinitesimal thickness dx, then (Fig. 1):
dI
 -K I (15)
dx
I h
i   exp   K  h  (16)
I  0
With τi the internal transmittance of the film.
Figure 1: The weakening of intensity through a transparent film
It must be considered that there is a simple refractive index changing between the
air and the coating. If a collimated light beam (considered equal to unity) strikes
perpendicularly the surface then only the 4% of the original beam will be reflected
because of the transparency and the other 96% will travel through the film (see
Fig. 2): Ray-tracing method for transparent media (angles have been magnified
for convenience) [18,19].
Figure 2: Ray-tracing method for transparent media (angles have been magnified for convenience)
[19]
The sum of the emerging light from the bottom surface (light transmitted through
the film) is:
Ti  1     1   2 2   4 4  ... 
2
(17)
1     / 1   2 2 
2
Where Ti is the total transmittance of the film. The reflectivity ρ can be calculated
from Fresnel equation in the form of:
2
 n  1
 (18)
 n  1 
as the incidence of the radiation is considered perpendicular.
In translucent and opaque films (Fig. 3) the intensity I of the light gets absorbed
and scattered.
Figure 3: Translucent and Opaque films.
TWO FLUX MODELS

Kubelka Munk
The most widely known two flux model theory for the light scattering properties
of translucent/opaque films is the Kubelka-Munk (KM) theory [25]. Among
several theories is the simplest one to predict and explain the optical properties of
the colorant layers as opaque films. The light intensity I is described in one
dimensional, bidirectional propagation where the upward diffuse intensity of light
is I d and the downward intensity is assigned as J d . Supposing an infinitely width
dx then the downwards light traverse is weakened by the absorption coefficient K
and the scattering coefficient S (referred as phenomenological or effective
coefficients to be distinguished by the k and s ). In parallel the light is

strengthened, as a fraction of scattered direction is moving upwards in a way that:
dI d
   K  S  I d  SJ d (19)
dx
and for the upwards flux:
dJ d
   K  S  J d  SJ d (20)
dx
After converting this differential equation to a simple one by defining a ratio

J
r  d then
Id
dr
 S   2 K  S  r  Sr 2 (21)
dx
for x  0 , r should stands for the reflectivity of the background so ratio r  Rb . In

addition for x  h r   stands for the surface reflectivity of the film. By
integrating the previous formula:
X  X 
dr dr
 dx  
0 Rb
S  2  K  S  r  Sr 2  dx   S  2  K  S  r  Sr
0 Rb
2
(22)
1  Rb  a  b coth bSX 
 (23)
a  Rb  b coth bSX
where,
a  1  K / S  (24)
and
b   a 2  1
1/2
(25)
For opaque films the effective scattering coefficient S is extremely high because the
concentration of the pigmented flakes is too high and the light gets totally scattered.
In this situation the term coth  bSh   1 and the previous equation becomes:
1/2
K  K  
R  1   1    1 (26)
S  S 
where R stands for the reflectance at an infinite thickness X. The equation can be
written as:
K 1  R 
2
 (27)
S 2 R
which is widely accepted as the Kubelka-Munk equation.
There are a number of restrictions and assumptions that reduce the accuracy and
applicability of the two-flux KM model. Firstly, the usefulness of KM model is
restricted by the assumption that light is only diffuse throughout the film.
Moreover the refractive index changes are not taken into account.
THE SAUDERSON CORRECTION
The Saunderson correction [26] corrects the coating’s reflectance by taking into
account the refractive index discontinuity that may exist between the coating and air
(Fig. 4).
His correction is not the only type of surface correction which can be found in the
literature, but it is the most widely used. For measurements with the specular
reflectance component included, the Saunderson correction is as follows:
1
R  1/ 2
(28)
K  K 2 2K 
1   2  
S S S 
The Fresnel effects of the interface between the outside and inside of the colored
layer are ignored. For the top boundary Saunderson proposed a correlation
between the reflectance
k1 1  k1 1  k2  RKM
Rmeasured   (29)
2 1  RKM k2
where Rmeasured is the measured reflectance by a spectrophotometer and RKM the

reflectance calculated by Kubelka-Munk theory. To apply the Saunderson
correction successfully, the twocoefficients are needed: (i) k1 is the fraction of the
incident light reflected from the front surface of the sample and (ii) k2 is the
fraction of the light incident diffusely upon the surface from the inside so the
fraction 1  k2  emerges from the surface to the integrating sphere. The k1 fraction
can be calculated by the Fresnel law for normal incidence:
2
 n 1
k1   (30)
 n  1 
Two-flux models for collimated incident radiation are also developed. These
models, however, do not distinguish between unscattered collimated radiation and
diffuse radiation within the medium and therefore can only be of limited accuracy.
THE KUBELKA-MUNK THEORY WITH SAUNDERSON CORRECTION
The refractive index changes are not taken into account to KM model by using
Fresnel’s equations regarding the different media. If the reflection losses are
encountered then a corrected form will occur.
Figure 4: Ray-tracing method for opaque media with the Saunderson correction
With the same procedure shown previously at Bouger’s law, now the sum of the
emerging light from the top surface (light reflected by the film) is:
Rm  1  (1  1 )(1   2 )  
(31)
 (1   2     22  2  ...)
or
(1  1 )(1   2 ) 
Rm  1  (32)
1   2 
Where Rm is the measured reflectance by a radiation measurement device such us

a spectrophotometer and  is the theoretically reflectance given by the KM
model.
At this point it is essential to determine the meaning of the parameters K and S. The K
and S parameters are phenomenological. That means that these parameters themselves
have no real physical meaning. In a wide literature these parameters also called
respectively as effective absorption coefficient and effective scattering coefficient.
In the classic Kubelka-Munk model the effective coefficients are usually related
to usual (real) scattering coefficients s and k by assuming that the forward
scattering ratio is σ=1/2 and the average crossing parameter ξ=2 for diffused and
isotropic in the direction of propagation (ξ=1 for collimated radiation) then the
formulas S=ξ(1-σ)s and K=ξk takes the form of S=s and K=ξk . As mentioned
by Bohren et al [22] “No particle scatters light equally in all directions. Isotropic
scatterers exist only in the dreams of inept theorists”. Unfortunately the fact that K
and S have no direct physical meanings not appreciated by many people that
confuse these quantities with the physical material properties [27]. The equations
of reflectance and transmittance of KM model can be deriver the quantities of K
and S and hence k and s but the reader or a new researcher should bear in mind the
weight of the assumptions.
Vargas with his recent investigations using the extended Hartel theory correlated
the mean values of forward scattering ratio and average pathlength parameters
 ,  with the effective parameters K and S [28-30]. One way to represent

extinction is by normalize the extinction cross-section per unit volume denoted as
Cext 3Qext
or and
V 4r
C 3Qabs
k  fV abs  fV (33)
V 4r
and
Csca 3Qsca
s  fV  fV (34)
V 4r
Then as discussed above
ξ 1-σ  f3Qsca
S=ξ 1-σ  s= (35)
4r
ξf3Qsca
K=ξk= (36)
4r
MURPHY MODIFIED KM MODEL FOR ROUGH SURFACES
The Kubelka–Munk model is a two-flux model; the two fluxes are diffuse light
traveling in the forward and reverse directions. The reflection coefficients used in
the Saunderson extension were for diffused reflection of diffuse light. However,
when collimated illumination is used, it is possible, depending on the optical
roughness of the surface, for the reflected light to be collimated, diffuse or
partially collimated and partially diffuse. In the case of optically-rough surfaces,
the reflected light is mainly diffuse. The transmitted light is also mainly diffuse.
This means treatment by the two-flux method is likely to be valid under
collimated illumination for a wider range of coating parameters than is the case
for an optically-smooth surface. Treatment of collimated illumination of a general
surface requires expressions for reflection coefficients valid for both optically-
smooth and optically-rough surfaces, and in particular the separation of these
reflection coefficients into specular (collimated) and diffuse components. In
keeping with the simplicity of the two-flux model, it is appropriate to use
relatively simple expressions for these reflection coefficients.
Murphy 2007 [31] distinguished reflectances which refer to the reflection of light
from the coating–substrate system, and reflection coefficients, which refer to
reflection from a single surface (Fig. 5).
Figure 5: Geometry, showing the boundary conditions [35]
The boundary conditions at z=0 and z=h are
I d (0)  (1  rccf  rcdf ) I c 0  rddb J d (0) (37)
J d (h)  rdds I d (h) (38)
Using the above equations to the general solution to the 2 flux KM equations
gives
I d ( z )  {(1  rccf  rcdf ) I c 0 [b cosh( Sbh  Sbz ) 

(a  rdds ) sinh( Sbh  Sbz )]}{b(1  rddb rdds ) cosh( Sbh)  (39)
(a  rddb  rdds  arddb rdds ) sinh( Sbh)}1
and
J d ( z )  {(1  rccf  rcdf ) I c 0 [brdds cosh( Sbh  Sbz ) 

(1  ardds ) sinh( Sbh  Sbz )]}{b(1  rddb rdds ) cosh( Sbh)  (40)
(a  rddb  rdds  arddb rdds ) sinh( Sbh)}1
rcci : the reflection of collimated light as collimated.

rcdi : the reflection of collimated light as diffuse
rddi : the reflection of diffuse light as diffuse
i=f when the reflection is from the front surface
i=b when the reflection is from the back surface
i=s when the reflection is from the substrate
From the previous equation:
(1  rccf  rcdf ) RKM I c 0

J d (0)  (41)
1  rddb RKM
where
1  rdds [a  b coth(bSh)]
RKM  (42)
a  b coth(bSh)  rdds
The collimated reflectance from the coating and substrate system is the collimated
reflected component of the incident radiation
Rcc  rccf (43)
The diffuse reflectance from the coating and substrate is the sum of the diffused
reflected component of the incident radiative flux and the transmitted diffuse
backward flux at z=0, normalized to the incident radiative flux.
rcdf I c 0  (1  rddb ) J d (0)

Rcd  (44)
Ic0
Using the previous equation:
(1  rcdf  rccf )(1  rddb ) RKM

Rcd  rcdf  (45)
1  rddb RKM
with RKM given in (42). The result is similar to the one obtained by Saunderson
for diffuse reflectance and the case of diffuse illumination.
LI YANG REVISED KM THEORY
Li Yang et al [27], used a statistical analysis of light propagation in media and

proposed a revision to KM theory by taking into account the effect of scattering
on the path length of light propagation (path variation).That effort leads to new
expressions of K and S due to the intrinsic k and s coefficients that it seems that
there is no linear relationship between them. According to statistical physics the
mean path length of light free from absorption in the layer lk=1/k. Similarly the
mean path length of the light free from scattering is ls=1/s. Yang assumes that the
light is scattered N times so the called “start to end” displacement vector R (Fig.
6) is given by:
N
R   ln (46)
n 1
Figure 6: Schematic representation of light propagation in a light absorbing and scattering

medium [31]
The ratio between the total path length lk and the length of the corresponding
displacement R in the case of lk  ls is given by:
  lk / R  (lk / ls )1/2  ( s / k )1/2 (47)

In the case that lk  ls , μ=1, since no scattering occurs before the light is absorbed.
Hence the general expression for μ is:
( s ( ) / k ( ))1/2 , s(λ)  κ(λ) 

 ( )    (48)
1, otherwise 
In the original KM theory the effect of scattering-induced path variation was

ignored. In KM corresponds to a special case, means that μ=1. If a particular ray
of light intensity I traversing a path dl through a layer dz then the average path
length dl is:
 /2
1 I d
dl I
  dz 0
I  cos 
=μαΙdz (49)
where
 /2
1 I d
αΙ = 
0
I  cos  (50)
the intensity distribution of the downward flux in the medium. In the case of
diffuse light distribution αΙ=2 and for collimated αΙ=1. Similarly for the upward
flux the average path length is:
 /2
1 J d
dl J
  dz  0
J  cos 
=μαJdz (51)
where
 /2
1 J d
αJ= 
0
J  cos 
(52)
Therefore the intensity variations after passing dz are:
(k  s ) I dl I
  ( k  s ) I I dz (53)
(k  s ) J dl J
  (k  s ) J  J dz (54)
When I and J exists simultaneously the scattered part of I increases J and vice
versa so
dI    (k  s ) I I dz   sJ  J dz (55)
dJ   (k  s) J  J dz   sI I dz (56)
Also Mudget et al [32] suggested that different sets of KM theory S and K

coefficients should be introduced for upwards and downwards fluxes;
dI  ( K I  S I ) Idz  S J Jdz (57)
dJ  ( K J  S J ) Jdz  S I Idz (58)
with K I    k , K J   J k , S I    s and S J   J s
In the case that αI=αJ=α then w the original KM formulas:
dI  ( K  S ) Idz  SJdz (59)
dJ  ( K  S ) Jdz  SIdz (60)
and now:
K   k (61)
S   s (62)
For isotropic scattering as in KM theory the FSR ratio is ξ=1/2 so
K   k (63)
1
S  s (64)
2
The light in diffused distribution α=2, so

K  2 k (65)
S  s (66)
The above equations are similar with the original K and S in the KM theory (K=2k and
S=s),without the μ factor. Finally replacing the equations (65) and (66) with (48):
 ( sk )1/2 , ( s  k ) 
K   k    (67)
 k , otherwise 
1 
  ( s 3 / k )1/ 2 , ( s  k ) 
1  
S   s   2  (68)
2 1  k, otherwise 
 2 
LEVINSON’S MODIFICATIONS IN KM MODEL
Levinson et al [33] developed an extended Kubelka-Munk methodology that

adjusts the coatings reflectance and transmittance measured by a spectrometer,
taking into account the interface reflectances that occur when light passes to a
medium of differing refractive index.
The reflectance of the film is defined by

J
R f     RKM and is named by Levinson as the coating’s continuous
 I  xindex
refractive h
(CRI) reflectance, as assumed by KM theory that the material has
the same refractive index.
The film’s transmittance is defined as:
I x 0 b
  (69)
I x  h aCRI sinh  bSh   b cosh  bSh 
Then the effective S and K coefficients are determined by the equations:
1  1  aCRI R f ,0 
S  arc coth  (70)
bh  bR f ,0 
K   aCRI  1 S (71)
Parameter aCRI is extracted by the CRI reflectance in black substrate R f ,0 where

Rb  0 and in a non-black substrate R f ,1 where Rb  0 .
Then the estimation of S and K depends upon the calculation of R f ,0 . By taking

the CRI reflectances R f ,1 and R f ,2 in two different nonzero backgrounds Rb ,1 , Rb ,2 :
R f ,1 Rb ,2  R f ,2 Rb ,1
R f ,0  (72)
Rb ,2  Rb ,1  R f ,1 Rb ,2  R f ,2 Rb ,1  1
The applicability of the KM theory was studied by Vargas et al, [34]. The
accuracy of the KM method for the determination of the absorption coefficient K
and the scattering coefficient S was also discussed by Vargas et al [35]. It is
shown that the model’s accuracy is reduced, when applied to samples that
backscatter and absorb weakly.
The KM approach, regardless its limitations and restrictions, is widely spread

among researchers plus the colorants industry for the prediction of coatings
optical properties.
FOUR FLUX MODELS

MLG Four Flux Model
Mahue, Letoulouzan and Gouebet, (MLG), introduced a -four flux- model in terms
of Lorentz-Mie theory. In that model only monochromatic light is allowed to enter
the slab. The polarization of the light is not taken into account and the only
process of the slab is the Lorentz-Mie scattering. Finally it is assumed that the
particles have a proper distance between them (independent scattering) [23].
The whole radiation field at location z is modeled as constituted of four parts; (1)
a collimated beam of intensity Ic(z) propagating to negative z; (2) a collimated
beam of intensity Jc(z) propagating to positive z; (3) a diffuse radiation of
intensity Id(z) propagating to negative z; and (4) a diffuse radiation of intensity
Jd(z) propagating to positive z. (Fig. 7)
The axis z ' z is perpendicular to planes I (In) and O(Out), located at z=Z and z=0
respectively.
Figure 7: Sketch of the boundary conditions at Z for collimated radiation [27]
The incident light on plane I is links the reflectances and transmittances with the
particles’ properties D (diameter), N (number of particles) and n (complex
refractive index). A typical ray travel is shown at Fig. 8.
The volume elements of the slab are characterized by; the absorption coefficient
K; the scattering coefficient s; the forward scattering ratio σ; In that case there is
an approximation: for the diffused radiation the forward scattering ratio is also
equal to σ. The backscattering ratio is equal to 1-σ; the average crossing or
average pathlength parameter ξ is equal to 1 for collimated beams and equal to 2
for a semi-isotropic diffuse flux.
Figure 8: Ray-tracing method for collimated radiation [27]

Then it is defined; the forward scattering coefficients for a collimated radiation σs

and for a diffuse radiation ξσs; the backward scattering coefficients for diffuse for
a collimated radiation (1-σ)s and ξ(1-σ)s and the absorption coefficient for a
diffuse radiation ξk. Moreover k and s are defined in [23].
k  NCabs  N  Cext  Csca   NCext 1  0  (73)
s  NCsca  0 NCext (74)
Cext  Cabs  Csca (75)
Csca Qsca s
0    (76)
Cext Qext k  s
whereCext, Csca and Cabs are the Mie cross sections for extinction, scattering and
absorption respectively and α is the single scattering albedo introduced in [23].
Τhe differential equations are built by writing the energy balance of the energies
reflected, absorbed and transmitted of an infinitesimal slab of length dz:
dI c
  k  s  Ic (77)
dz
dJ c
 ( k  s ) J c (78)
dz
dI d
  kI d   (1   ) sI d 
dz (79)
 (1   ) sJ d   sI c   sI c
dJ d
  kJ d   (1   ) sJ d   (1   ) sI d  (1   ) sI c   sJ d (80)
dz
VARGAS GENERALIZED 4-FLUX MODEL
Vargas [24] followed the multiple scattering approach and derived the radiative
transfer equations involving the relative amounts of diffused radiation going into
the forward and the backward hemispheres denoted as Qm(  ) ( z ) respectively. With
that step the forward I and backward J total diffuse intensities are evaluated from

I ( z ,  )   Qm(  ) ( z ) f m (  ) (81)
m 1

J ( z ,  )   Qm(  ) ( z ) f m (  ) (82)
m 1
The effective average pathlength parameters  (  ) and forward scattering ratios for
diffused radiation  d(  ) going into the forward and the backward hemispheres
Vargas are defined. The four flux model is then transformed:
dI c
  k  s  Ic (83)
dz
dJ c
   k  s  Jc (84)
dz
dI d
dz
 
     kI d      1   d   sI d 
(85)
-  
1    sJ
d

d  1    sJ c   sI c
dJ d
dz
   
     kJ d      1   d   sJ d      1   d   sI d  1    sI c   sJ c (86)
4-FLUX MODELS’ RECENT STUDIES AND APPLICATIONS
As previously shown, a generalized four flux model that the reported solutions are
generalizations of those obtained by Maheu et al, 1984 [23] is presented by
Vargas, 1998 [24].
In the same approach Rothenberger et al [36] used the MLG model to characterize
two films, a transparent and a strongly scattering porous titania. This model
estimated the enhancement of optical absorption in dye –sensitized
nanocrystalline solar cells.
Moreover Vargas et al [28-30] used the multiple scattering approach devised by

his extended Hartel theory to compute the average pathlength parameter and the
forward scattering ratio in 4-flux calculations.
FOUR FLUX MODEL DEVELOPMENT AND SOLUTIONS
The energy balance of the energies reflected, absorbed and transmitted of an

infinitesimal cool coating of length dz , provides the system of four differential
equations (77)-(80). The correlation between s and k with S and K is provided in
equations (35) and (36).
The four flux radiative transfer physical problem can be then modeled and
algorithmically solved by the help of the Symbolic Math Toolbox of Language of
Technical Computing, Matlab®. The logical solutions obtained, after some
algebraic procedures, conclude to the determinations of Reflectances: Rcc , Rcd , Rdd
and R , demonstrated at the equations (87)-(99), and to the determinations of
Transmittances: Tcc , Tcd , Tdd and finally of T , demonstrated at the equations (100)-
(106). In all the equations below:
c index stands for collimated
d index stands for diffuse
b: stands for the background
e: index stands for the radiation flowing inward to the slab
i:index that stands for the radiation flowing outward from the slab.
I cZ : collimated radiation at z  Z
I dZ :diffuse radiation at z  Z
rc  I cZ  ARcc  BRcc
Rcc  (87)
I cZ  I dZ
where ARcc and BRcc , are demonstrated at equations (88) and (89)
ARcc 
 
2
I  r -1
cZ c
correspondingly: 
r   r  1- 2  r   r 
(88)
c c cb cb
- exp  k  s   Z  
1- rc  rcb   exp  -k - s   Z 
and
BRcc 
 cb 
 r  1- 2  r  r 
 c cb 
(89)
(1- r  r )  exp   -k - s   Z 
c cb
By the same means:
Rcd  ARcd  BRcd  CRcd  DRcd   ERcd  (90)
where, ARcd , BRcd , CRcd , DRcd , ERcd are demonstrated at equations (91)-(93)
correspondingly:
(1  rdi )
ARcd  (91)
I cZ  I dZ
and
1
BRcd  (92)
a5 (a10 a11  a9 a12 )
where ai , with i=1,2,3,…,13, as denoted at (93).

a1   2 k ( k  2(1   ) s )
a2  s ( k   s (1   )   ( k  s ))
a3  s (1   )( k  s )(  1)
a4   ( k  (1   ) s )
a5   (1   ) s
rc (1  2rcb )  rcb
a6 
1  rc rcb
rdi  rdb (1  rde  rdi )
a7 
1  rdb  rde
a8  c9  c10  a7 (c5  c6 )
1
(a  a 2 ) (93)
a9  a7  4 1
a5
1
(a  a 2 )
a10  a7  4 1
a5
1
a  a 2 12
a11  (1  rdi 4 1 )e a1 Z
a5
1
a a 2 1
a12  (1  rdi 4 1 )e  a1 Z
2
a5
a13  (1  rde ) I dZ  (c5  rdi c9 )e( k  s )Z 
((c6  rdi c10 )e  ( k  s )Z )
and where ci , with i=1,2,3,…,10, as denoted at (94)

 ( k  s ) Z
I cZ (1  rc )e
c1 
1  rc a6 e 2( k  s )Z
c2  c1a6
a10 a13  a8 a12
c3 
a10 a11  a9 a12
a8 a11  a9 a13
c4 
a10 a11  a9 a12
a2 c1
c5 
a1  (k  s ) 2
a3c2 (94)
c6 
a1  (k  s ) 2
1
(a  a 2 )c3
c7  4 1
a5
1
(a  a 2 )c4
c8  4 1
a5
a3c1
c9 
a1  (k  s ) 2
a2 c2
c10 
a1  (k  s ) 2
and
1
CRcd  ( a4  a1 2 )( a10 ((c5  rdi c9 )e( k  s )Z 
1 (95)
(c6  rdi c10 )e  ( k  s )Z  a8 a12 )e a1
2Z
and
1
DRcd  ( a4  a1 2 )( a8 a11  a9 ((c5  rdi c9 )e( k  s )Z 
1 (96)
(c6  rdi c10 )e  ( k  s )Z )e  a1
2Z
and
( k  s ) Z
ERcd  c9 e  c10 e  ( k  s )Z (97)
Moreover:
 (1  rdi )(1  rde ) 

Rdd   rde  
 a5 (a10 a11  a9 a12 ) 
  (a4  a1 2 )a10 e a1 Z  (a4  a1 2 )a9 e  a1 Z  

1 1
1 2 1 2
(98)
 
I dZ

I cZ  I dZ
with ci and ai , as denoted to equations (93) and (94).
The summation of equations (87) (90) and (98) results to the total Reflectance R ,
as presented in (99):
R  Rcc  Rcd  Rdd (99)

Following the same strategy for the Transmittances: Tcc , Tcd , Tdd and T :
(1  rc )(1  rcb ) I c (0)

Tcc  Tc (100)
(1  rc rcb ) I cZ  I dZ
Tcd  ATcd ( BTcd  CTcd ) (101)

where,
(1  rdb )(1  rdi )

ATcd  Td (102)
(1  rde rdb )( I cZ  I dZ )
and
a10  a9
BTcd  ((rdi c9  c5 )e( k  s ) Z 
a10 a11  a9 a12 (103)
(k s)Z
 (rdi c10  c6 )e )
and
a8 (a11  a12 ) a2 c1  a3c2 )

CTcd   (104)
a10 a11  a9 a12 a1  (k  s ) 2
and
(1  rdb )(1  rdi )(1  rde )Td

Tdd  
(1  rde rdb )
a10  a9
  (105)
a10 a11  a9 a12
I dZ

I cZ  I dZ
The summation of equations (100), (101) and (105) results to the total
Transmittance T , as presented at (106).
T  Tcc  Tcd  Tdd (106)

with ci and ai , as denoted to equations (93) and (94).
N-FLUX MODELS
Many-flux or N-flux models were introduced by Mudgett et al [32]. In the

following figure it is shown a three dimensional approach of the channels (Fig. 9).
All light travelling within the direction of θ1 is channel 1, the light travelling at a
polar angle between θ1 and θ2 is channel 2, etc. As it is underlined in the specific
work, it is convenient to use an even number of channels in order to symmetry the
positive and negative directions of possible fluxes. When using the notation F for
a flux radiation for n channels,
dFi n
  Sij Fj , i  n/2 (107)
dx j 1
dFi n
   Sij Fj , i >n/2 (108)
dx j 1
Where Fi is a flux of monochromatic radiation within channel i, Sij is the

coefficient for the scattering from j-channel to i-channel when j  i . If j  i then
Sjj is the total scattering from channel j to all other channels added the absorption
in that channel j. The negative sign means opposite direction of x. A general
solution for 4-flux models using the above formalism could give:
Figure 9: Divisions of directions in space to channels [32]
dF1
 (k  S1  S 2 ) F1 (109)
dx
dF2
 S1 F1  ( K  S ) F2  SF3  S2 F4 (110)
dx
Table 1:.The discussed models and a short properties comparison.

dF3
  S 2 F1  SF2  ( K  S ) F3  S1 F4 (111)
dx
dF4
  (k  S1  S2 ) F4 (112)
dx
where,
F1: the collimated flux in positive direction,
F2: the diffused flux in positive direction,
F3: the diffused flux in negative direction,
F4: the collimated flux in negative direction.
Channels 1 and 4 supposed to have sufficiently small angles then:
S12=S13=S14==S41=S42=S43=0
As well as S21=S34=S1, S31=S24=S2, S23=S32=S.
k is the absorption coefficient of the collimated flux in channels 1 and 4, and the
symbol K is used to describe the weakening of the flux in channels 2 and 3 due to
absorption. It is obvious that the above equations drop to a 2-flux approach if no
collimated flux is considered.
CONCLUSIONS
In comparison (Table 1) one flux Hartel theory fails to thick films while the Vargas’
modified Hartel theory for multi-scattering approach give more realistic results.
Bouguer-Lambert law considers only the absorption of the light so it holds true in
the absence of scattering, that means that only in cases for translucent films it could
give satisfied results. In true films there is a scattering effect with the light
propagating in any direction. The model of Kabelka-Munk considers 2 fluxes one
diffused for the upwards directions and one diffused for the downwards direction.
The Saudersoncorrection on the classical KM model actually estimates the
difference of the refractive indexes and give better results on the reflectance values.
A more sophisticated model introduced by MLG takes into account the collimated
and the diffused light propagation for both directions. While a 4 flux model is more
accurate in its predictions, it is obviously more complicated. Vargas investigations
for FSR and APP updated the previous well known 4 flux model of Maheu et al to a
more detailed model with rigorous expressions. Despite the fact of the evolution of
four flux models KM theory is widely used in industry due to its simplicity and
relevantly accurate results. Typical examples are paint and food industries to
describe thin films. In conclusion each model is used depending on the area of
application with balancing the importance of accurate results.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Declared none.
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CHAPTER 9
Energy and Environmental Aspects of Cool Materials
Maria Kolokotroni1,* and Denia Kolokotsa2
1
Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering and Design, Brunel University,
Kingston Lane, Uxbridge, UB8 3PH, UK and 2Energy Management in the Built
Environment Research Unit, Environmental Engineering Department, Technical
University of Crete, GR 73100 Chania
Abstract: One of the primary reasons for the application of cool materials is their
energy and associated environmental impact on the built environment. Cool materials
are usually applied on the roof of buildings to reduce cooling energy demand. The
relative benefits of this reduction depend on the construction of the building, external
weather conditions and use of the building. Through experimental and computational
studies, it has been demonstrated that energy reduction benefits are significant in
cooling dominated climates but is also observed in moderate climates. This chapter
reviews available literature on this and also presents available simplified toolkits that
can be used in feasibility studies to determine whether or not energy benefits are likely
to materialize. The toolkits also calculate environmental benefits related to energy use
by buildings and related cost benefits to the user. This chapter also presents additional
environmental benefits related to the improvement of thermal comfort inside buildings
which are not air-conditioned, the improvement of external thermal comfort which
results from the mitigation of the urban heat island because of the use of cool materials
and the effect on general pollution in the cities and health.
Keywords: Energy efficiency, reduction of cooling demand, indoor

environmental quality, improvement of outdoor comfort
INTRODUCTION
This chapter is concerned with the energy and environmental benefits of cool
materials. It addresses the energy impact on the building’s heating and cooling
loads which are beneficial in most cases by reducing the overall energy demand
for cooling. Such reduction is dependent on the external weather with marked
reduction in climates with high ambient temperature and solar radiation. The
reduction also depends on the construction and the type of building. For example,
*Address correspondence to Maria Kolokotroni: Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering and Design,
Brunel University, Kingston Lane, Uxbridge, UB8 3PH, UK; E-mail: Maria.Kolokotroni@brunel.ac.uk

232 Cool Materials for the Built Environment Kolokotroni and Kolokotsa
it is less pronounced in well insulated buildings and buildings with small external
roof area in relation to the volume of the building. It is more pronounced in
buildings which are predominantly used during the day because of higher
rejection of heat gains by solar radiation. Section 2 presents documented evidence
of field and computational studies which have demonstrated the energy impact for
different climates and building types.
Energy benefits can be directly calculated as environmental benefits by

considering the CO2 production reduction resulting from less energy use. They
can also be calculated as momentary savings for the same reason. A number of
simplified toolkits exist which can demonstrate this effect for various climates,
building types and construction, type of fuel used and efficiency of the HVAC
system in relation to the properties of cool materials applied to the building. A
review of such tools is presented in Section 3.
There exist additional environmental benefits related to reduction of urban heat

island by the use of cool materials; a review of such benefits including possible
reduction of smog and heat related deaths is presented in Section 4.
IMPACT ON ENERGY DEMAND
Rejection of solar gains is the aim of passive cooling strategies in any type of
building and any climatic region. This needs to be balanced with admission of
solar heat gains which is beneficial for all building types and climatic conditions;
the extent of usefulness is dependent on severity of external conditions and
internal heat gains.
Cool materials work by reflecting solar radiation and therefore rejecting solar heat
gains at the opaque external surfaces of the building. Heat Transfer to the internal
space by conduction is therefore reduced; the magnitude of the reduction will be
determined by:
 The magnitude of solar radiation
 The different of air and surface temperature between outside and

inside of the building
Energy and Environmental Aspects of Cool Materials Cool Materials for the Built Environment 233
 The construction of the opaque building element, namely its resistance

to heat transfers.
Let us discuss the three points in more detail:
Climates with high solar radiation are usually associated with high external air
temperatures in the summer and mild temperatures in winter. In buildings of such
climates rejection of heat gains is essential to maintain comfortable conditions
inside the building or the use of high quantities of artificial cooling. So the use of
cool materials will be beneficial as it will reduce required artificial cooling.
Climates with low solar radiation are usually characterized by moderate air
temperatures in the summer and cold temperatures during the winter. In buildings
of such climates rejection of heat gains should be considered carefully because
they can be useful to reduce heating requirements. On the other hand depending
on the use of the building internal heat gains might be so high that artificial
cooling is required throughout the year. So the use of cool materials might be
beneficial depending on the type of building.
Heat transfer through an opaque building element will depend on inside/outside

temperature difference and resistance of materials. If the temperature difference is
high and the resistance low more heat will be transferred by conduction.
Therefore, the use of cool materials will always reduce heat transfer from outside
to inside because rejection of solar radiation will result to cooler external surface
temperature in comparison to a non-cool material. The rate of the reduction is
dependent on thermal resistance. So, higher reduction will be in a building
element with low insulation.
This section outlines energy and environmental impact. This is usually quantified
by kWh of energy required in a building to maintain comfortable internal
conditions. It can be expressed as energy demand (or load) which does not take
into account the providing system; energy demand is therefore dependent on the
use of the building (internal heat gains), construction of the building (determining
heat transfer between inside and outside, including infiltration) and prevailing
climatic conditions. Energy related environmental impact is usually quantified by
CO2 emissions for the production of required energy, so in most cases it is

expressed as kg of CO2/kWh. In this case, the CO2 emissions depend on the
system which provides the environmental conditions in the building and also the
fuel used. For the same energy demand the fuel used will affect the environmental
impact; for example artificial cooling usually uses electricity which has a higher
environmental impact than gas usually used for heating. Also, for the same energy
demand and fuel the system used to provide environmental conditions will affect
environmental impact depending on its conversion efficiency.
Finally we should consider how energy and environmental impact from various cool
materials and buildings is compared to each other. Usually, energy and
environmental impact is normalized to floor area of the building and expressed in
kWh/m2 or kgCO2/m2 of floor area; this allows easy comparison between buildings.
Cool materials are applied to external surfaces usually roofs as these capture most of
the solar radiation in the building. It has been suggested that a convenient
comparison would be facilitated if we compare energy and environmental impact per
roof or external façade area. This is consistent with benchmarking of other energy
related measures in buildings; for example air leakage, which is an expression of
how airtight a building is and therefore how much energy is lost by infiltration is
normalized by external surface area of the building.
Considering the above, the following two sections present a review of

computational and experimental research work carried out to quantify the energy
and environmental impact of cool materials application to buildings. Obviously,
most work has been carried out for buildings in sunny and hot climates which are
covered in section 2.1 while recently some results have appeared on the benefits
of less sunny and cold climates; these are presented in section 2.2. Finally, section
2.3 presents available simplified toolkits which will allow comparison of different
cool materials taking into account climate and building characteristics.
BUILDINGS WITH HIGH COOLING DEMAND DUE TO WEATHER
A number of experimental and computational studies have been carried out to

demonstrate the energy benefits of cool roofs in reducing energy demand in
buildings in cooling dominated climates. The following is a review of published
papers which presented such information; they are divided into residential and
non-domestic buildings as well as experimental facilities.
RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS
Synnefa, Santamouris and Akbari [1] carried out a computational study to assess
the impact of using cool coatings on roofs on the energy loads and indoor thermal
comfort conditions in residential buildings for various climatic conditions. It was
found that an increase in roof solar reflectance by 0.65 resulting from the
application of a cool coating, reduces cooling loads by 8–48 kWh/m2, the hours of
discomfort by 9–100% and the maximum temperature by 1.2– 3.7 oC, depending
on the climatic conditions. Fig. 1 presents the results of the calculations for the
various locations examined ranked in order of energy benefits.
Figure 1: Climate effect on cooling and heating load changes for a change in roof solar reflectance
of 0.65. [1]
In the same study, a parametric analysis was performed which showed that two
main factors affecting the energy savings resulting from using cool coatings in
residential buildings was the climate and the U-value of the roof. It was
demonstrated that the heating penalty (0.2–17 kWh/m2 year) is less important
compared to the cooling load reduction (9–48 kWh/m2 year) for the climates
studied and that increasing the reflectance of the roof would be more beneficial
regarding the reduction of energy savings and energy costs for lower or no roof
insulation levels, as is the case for most old construction buildings. The study
calculated energy demand and did not take into account systems to provide it;
therefore the energy savings presented in Fig. 1 are load calculations and not
energy consumption which will depend on the system. The study found that the
annual reduction in cooling load to be linear function of changes in roof solar
reflectance for each location and for each roof U-value considered (Fig. 2).
Figure 2: The effect of U-value on the net energy savings resulting from changing the roof
reflectance by 0.4. [1]
Cool roof tiles have been developed for houses and a study for California houses
was carried out [2] on the effect of cool tiles on the annual cooling energy savings.
The paper presents their characteristics and also energy consumption savings versus
ceiling insulation, for the three climates—Fresno, San Bernardino, and San Diego.
The whole-house energy savings were calculated to be 92kWh/year in Fresno,
67kWh/year in San Bernardino, and 8 kWh/year in San Diego.
Measurements of the effect of cool roofs in improving internal thermal comfort in

residential buildings in Italy have been reported in [3]. The measurements
reported here were carried out in the summer of 2006 at an experimental
residential building. The roof was covered by paint with a measured solar
reflectance of 85.9% and measurements were carried out before and after the
application of the paint on the roof. The temperature of the room under the roof
was higher than 27 oC for 99.8% of the time, while in the room below it was 64%.
After the roof was coated, the percentage was, respectively, 58% and 48%. This is
a noticeable outcome with respect to the improvement of thermal comfort on the
space under the cool roof. Fig. 3 presents the air temperature difference between
floor 1 and floor 2 which is the floor under the roof. It can be seen that air
temperature in the space under the roof are lower than on floor 1.
Figure 3: Cumulative distribution of the air temperature difference in the test rooms before and
after coating the roof [3]
An experimental study was carried out for a residential building in Townsville,

Australia [4]. The building is of timber frame and clad construction and has a
corrugated steel roof. A reflective white paint with a reflectivity of 80% was
applied to the roof and measurements have shown that the interior temperatures
reduced relative to the ambient temperature; before painting the interior
temperature was 2.1 K above ambient and after the interior temperature was 0.8 K
above ambient with the corresponding improvement in thermal comfort for the
occupants.
Akbari et al. [5] have shown that an increase in roof reflectance in one monitored
Sacramento house resulted in daily summertime cooling-energy savings of 14
Wh/m2 (63%) and peak-power reduction of 3.6 W/m2 (25%).
Parker et al. [6] monitored the effects of reflective roofs in 11 Florida residences
with daily savings ranging from 5–137 Wh/m2 (2–43%) and peak-demand
reduction of 1.5–7.7 W/m2 (12–28%).
NON-RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS
Several field studies have documented measured air-conditioning (a/c)

summertime energy savings resulting from the use of solar-reflective roofs in the
US mainly in warm-weather climates as reported in [7]. Konopacki and Akbari
[8] have measured daily energy savings of 39 Wh/m2 (11%) and peak-power
reduction of 3.8 W/m2 (14%) in a large retail store in Austin, Texas from the
application of a reflective membrane. Akbari and Rainer [9] measured daily a/c
energy savings of 33 Wh/m2 (1%) in two Nevada telecommunication regeneration
buildings. Konopacki et al. [10] monitored the effect of reflective roofs in three
California commercial buildings, two medical offices and one retail store.
Summertime daily a/c savings of 68, 39 and 4.3 Wh/m2 (18, 13 and 2%) and
reduced demand of 3.3, 2.4 and 1.6 W/m2 (12, 8 and 9%) were measured. In an
office, a museum and a hospice with reflective roofs in Sacramento, Hildebrandt
et al. [11] measured daily a/c savings of 10, 20 and 11 Wh/m2 (17, 26 and 39%).
Parker et al. [12] have also monitored seven retail stores within a strip mall in
Florida before and after applying a reflective roof coating and measured a 7.5
Wh/m2 (25%) drop in daily summertime cooling-energy use and a 0.65 W/m2
(29%) decrease in demand. Parker et al. [13] measured daily energy savings of 44
Wh/m2 (25%) and peak-power reduction of 6.0 W/m2 (30%) from a reflective roof
on a school building in Florida. Akridge [14] reported daily savings of 75 Wh/m2
(28%) for an education building in Georgia, the unpainted galvanized roof of
which was coated with white acrylic. An office building in southern Mississippi
was shown to save 22% after the application of a reflective roof coating [15].
A computational study calibrated by experimental results was carried out for the
hot arid climate of Arizona [16]. It was shown that installing a cool roof reduces
the total electricity consumption by 126,335 kWh (458 GJ) (1.6% decrease) for
50% coverage and by 245,121 kWh (882 GJ) (3.16% decrease) for 100%
coverage of the modelled building. This corresponds to a savings of electricity per
area of 24.9 kWh/m2 and 23.9 kWh/m2 for 50% and 100% cool roof coverage,
respectively. The simulation results reveal that electricity savings can be achieved
throughout the year, although the majority of the savings come in the peak cooling
months. Monthly total electricity reduction ranges from 2.8%–3.4% with 100%
cool roof coverage while the reduction in the monthly electricity consumption for
cooling ranges from 8.4%–12.6%. The sensitivity to roof insulation was also
examiner; by reducing the R-value from 27 to 12 (from 0.12 m of insulation to
0.05 m). The results show that monthly total electricity reduction with the cool
roof system on the reduced insulation ranges from 7. 1% to 8.7% with 100% cool
roof coverage. The electricity reduction for cooling ranges from 15.3% to 24.0%
indicating that the rate of electricity reduction will be twice if the same cool roof
system installed on a building with an R-12 equivalent roof assembly.
Results of energy savings are presented in [17] for a retail store and a school in
California. The authors report that for the retail store without adjusting for
weather conditions of the pre- and post-period, the savings in the total average
daily air conditioning electricity use for the building were estimated at 81 kWh/
day (51%). After correcting for the changes in the weather during pre- and post-
period, the estimated savings were still in excess of 50%. Daily A/C electricity
savings were also seen to rise with increasing outdoor temperature. For the period
of 8 August–30 September 2002, the estimated savings in average air conditioning
energy use was about 83 kWh/day (52%; 72 Wh/m2/day). To estimate the effect
of cool roofs on peak demand electricity use, we inspected A/C hourly electricity-
use data during hours 12 through 17. The results depicted a substantial reduction
in hourly A/C electricity use for all hours, with peak demand reductions higher for
higher outdoor temperature. On very hot days, when the outside temperature was
41 oC, the total peak A/C demand savings was estimated at 14.3 kW (51%). On
typical hot summer days when the afternoon temperature exceeded 38 oC, the
measured savings in average peak demand for peak hours (hours 12–17) was
about 12–13 kW (about 10 W/m2 of conditioned area).
The authors also report that for the school the effect of the cool roof retrofit on A/C
electricity use at the school was less clear than at the retail store. Inspection of the
daily air conditioning electricity use data revealed high fluctuations in daily
consumption, mainly because of irregular classroom operation. Statistical analysis of
A/C electricity use versus the temperature difference and daily total insolation was
performed, with significant correlation between A/C electricity use and temperature
difference observed. Regressions against insolation were not statistically significant.
For the period of 8 July–20 August 2002, the estimated savings in average air
conditioning energy use were about 22–26 kWh/day (17–18%; 42–48 Wh/m2/day).
To estimate the effect of cool roofs on peak electrical demand, we inspected the
hourly total building demand for hours 10 through 17, for the pre- and post-period.
Data showed a visible reduction in hourly A/C demand for all hours but hours 10
and 14 (the correlations for these hours were poor), with peak demand reductions
higher for higher outdoor temperatures. The average peak demand reduction for
hours 10–16 was about 3.1 kW (11%, about 5 W/m2 of conditioned area) when the
outside temperature was 32 oC; 2.8 kW for 27 oC.
Outside the US, a computational study was carried out [18] for six locations
(Durban, Kuala Lumpur, Lisbon, Miami, Phoenix, Shangai) for a retail shed heated
and cooled by electric systems. The study examined the loads for a range of different
coloured coatings with different solar reflective properties, taking into account the
effects of roof angle and skin type of the shed. Using these coatings, a comparison of
the energy use by electric heating and heat pump has been performed.
Fig. 4 is taken from the study and it shows that the use of solar reflective coatings
is effective in reducing cooling load and overall electricity consumption for most
locations, in particular in hot climates with predominant cooling requirements.
Not insulated
Insulated
Figure 4: Energy consumption for an insulated and non-insulated roof of a retail shed at six
locations with low and high pitched roofs and reflectivity of 0.65 and 0.05. [18]
Apart from energy benefits due to conduction heat gains which are lower in the
case of cool roofs, it has been argued that additional benefits might occur by
lowering the temperature of outdoor air that is used to cool unitary air-
conditioning equipment located on roofs. A recent study [19] has concluded that
that the 0.3–0.5 oC reduction in condenser inlet air temperature associated with
using a roof with a solar reflectance of 0.8 instead of one with a reflectance of
0.05–0.37will improve RTU capacity about 0.2–0.5%, reduce system power
consumption about 0.3–1.0%, and improve EER about 0.6–1.1%, all relative to
values at outdoor rating conditions (35 oC). The increased capacity means that the
RTU would need to run 0.2–0.4% less time to meet a given cooling load. With the
run time and power consumption decreases combined, the RTU energy
consumption would decrease about 0.3–1.0%. This is a marginal effect but in the
right direction and small additional energy savings from reducing condenser inlet
air temperature by installing a cool roof would be achieved.
PURPOSE BUILT EXPERIMENTAL FACILITIES
The effect of surface reflectivity was studied in a testing facility in Hong Kong
[20] to include a test and control unit; the effect of different external reflectivity
was examined for lightweight and heavyweight cells. It was found that for the
lightweight construction, the elevation of indoor air temperature was dependant of

solar radiation. With global solar radiation of about 800 W/m2, the indoor air
maximum of white test cell was about 3 K above the outdoor maximum while that
of the black test cell was about 15 K. When solar radiation dropped to 300 W/m2,
indoor temperature elevation was reduced to 1 and 5 K of white and black test
cells, respectively. When the level of global solar radiation further reduced to a
minimum, for example, in rainy days, the difference between indoor and outdoor
temperatures disappeared. When thermal mass was added a suppression of the
diurnal swing of indoor air temperatures was observed: lower maxima and higher
minima. Temperature inside black test cell was about 2 K higher than outdoor air
temperature; while maximum indoor air temperature of white test cell was about 3
K below outdoor. During night hours, elevations of indoor temperature above the
outdoor air were 5 and 2 K of black and white test cells respectively. Under the
effect of thermal mass, the difference of indoor temperatures between the two test
cells was reduced by half. Apart from the ability of temperature suppression, the
addition of thermal mass also delayed the occurrence of peak temperatures for
several hours. The result suggested that the addition of thermal mass reduced the
sensitivity of surface colour. However, the effect of thermal mass on indoor
temperature was not linear. Measurement of air temperature inside white test cell
with doubled thermal mass (two layers of concrete bricks) revealed that the effect
of thermal mass flatten when it reaches certain thickness.
Another study in Xi’an China [21] which is characterised by hot summers and
cold winters carried out experiments on two closed masonry models by changing
reflectivity on the external surfaces of the physical models. The experimental
results show that wall-facing materials
with high albedo could achieve the effect of heat-protection in summer and heat-
insulation in winter. Under the same conditions, the wall-facing materials with
high albedo can reflect incident solar radiation and hold back heat into buildings
effectively in summer, and they maintain a higher indoor temperature for
preventing heat dissipating outside in winter. When the albedo changes from 0.21
(bare cement plaster) to 0.86 (white coating), the decrease of indoor air
temperature was up to 4.67 oC with the average diurnal temperature decrease up to
3.53 oC in summer. In contrast, the increase of indoor air temperature was up to
2.81 oC in winter. The change trends of the heat flux intensity of the interior and
exterior surface and the load of the building models were calculated with the help
of Laplace integral transform method. The energy-saving analysis indicates that
the wall-facing materials with high albedo have the function of heat-protection
and heat-insulation, and could reduce 150.3 W per day of the buildings’ cooling
load in summer and 69.5 W per day of heating load in winter. Thus the indoor
heat environment can be improved effectively and the energy conservation can be
achieved accordingly.
A study was carried out in a purpose built experimental facility in Egypt to

examine the effect of various passive options for cooling (including cool roofs) in
hot and dry climates [22] in metal retail shops. Under such conditions, the
temperature inside metal workshops and hangers exceeds 40 oC. A cubic shape
cabinet has been constructed to approximate a metal building. A simple and
inexpensive modification has been introduced to the roof of the metal structure in
order to achieve the required temperature reduction. These methods are:
 White painted roof.
 Using thermal insulation above or below the roof.
 Water pond roof with and without movable insulation.
 Evaporative cooling, and
 Using a solar chimney on one side of the building.
Fig. 5 shows the variation of air temperature (TB) inside the reference cabinet (B)
and air temperature (TA) inside the modified cabinet (A) for the examined case of
white roof. The figure shows that all temperatures increase with time till solar
noon then it drops in the afternoon. This trend follows the variation in solar
radiation with the time of day. The white paint increases the reflectance of the
roof; thus less energy is supplied to the interiors, and the air temperature inside
cabinet B becomes lower than the temperature inside cabinet A. It has to be noted
that no air exchange take place inside the two cabinets.
Figure 5: Variation of temperature during day[22]
The study compared the different passive techniques adopted in the investigation, the
instantaneous differences between the air temperature inside the modified cabinet
and the ambient temperature (TA - Tamb) have been calculated. An average value
over the entire data set has been obtained. These average differences are presented in
Table 1. It is seen from the table that during daytime, evaporative cooling using
single or double layer of wet material, solar chimney, and water pond with movable
insulation provide comfortable conditions inside the space. The air temperature
differs from the ambient temperature by about 1 oC. The living space attains a
temperature higher than the ambient by about 16 oC when no modification is
introduced to it. This temperature drops to 3 oC above ambient when the roof is
thermally insulated. Similarly, a roof provided with a water pond or painted white
yields temperatures of 4 and 6 oC above the ambient temperature, respectively.
Table 1: Daily average differences between inside and ambient temperature (TA-Tamb)
Passive Technique (TA-Tamb) °C

White paint 6.3
Evaporative cooling (one layer of gunny bag cloth) 0.9
Evaporative cooling (two layers of gunny bag cloth) -1.2
Insulated roof 2.6
Thermal insulation under roof 3.0
Water pond 3.85
Water pond with movable insulation 1.3
Solar chimney 1.0
BUILDINGS WITH MODERATE COOLING DEMAND DUE TO

WEATHER
Experimental and computational studies are less numerous for buildings located in
climates with moderate cooling demand because in many cases the heating
penalties can out-weight cooling benefits. However, there are net energy benefits
to be obtained; in particular cool roofs can improve internal thermal comfort in
buildings without air-conditioning. Therefore, they could be considered despite
heating energy benefits of they can help avoidance of air-conditioning installation.
Akbari and Konopacki [23] have presented an excellent summary of results to

2004 in the US for both hot and cold regions. Computational studies were carried
out to estimate the net direct energy savings (cooling-energy savings minus heat-
energy penalties) from reflective roofs on residential and commercial buildings in
11 US metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs). Metropolitan-wide savings were as
much as $37 M for Phoenix and $35 M in Los Angeles and as low as $3 M in the
heating-dominated climate of Philadelphia.
The same paper [23] presented results for Toronto, Canada. It showed that by
increasing the albedo of houses by 0.2 (from moderate-dark to medium-light
colour), the cooling-energy use can be reduced by about 30–40. However, they
also found that reflective roofs and shade trees reduce summer cooling-energy use
and also potentially increase winter heating-energy use. The net savings ($
savings in cooling energy use minus $ penalties in heating-energy use) are highly
sensitive to prices of cooling- and heating-energy fuels. In the residential building
prototypes cooled and heated with electricity, the study found that most of the
cooling-energy savings are written off by the penalties in heating-energy use.
Since reflective roofs and shade trees affect the energy performance of a building
typically for 20–30 years, a better understanding of long-term trends in energy
prices would lead to better estimates of savings potentials.
Along these suggestions and as part of the Cool Roofs in the EU project [24], two
experimental studies were carried out in an office building in London, UK and a
residence in Poitiers, France in the same manner as the results presented for other
buildings (including the two summarised here) in Chapter 12.
UK Office
The building is located at Brunel University [25], west London and is an open plan
office on the top floor of a four storey building. The floor plan, an internal and
external view of the building can be seen in Figs. 6-8. The examined office has a
floor area of 97.6 m2 and a flat roof. The pre-painted building was monitored (roof
albedo value 0.1) for two months (May to June 2009); a cool roof paint was applied
in July (roof albedo value 0.6) and monitoring continued for another two months
(August-September 2009). The painted roof can be seen in Fig. 9.
E D F
Surface
temperature
measurements Roof top thermocouple
will be attached to
separate HOBO
G
N
B Note: Hobo (I) to
Air temperature & C measure air
Relative humidity temperature and
relative humidity has
been placed on 2nd
Corridor H floor (just below this
room)
Figure 6: Floor plan of the case-study in London also showing measurement locations.
Figure 7: Internal view of the case-study building in London

Figure 8: External view of the case-study building in London.
Figure 9: Cool Roof of the case-study building in London.
Analysis was carried out by considering internal/external temperature differences

and was found that:
 Surface temperature were reduced by an average of 2 oC in the middle

of the day.
 Air temperatures were reduced by an average of 2-3 oC in the middle

of the day.
Main results of measurements are presented in Fig. 10-13.

50
45
40
Temperature degC
35
30
25 Air Temperature
Roof Surface Temp
20
Ceiling Surface Temp
15
10
0
27/05/2009 16/06/2009 06/07/2009 26/07/2009 15/08/2009 04/09/2009
Date
Figure 10: Measured air and surface temperature of case-study building before (June) and after
(August) the application of the cool roof.
Daytime surface temperature difference trends
2.0
0.0
temp differences(ext-in) deg C
-2.0
-4.0
-6.0
-8.0
-10.0
-12.0
-14.0
07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00
time in hrs
Open office before Open office after
Figure 11: Measured daytime surface temperature differences (roof temperature – internal soffit
temperature)
Daytime air temperature trends

14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00
Hour
Δair tem open office before Δair tem open office after
Figure 12: Measured daytime air temperature, external-internal difference; values are daily
daytime air temperature differences before and after the application of cool roof materials
29
28
Temperature oC
27
26
25
24
07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00
time in hours
cloudybefore cloudy after partially cloudy before
partially cloudy after clear sky before clear sky after
Figure 13: Measured and Climate controlled (solar radiation) daytime air temperature trends in
the open plan office
In order to study the effect in more detail, thermal simulations were carried out
using TRNSYS [26]. The simulations have indicated the following:
1. There is reduction on maximum and average internal air and operative

temperatures during the summer months. For the month of August,
maximum internal air temperature is reduced by 1.2 oC and average
air temperature by 2 oC. In terms of thermal comfort, the maximum
operative temperature is reduced by 2.2 oC and average operative
temperature by 5.3 oC improving significantly thermal comfort.
Albedo values were taken as 0.1 (before cool roof ) and 0.6 (after cool
roof).
2. Overheating hours during the summer have been reduced significantly

with higher albedo values. Comfort (temperatures above 25 oC) is
improved for 25% hours in terms of internal air temperature by
changing the albedo from 0.1 to 0.9 while operative temperature is
improved for 30% of the hours. This is shown graphically in Fig. 14.
3. Heating load was increased and cooling load was decreased with an
overall reduction. In general, there is a reduction of heating and
cooling demand and this varies between less than 1% and 8.5% during
the year. As expected, lower ventilation rates achieved higher energy
savings in an air-conditioned building with the highest reduction
indicated (for the examined case) for an albedo value of 1.0, air
change rate of 2 and summer and winter set-point temperatures of 25
o
C and 21 oC respectively. This is shown graphically in Figs. 15-17.
1200
1000
800
Internal Air Temperature >25 deg
Hours
600 Internal Air Temperature >28 deg
Internal Operative Temperature >25 deg
400 Internal Operative Temperature >28 deg
200
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Albedo
Figure 14: Predicted Internal Air and Operative Temperatures for the case-study building during
the summer (May-October) above 25 and 28 oC
100%
95%
90%
85%
% cooling demand
80% Summer ‐ 25 deg 2ACH

60%
55%
50%
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Roof albedo
Figure 15: Predicted percentage cooling demand for the case-study building for two summer set-
point temperatures and air change rate for the range of albedo values.
4. Considering realistic values for albedo, the optimum albedo is

indicated as 0.6 to 0.7 with air change rate of 2ACH which achieved
an overall heating and cooling load reduction of 3-6% depending on
the set-point temperature.
135%
130%
125%
120% Winter ‐ 23 deg 2ACH

Winter ‐ 23 deg 4ACH
115%
Winter ‐ 21 deg 2ACH
110% Winter ‐ 21 deg 4ACH
105%
100%
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Roof albedo
Figure 16: Predicted percentage heating demand for the case-study building for two winter set-
point temperatures and air change rate for the range of albedo values.
102%
100%
98%
Sum25‐Win23‐2ACH
% energy demand
96% Sum25‐Win21‐2ACH
94%
92%
90%
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Roof albedo
102%
100%
98%
% energy demand
96% Sum25‐Win21‐4ACH
94%
92%
90%
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Roof albedo
Figure 17: Percentage of heating and cooling demand for the case-study building for two
summer/winter set-point temperatures and air change rate for the range of albedo values
5. Increasing insulation levels would decrease potential energy benefits in

heating and cooling demand. For a U-value of 1.88 W/m2K a change of
albedo from 0.1 to 0.7 would reduced the heating and cooling demand
by 7% while for a U-value of 0.23 W/m2K, the same change of albedo
will reduce the load by only 2%. This is shown in Fig. 18.
energy saving in kWh/m2 roof area/year
0
0.000 0.500 1.000 1.500 2.000
U‐value of roof
Figure 18: Energy savings in heating and cooling demand by changing the albedo from 0.1 to 0.7
for various insulation levels
In conclusion this case-study analysis for the moderate climate of South East
England (suburban London) indicates that applying cool roof technology could be
beneficial in terms of increased thermal comfort in the summer and could
decrease overall energy use for heating and cooling. However, energy savings are
dependent on building related construction and operation. In general:
 In free floating (naturally ventilated) buildings summer comfort is

improved but there is a penalty of increased heating energy during the
winter. Thermal comfort can be improved by as much as 5 oC
(operative temperature difference for a change of 0.5 in albedo) but
heating demand could be increased by 10%.
 In air conditioned buildings, set-point temperature plays an important

role in the comparative energy demand for the range of albedo values.
In general, there is a reduction of heating and cooling demand and this
varies between 1% and 8.5% during the year. As expected, lower

ventilation rates achieve higher energy savings in an air-conditioned
building with the highest reduction indicated (for the examined case)
for an albedo value of 1.0, air change rate of 2 and summer and winter
set-point temperatures of 25 oC and 21 oC respectively.
 Insulation level of the roof will affect the reduction in heating and cooling
energy demand with decreasing benefits for higher insulation values
Considering realistic values for albedo, the optimum albedo is indicated as 0.6 to
0.7 with air change rate of 2ACH which achieved an overall heating and cooling
load reduction of 3-6% depending on the set-point temperature. Energy benefits
are higher for lower insulation of the roof.
Le Parvis : Collective Dwellings, Poitiers

“Le Parvis” was built in 1995, in the Saint-Eloi quarter in Poitiers, and is
composed of 87 dwellings with 4 floors. The building (Fig.19) is owned by the
SIPEA Contractor and is composed of collective dwellings intended for low
income households. It has a slightly sloped roof (11.8%), was constructed with
steel cladding, was insulated with a 100mm mineral wool and sealed with asphalt.
Figure 19: Collective dwellings in Poitiers and the duplex flat chose for the case study
The roof slope faces east and is not shaded by adjacent dwellings. This Cool Roof
case study focuses on the dwellings under the roof which are all duplex
apartments of approximately 100 m2 each.
The walls are insulated with 100mm polystyrene and the windows are made of
PVC with double glazing. The attic above each duplex apartment is also insulated
with 200mm mineral wool.
The studied building has no cooling system for summertime, which is the
common practice in most parts of France. So the impact of the Cool Roof’s
technology application is evaluated in terms of indoor temperature difference for
the studied duplex flat compared to the adjacent duplex flats.
The roof was coated with a cool paint, manufactured by Soprema (Model R’
Nova), at the end of July 2009. The cool paint’s solar reflectance is 0.88 and
infrared emittance 0.90 (Fig. 20).
Figure 20: Roof with Cool paint, summer 2009
The monitoring started on 1st of June and ended on 31 August 2009. The cool
paint was applied on 28 July. Fig. 21 presents the surface temperature evolution.
80.0 °C
Ts measure [°C]
70.0 °C
60.0 °C
50.0 °C
40.0 °C
30.0 °C
20.0 °C
10.0 °C
0.0 °C
1‐juin 11‐juin 21‐juin 1‐juil. 11‐juil. 21‐juil. 31‐juil. 10‐août 20‐août 30‐août
Figure 21: Surface temperatures before and after the Cool Roofs application
The temperatures evolved with the same daily variation, with high maximum
temperatures differences. During the night, the minimum temperatures were very
similar. The predicted mean surface temperature for the cool painted surface is
21.6°C compared to 34.1°C for the default roof surface for the summer period.
operative temp. [asphalt] outdoor temp. °C operative temp. [cool paint]
30.00
28.00
26.00
24.00
22.00
20.00
Figure 22: Operative temperatures evolution before and after the Cool Roofs application
The difference in the indoor operative temperature (Fig. 22) is less visible due to
the good insulation of the attic: the mean operative temperature in the room
decreased from 24.9°C to 24.2°C. In this case, with a very well insulated roof,
there is a predicted gain of approximately 1°C on the maximum operative
temperature, from 30.2°C to 29.3°C.
In conclusion, limited experimental and computational case-studies in heating

dominated climates have indicated that applying cool roof technology could be
beneficial in terms of increased thermal comfort in the summer and could
decrease overall energy use for heating and cooling. However, energy savings are
dependent on building related construction and operation.
In naturally ventilated buildings summer comfort is improved significantly with

also increased heating requirement in winter. The effect is more pronounced for
roofs with high U-values (less insulation).
Comparison Toolkits
The aim of the present section is to present the various tools and models that are
available on line for energy savings’ evaluation of cool roofs.
THE STAR MODEL AND THE DOE CALCULATOR
The aim of the present section is to present the STAR (Simplified Transit
Analysis of Roofs) model that predicts heat flows and temperatures within low-
slope roof systems having known thermal properties. The model is developed by
the Oak Ridge Laboratory of the US Department of Energy [27].
Since the model must be comprehensive, flexible, simple and fast, equations in
the form of polynomials are selected as the means to predict annual cooling and
heating loads as a function of location, surface radiation properties (solar
reflectance and infrared emittance ) and roof insulation level (R-value). Therefore,
coefficients are sought to give dimensionless and normalized cooling loads in the
following forms:
CL
 a1,1 (r ,  , R)CI 
60000
 a1,2 (r ,  , R)CI2  a1,3 (r ,  , R)CI3
HL
 a2,1 (r ,  , R) H I 
60000
 a2,2 (r ,  , R) H I2  a2,3 (r ,  , R ) H I3
where,
CL Cooling load Btu/ft2 per year

CI Cooling index (average hourly solar insulation)·CDD65/500000
HL Heating load Btu/ft2 per year
HI Heating index HDD65/10000
Dependent on solar reflectance (r), infrared emittance (ε)
ai,j Unknown constants to be estimated
and roof’s thermal resistance (R)
and,
(Annual sum/24) of hourly differences between air

CDD Cooling degree days
temperature and 65°F when air temperature > 65°F
(Annual sum/24) of hourly differences between 65°F and
HDD Heating degree days
air temperature when air temperature < 65°F
Further the dependence of the ai,j’s on ρ, ε and R is modeled as:
ai , j  bi0, j ( R )  bi1, j ( R )r  bi2, j ( R )r 2  bi3, j ( R) 3 ;

i  1, 2, j  1, 2,3
bik, j  cik, ,0j  cik, ,1j R  cik, ,2j R 2  cik, ,3j R 3 ;

i  1, 2, j  1, 2,3, k  0,1, 2, 4
The last equation is fitted exactly since only four R values were considered (R-5,
R-13, R-25 and R-32). Thus 64 constants are found in total (of which 16 are
exactly fit and 48 regressed).
Having estimated the regression constants, a tool can estimate the annual heating
and cooling loads for a roof in a particular geographical location (characterized by
its heating and cooling degree days and solar insolation) with given solar
reflectance, infrared emittance and thermal resistance.
The estimator is valid for the following range of input values:
0.9 W/(m²K)<R<7 W/(m²K)
5%<ρ<85%, 5%<ε<95%
Inside air temperatures ±5°F (±3°C) different from 72.5°F (22.5°C) are allowed
because the estimating tool does calculations for a roof with solar radiation
control relative to one without solar radiation control (black roof). As long as the
inside air temperature is the same with and without solar radiation control, the
estimates with the tool are valid. This includes effects of different thermostat set
points during the heating and cooling seasons.
DOE’S ‘COOL ROOF CALCULATOR’
This tool is developed by the Oak Ridge Laboratory of the US Department of Energy
and is hosted at http://www.ornl.gov/sci/roofs+walls/facts/CoolCalcEnergy.htm.
It is an interactive tool to assist building owners and/or operators in investing on

solar radiation control. The specific tool applies to buildings with low-slope roofs
(i.e. up to 20%), but tools for steep-sloped roofs have also been developed. The
building should be heated/cooled by an air-conditioning apparatus and/or
additional heating sources (e.g. oil or gas furnace). The tool estimates the annual
savings in $/ft2 for various types of “cool roofs”. Details of the tool’s development
are presented in [28]. A screenshot is depicted in Fig. 23).
Figure 23: DOE CoolRoof Calculator screenshot
ENERGY STAR’S ‘ROOFING COMPARISON CALCULATOR’
This tool is developed by the US’s Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and
is hosted at http://www.roofcalc.com/.
The calculator is based on the same algorithm as the one that is used by the
DOE’s “Cool Roof Calculator”. The tool estimates the annual savings in $ for
various types of “cool roofs” (see a screenshot in Fig. 24).
Figure 24: The Energy Star Cool Roofs Calculator
MIST: MITIGATION IMPACT SCREENING TOOL
The Mitigation Impact Screening Tool (MIST) is intended to provide qualitatively

accurate assessments of the likely impacts of heat island mitigation strategies
averaged at the city-scale. All results presented in this tool were obtained using
state-of-the-science modeling tools. Nevertheless, the required assumptions and
approximations dictate that the results presented by MIST are qualitative in
nature.
The mitigation strategies investigated include increasing urban albedo and/or

increasing urban vegetative cover. MIST also allows investigation of average
temperature reduction and produces estimates of the resulting impacts on ozone
and energy consumption. The user may enter either positive or negative values to
represent the desired level of change in albedo, vegetation, or temperature.
The user has to enter:
 City location
 Choice of mitigation strategy to test
and the system returns impacts on meteorology, air quality and energy.
It should be emphasized that this tool is intended for screening purposes only. The
research upon which it is based necessarily incorporates a number of assumptions
and MIST makes further assumptions and interpolation/extrapolation to make the
results widely applicable for a large number of cities and a wide range of
mitigation strategies.
The tool is located at http://www.heatislandmitigationtool.com/Introduction.aspx.
A typical screenshot is shown in Fig. 25.
Figure 25: The MIST tool

THE EU-COOL ROOFS TOOLKIT

Scientific Methodology for Tool’s Development
The tool uses the same methodology as described in [27]. Since Europe has
roughly the same climatic conditions as USA, it was assumed that the fitted
polynomials, as described in Section 2.1, would yield good results for European
cities as well. This assumption was tested as described in the following, and was
found to be readily acceptable.
Appropriate modifications were made:
 The R-value is measured in Km²/W (SI units) instead of h•ft²•°F/Btu

(US Imperial units).
 Energy costs are all in €/KWh instead of $/therm or $/KWh.
 Savings are all given in €/m2
 Solar, heating and cooling loads are given in KWh/m²
 Heating and cooling degree days are calculated for a temperature

threshold of 20°C.
Description of the Tool

The tool contains climatic data extracted by METEONORM for the following
countries and cities:
 Austria: Gratz, Linz, Vienna.
 Belgium: Antwerpen, Brussels, Liege.
 Bulgaria, Burgas, Plovdiv, Sofia.
 Cyprus: Akrotiri, Larnaca, Nicosia, Pafos.
 Czech Republic: Brno, Ostava, Prague.
 Denmark: Arhus, Copenhagen, Odense.

 Estonia: Narva, Tallin, Tartu.
 Finland: Espoo, Helsinki, Oulu, Rovaniemi Airp., Tampere.
 France: Ajaccio, Bastia, Bordeaux, Lyon, Marseille, Montpellier,

Nantes, Nice, Paris, Strasbourg, Toulouse.
 Germany: Berlin, Munich, Stuttgart.
 Ireland: Cork, Dublin, Kilk
 Hellas: Athens, Herakleion, Kerkyra (Corfu), Larissa, Patra,

Thessaloniki.
 Hungary: Budapest, Gyor, Klagenfurt, Pecs, Szeged, Szego.
 Italy: Bari, Florence (Firenze), Milano, Napoli, Palermo, Roma,

Torino.
 Latvia: Daugavpils, Jelgava, Riga.
 Lithuania: Kaunas, Panevezhis, Vilnus.
 Luxemburg: Luxemburg.
 Malta: Malta.
 Netherlands: Amsterdam, Eidhoven, Groningen.
 Poland: Dadrowa, Krakov-Balice, Warsaw.
 Portugal: Amadora, Lisboa, Porto, Setubal.
 Romania: Arad, Bucuresti, Tigu Mures.
 Slovakia: Bratislava, Kosice.
 Slovenia: Ljubliana, Marebor.

 Spain: Barcelona, Granada, Madrid, Sevilla.
 Sweden: Arjeplog, Gothenburg, Jonkoping, Kiruna Airp., Oerebro,

Stockholm.
 United Kingdom; Edinburgh, London, Manchester, Nottingham,

Sunderland.
A screenshot of the tool is shown in Fig. 26. As seen the screen is divided into
two parts containing the respective input and output data.
Figure 26: The EU Cool Roofs Toolkit
Input Data
The present calculator works well for low slope roofs. The input parameters are
the following:
 Country and city selector: Most European countries are included. If a

city is not listed then the nearest one in terms of latitude, i.e. of similar
climatic conditions, may be selected.
 Roof data
R-value: This value refers to the existing roof. It generally falls

between 0.80 and 5. The higher the R-value, the greater a product’s
resistance to heat flow and the better its insulating value. Even though
the calculator accepts low R-values, values less than 0.25 may
produce erroneous estimates.
The estimator works best in the following range of values:
0.9<R<7
 Solar reflectances (SR) and infrared emitances (IE): These values

refer to the proposed roof. The values may vary:
5<SR<95, 5<IE<95
 Energy data: include the energy sources’ cost
 Air conditioner efficiency (cooling Coefficient Of Performance-COP):

Average seasonal efficiency of cooling equipment and heating
equipment depends upon the kind of equipment and its condition.
Electric air conditioning is rated by the coefficient of performance
(COP) which is a dimensionless quantity (joule/joule). The higher the
COP the more efficient (i.e. the more economical) is the air
conditioning system. Typical values for old equipment are 1.8 to 2.6.
New, very efficient equipment may have COP values as high as 4.2.
 Heating equipment efficiency: Fuel burning equipment have an

efficiency that is always less than 1.0, ranging from 0.5 to 0.6 for old,
inefficient equipment and from 0.8 to 0.9 for typical new equipment.
Condensing, natural gas furnaces may have seasonal heating efficiencies
as high as 0.95. Electric resistance heating converts electricity directly
into heat with an efficiency of 1.0. A better use of electricity for heating
is to run an electric heat pump. For air-to-air heat pumps, a typical value
is 1.5 with a value as high as 2.0 in mild climates.
Output Data
The outputs of the toolkit are:
 Heating and Cooling Degree Days for the specific area.
 Heating and Cooling Loads per surface area of roof for a black roof
considering that a black roof has solar reflectance equal to 5%.
 Heating and Cooling Loads per surface area of roof for a cool roof.
 Cost savings.
Figure 27: The energy efficiency estimated by the EU Cool Roofs Toolkit for various EU
countries
DISCUSSION
All the above calculators and tools can be applied for an easy and initial
estimation of the energy conservation that can be achieved by the EU cool roofs
toolkit is applied for the analysis and evaluation of the energy savings in various
EU regions. As depicted in Fig. 27, although there is always a significant
reduction for the cooling needs the overall reduction of the energy consumption is
considerable only for the southern warm climates.
In the other regions, the cool roofs should be evaluated as a mitigation technique
for the urban environment rather than an energy efficient technology. Moreover as
it is well known the changes of cooling loads and in the overall energy efficiency
are decreased when the insulation is increased (see Fig. 28).
Figure 28: The impact of insulation to the energy efficiency from cool roofs application
In conclusion, the role of calculators is significant for screening and estimating

the cost effectiveness of cool materials. Various tools and models exist that cover
this specific topic in US and EU region that are mainly based in regression
analysis techniques in a satisfactory degree.
ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS
Cool materials reflect solar radiation and therefore the surface temperature of
buildings is lower than those with lower reflectivity values; this issue is covered
in chapters 2 and 3 together with energy benefits from this effect for urban
environments.
In this chapter, section 2 showed through published experimental and

computational studies that energy consumption is reduced in buildings with cool
roofs, more significantly in hot climates. This implies that CO2 emissions due to
energy consumed in buildings is reduced and the magnitude of this reduction
depends on the fuel used and system for the provision of the building’s
environmental conditions. For example if electricity is used for cooling and gas
for heating then the positive environmental impact would be higher than what the
energy consumption magnitude suggests.
Past studies have also shown that there are indirect energy and smog benefits.
Increased urbanization, energy consumption and growing pollutant

emissions, associated with the presence of urban heat island, have a
strong impact on urban pollution, Crutzen (2004) [29]. As pointed out, ‘it
will be important to explore the consequences of combined urban heat
and pollution island effects for meso-scale dynamics and chemistry’.
On this direction, Sarrat et al [30], (2006), have studied the impact of

urban heat island on pollution, during a summertime anticyclonic episode
associated with a high photochemical episode of pollution in the Paris
region, France. The study shows that both nocturnal and diurnal urban
effects have an important impact on the primary and secondary regional
pollutants and more specifically the ozone and the nitrogen oxide (NOx).
The spatial distribution and the availability of pollutants are significantly
modified by the urbanized area mainly due to enhanced turbulence.
Stahopoulou et al [31] have studied the impact of increased ambient

temperatures on the tropospheric ozone concentration in the urban area of
Athens. Air temperature and ozone concentration data from several
experimental stations in the greater Athens area were collected and used.
A very good correlation between urban temperatures and ozone
concentrations has been found. In parallel, it is observed that the ozone
concentration fluctuation follows the relative ambient temperature

variation, especially during the daytime, when the highest values of
ozone are observed because of the high values of solar radiation and of
the high concentrations of ozone precursors.
Taha [32, 33] as quoted in [34] examined the impacts of using cool surfaces using
the Los Angeles Basin as a case-study. He showed that of higher albedo surfaces
are applied, an urban heat island can be limited. In these simulations, Taha
estimates that if about 50% of the urbanized area in LA is covered by roofs and
roads, the albedo of which can realistically be raised by 0.30 when they undergo
normal repairs, a 2oC cooling at 3.00om can be expected during August. This
summertime temperature reduction can have a significant effect on further
reducing building cooling energy use.
Taha also simulated the impact of urban-wide cooling in Los Angeles on smog;
the results show a significant reduction in ozone concentration. The simulations
predict a reduction of 10-20% in population–weighted smog (ozone).
Studies examining heat-related health risk have also indicated a connection with
increased albedo. In general, there is a well-established relationship between
outdoor temperatures and the risk of heat-related mortality [35-40]. A recent study
in London examined the association of London summertime excess deaths with
urban form, land cover and land surface temperature [41]
During the period of the defined heatwave (15–28 July 2006), there were an
average of 145.1 deaths a day, compared with 130.7 a day on other days in June,
July and August. The daily plot of counts of deaths suggests that increases in daily
deaths also occurred during periods of high temperature in June and July before
the defined heatwave. Logistic regression analysis of the relationship between the
proportion of deaths occurring during the heatwave and each of the listed
variables showed that only age and the average height of buildings within the
locality were statistically significant determinants of heatwave death. The
proportions of land covered by buildings, the proportion covered by green space,
and the proportion covered by water were not clearly associated with heat death,
nor were night temperature. The association between heatwave death and building
height was little affected by adjustment for age group or by further adjustment for
surface temperature. The latter observation suggests that the association with
building height is independent of any effect of surface temperatures which are
generally higher in Central London (heat island effect). The estimate of the effect
of building height is equivalent to around a 50% increase in risk of heatwave
death in the areas of London with the highest building height compared with areas
with an average building height of 5 meters.
Such results might imply the effectiveness of reflective materials applied to roofs
as a method of mitigating health effects from high temperatures on upper floor of
buildings.
Finally, [34] another benefit of a light-colored roof is a potential increase in its

useful life. The diurnal temperature fluctuation will result to a smaller expansion
and contraction of a light-colored roof than that of a dark one. Also, the
degradation of materials due to the absorption of ultra-violet light is a temperature
dependent process. For these reasons, cooler roofs may last longer than hot roofs
of the same material.
CONCLUSIONS
This chapter presented findings of energy and environmental impact from the
application of cool materials. Section 2 has shown that energy consumption by
buildings is significantly reduced in cooling dominated climates as well as the
requirement for air-conditioning installed capacity. This is true for all types of
buildings, houses and non-domestic such as offices, schools and retail buildings.
Most literature originates from the US but recent studies from Europe and Asia
confirm the findings. There is less work reported from heating dominated
climates; recent work in Europe confirms that there are energy benefits but the
balance of cooling energy saving and heating energy increase should be
considered in more detail for such applications.
For this purpose, there exist a number of feasibility toolkits which can be used to
quantify the energy, energy related environmental impact and possible monetary
impact by the application of specific cool roof materials to specific buildings in
specific climates. Existing toolkits are mainly applicable to US buildings and
climatic conditions and a European toolkit has also recently developed. These
have been presented in Section 3 of this chapter.
Additional environmental benefits such as improvement of internal comfort

conditions in non air-conditioned buildings are significant in particular in cooling
dominated climates but also in temperate climates; albeit with a heating energy
penalty in the later case. Findings of these improvements by experimental and
computational studies have been presented in Section 2.
Finally, Section 3 have discussed environmental benefits resulting by mitigation

of urban heat island such as improvement of external thermal comfort, reduction
of pollution and impact on human health.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Declared none.
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CHAPTER 10
Policy Aspects of Cool Materials
Julie Garman – Kolokotsa*
Athena Consulting Group, 38 Dreve du Pressoir, Brussels 1190 Belgium
Abstract: Regulatory bodies around the world are considering technological solutions to
reduce energy consumption, mitigate climate change, improve living conditions, and
encourage a more environmentally-friendly construction industry – both quickly and
inexpensively. Cool materials are a technology that can contribute to these objectives,
particularly in countries with higher energy use during summer or with areas that suffer
from the “urban heat island phenomenon” (e.g. big cities). To compare policies that
incentivize Cool Materials, a landscape assessment of relevant policies was conducted. The
scope includes the most important international, regional, national and local initiatives. The
intention of the Landscape Assessment was to give an overview of existing and
forthcoming policies that do or may affect the accelerated introduction of Cool
technologies. This assessment is the first step in answering the question “how far has policy
moved to help promote Cool Materials” which is the first step in determining the chances
of amending policy in favor of Cool technologies. Cool technologies are not the panacea to
global challenges in these areas, but they offer an affordable solution for many cities. The
Landscape Assessment, which was carried out during 2008-2009, considered standards,
building regulations, financial incentives and alternative solutions.
Keywords: Cool materials policy, regulatory, incentives, standards.
INTRODUCTION
Regulatory bodies around the world are considering technological solutions to

reduce energy consumption, mitigate climate change, improve living conditions,
and encourage a more environmentally-friendly construction industry – both
quickly and inexpensively. If regulatory bodies convert considerations into
policies, they can provide a significant theoretical potential for technologies such
as Cool Materials to contribute to these objectives, particularly in countries with
higher energy use during summer and areas that suffer from the “urban heat island
phenomenon” (e.g. big cities). The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
has documented that the difference in the air temperature between cities and
*Address Correspondence to:Julie Garman – Kolokotsa: Athena Consulting Group, 38 Dreve du Pressoir,
Brussels 1190 Belgium; E-mail: garman.j@athenanet.eu; http: www.athenanet.eu

274 Cool Materials for the Built Environment Julie Garman – Kolokotsa
outlying areas can be dramatic — on an annual mean basis, air temperatures in large
cities might be 1.8-5.4 degrees Fahrenheit (1-3°C) warmer than those of surrounding
areas [1]. "On a traditional black roof on a summer day of 95°F (35°C), it can easily
reach 170°F (77°C)," says Anthony Ruffine, sustainability officer for GAF Materials
Corporation. On the other hand, he says, a white roof made from a special polymer
could bring the temperature down to “more like 97 degrees" [2].
That can translate to a 10 percent to 15 percent cut in air-conditioning costs, the

EPA says, and would ease summer strain on local power grids. Decreased energy
use also means reduced greenhouse gas emissions and smog. To put that into a
policy context, "if all the cities in the hot and temperate parts of the world
converted to Cool Roofs and Cool pavement, 44 gigatons of carbon dioxide —
about one-and-a-half years' worth of current CO2 emissions — could be offset,"
says Professor Hashem Akbari, of Concordia University in Montreal and a
member of the Heat Island Group at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory [1].
That is because globally roofs account for 25% of the surface of most cities, and
pavement accounts for about 35% [3].
Whilst Cool technologies are not the panacea to global challenges in these areas,
they offer an affordable solution for many locations around the world. That’s
because some Cool products can cost the same as traditional roofs [4].
Why are policies so important to the penetration of Cool Materials?
Findings of a study conducted as part of a Policy Landscape Assessment in 2008-

2009 found that the penetration of Cool Materials (from Cool paints and roofing tiles
to Cool pavements) in the global construction market is largely influenced by
policies set by policies. For example, the study revealed that the progress of Cool
Materials (across the US to Singapore and Canada where there was an expansion
after the mid 1990s) was driven, to a large extent, by the creation of supportive
policies, backed by long term financial support (for example utility rebates, federal
tax deductions, and incentives based on voluntary systems). And these policies often
differ quite widely depending on the level (trans-national, national, local).
This finding has also been supported in other literature [5]. For example in the
US, the federal government set up and heavily promoted the Energy Star for Cool
Policy Aspects of Cool Materials Cool Materials for the Built Environment 275
Roofs. This system offers modest tax credits of up to $1.80 per square foot for
building owners, and 30 percent of the cost of the material, up to $1,500, for
homeowners who install reflective roofs that qualify under the Energy Star
program. On the back of this, several cities (most notably Philadelphia and New
York) and US States (Arizona, Georgia Hawaii, Louisiana, New Mexico, New
York, South Carolina, and Texas) have adopted similar Cool Roof mandates [6].
Yet the supportive policies tend to differ greatly at national and even local level.
Part of the reason for this is that energy efficiency factors in buildings vary greatly
according to location (geography and climate) as well as building traditions and
type. This complexity means it is “impossible to develop a single solution for all
markets and all cultures” [7].
For this reason, most countries – and often cities within them – follow their own,
unique approach to promote energy efficiency technologies like Cool Materials.
Support can come from any combination of investment support schemes, tax
breaks, as well as different initiatives like codes, labels, and standards. Therefore
navigating the global policy framework relevant to Cool Materials can be
complex.
This chapter features as a case study a Policy Landscape Assessment (PLA) that
was based on information from initiatives around the world, but primarily focused
on initiatives taken by the European Union as well as Greece, Italy, France and
the UK. The Assessment provides an overview of policies affecting the promotion
of Cool Materials and offers policy suggestions to accelerate their market
penetration. By following the methodology outlined in this chapter, anyone
around the world can conduct their own Policy Landscape Assessment covering
any geography.
THE OBJECTIVES OF A POLICY LANDSCAPE ASSESSMENT

CONCERNING COOL MATERIALS
The Policy Landscape Assessment (PLA) featured here examined policies that
incentivize Cool Materials. The scope of our assessment included some of the
most important regional, national and local initiatives in Europe, but we found
similar results when examining policies around the globe. The overall objective of
the PLA was to give an overview of existing and forthcoming policies that do or
may affect the accelerated introduction of Cool technologies. It therefore
consisted of two parts:
a) The review of existing policy: to reveal strengths and opportunities

that existing policies present Cool Materials – as well as any
significant gaps that might exist in that policy map
b) The study of upcoming policies: to assess how many and at what level
those policies in development may affect the accelerated introduction
of Cool Materials in the given geography.
The Policy Landscape Assessment therefore assessed policies in energy,

environment, health, and industry, to see where Cool Materials can offer solutions
and where these policy areas can offer opportunities for Cool Materials, such as
financial incentives that can improve their marketability and competitiveness. The
PLA also analyzed lessons learnt from the introduction of Cool Material standards
in other parts of the world. In short, the Assessment helped shape our thinking by
considering the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats faced by
promoters of Cool Materials in these markets.
This assessment helped answer the question “how far has policy moved to help
promote Cool Materials,” which in itself is the first step in determining the
chances of amending policy further in favor of Cool technologies. Therefore the
PLA also helped shape the foundation on which we built a targeted stakeholder
engagement plan, policy action plan and calendar. By analyzing the policies and
policy-makers involved, we were able to determine:
 Prioritized policies with the greatest impact on Cool Materials to

focus on from 2011 to 2015
 Target audiences for communication activities (via identifying the

individuals upon whom Cool Materials depend for success)
 Key pressure points in the policy process and important timing

In the process of completing the Policy Landscape Assessment, we gained a

greater understanding of what key decision-makers believe about Cool Materials.
Additionally, we a) carried out ad hoc awareness-raising of the benefits of Cool
Materials to encourage a positive perception amongst policy makers and
stakeholders, b) widened relationships with a broader group of stakeholders that
could influence the policy-making process, c) shared persuading arguments to
those influencers and decision-makers to support Cool material initiatives and d)
where feasible we started to convince decision-makers to modify policy to
incentivize Cool Materials. Each of these “by-products” of the Policy Landscape
Assessment has since proven critical at later stages in developing an advocacy
action plan.
Ultimately the PLA led to recommendations on the most effective ways to support
and promote Cool Materials. In that process, we were able to examine the most
relevant stakeholders. For followers of the methodology for examining Cool
Materials in other regions, this will enable motivated individuals to target those
policies and policy-makers with the greatest potential to encourage Cool Materials.
METHODOLOGY FOR THE POLICY LANDSCAPE ASSESSMENT
In a nutshell, the Assessment analyzed the existing and upcoming policies at

various levels. Where are there mandatory, prescriptive requirements; where are
there credits and incentives; and where are there guidelines? Under what
circumstances have these been effective and why? Which have the greatest
potential impact on Cool Materials?
Once we know what the existing and upcoming policy landscape looks like, the
next step is to analyze what this policy map reveals. It might reveal the
preferences in a given geography for type of support for technologies such as
Cool Materials: whether via increasingly challenging requirements and standards
or financial incentives or both. It might also bring to light model policies which
motivated individuals can share with other regulators to re-apply.
This analysis led to recommendations for concrete and clear proposals on the most
effective means of supporting and promoting Cool Materials within currently
established and forthcoming policy objectives and guidelines.
How did we conduct the Policy Landscape Assessment ?
POLICY LANDSCAPE ASSESSMENT : CRITICAL STEPS
We approached the Policy Landscape Assessment in 6 steps:
1) Develop a Cool Material story and glossary. This was essential to

establish a “common language” with which we could all speak both
amongst ourselves and in our external policy communications. The
story was designed to resonate with policy-makers to bring to life how
Cool Materials as a technology can contribute to meeting policy
objectives. Also, the glossary formed a basis for identifying policies
relevant to Cool Materials (http://www.coolroofs-eu.eu/).
2) Define strict geographical and policy “domain” boundaries for scope

of the Assessment. By policy “domain” we mean environment and
energy policy for example. Within this, clarify the policy domains
(and sub-domains) that are most relevant to Cool Materials. As in our
Policy Landscape Assessment, it will always be a great challenge to
turn all policies that could potentially affect Cool Materials (which are
not always singular in purpose and sometimes flat out contradictory),
into a simple and meaningful framework, within a useful structure
(see Annex I).
3) Conduct desk research and interviews on those existing policies and

upcoming policies of significance to Cool Materials and collect
information on key stakeholders.
4) Gather and analyze data.
5) Conclude. The last step of the Policy Landscape Assessment was to

summarize the findings, draw conclusions and recommend action steps.
OUTCOMES OF THE POLICY LANDSCAPE ASSESSMENT
There are two key outcomes from the Policy Landscape Assessment for Cool
Materials in Europe:
a) Energy efficiency in buildings is high up in the agenda of the EU and

its Member States. Cool Materials could benefit from that if policy-
makers clearly begin to recognize them as “part of the solution”
towards more efficient and sustainable buildings. Currently the
response of decision-makers has typically been to say “I’ve never
heard of Cool Materials. What are they and what can they do?”
b) Cool Materials could benefit from more and better policies related to (i)
standardization and certification of the technology and (ii) financial
instruments/incentives to stimulate entrepreneurship and take up of Cool
Materials.
More in detail, we outline the findings from both existing and upcoming policies.
FINDINGS FROM EXISTING POLICIES AND SUCCESS STORIES
From all the potential policies (concerning energy, environment, industry, health
& safety, and financial incentives) that could impact Cool Materials positively or
negatively, we examined a total of 66 policy reports. These ranged from policy
recommendations (white papers) and regulations, technical codes and standards
and financial incentives. Of those 66, 15 covered policies made outside the EU, 28
covered EU policies and the rest covered national policies – some of which
actually refer to national implementation schemes of EU policies. In terms of
policy breakdown – keeping in mind that most policies relate to more than one
policy “domain” - 41 policy reports relate to energy, 35 to environment, 22 to
industry, 17 to health & safety and 20 to financial incentives.
The below figure (Fig. 1) provides an overview of the received reports with the
number of existing polices per policy domain as well as the level of impact of
those policies on CR. For clarification, “red face” means that the examined policy
potentially has a negative impact on Cool Materials, “yellow face” means neutral
and “green face” means that the examined policy has a positive impact on Cool
Materials and their take up into the European market. If we map all policy reports,
this is the overall picture (Fig. 1).
Figure 1: Findings form the policy landscape assessment
As you can see from the above image, the majority of policies that affect Cool
Materials are in the area of energy, environment and industry.
STRENGTHS OF THE COOL MATERIALS’ CASE
Based on the research findings, we list the most important strengths of the Cool
Material position in a policy sense:
a) Basic framework exists: overall, some kind of a policy framework

exists that could be considered as a good starting point for the creation
of policies that favor Cool Materials in the EU and the four national
contexts that the project covers. However, the existing policies do not
yet reach the necessary level of thoroughness for Cool Materials in
order to stimulate demand for them on the market. Further action is
required to create a comprehensive and adequate framework that
facilitates an accelerated market penetration for Cool Materials.
b) No major obstacles: fortuitously, there are no obvious policies that

create outright obstacles to Cool Materials beyond simply favoring
more well-known alternatives such as green roofs.
c) Energy efficiency is on the top agenda: energy efficiency in buildings

is high up the agenda of the EU and its Member States at the present
moment, something which advocates of Cool Materials should

capitalize on. This results in several policies at EU and national level
aiming to promote technologies and services related to energy
efficiency in buildings. Cool Materials can benefit from that policy
momentum if decision-makers clearly recognize them as “part of the
solution” towards more efficient and sustainable buildings.
d) The existing health and safety policies provide a comprehensive

framework for Cool Materials, without any crucial gaps in policy or
“grey areas”.
In other words, it appears that Cool Materials find themselves in a positive

starting point. Yet, judging from the response of decision-makers, much work
needs to be done.
The core benefit that Cool Materials deliver: improved energy efficiency in
buildings is high up the top policy agenda. Therefore the opportunity clearly
presents itself to make sure that policy-makers see Cool Materials as a “best in
class” proposition (in marketing terms and possibly technologically) toward
energy efficiency in buildings.
OPPORTUNITIES OR RISKS
Based on the findings, these are the most significant risks – that can be turned into
opportunities:
a) Weak on financial incentives: in relation to financial incentives, based

on research, it appears that there are only a few or relatively weak
policies providing financial incentives for building owners and
intermediaries to choose Cool Materials.
Those financial incentives that do exist rarely ever focus on Cool

Materials by themselves and they are often decided on year by year
(and even then only if there is money in the national budget which is a
definitive challenge in today’s cash-strapped Europe).
Perhaps more importantly, those financial incentive policies that do

exist focus on benefits for end users, but not for Cool Material market
actors like construction companies or architects, which could play a
strong role in the decision of whether or not to use Cool Materials. In
other words, they do not provide adequate incentives for construction
companies or architect/engineering offices to push end users to build
with Cool Materials.
Therefore in some markets, it remains a mystery as to how the eligible

end users could learn of and how to take advantage of such incentives.
Therefore Cool Material advocates must explore whether they should
more effectively reach out to these third party suppliers like
construction companies, architects, and engineers in order to promote
the materials with end users.
b) Weak on standards and/or certification: according to our research,

there do not seem to be many standards or certification policies
relating to Cool technology, with the notable exception of Cool Roof
specific standards in Greece. What’s more is that in many
geographical regions it is unclear whether the standardization route or
the certification route would be more appropriate. Indeed, two policy-
makers at EU level asked about Cool Material standards at EU level.
One said: “Without standards, they [Cool Materials] may never gain
the credibility necessary on the market.”
c) Insufficient momentum: our research finds that existing policies are

insufficient to create the momentum necessary for the market to
demand Cool Materials. Indeed, Cool Materials need policies
(requirements/incentives) that stimulate entrepreneurship these
materials: policies that trigger the attention of house builders,
entrepreneurs and architects – to think about Cool Materials
automatically when thinking of roofs on buildings. One example is the
US Energy Star for Cool Roof products which clearly stimulates
companies that sell/ apply/install or maintain Cool Materials. What’s
missing in Europe is business stimulation like construction companies
or utilities to be stimulated to recommend Cool Materials to their

clients when building houses, distribution centers, etc (though there is
movement afoot in France that could help create such incentives via
French energy saving certificates). Further examples could be training,
encouragement through public procurement or credits (such that for
2010 all new buildings need to prove energy efficiency standards or
use Cool Materials as in the case of state buildings in certain US
cities).
For example, a direct effect of the re-casted EU Energy Performance

of Buildings Directive could be to stimulate entrepreneurs to sell
efficient heat pumps and boilers because EU and national law will
soon require these, thus creating a strong demand.
LEARNINGS FROM SUCCESS STORIES
Beyond evaluating policies that have an impact on Cool technologies, research

was also conducted on success stories of the market introduction of other
technologies, services, models in Europe and elsewhere (e.g. the “US Energy
Star”) whose promotion might shed light on the ideal process for Cool Materials.
a) Raise benefits from functional to societal. This is important to

demonstrate wider policy relevance. For example, the Passive House
and Casa Clima concepts linked their energy efficiency benefit with
broader issues like climate change, Sustainable Development and even
positive quality of life. Therefore the learning for Cool Materials is to
elevate benefits from simple “energy efficiency” to enhanced “quality
of life” (i.e. comfort) - without degrading the key benefit.
b) Technology should represent great value – meaning it should come

with functional benefits beyond its core. The example of London
Green Roofs illustrates other benefits beyond energy efficiency and
climate change mitigation (i.e. biodiversity, reduction of water surface
run off volumes and rates of rainfall leaving roofs, sound insulation
and air quality improvements) [8]. Therefore alongside of Cool
Materials being a top energy efficiency technology, it should also
communicate additional benefits like reduced humidity in the house,

easy & inexpensive to maintain, etc.
c) Benefits must be measurable. The US LEED rating scheme measures

and quantifies various parameters beyond energy efficiency and
demonstrates that LEED buildings use a quarter less energy than non-
LEED buildings [9]. In the case of Cool Materials, manufacturers not
only need to measure and demonstrate the improvement in energy
efficiency but also measure the impact of indoor air quality and/or
mitigation of the urban heat island phenomenon.
Improvements need to be measurable primarily as commercial and

public clients will want to prove that by using Cool Materials, they
can themselves demonstrate clear and measurable progress toward
meeting specific goals.
d) Financial incentives are key to kick-start such a technology. The

research finds that this is partly because of existing business models
[builders will continue to use the same materials and systems until
they have a compelling reason to change] and/or the power of
marketing [changing minds of the multitude of potential clients
requires a sizeable marketing budget]. As an example, CASA Clima
in Italy offers 55% reduction in personal income tax for energy saving
expenses, which is hoped to energize household owners to take
advantage of energy efficiency technologies like Cool Materials [10].
e) In the US, there is a policy set up specifically for Cool Roofs via the
US Energy Star. The Energy Star is a voluntary program involving
manufacturers, testers, consumer organizations, local authorities,
energy companies etc. It is designed to provide information and other
incentives to all partners to convince end consumers and ‘partners’ to
use and push Cool Roofs [11]. On top of the federal energy star
system, several cities, counties and states have developed codes and
standards either encouraging or requiring cool roofs on certain types
of buildings, as previously mentioned. Beyond that, many energy
companies and local authorities have put in place interesting incentive

schemes (like Austin Energy, Florida Power and Light, California’s
Pacific Gas & Electric) [6].
f) Target the right influencer. To determine which actor is the main

“influencer,” one has to determine who in each circumstance has the
greatest purchasing power influence. In the FacilitiesNet example, a
construction executive is the target for use of Cool Materials as it is he
who will win rebates [12]. The person who will convince people to
invest in Cool Materials, rather than buying a new car or investing in
alternative energy efficient technology is the person Cool Material
advocates should focus attention and efforts on. Critically the actor
with the greatest purchasing power influence may differ by
geography. In some areas, the top influencer might be architects or
construction companies or public procurement officers. In another
jurisdiction, the influencer might be real estate agents or local
regulators. Once this particular influencer is identified for the specific
geography, our learning is to ensure that this “ambassador” is
involved and motivated to act on behalf of Cool Materials.
g) In the US Energy Star for Cool Roofs, US regulators have included all
“partners” in their communications. In this way, the system convinces
end consumers and ‘partners’ from manufacturers, testers, consumer
organizations, local authorities, lenders, energy companies,
contractors, architects etc to use and push Cool Roofs [5].
FINDINGS FROM UPCOMING POLICIES
Our Policy Landscape Assessment studied 25 reports of upcoming policies. Of

those, 8 covered EU policies and 18 covered national policies – some of which
actually refer to national implementation schemes of EU policies. In terms of
policy breakdown – keeping in mind that most policies relate to more than one
policy domain - 23 policy reports relate to energy, 19 to environment, 15 to
industry, 3 to health & safety and 8 to financial incentives.
The below figure provides an overview of the received reports with the number of
upcoming polices per policy domain as well as the level of impact of those
policies on Cool Materials. Similarly to the findings from existing policies, a “red
face” means that the examined policy potentially has a negative impact on Cool
Materials, “yellow face” means neutral and “green face” means that the examined
policy has a positive impact on stimulating Cool Materials into the market.
As an example, the re-cast of the EU Directive on energy labeling relates to

energy, environment, industry and financial incentives. Mapping all reports on
upcoming policies gives us the following diagram (Fig. 2):
Figure 1: Findings on upcoming policies
STRENGTHS OF THE COOL MATERIAL CASE
Based on the findings of this research, we list the most important strengths of the
Cool Material position in a policy context:
a) Overall, upcoming policies reinforce the importance of energy

efficiency in buildings for the EU and national policy makers.
However, (as with existing policy areas) further action is needed to
ensure that Cool Materials are clearly spelled out as “part of the
solution” towards more efficient and sustainable buildings. For

example, the European Commission’s “Lead market initiative” does
not yet include Cool Materials in its proposals to stimulate sustainable
construction policies like Eurocodes [13].
b) None of the upcoming policies seem to impose a negative impact on

Cool Materials.
c) Following the trend that brings Climate Change higher up the policy
agenda and public debate, most of the upcoming policies that related
to Cool Materials have a link to Climate Change (assuming Cool
Materials technologies can measurably and directly contribute to a
reduction in global warming). This creates an opportunity for Cool
Materials to strengthen their “part of the solution” communication by
measuring and articulating the advantages of Cool Materials toward
Climate Change.
d) Upcoming policies establish - at least at national level - energy

efficiency standards or minimum requirements that new buildings
must comply with [i.e. national building regulations and national
implementation measures for the Energy Performance of Buildings
Directive]. Additionally, existing programs like the “Lead market
initiative” for sustainable construction outline the direction in which
EU and National policies will go.
OPPORTUNITIES (OR RISKS IF NOT PROPERLY ADDRESSED)
Based on the research, these are the most significant risks – that can be turned into
opportunities:
a) Still weak on financial incentives: the research provided only low

level evidence that the upcoming policies at EU level could create
sufficient financial incentives for the end user or the market actors
(industry, architects, technicians, etc.) to invest in Cool Materials.
This has much to do with the structure and aim of EU policy.
Fortuitously, the situation differs at national and regional level, where
policies under development aim to create financial instruments that

can “ignite” market interest and investments in technologies and
services related to energy efficiency in buildings [for example, energy
saving old houses in Greece]. It is critical that those policies recognize
Cool Materials as such a technology and include them in the list of
technologies that will benefit from any incentives.
b) Still weak on standards and/or certification: upcoming policies do not

create a clear EU policy framework for the standardization and
certification of Cool Materials. This may entail a missed opportunity
to create a fundamental guidance and clarity to the market actors by
e.g. setting up standards for Cool Materials according to the
performance of the technology.
c) Still more voluntary agreements needed to stimulate the market: Cool

Materials do not yet fully feature in existing EU efforts like the
voluntary “Lead market initiative.” On the other hand, there are some
efforts at national level, like the Greek energy efficiency in low
income housing initiative. Voluntary agreements – especially if
combined with regulatory development and/or financial instruments –
are mechanisms that can facilitate the development of a market for
technologies and services related to buildings’ energy efficiency and
hence help Cool Materials.
Separate from the pure policy context, it became apparent in studying upcoming
policies that policy-makers have a low level of awareness about and therefore a
limited understanding & expectation from Cool Materials. Indeed, some decision-
makers at EU and national level asked if Cool Materials like “Cool Roofs are
related to Green Roofs.” Because of that, Cool Materials are not yet seen as part
of the solution to meeting EU policy objectives relevant to energy efficiency,
mitigating climate change and sustainability. Until Cool Materials are seen as part
of the solution, this will hamper policy-makers from promoting policies that will
positively affect their introduction into the EU market. A communication platform
that resonates with policy-makers as a critical target audience is essential and this
needs to be carried out by Cool Material advocates.
POLICY LANDSCAPE ASSESSMENT RECOMMENDATIONS
The existing and new policies together define the playing field for Cool Materials
as it is expected to look like by 2011. The main challenge facing Cool Material
advocates is the sheer complexity of the European and national policy map, as
there are lots of initiatives taking place at the same time in different regulatory
locations. In terms of advocacy work, this poses a number of challenges as Cool
Material messages have to be properly tailored to a number of different audiences
whilst maintaining enough consistency to form effective advocacy actions.
RECOMMENDED ACTIONS IN RELATION TO POLICY ADVOCACY
The previously elaborated findings lead to the following recommendations to

Cool Material advocates:
1. Develop a “Share and Re-Apply” strategy: Identify best financial mechanisms

that exist at national, regional, local level or outside the EU and advocate for re-
application in other countries and if possible at trans-national level like the
European Union. The findings from our analysis show advocates should focus on:
a) The Italian law for tax rebates of 36% on relevant portions of building
refurbishment including Cool Materials
b) The Greek SAVE program, a funding scheme for energy efficiency

measures in building and beyond
c) The US Energy Federal Tax Policy Act 2005 that provides tax credits
for home improvements to building owners as well as contractors.
d) The EU Economic Recovery Plan via the Regional Development Fund

(ERDF) which provides grants to new Member States for energy
efficiency housing projects: 30m Euros for energy efficiency housing
in South Belgium, 0% loans in France, 240m Euros for high rise
buildings in the Czech Republic, 3b Euros for schools and social
infrastructure in Germany.
2. Define the right standardization strategy for Cool Materials at EU level and the
principles of an appropriate labeling or certification system. Policy advocates
need to assess the existing standards that affect the technology and how they
impact Cool Materials and whether other standards are needed. In that process, the
study findings advise to consider leveraging the following standards:
a) The Greek Cool Roof technical standard
b) The Italian standard based on the EN ISO 13790 about evaluation of

cooling systems
c) The US standard (ASTM) for cooling materials
d) The work of “Lead market initiative” to widen the scope of design

standards for buildings via “Eurocodes” to cover sustainability, even
if it is likely to take several years.
3. Prioritize the upcoming policies that entail the highest opportunity to influence
based on (a) impact on Cool Materials and (b) achievability or “lower hanging
fruits” meaning level of difficulty to amend. Our study findings point to the
following:
a) EU Energy labeling Directive recast (92/75/EEC) involving

construction products that save energy, to include Cool Materials in
the upcoming prioritized list of products for the label.
b) The recast of the Energy Performance of Building Directive (EPBD),

COM 2008/780 to ensure Cool Materials are integrated into
calculation procedures so to deliver reductions in energy consumption.
c) The Greek Cool Roof technical standard, to update the minimum

criteria and support Cool Materials
d) The Greek Energy Saving for Older Houses initiative, to include

explicit specifications related to Cool Materials
e) The French RT 2012 building regulations, to take into account Cool

Materials in the calculation methods
f) The British building regulations, to include temperature change

considerations
g) The Italian building code to include Cool Materials as an energy

efficiency technology
As part of this recommendation, the next step was completed and revealed the
following priority policies across the EU on Cool Materials (Table 1):
Table 1: The various policies in EU countries
Geography Prioritized policies

EU  EU energy efficiency labeling
 EU energy star – though on hold
 EPBD recast - Energy Performance of Buildings
 EU lead market initiative – though on hold
Greece  energy saving program for old houses
 building regulations for energy efficiency
 CR technical standards
France  RT 2012 updated building regulations for existing buildings
 energy saving certificate scheme
Italy  Structural Funds for Puglia – though on hold
 RUE Bologna building urban code (building regulations)
UK  Planning Policy Statement: Planning for a Low Carbon Future in a Changing
Climate
 BREEAM and CSH
 Building Schools for the Future – though on hold
4. Design a consistent and persistent Communication strategy targeted to policy-

makers and policy stakeholders: in all communication there is a need to position –
consistently – Cool Materials as “part of the solution” toward buildings’ energy

efficiency highlighting other functional benefits as well as societal benefits from
reducing energy demand to improving inhabitants’ comfort with minimal extra
costs.
GUIDELINES AND GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS
The installation of Cool Materials in cities and towns offer social, environmental,
and financial benefits with a clear Return on Investment [14]. Calculators to
determine the amount of climate change mitigation per application have been
designed to allow regulators, construction executives, and building owners to
measure the mitigation effects and potential effects of applying these materials.
Yet their take-up in several geographies has been rather slow.
For this reason, regulators considering solutions to reduce energy consumption,

mitigate climate change, improve living conditions, and encourage a more
environmentally-friendly construction industry are urged to put in place
supportive policies (from codes, standards and requirements to financial
incentives) that encourage the use of Cool Materials.
This chapter has demonstrated that regulatory and voluntary policies designed to
encourage the use of these materials have helped Cool Materials become cooler.
The structure and methodology of our case study Policy Landscape Assessment
will help construction practitioners, policy-makers, academics and NGOs conduct
their own PLA to examine policies affecting the promotion of Cool Materials and
offer policy suggestions to accelerate their market penetration.
The outcome of the PLA has shown that where policies have been put in place,
the take-up of Cool Materials has been strong (particularly in the US). The
Assessment has also shown that in the European Union, there are very few
policies in place currently which create the necessary drive and incentive for
encouraging Cool Materials in construction. On a positive note, the Assessment
has also demonstrated that there are no policy obstacles presenting a negative
impact on Cool Materials.
Overall, therefore, one can say that building awareness of the broad benefits of
Cool Materials with policy-makers, stakeholders and the construction industry is
the first big step: a very large one without which little advocacy work can be done
effectively.
The Centre for Process Innovation in the UK declared there is a “Catch-22”

situation confounding efforts to mitigate climate change in that regulators refrain
from developing climate change policies fearing business resistance yet the
business world find it challenging to scale up investment in low carbon
technologies without long term climate policies [15-16]. One can argue that Cool
Materials face their own Catch 22 in that construction practitioners wait for policy
incentives before installing Cool Materials yet policy-makers will not design
policies in support of the materials until they learn from the market about the
benefits of the materials.
To break this cycle, two organizations have been set up to provide objective and
comprehensive information to all stakeholders on the benefits and workings of
Cool Materials: the Cool Roof Rating Council in the US [17] and the EU Cool
Roof Council in Europe [18].
It is hoped that by collecting, measuring and broadcasting shining examples of the

use of Cool Materials, a positive momentum can be started and maintained for the
use of Cool Materials across the world. In that way, by 2020 we will be able to
see the fruits of policy that substantially promote Cool Materials and therefore
pave the way for a cooler future for all of us.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Declared none.
REFERENCES
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Strategies [Internet] 2010. Available from http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/resources/pdf/
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[2] Newman, S. Taking the Sizzle out of Summer in the City [Internet]. 2010, Jul 8. Available
from http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=128384940.
[3] Chiew, H. Cool Roofs for Hot Climates [Internet]. 2009, Jun 16. Available from The Star
Online, Star Publications, Malaysia http://www.nuruf.com/The%20Star%20Write-
up%20on%2016%20June%202009.pdf.
[4] Consumer Energy Center, California Energy Commission [Internet]. 2010. Available from
http://www.consumerenergycenter.org/coolroof/faq.html#faqs-04.
[5] World Business Council for Sustainable Development. Energy Efficiency in Buildings:
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Oct. 25. Available on http://www.wbcsd.org/DocRoot/qUjY7w54vY1KncL32OVQ/EEB-
Facts-and-trends.pdf. Also the Royal Institution for Chartered Surveyors. Status Report study
on the Implementation of Directive 2002/91 on the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive
in the EU Member States called, “Towards an Energy Efficient European Building Stock
[Internet] 2007 Dec.
[6] Cool Roof Rating Council of the US. Cool Roof Codes and Programs [Internet]. 2010.
Available on http://www.coolroofs.org/codes_and_programs.html#voluntary.
[7] World Business Council for Sustainable Development. Energy Efficiency in Buildings:
Summary Report of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development [Internet].
2007, Oct. 25. Available on
http://www.wbcsd.org/DocRoot/qUjY7w54vY1KncL32OVQ/EEB-Facts-and-trends.pdf.
Also The Commission of the European Union. Communication on the Lead Market
Initiative. 2007, Dec 21. COM (2007) 860.
[8] LivingRoofs.org. Introduction to Green Roof Benefits [Internet]2010. Available on
http://www.livingroofs.org/greenroofbenefits.html.
[9] Kaplow, S. Green Building Costs Less Than Conventional Buildings [Internet]. June 2010.
Available on http://www.stuartkaplow.com/library3.cfm?article_id=173.
[10] According to P Lo Monaco (Trapani Town Hall), 25 February, 2009 (in written
communication Casa Clima Success Story. EU Cool Roof Project filenote.
[11] US Environmental Protection Agency. Reducing Urban Heat Islands: Compendium of
Strategies [Internet]. 2010. Available from http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/resources/pdf/Basics
Compendium.pdf.
[12] US Environmental Protection Agency. Energy Star: Roof products for partners [Internet] .
2010. Available on
http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?fuseaction=products_for_partners.showRoof;
http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=tax_credits.tx_index;
http://www.osti.gov/energycitations/servlets/purl/10146704-ry0pCu/native; and Croston, G.
8 October 2009. How to Make Cool Roofing Cooler. Fast Company [Internet]. Available
on http://www.fastcompany.com/blog/glenn-croston/starting-and-growing-green-businesses
/how-make-cool-roofing-cooler.
[13] Zimmerman, G. Building Operating Management Magazine: How to find Cool Roof
Incentives. FacilitiesNet. 2010. [Podcast on the Internet]. Available from
http://www.facilitiesnet.com/roofing/tip/How-To-Find-Cool-Roof-Incentives--19320.
[14] The “Lead market initiative” is an EU voluntary program aiming to introduce sustainability
concepts into buildings and construction. It takes place under the guise of the Enterprise
department of the European Commission and is simultaneously driving several initiatives
of potential interest to Cool Materials including public procurement, new approaches on
national building regulations, and a “new generation” of construction “Eurocodes” (EU
codes for building design) to take sustainable development into account. More information
available on http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/innovation/policy/lead-market-
initiative/sustainable-construction/index_en.htm.
[15] Parker, DS, Sonne, JK, Sherwin, JR. Florida Solar Energy Center. 15. October 1997.
Demonstration of Cooling Savings of Light Colored Roof Surfacing in Florida Commercial
Buildings: Retail Strip Mall [Internet]. Florida Solar Energy Center. Available from
http://www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/publications/html/FSEC-CR-964-97/.
[16] Jones, A., Adey, M. Breaking the Catch-22 on Climate Change. Prince of Wales Business
and the Environment Programme and the International Energy Review, International
Chamber of Commerce. 2007. Available on www.cpi.cam.ac.uk/pdf/International%2

0Energy%20Review.pdf.
[17] Cool Roof Rating Council of the US (http://www.coolroofs.org/)
[18] EU Cool Roof Council (http://coolroofs.univ-lr.fr/). Heat Island, US Environmental
Protection Agency. Reducing Urban Heat Islands: Compendium of Strategies.
ANNEX 1
GENERAL CONSIDERATION ON COOL ROOF AND RELATED FIELD

OF INTEREST.
The identification of the policy domains and sub-domains related to Cool Roof
products and technologies needs a general framework to better understand the
involved sectors.
Cool roof products and technologies are produced for building applications, so
they are related to the construction market. The construction is one of the most
important industrial sectors in Europe in terms of turnover and manpower. The
sector, in fact, accounts for 7% of total employment and 28% of industrial
employment in the EU-15, and around 26 million workers are somehow related
with this industry. Construction is also an important sector of the economy in new
Member States. Within the whole building sector, it is important to mention social
housing whose penetration varies greatly from country to country across Europe.
Social housing rents account for 35% of the residential stock in the Netherlands to
4% in Italy (with European average around 20%). According to this data, all
actions involving the building industry are, in principle, important because of the
magnitude of the sector in the EU economy. It is important to note that some
studies note around 1% yearly turnover of the building stock. This situation
emphasizes the importance of building renovation as a means to improve the
energy performance of the whole sector. On the contrary, too often building
renovation is dedicated to structural, architectural and functional refurbishment
only. Financial and legislative schemes are needed to assess comprehensive
renovation procedures to support a deeper penetration of sustainable (and cool
roof in particular) technologies.
Sustainable technologies affect both the environment and energy performances of

building. Concerning the latter, the EU strategy to address climate change
includes strong actions in terms of energy efficiency. EU objectives include a EU
global primary energy use by 20% by 2020. While many of the energy
technologies related to heating performances in building applications reached
wide penetration, the same does not apply yet for technologies that optimize
building performance during the cooling season. European countries characterised

by mild climatic conditions experience an increase of electricity consumption in
summer due to the high cooling energy demand and peaks. Energy efficiency
policies in the building sector have to take into account the technologies able to
improve the performances during the cooling season. Cool material technologies
have a high penetration potential, since they introduce a function (solar control of
the opaque envelope) generally neglected when energy measures have to be
implemented.
The energy certification of buildings, an on-going process or already implemented

in Member States, is an important issue. More efficient buildings will earn a
higher energy ranking and labelling. Energy certification must be evaluated
according to the overall performance of the building however. Only heating
consumption is assessed in several national schemes and this has a negative
impact on the use of cool materials. Consistent energy savings obtained during the
cooling season by cool roofs are not taken into account in the energy certification
process, but the small increase of energy consumption, due to reductions of solar
gains through the roof, has a negative effect on the final performances of the
building.
The environment is, on the other side, probably the most important factor to speed
the penetration of cool roof technologies. Anthropogenic climate change is a
phenomenon accepted by almost the entire scientific community. Some
consequences have already begun (intensification desertification and ice melting
phenomena) and many scenarios plot the risks the earth is facing. Under these
conditions, sustainable development is a necessity and a chimera at the same time.
This relates to the EU objective of a reduction of at least 20% in greenhouse gases
(GHG) by 2020. Cool roof technology and products are linked to environmental
issues in several ways. They help reduce energy bills in cooled buildings,
reducing the noblest form of energy: electricity. This naturally brings
environmental benefits as also greenhouses gas emissions are reduced. The effect
of cool roofs mitigates the heat island effect as well, providing improved
environmental conditions to urban area and better efficiencies to cooling energy
systems.
Eco-friendly technologies must be assessed along the whole life cycle. Cool roof
technologies give good energy performance in use, but other aspects must be
considered and analysed when dealing with such materials: the energy and
environment costs for production and waste disposal, reuse of the material, type of
raw materials, eventual presence of chemical substances or pollutants. The
environmental assessment of these products is an important criterion to define a
policy framework supporting cool roof technologies.
One environment concern, monitored with increasing intensity and frequency in

the past years, is urban heat island phenomenon. This happens when a
metropolitan area becomes significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas.
The main cause of the urban heat island is a modification of the land surface by
urban development, and “waste” heat generated by energy usage contributes to the
phenomenon. The peaks are generally reached at night, when the heat absorbed
during the daytime is released to the outdoor environment. Cool roof materials are
widely recognised as one of the most efficient technology to mitigate the urban
heat island effect, together with cool road pavements and green areas. This is an
environmental issue, but associated to other extreme phenomena, like heat waves,
and it becomes a social issue with noticeable consequences on the social health,
especially of low income people. Heat waves are prolonged periods of excessively
hot weather, which may be accompanied by high humidity. The severity of the
climatic conditions influences how the weather can be perceived as hot. The
Glossary of Meteorology defines as heat wave a period of abnormally and
uncomfortably hot and usually humid weather. To be a heat wave such a period
should last at least one day, but conventionally it lasts from several days to several
weeks.
The consequences on human vary tremendously: from physical and psychological

stress, to a degree which affects employee performance, to an increase in violent
crime. The most extreme consequence is death, and heat waves are considered
responsible for hundreds of deaths in the US as surveyed in the last few years. The
mitigation of urban heat island is an important strategy to preserve public health
facing risk conditions and the use cool roof materials can help reach this
objective. This condition applies if the cool material applications are extensive
enough to affect the microclimate at least at sub-urban scale. Nevertheless, cool
materials have positive influences at building level. Improving the thermal

comfort in not-cooled buildings is very important under severe climatic
conditions, as those described above. The heat released to the built environment
make the thermo-igrometric conditions unsustainable during hot periods, with
consequences on the building occupants’ health. Such severe indoor conditions
can endure for several days, while cool materials reflecting the solar heat away
can provide some thermal comfort, especially during night time.
Health and safety at work are important issues for workers employed in the cool
roof materials industry. Exposure to chemicals, and accident prevention are some
aspects related to policies interacting with this technology.
The economic analysis of an energy measure is a priority criterion for selecting

the investments. While an energy measure may be cost effective for new
buildings, it can be expensive for renovation measures, as usually happens for
several building envelope measures. The financial lever is crucial to promote
some technologies, and cool materials are no exception. Financial support is
strictly dependent on national strategies and policies though.
Financial support can come in the form of a rebate or a taxation support, defined
as a gross number or normalised respect to selected indicators (i.e. square meters
of the roof). In the first case an amount of money is given to the end user to
implement the measure. An amount of money is deducted from the tax load of the
end user in the latter case. Also the body in charge of the financial scheme must
be considered. Financial support can be managed by the central government or by
local authorities as well as private institutions like energy service companies.
In sum, cool roof technologies need legislative support for a wide application in
the building sector. The EU Directive 2002/91/CE, related to the energy
performance of buildings, stressed the importance of a comprehensive assessment,
taking into account the energy used for cooling down the buildings. The Directive
2006/32/CE address the energy end use efficiency and energy services, taking into
account the removal of market barriers too. This Directive has strong links with
the previous one, especially for the article related to energy audits and
certification of buildings. Unfortunately, energy codes do not deal with the
cooling uses in several Member States. This implies that cool roof technologies
face barriers in current legislation. On the contrary, as energy performance is
evaluated in terms of heating consumption, the solar control acts to penalise the
technology. It is important therefore to push the national and regional responsible
bodies to include a yearly evaluation of buildings into relevant energy codes.
Local authorities, according to their legal framework, often have the power to
implement specific regulations in the energy and environment field. Specific
actions might be to set up at local level support for the use of cool materials in
new and existing buildings.
Technical standards are also important in the definition of thermal and solar
properties of cool materials. Few and generic standards are actually available and
tend to be based on US standards. It is important to define European standards for
cool materials in terms of: measurement instrument and procedures, sample
preparation, calculation and extrapolation of measured raw data, laboratory
requirements, ageing effect, and performance indicators.
GUIDELINES TO BUILD A DOMAIN TREE
The main content of the task is to define a tree structure, where the policy
domains and sub-domains related to cool roof products and technology are
identified.
Policies include: legislation, regulations, and standards. Policy instruments apply

on international, European, national, local levels. The aim of this work was to
define how policies are structured and then, which of them are potentially
important for cool roof products. The EU is the reference framework for this task.
Policy instruments promoted and developed at European level are, in fact, to be
implemented on national level, with the usual adjustments. Policies relevant for
the EU will also be relevant at national and local level. Few actions and policies
specific to Member States were noticed. The findings of the task demonstrate that
the policy framework for cool roofs falls within and addresses a range of specific
policies and therefore success story opportunities.
The next paragraph presents the domain tree. Several sub-domains with the
relevant policies are listed for each domain.
THE COOL ROOF POLICY DOMAIN TREE
ENERGY
 Buildings energy efficiency and certification
o CR is an energy efficiency technology for building application
o EU promoted the EBPD (Energy Performance of Building

Directive) 2002/91/EC
o CEN (Europe), ASTM (US), ASHRAE (US), ISO (international)

develop standards related to energy efficiency in buildings
o Local authorities implement tailored Building Energy Codes
 Energy end use efficiency and services
o CR is an energy efficiency technology
o EU promoted Directive 2006/32/EC to eliminate market barriers to

efficient end use of energy and promote a market for energy services.
o Financial scheme, issued by authorised bodies, dedicated to energy

producers, suppliers or distributors, required to undertake energy
efficiency measures for the final user (i.e. white certificates).
o EU promoted the Action Plan for Energy Efficiency (2007-2012)

with the objective of reducing its energy consumption by 20% by
2020.
o Member states promote Action Plans on energy efficiency for the

national implementation of Directive 2006/32/EC.
o EU promoted the Communication: "Mobilising public and private

finance towards global access to climate-friendly, affordable and
secure energy services: The Global Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy Fund" in 2006.
 Labelling of Energy efficiency technologies and products
o EU promoted Directive 92/75/EEC related to the labelling and eco-

design of appliances. No scheme is defined for CR
o The US Energy Star Programme is aimed at product labelling,

including building componens and systems. The programme also
include CR.

develop standards related to energy characterisation and
certification of products.
o EU promoted the Council Decision 93/465/EEC that establishes a

range of procedures for the conformity of industrial products (CE
mark)
 Energy efficiency voluntary agreements
o Public and private bodies promote (separately or together)

voluntary agreements committing towards institutions (local,
national, European) to achieve assigned objectives
o Industry promote self-commitment to speed up the market

penetration of more efficient products and technologies

develop standards related to energy characterisation and
certification of products.
o EU promoted the Green Public Procurement as a voluntary scheme

to be implemented in Member Stares for contracting authorities and
entities for environmental issues tendering for products or services.
It includes sustainable products for buildings.
ENVIRONMENT
 Sustainable development
o CR is an environmental technology, since it helps reducing

greenhouse gases emissions in buildings and improving the quality
of life in urban area.
o EU promoted several acts supporting the Sustainable development

models, starting from the “Europe Sustainable Development
Strategy - A platform for action” and its next reviews and updates.
o EU defined the most relevant environment indicators. CR affects

several of them.
o EU promoted the Action Plan for environment technologies,

aiming at bringing them from research to the market.
o The urban environment strategy is one of the seven thematic

strategies mentioned in the EU Sixth Environment Action
Programme. The built environment and the urban sprawl are key
issues.
 Climate change
o CR, helping reducing greenhouse gases emissions, plays a role in

the climate change actions.
o The Commission proposes setting up an inter-departmental body

tasked with identifying and preparing the implementation of
measures to combat climate change.
o European Climate Change Programme (ECCP) enables all

stakeholders to participate in preparatory work on policies and
measures to reduce greenhouse gases.
o EU and Member States implement policies necessary to fulfil the

Kyoto Protocol objectives
o Member States define policies for reduction of greenhouse gases

and penetration renewable energy sources, as well as a continuous
monitoring of greenhouse gas emissions.
 Eco-Products
o CR, as a construction product, has to deal with environment

scheme and laws.
o EU Regulation (EC) No 1980/2000 on eco-label scheme, designed

to: promote products which have a reduced environmental impact
compared with other products in the same product group.
o EU promoted the Green Public Procurement as a voluntary scheme

to be implemented in Member Stares for contracting authorities and
entities for environmental issues tendering for products or services.
It includes sustainable products for buildings.
o EU promoted the Regulation REACH (Registration, Evaluation,

Authorisation and Restriction of CHemical substances) on
chemicals and their safe use (EC 1907/2006). It contains a
requirement for industry to classify and label dangerous substances
to protection of human health and the environment through the
better and earlier identification of the intrinsic properties of
chemical substances.
o Integrated Product Policy (IPP) seeks to minimise environmental

degradation by looking at all phases of a products life-cycle and
taking action where it is most effective. EU promoted a Green
Paper on IPP in 2001.
o ISO published the ISO 14000. They are a series of technical

harmonised standards emitted or being prepared by the
International Standards Organization (ISO), covering a number of
environmental topics.
 Environment technologies
o CR is an environment technology because of the effects its

application has on environmental context.
o The Environmental Technologies Action Plan (ETAP) was adopted by

the European Commission in 2004. Actions aim at improving the
innovation process and moving technologies from laboratories to the
market, encouraging the market uptake of environmental technologies
and providing positive incentives such as regulatory frameworks,
voluntary schemes, access to finance and green procurement.
o Member States define roadmap for the implementation of ETAP
INDUSTRY
 Manufacturing industry policies
o CR is an emerging technology, whose market penetration and

growth depends also on the industry policy framework.
o EU promoted the Communication "Implementing the Community

Lisbon Programme: A Policy Framework to Strengthen EU
Manufacturing - towards a more integrated approach for Industrial
Policy" in 2005 to support The Lisbon Action Programme for
Growth and Employment, whose basic aim was boosting growth
and creating jobs to unlock the resources needed to meet the EU
ambitions and to reach its environmental objectives.
o Seven major policy initiatives are considered in EU policies,

among them related to CR technology industry are: high level
group on competitiveness, energy and the environment; external
aspects of competitiveness and market access; new legislative
simplification programme.
o EU implement the “Modern SME policy for growth and

employment”, a policy instrument to support the potential small and
medium-sized enterprises, creating an horizontal framework.

Importance is given to dialogue and communication with
stakeholders.
 The construction sector
o CR is a technology for building application. This sector policy

interacts with CR product market penetration
o EU Commission proposed a Construction Products Regulation

(CPR), where harmonised conditions for the marketing of the
construction products. The Regulation will substitute the Council
Directive 89/106/EEC, the reference policy instrument in the
construction sector.
o The Council Directive 89/106/EEC EU introduces, among the rest,

the CE mark for construction products, to establish an Internal
Market through technical harmonisation thereby removing
technical barriers to trade.

develop standards related to construction product properties.
HEALTH AND SAFETY
 Environment and public health
o CR, as environment technology, can positively affect some health

concerns. See correlation between urban heat island, heat waves
and consequences on people, especially weak categories, health.
o The EU decision 1786/2002/EC lead to a programme of

Community action in the field of public health (2003-2008),
prepared to achieve a high level of health protection in Europe.
o Decision 1786/2002/EC of the European Parliament and of the

Council of 23 September 2002 adopting a programme of
Community action in the field of public health (2003-2008).
o EU set up a scientific working in the field of public health, with the

Decision 2004/210/EC of 2004.
o EU promoted “The European Environment & Health Action Plan

2004-2010" in 2004, to improve the health of European by
understanding the impact of environmental damage on human
health.
FINANCIAL INCENTIVES
 Environment and energy efficiency
o Member States implement financial schemes (de-taxation, rebates,

and funds) to support building energy efficiency for new buildings
or renovation.
o Member States implement financial schemes (de-taxation, rebates,

and funds) to speed up the market penetration of energy and
environment technologies.
o Local authorities implement financial schemes (de-taxation,

rebates, and funds) to support building energy efficiency for new
buildings or renovation.
o Member States promote financial schemes for renewable energies

in buildings with economic support proportional to the energy
efficiency of the building itself.
 Industry and construction
o CR is an emerging technology, whose market penetration and

growth depends also on the industry policy framework.
o EU finances businesses, especially for SMEs, within the

Framework Programme for Innovation and Competitiveness and, in
particular, within the Entrepreneurship and Innovation Programme.
o EU Council Regulation (EC) No 1260/99 introduce the Structural

Funds. This regulation aims to reduce disparities in development
and promote economic and social cohesion in the European Union
(EU). These funds finance regional and horizontal operations in the
Member States.
o Social housing is a sector often recalled by EU policies in different

sectors (energy, environment, health, and so on). Structural funds
are dedicated to social housing measures in the new Member
States. Only soft measure funds (training, studies, capacity
building) are allocated in old Member States.
CHAPTER 11
Cool roofs Economics and Marketing Perspective
Robert Bird* and Rebecca Tonkin
Huntsman Pigments
Abstract: The construction industry recognizes that there is a growing impetus, spurred by
well-respected global organizations, to reduce the energy consumption and carbon footprint
of buildings. This shift presents both challenges and opportunities for the buildings industry.
A major opportunity concerns the role of cool roofs in reducing cooling loads and yielding
other benefits to a wide range of stakeholders with an interest in building programmes. As
yet, however, a significant sector transformation for cool roofing has not materialized. In this
chapter we aim to understand why this has been the case by investigating factors that we
believe to be important influencers of sector development. Questions are posed regarding the
definitions and structure of the cool roof arena. Associated opportunities and the sector
drivers have been investigated. The chapter also considers how sector demand is being
generated and discusses whether all of the stakeholders are fully engaged in this process.
Finally, an attempt is made to identify the nature and availability of initial information that
industry players might require in order to consider investment in the cool roofing sector. In
conjunction with this examination, some recommendations are made that it is believed to
encourage sector development for cool roofing.
Keywords: Markets needs, Market structure, Market drivers
INTRODUCTION - WHAT IS THE NEED FOR COOL ROOFS?
It has been widely accepted for many years that buildings use a substantial amount
of energy for both heating and cooling. This high consumption is recognized
internationally and has been publicized by well-respected sustainability,
environmental and economic organizations, some of which are referenced below.
Details have been highlighted by the World Business Council for Sustainable
Development (WBCSD) which reports [1]
that buildings are one of the largest end users of energy, accounting for as much
as 40 per cent of global energy consumption. The resulting carbon footprint of
buildings exceeds that of all transportation sectors combined.
*Address correspondence to Robert Bird: Huntsman Pigmets; E-mail: robert_bird@huntsman.com

310 Cool Materials for the Built Environment Bird and Tonkin
The WBCSD goes on to suggest that energy use in buildings could be cut by up to
60 per cent by 2050 but this is dependent on the introduction of a multifaceted
sector transformation model. The organization claims [2] that, globally, carbon
dioxide (CO2) could be reduced by 715 million tonnes annually through making
improvements to the energy efficiency of buildings and appliances.
Furthermore, WBCSD maintains that these energy savings must be achieved if the
International Energy Agency’s (IEA) target of a 77 per cent reduction in the
planet’s anthropogenic carbon footprint is to be met. The latter target is set against
the predicted Business as Usual (BAU) figure for 2050, which is a minimum
requirement to generate stabilized CO2 levels as sought by the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
These international organisations recognise that reduced energy usage in buildings

is a complex issue. They are well aware that achieving energy savings and the
associated carbon reductions will require significant transformation of the current
buildings market on a global scale. Having said this, the drive for change could
present a real opportunity for the construction industry.
Not surprisingly, the construction industry is making every effort to respond to these
energy-related challenges and one area of particular interest concerns the efforts to
reduce cooling loads, by which we mean the amount of heat removed from a
building by a cooling mechanism, per unit time. The United States Department of
Energy (DoE) have highlighted [3] that typical roof energy consumption equates to
20-25 per cent of total electricity used in low rise buildings.
This presents an opening for cool roofs based on their ability to reduce the internal
thermal load of a building by deflecting solar radiation away from the exterior
surface or building envelope. The obvious benefit is a reduction in energy
required to power air-conditioning where it exists. There are, however, many
other advantages derived from the use of cool roofing. These include:
o The potential to reduce air-conditioning unit size as a result of reduced

cooling loads;
o Increased comfort for building occupants, particularly where air-

conditioning is not installed;
Cool roofs Economics and Marketing Perspective Cool Materials for the Built Environment 311
o Diminished peak demand effects on the power grid, ranging from

avoiding blackouts to financial savings for peak period consumers;
o Increased life expectancy of the roof system;
o Mitigation of the urban heat island effect which, in turn, helps

minimize the formation of greenhouse gases and smog.
These examples suggest that the overall sector opportunity for cool roofs is very
encouraging but, despite this beneficial environment, significant sector
transformation for cool roofs has yet to happen on a global scale.
In this chapter we aim to understand why this appears to be the case by

investigating factors that we believe to be important influencers of sector
development.
The questions we have posed are as follows:
 Is there clarity around the definitions and structure of the cool roof
sector and are the associated opportunities clear and simple?
 Can we summarise what is driving the cool roofing sector and identify
how sector transformation might be identified?
 How is sector demand being generated for cool roofing and are all the
stakeholders fully engaged?
 What data would an industry player require in order to consider

making an investment in the cool roofing sector?
It is our intention to answer these questions and propose some recommendations

that we believe could encourage sector development for cool roofing.
DEFINITIONS AND STRUCTURE OF THE COOL ROOF SECTOR

Definition of the Cool roof sector
The European Commission has sponsored a project for the promotion of cool
roofs in Europe [4] which proposes a definition of a cool roof system as follows:
“Α cool roof is a roofing system able to reflect solar heat and keep roof surfaces
cooler under the sun, without sacrificing colour. This is due to the materials used,
which reflect the solar radiation (solar reflectance) and release the heat they have
absorbed (infrared emittance ). Cool roof materials can be applied to most types of
roofs including those of homes, apartment blocks, industrial structures,
commercial buildings and offices with the same or a relative higher cost.”
This definition was tested across the European Union (EU) as part of a major survey
about the sector challenges for cool roofs. Two important conclusions were that:
The majority of the participants in the key supply chains claim to be

aware of the technology underpinning cool roofing but are not familiar
with the term “cool roofs” (57 per cent unaware of the terminology);
Survey respondents indicated that the definition stated above was clear
and simple.
An equally important characteristic of a cool roof is the need to have a high thermal
emittance [5]. The California Energy Commission defines cool roofing as:
“Highly reflective and emissive materials that stay 50 to 60° F (10 to 16°C) cooler
in the summer sun, thereby reducing energy costs, improving occupant comfort,
cutting maintenance costs, increasing the life cycle of the roof, and contributing to
the reduction of urban heat islands and associated smog.”
Similar definitions are used by the US-based Cool Roof Rating Council.
These definitions allow us to create a simple description of the target sector that
facilitates further analysis:
“The total sector for roof coverings that are designed with a primary purpose to
reflect solar energy whilst exhibiting a high emittance level.”
Based on the review summarized above we can conclude that cool roof solutions
are well defined in Europe and the USA. We can anticipate that these definitions
will become globally accepted and there should be no real confusion about the
definition of the overall cool roofing sector.
STRUCTURE OF THE COOL ROOF SECTOR
When conducting early analysis, companies will aim to gain a full understanding
of sector structure and, in particular, how the sectors are segmented. Achieving
this will, in turn, guide the players when selecting where their specific
development opportunities may lie.
There is an abundance of information available in the public domain on classic

types of roofing products and segments [6]. However, it is more challenging to
obtain research data that specifically segments the cool roofing sector. Public
reports do exist (for example, see http://coolroofs-eu.eu and the Cool Roof Rating
Council ’s website at http://www.coolroofs.org) that describe the main cool roof
products and component materials whilst also making reference to some
segments. It may, however, be very useful in this instance to provide a clear
sector-based overview of the main segments and sub-segments.
Coated Metal Roof

Sub-Segment
Tile Roof
Sub-Segment
Prefabricated Cool
Roof Segment
Asphalt Shingles
Sub-Segment
Single-Ply Membranes
Sub-Segment
Cool Roof Sector

Applied Roof Coatings
Sub-Segment
Elastomeric Roofing
Sub-Segment
Cool Roof On-Site
Application Segment
Build Up Roofing
Sub-Segment
Modified Bitumen
Roofing Sub-Segment
Green Roofing
Sub-Segment
Figure 1: The Cool Roof Segments

We have surveyed publicly available reports and other information sources on the
internet and present below a summary of what we believe represents some of the
more active cool roof segments. These are shown diagrammatically in (Fig. 1).
The next section will explain more about these segments.
The Prefabricated Cool Roof Segment

In this segment the main part of the roof is manufactured in a factory and arrives
on site as a prefabricated unit, making it quick and easy to install. The largest use
of prefabricated roofs is new-build construction.
The ‘cool’ component of the roof is applied as part of the manufacturing process,
often in the form of a cool coating or solar reflecting granules
Coated Metal Roofs Sub-Segment

A range of metals is used in the manufacture of coated roofs with the majority
being steel-based although aluminium can be used as an alternative. Metal roofs
can be sold as panels or tiles and are considered very durable, with service lives of
many years (some have guarantees over many decades).
The coatings that are applied to the metal come in a range of colors. Finished
coated metal is then prefabricated to fit most roofing applications.
Cool coatings that use infrared reflecting pigments can be applied instead of
standard coatings in order to increase the solar reflection of the roof.
Tile Roof Sub-Segment

Tiled roofs are popular in Asia and Europe. This sub-segment includes concrete
and clay tiles that have been manufactured using a surface coating referred to as
an engobe. Not all roof tiles are coated, however. In some regions consumers
prefer a weathered look that uncoated tiles can bring.
Clay and concrete tiles provide a durable roof covering and, whilst clay tiles can
have a service life of half a century, for concrete it is less and can average 30 to
40 years [6]. Both types of tile are resistant to fire, hail and moisture and can be
manufactured in a wide range of colors.
The growth of sales for tiled roofs is somewhat dependent on new build
construction due to the long replacement cycles. Also, the weight of tiles can be
limiting when considering replacing a lighter roofing material such as asphalt.
Cool roof tiles use cool coatings that contain infrared reflecting pigments.
Asphalt Shingles Sub-Segment

Bituminous shingles can be found in many regions of the world although the most
dominant areas for these products are the USA and Canada.
Shingles can be manufactured at a lower cost than other roofing alternatives.
They are mainly dark-colored and, therefore, absorb heat. It is notable, however, that
advances in granule technology have allowed for greater color choice. Further advances
may unlock greater potential for a wider range of cool, dark roof shades in future.
Single-Ply Membranes Sub-Segment

Single-ply roofing is a flexible or semi-flexible roof membrane typically
constructed using bitumen, rubber or plastic. These roofs can be made ‘cool’
using cool coatings or, for example, by incorporating specific white pigments into
the polymer of the membrane.
Cool Roof On-Site Application Segment

In this roofing segment the cool element such as a coating, a membrane or roofing
felt, is applied in the field directly onto the roof structure.
The material can be applied in situ to almost any roof substrate ranging from flat
bitumen to metal and is used widely in the refurbishment sector for cool roofs.
Applied Roof Coatings Sub-Segment

It may be argued that applied coatings should be considered part of the coatings
sector. We choose to include it in the cool roof landscape because applied cool
coatings are being used to turn existing roofs into ‘cool’ ones.
Cool coatings come in a range of colors and solar reflectance values.

Elastomeric Roof Sub-Segment

Elastomeric roofs can also be called thermoset membrane or rubber roofing and
are a flexible membrane system based on compounded rubber materials.
These are usually associated with low slope applications and can be used on new
roofs or to refurbish older roofs by covering the original layer.
The roofs are mainly black or white in color. There is an increasing tendency
towards white products as customers attempt to obtain the highest levels of solar
reflectance.
Build-Up Roofing Sub-Segment

This system consists of multiple layers of bitumen and fibreglass roofing felt
combining to form a uniform solid surface which is then topped with aggregate
rocks or capsheets.
Solar reflectance can be increased through the use of lighter shades of aggregate
and / or cementitious coatings.
Modified Bitumen Sub-Segment

In this sub-segment composite sheets of asphalt bitumen are modified with
polymers and installed in single or multiple layers.
Again, white or cool-colored coatings can be applied to increase the solar

reflectance of the roof.
Green Roof Sub-Segment
A building roof covered fully or partially by vegetation is often referred to as a
green roof. Green roofs are used to prevent stormwater runoff and absorb carbon
dioxide from the air. Another advantage of green roofs is that they reflect solar
energy and can therefore be classed as ‘cool’.
In summary, the cool roof segments can be structured into pre-fabricated and on-
site segments. These segments can, in turn, be further expanded into a variety of
different cooling technologies. The sector structure as proposed here is simple and
provides an accessible starting point for study and review.
THE OPPORTUNITY FOR COOL ROOFING
In order to develop the sector, participants must have a clear understanding of the
potential opportunities that cool roof technology can offer. In making an
assessment of overall sector opportunity the industry participants will expect to
generate information that supports:
 Measurements to dimension the sector space in terms of size, value,

structure, demographics and growth potential;
 Identification of specific sector opportunities.
Later in the chapter we will discuss the sector dimensions, the drivers that are
creating these opportunities and the associated benefits.
The original marketing question posed was whether opportunities for cool roofs
are clear and simple. There is certainly a substantial list but, what is more
important, is how the opportunities align across the value chain because different
stakeholders may view opportunities very differently.
Opportunities can only be unlocked if there is a commonality in drivers through

the value chain. In some cases it is possible that different stakeholders will have
conflicting needs.
For example, the company constructing a building may be driven to reduce the
overall build cost. This may not, however, give optimal efficiency savings during
the lifetime of the structure. This latter consideration will be of primary
importance to the occupier of the completed building.
In cases where cool roofs might add to the construction cost of a building but
reduce running costs after construction, this conflict of interest can block the
development of the sector.
Where the needs of the individual stakeholders are complementary, they will vary
considerably and require coordination (sometimes by legislation and incentives)
in order to grow the application of the technology. A hypothetical example
provides some useful insights.
Let us start by assuming that a national government chooses to implement an

initiative to promote cool roofs, with the main drivers being environmental and
health improvements. It is reasonable to propose that the government will
introduce a new policy standard aimed at the construction sector.
(Fig. 2) highlights how various cool roof sector participants might view the
opportunities that this scenario presents.
Stakeholder Opportunity
 Achieve environmental and health

Government targets
 Positive publicity
 Chance to introduce or raise design

Standards Agency standards
 Financial incentives
 Growth and diversification
Industry (e.g. introduce new product range)
 Attain compliance standard
 Clarifies selection criteria

Architect  New design opportunity
 Passive cooling
Consumer  Lower energy costs
 Increased comfort level
Figure 2: Opportunities as perceived by different stakeholders.
If we look more deeply into the industry stakeholder box in (Fig. 3) the situation
becomes a little more complex in that the marketing opportunity may well differ
depending on the position of an organization within the supply chain.
Supplier Opportunity
Pigment Manufacturer Develop new effect pigments
Coating Producer Introduce high value coating technology
Qualify product under new building

Roofing Company
standards
Advertise low running costs and

House Builder
sustainability benefits
Figure 3: Opportunities as viewed by the Industry participants.
Admittedly this is a theoretical example but it serves an important purpose. Just

one relatively simple need by a single stakeholder has led to a range of perceived
opportunities that mean different things to a broad number of sector participants.
We must bear in mind that the opportunities described in the example are
simplistic. There will be numerous issues, facts and figures behind each
opportunity. Taking account of the fact that each stakeholder would probably
envisage further opportunities for each sector driver adds to the complexity.
Whilst we can conclude that there are indeed a great number of potential sector
opportunities for cool roofs we must concede that there are some complexities
surrounding these opportunities. Dealing with the opportunity evaluation in
isolation will limit the true potential of marketing projects. In order to extract
maximum potential for the opportunities there is a need to understand the
variables across the whole supply chain.
Driving forces and sector transformation

A range of forces affect the cool roofing sector but we have chosen to discuss what
we believe to be two areas that play a critical role in future sector transformation:
 The key sector drivers and their associated benefits;
 The alternatives to cool roofing.

SECTOR DRIVERS AND BENEFITS
In order to simplify the complex forces that have an impact on the cool roof
sector, we have aggregated these forces into five primary drivers. These drivers
can be classified as political, economic, social, technological and environmental,
and all have an important effect on the adoption of cool roofing.
Political Drivers
The main political driver for cool roofs is arguably the international debate about
climate change, in particular the associated issues related to conserving energy
and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
This is a complex subject, but it is worth mentioning that the Intergovernmental

Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and various United Nations-led protocols have
advocated targets which have resulted in governments generating programmes to
reduce Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and improve energy efficiency with
timescales stretching as far ahead as 2050.
Cool roofing is highly synergistic with these programmes and the adoption of this
technology has been substantially progressed by organizations which have
developed protocols and standards for cool roofing. These organizations include
the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL), the Cool Roof Rating
Council and the DoE. In fact there are a number of American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM) International standards that have been set in the USA [7].
The DoE continues to initiate and fund developments for the cool roof sector on a
global platform. In Asia the DoE is assisting the Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean
Energy (APP) with implementation of a cool roof project and it is also working
with the Indian Government to research the potential benefits of cool roofs. Going
forward the DoE has plans to research the potential for cool roofs in the Middle
East and Africa.
Over the past two years the European Commission’s Executive Agency for
Competitiveness and Innovation (EACI) has backed a project entitled ‘Promotion
of cool roofs in the European Union (EU)’. The main aim of the project is to
develop an action plan leading to the development of a cool roof council for
Europe that will focus mainly on reducing sector barriers and understanding more
about the technical, policy, and end use landscapes [8].
The EU cool roof project has conducted a policy landscape assessment across the
European region which concluded that although policies relating to energy
efficiency in buildings exist, they do not recognize cool roofs as part of the
solution.
It is in the USA that a major degree of policy implementation has occurred to

support cool roofs and outputs of these policies include:
 Energy codes. For example, the Chicago Energy Conservation Code

will require that new residential and commercial low-slope roofs must
have a minimum initial solar reflectance value of 0.72 and a three-year
aged value of 0.50;
 Rebate Schemes. For example, in California participants include the

Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Southern California Edison,
Sacramento Municipal Utility District and Burbank Water and Power;
 Green Building Programmes with rating schemes. For example,

cool roof credits have been gradually introduced into the Leadership
in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED ) green building
certification system.
These initiatives present clear benefits to the stakeholders and these benefits have
in many cases been clearly quantified. The rebate schemes help reduce installation
costs, while the energy codes and building programmes offer potential
competitive advantage to producers of cool products that meet the required
standards.
Where these schemes are well established there has been significant development
of the cool roof sector.
A less well-publicized political driver is the option for reducing peak electricity
demand in cities that have higher energy demand than power availability. Some
cities, such as New York, have recognised that an opportunity exists for reducing
peak demand, but a major challenge lies in the quantification of the benefits that
will enable a compelling financial case to be constructed for cool roofing.
Economic Drivers
The main economic benefit for cool roofs comes from cost savings derived
through using less electricity. LBNL [9] estimates that worldwide energy savings
of $27 billion (2008) could be realised through the use of cool roofing. This figure
is likely to increase as energy becomes a more expensive commodity on a global
scale. A real need in the development of the cool roofing sector is the publication
of definitive and well-researched case studies that quantify the economic benefits
of cool roofing.
In Georgia, USA a very interesting case study was undertaken in 2004 comparing
the heating and cooing performance of two schools named Baggett and Poole
[10]. Both school roofs were made of coated metal and were evergreen in color
with a surface area of approximately 90,000 ft2
(8,300 m2). Different coatings were applied to the roofs. The Baggett school was
painted with a conventional coating that yielded a solar reflectance index (SRI) of
12% while the Poole school was covered with a coating that contained infra red
reflecting pigmentation that resulted in a solar reflection index of 29%., The Poole
school could therefore be categorised as a cool roof.
Bearing in mind that Georgia is one of the southern states of the USA and
therefore receives a significant share of sunshine throughout the year, the
difference in solar reflectance gave remarkable results (see Table 1).
The increased reflectance of solar energy from the roof at Poole led to lower
internal ambient temperature such that less energy was required to maintain the
overall room temperature at the school. The difference in the cost of the school’s
annual electricity bill of circa $8,000 equated to a total reduction in electricity
energy usage of 13 per cent and the projected saving over 35 years is $282,000k.
This is an excellent case study for demonstrating the economic benefits for cool
roofs. This type of data is also a very useful source to help early adopters present
their case across the cool roof supply chain. Publicly available data of this type is
rare, however, and more test cases are to be encouraged to further develop the cool
roof sector.
Another good example of measuring the economic benefits emerged from

research undertaken by LBNL [11], in which weathered white roofs and grey
roofs were compared across the USA. As an example a white roof with a solar
reflectance of 55 per cent compared to a conventional grey roof with a solar
reflectance index of 20 per cent could give the following savings in Arizona:
 An annual cooling energy saving per unit of air-conditioned roof area

of 7.69 kWh/m2;
 Energy cost savings of potentially $1.15/m2, assuming a cost of $0.15

per unit of electricity.
The above examples are compelling, but further rigorous studies need to be
undertaken and published in order to promote the case for cool roofs.
Social and Cultural Drivers

It is evident that the use of cool roofing can offer health and social benefits
including:
 Reduction of the heat island effect in large urban environments;
 The opportunity for inexpensive cooling in particularly hot

environments;
 Abatement of green house gases.
The extent to which related data is readily available for the potential cool roof
industry participants is not yet clear. A number of important academic studies
have been published in this regard [e.g.12-14], however, further work and
examples are required in order to establish strong links between the adoption of
cool roofing technology and the social benefits described above.
One of the most significant cultural factors related to cool roofing is the color choice
available for the roof. Although white surfaces offer the highest solar reflective
index not everyone wants a white roof and this aesthetic factor is especially
important in the case of domestic, steep-sloped roofs that can be seen from the
ground. The palette of color available to the end user of cool roofing therefore
represents an important driver in the sector and the availability of a range of darker
cool colors will further unlock the evolution of the cool roof sector.
Technological Drivers
A number of cool roofing technologies exist across the sub-segments and
manufacturers are constantly driven to develop and improve their roofing systems.
The performance of the cool roof relies heavily on the component that reflects
solar energy. As a result, pigment producers, coating developers and granule
manufacturers, amongst others, are concentrating their efforts on improving
effectiveness and developing new solutions from these materials.
Academia and industrial partners have published substantial scientific

information, including a detailed report [15] by LBNL and Oak Ridge National
Laboratory (ORNL). This report on cool colored roofing materials summarised
the work of a 3 year project to develop reflective, cool-colored roofing products
within a 5 year timeframe. The paper provides useful information on the
technologies and scientific evaluation methods and describes some of the
marketing dimensions and economic data relevant to US roofing sectors.
One of the main challenges in the sector has been to produce roofs that offer
higher reflectance from dark shades, which traditionally absorb solar energy. This
presents a significant opportunity for colored pigment manufacturers in particular,
and the LBNL report [15] provides an introduction to the technical field.
Table 1: Cool Roofing School Case Study
Baggett Poole Annual Difference

Greystone Power
Annual Electric $67,251 $58,447 $8,804 Cooling Benefit
Annual Gas $16,837 $17,587 -$750 Heating Penalty
TOTAL $84,088 $76,034 $8,054

Environmental Drivers
Two key environmental drivers influence the cool roofing sector. These are:
 A global requirement to reduce GHG emissions (particularly CO2);
 Major cities striving to abate the heat island effect and reduce smog
pollution.
Smog generation is associated with the heat island phenomenon. When buildings
emit heat the adjacent atmospheric air temperature can rise by some 1-2°C. This
apparently small increase can be enough to raise urban temperatures into a range
which promotes chemical reactions (between ozone (O3) and other pollutants) and
leads to the formation of smog (see http://eetd.lbl.gov/HeatIsland/).
Both environmental scenarios present the opportunity for cool roofs to reduce the
temperature of buildings, on the inside and / or at their exterior surfaces.
Fortunately this is an area where significant scientific research has been

conducted. An excellent overview of this topic is provided by the LBNL
http://coolcolors.lbl.gov/ website.
A high proportion of electricity used to power air-conditioning units comes from

coal-fired power stations that use fuels with a high CO2 emission factor (more
than double that of natural gas for example). Whilst low carbon energy sources
such as nuclear and renewables do exist, it is estimated by the IEA that in 2007
global total primary energy supply originated from 82 per cent fossil fuel and 18
per cent other sources [16].
It is evident that cooling by air-conditioning (which tends to have high electricity

usage) can generate disproportionately high carbon emissions. Introducing cool
roofs could reduce overall electricity usage and also related emissions, creating
another important benefit for cool roofs.
Akbari [17] has linked the environmental benefit with color, by estimating the
reduction in carbon emissions that result from using solar reflective roofs with
increased albedo (lighter shades having higher reflectance). It is suggested that
increased reflectivity in urban roofing can potentially save 24 giga-tonnes of

global warming emissions.
The emergence of data that allows evaluation of the environmental drivers and
benefits associated with cool roofing is a critical step in promoting sector
transformation and is to be encouraged. The work of the EU and USA cool roof
projects has provided very important data helping the sector understand some of
the science behind cool roofing and to establish appropriate measurement
standards for cool roof materials.
Alternate Technologies
The diversity of solutions within the cool roof sector has already been described
above. If we look beyond the boundaries of the cool roof arena alternative
solutions exist to reduce the thermal load of a building.
These solutions include:
 Insulation - higher levels of insulation can stop the energy from the
sun entering the building;
 Shading – the use of trees and blinds can prevent solar radiation from
reaching a building;
 Air-conditioning systems powered by sustainable sources –

temperature within a building can be reduced using solar technology
or wind;
 Passive ventilation systems.
Each of these options will carry their strengths and weaknesses and in some cases,
these alternate technologies are complementary to cool roofing. For example, a
combination of shading using trees and an effective cool roof could be utilized.
Sector Behavior
When attempting to understand how the sector is likely to behave it is useful to
consider the value chain for cool roofs. (Fig. 4) represents a schematic illustration
of the movement of materials and information through the cool roof value chain.
Information Flow (Design)
Local Engineer / Consumer

Legislation
Planners Architect
Building
Owner
Raw Reflecting
Roof Builder /
Materials Element
Assembler Contractor
Producer Producer
Material Flow (Build)
Figure 4: Overview of the Cool Roofing Value Chain.
Even this simple analysis reveals the wide variety of participants and the diversity
of professions and drivers within the sector. There is also a need for interchange
of data across the extremes of the chain and not just between the neighbouring
components. This represents a significant communication challenge.
This value chain system has been confirmed by the work of the EU cool roof
project [4] which has conducted surveys that demonstrate the broad range of
participants in the cool roof sector. The project group has established that a
number of sector barriers exist within Europe including:
 The construction industry is traditionally conservative and resistant to

change where it does not understand the benefits of moving to cool
roofs;
 There is significant lack of awareness of the cool roof technology

across the chain;
 The EU regulatory frameworks have not been developed for cool

roofs;
 Contrary to the situation in USA, the measurement standards for cool

roofing are not defined.
The EU project has set out to address these issues. In particular a plan has been
developed to publicise innovative cool roof technologies and to demonstrate the
benefits of cool roofing.
In the USA, the definition and promotion of cool roofing standards by groups such
as the Cool Roof Rating Council has led to significant stakeholder engagement and
has certainly increased the adoption of cool roofing technology. Many opportunities
still exist, however, to promote growth of this technology in the sector.
To conclude, the behavior of stakeholders within the cool roofing sector is

complex with many potential communication channels and relationships.
However, promotional projects such as those in the EU and USA have been
successful in raising stakeholder awareness regarding the benefits of cool roofs. In
particular, these organizations have helped engage stakeholders by publicising the
technology and developing appropriate standards to measure the performance of
cool roofs. The emergence of this type of project in other regions of the world
would have a significant impact on the growth of the cool roof sector.
INVESTMENT DATA REQUIREMENTS
Organizations considering growth opportunities into new or established sectors, or

those wanting to develop new products, will usually require a well-researched
business case, even at the earliest stages of their projects. This assessment would
include some indication of the value that their potential investment may attract.
The financial component of the business case will take the highest priority for
most companies, although some organizations may place value on other criteria
such as environmental benefits and reputation.
In determining the financial case it is very important to try to gauge the sector
dimensions in terms of volume and monetary value. This will require information
on sector share, growth rates and demographics. Few reliable public studies exist
that provide such data specifically for the global cool roof sector.
In our experience, where available data does exist, it usually covers small pockets
of the sector or is limited to certain types of product within the supply chain. As
an example [18], ChemQuest Group are quoted in an article published by JCT

Coatings as having estimated that the US sector for cool roof coatings in 2007 was
worth $430 - $440 million (€330-335m) with elastomeric roof coatings
accounting for $290 million (€220m) of this total and colored coatings containing
infrared reflecting pigments making up the remainder.
The lack of data is not surprising considering the complexity of the sector and its
stage of development. It does, however, present a limitation for industry players
aiming to scope a financial case for entering the cool roof sector and it may
present a barrier in terms of stimulating significant business development projects.
Anything that can be done to generate more data that will allow participants to
measure dimensions of the sector should be encouraged.
CONCLUSION
The main intention of this chapter was to provide a general insight into the cool
roofing sector from an industry participant’s point of view. In particular we aimed
at trying to understand why significant sector transformation has yet to happen.
In this regard it is important to recognise that huge progress has been made since
the introduction of the subject some ten years ago. Developments in the North
American area have been particularly encouraging.
Definition, Structure and Opportunity

Cool roof solutions are well defined in Europe and the USA and it can be
anticipated that these definitions will become globally accepted. This ensures that
there should be no confusion about the definition of the cool roofing sector. In
addition the cool roof segments and sub-segments are clearly established. In order
to fully develop the potential of these sub-segments, much greater generation and
availability of data and further engagement of the various stakeholders in the
value chain will be vital in future.
Sector Drivers
A very healthy set of drivers exist for the cool roof sector and whilst there are
alternate technologies, the prognosis for sector development is very good. Some
sub-segments have developed further than others, particularly where early

adopters have been attracted to the sector opportunity. Data exists in some areas to
enable tailoring of sector propositions and justification of marketing projects, but
there is a general need for more public case studies to help coalesce the sector and
generate compelling evidence supporting cool roofing.
Supply Chain Behavior

Supply chain engagement appears to be highest in the regions where there is the
greatest activity to promote cool roofing namely, the USA and latterly the EU.
Promotional projects such as those in EU and USA have been successful in
raising awareness of cool roofing. The emergence of cool roof promotional
projects into other geographic regions such as Asia and the Middle East should be
highly encouraged.
As with the opportunity evaluation, it is noted that the key to success in

responding to sector drivers and in creating demand depend on the generation of
compelling case studies and supporting data and in the sharing of this information
throughout the value chain.
Sector Dimensions
There is a lack of availability of information for determining sector dimensions but
this is not too surprising. The cool roof sector is still in its infancy and standard
approaches for measuring the sector and, indeed, for evaluating technological
performance and testing the associated benefits have yet to emerge in some segments.
Whilst an absence of reliable statistics and dimensional data may act as a barrier
to individuals wishing to calculate growth, share, size and value, it is likely that
this picture will become clearer over time.
It is difficult to say exactly when sufficient information will become available to

support serious sector investment projects on a global scale. It seems sensible that
we might be looking at a mid-term timescale of within the next five years.
Development of effective fiscal and regulatory frameworks that encourage use of

cool roof solutions, coupled with geographic growth of the sectors beyond the
USA and Europe, will also act as a catalyst for data generation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Declared none.
REFERENCES
[1] World Business Council for Sustainable Development. 2009. Transforming the Market:
Energy Efficiency in Buildings, 1.
[2] see http://www.wbcsd.org/
[3] La France MP. US, Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy,
Proposed Cool Roof Project for APP; 2009: BATF Tokyo; slide 5.
[4] see http://www.coolroofs-eu.eu
[5] Akbari H, Bretz S, Taha H, Kurn D, Hanford J. Peak power and cooling energy savings of
high albedo roofs. Energy and Buildings – special issue on Urban Heat Islands and Cool
Communities. 1997; 25(2): 117-126.
[6] The Freedonia Group. Inc. Industry Study 2368 World Roofing. June 2008.
[7] ASTM Standard E1980-01. Standard Practice for Calculating Solar Reflectance Index of
Horizontal and Low-Sloped Opaque Surfaces.
[8] Synnefa A, Santamouris M, Kolokotsa D. Promotion of Cool Roofs in the EU - The Cool
Roofs Project. Second International Conference on Counter-measures to Urban Heat
Islands; 2009: Berkeley, California: September 21-23, 2009.
[9] La France MP. US, Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy,
Proposed Cool Roof Project for APP; 2009: BATF Tokyo; slide 12.
[10] Case Study – Metal Roofing goes to School for Big Energy Savings.
http:www.coolmetalroofing.org/
[11] Levinson R, Akbari H. Potential benefits of cool roofs on commercial buildings:
conserving energy, saving money, and reducing emission of greenhouse gases and air
pollutants. Energy Efficiency 2010; 3:53-109.
Energy and Buildings 2007; 39:1167-1174.
[13] Synnefa A, Santamouris M, Livada I. A study of the thermal performance of reflective
coatings for the urban environment. Solar Energy 2006; 80 968-981.
thermal performance of cool colored coatings for the urban environment. Solar Energy
2007; 81: 488-497.
[15] Akbari H, Berdahl P, Levinson R, Wiel S, and Miller B, Desjarlais A. Cool Color Roofing
Materials. 2006.
[16] International Energy Agency. CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion 2009; Highlights,
Edition, 8.
[17] Akbari H, Menon S, and Rosenfeld A. Global Cooling: Increasing World-Wide Urban
Albedos to Offset CO2. Climatic Change 2008; 95 May/June.
[18] JCT Coatings Tech. Cool Roof Coatings Market Heating Up (Market Update) 2007; 1st
March.
.
CHAPTER 12
Cool Roofs’ Case Studies
Michele Zinzi1,* and Emmanuel Bozonnet2
1
Italian National agency for new technologies, Energy and sustainable economic
development ENEA UTEE-ERT Via Anguillarese 301, 00123 Rome, Italy and
2
University of la Rochelle, LEPTIAB, Avenue Michel Crépeau, 17042 La Rochelle
Cedex 1, France
Abstract: The chapter presents a set of exemplary case studies where the cool materials
were implemented and the impact monitored.
Keywords: Cool roofs, energy savings, thermal comfort, residential buildings, not
residential buildings.
INTRODUCTION
White or cool colored roofs impact on building performance was evaluated

through several studies during the past years [1-6] regarding energy demand (for
air conditioned buildings) and thermal comfort issues.
Cool roofs reduce the building solar gains through the envelope, hence they
ensure the cooling energy use and the peak demand in summer. It induces higher
heating energy demand in winter, although the impact is lowered by the lower
solar irradiation of roofs during this season due to lower zenith angles, shorter
daytime periods and more cloudy periods for some cases.
The studies demonstrated that a number of variables need to be taken into account
for a comprehensive assessment of the technology, including:
 Climatic conditions
 Building use
*Αdress correspondence to Michele Zinzi: Italian National agency for new technologies, Energy and
sustainable economic development ENEA UTEE-ERT Via Anguillarese 301, 00123 Rome, Italy; Tel +39 06
30486256 Fax+39 06 30483930;E-mail michele.zinzi@enea.it

334 Cool Materials for the Built Environment Zinzi and Bozonnet
 Building insulation level
 Building geometry and construction technology
If data based on numerical analyses give a satisfactory framework of the

technology potentials, a limited number of data is available for real building
applications. This chapter covers this issue, which is relevant. The real
potentialities of an energy efficient technique, can be effectively assessed when
the building is in use and under real conditions.
PRESENTATION OF THE CASE STUDY
The chapter presents a number of real applications of cool roof materials. The
case studies refer to different building uses (residential and non-residential) and
different climatic zones. A dedicated format was implemented for the presentation
of the 8 case studies included in the chapter.
The format includes:
 Name and type the case study building
 Building use (cooled or not cooled)
 Year of implementation
 Performance assessment method
 Geographic area
 Description of the building
 Description of the cool roof technology
 Results
 Reference person for the case study
The performance assessment can be direct or indirect. The first one is based on
the direct comparison of the building performances before and after the cool roof
Cool Roofs’ Case Studies Cool Materials for the Built Environment 335
application. The indirect assessment is based on the numerical evaluation starting

from monitored data on the real building and a calibrated model.
School building in Greece
Building use: Not Cooled Year: 2009
Performance assessment: Thermal comfort and net energy demand

(indirect)
Locality
The building is located at the Municipality of Kaisariani, close to centre of
Athens, in Greece (Fig. 1). The locality has the typical Mediterranean climate,
with significant cooling demand. The locality, being part of the large metropolitan
area of Athens, is also affected by a significant urban heat island.
Figure 1: Urban context for school building in Greece
Description of the Building

This case study involves a 410 square meters school building. It is a rectangular,
two floor building with a school courtyard and was constructed in 1980. Pictures
on the right show the urban context, on of the building façades, the first floor plan,
where the monitoring was carried out (Figs. 2 and 3).
Figure 2: School façade
Figure 3: First floor plan
The load bearing structure of the building is made of reinforced concrete and an
overall concrete masonry construction. The opaque components are not insulated.
The windows were replaced by double glazing windows.
The building is occupied by 120 children and 15 adults (the school staff).
The building is non-cooled and naturally ventilated. Natural ventilation is being

used by opening the windows during recess. In the teachers’ office there is a small
fan that can be left open or closed. There is an installed heating system using
natural gas (power 100,000 Κcal). Lighting is provided from building’s doors and
windows as well by the use of fluorescent lamps.
The operation schedule of the building is: 8:00- 14:00 from Monday to Friday
excluding national and summer holidays.
Cool Roof Technology and Application

The initial roof surface was covered by cement & gravel screed (Fig. 4). This is a
typical solution for flat roofs in southern Europe. No direct measurements were
carried out in this case, but the solar reflectance of the roof was estimated to be
0.2, which corresponds to a grey concrete surface. The value is estimated starting
from previous measurement campaigns.
The selected cool roof technology was a white elastomeric waterproof coating
produced by ABOLIN called Cool Barrier Roof. The product has a solar
reflectance of 0.89 and a infrared emittance of 0.89. These values refer to the
initial conditions (Fig. 6).
Figures in the page present some details about the roof characteristics. The two
upper photos show the roof appearance before and after the cool material
application (Fig. 4 and Fig. 5). The graph below presents the spectral curves of the
initial (red line) and the cool roof material (blue line) (Fig. 6). The graph presents
the reflectance in percentage, while the integrated value refers to the pure number
(between 0 and 1).
Figure 4: Initial and cool roof materials
The other three pictures present some different phases of the cool roof
implementation. Men at work laying down the elastomeric coating in the photo
below, on the right side two shots of the roof and surrounding buildings, during
the finalization of the cool roof application (Fig. 7 and Fig. 8).
Figure 5: Application of cool roof
Figure 6: Solar reflectance of cool roof
Figure 7: View of the cool roof almost completed

Results
The performance assessment for this case study is indirect. This means that the
building was monitored in free floating conditions before and after the cool roof
application for a limited period. The indoor and outdoor data were used as input to
calibrate a numerical model (implemented into the TRNSYS software) and
simulation were run to assess the energy and thermal performance during the
whole year.
The effect of the cool roof application on the real building was the reduction of
the average hourly air temperature of 1.8°C in a room at the first floor room and
0.5°C in a room at ground floor during summer. The temperature reductions
decreased to 0.5 and 0.3°C, for the insulated building configuration.
In terms of net energy demand, the application of the cool roof results to a
decrease in the annual cooling load by 40% (3 kWh/m2) for the reference
building. The corresponding decrease in the cooling load is 35% (1 kWh/m2) for
the insulated building. The heating penalty was also estimated. The application of
the cool roof results to an increase in the annual heating load by 10% (2.6
kWh/m2) and 4% (0.7 kWh/m2) for the reference and the insulated buildings.
Also the peak cooling and heating power was estimated. The most important peak
cooling power reduction occurs in the not insulated building after the cool roof
application (-20.3%) with a small increase of the heating peak. For the insulated
building configuration the cooling power peak reduction is about the same as the
heating power increase.
Figure 8: View of the completed cool roof

Figures on the left present the analysis of the roof temperature surfaces by thermal
images. Even in run during not peak hours, the temperature difference are about
12°C (Figs. 8, 9 and 10).
Figure 9: Visible and infrared image before the cool roof application
Figure 10: Visible and infrared image after the cool roof application
CONTACTS:
Afroditi Synnefa
University of Athens, Building of Physics - 5, University Campus 157 84 Athens,
Greece
Tel +30-210-7257 533 - E-mail: asynnefa@phys.uoa.gr
Laboratory building in Greece
Building use: Cooled Year: 2009

(indirect)
Locality
The building is located in the suburbs of Iraklion, in the island of Crete in Greece.
The building, constructed in 1997 is an administrative office for research
programs of the local University. It was initially constructed using bioclimatic
techniques in order to minimise heating and cooling needs (Fig. 11).
Figure 11: View of the laboratory area
Figure 12: Building view


The building covers a total area of approximately 50 m2, and it is actually a
uniform area, with a kitchen, a bathroom and two other discrete areas. the building
has 10 windows and 2 doors. The walls and roofs have increased insulation. All
windows and doors have aluminum frame with double glazing, and particularly to
reduce solar gains in summer. At the south of the building, there is a shading mat
(Fig. 12).
The building is used as an office and it is equipped with personal computers,

printers and related equipment. Te building is open during weekdays excluding
national holidays.
Special stone granulates were placed below the floor to act as heat storage in
winter and as heat sink in summer. Two pipes ensure the air circulation in the
layer. Natural ventilation is also achieved through a north oriented small window
close to the ceiling. Heating and cooling are provided by an A/C Inverter when
needed (Fig. 13). An additional heating appliance of 2 kW may be used. Lighting
is provide by energy-efficiency lamps.
Figure 13: Building cross section
The figures on the right present the general view of the lab area, the building and
a cross section and the floor plan of the building.

The roof structure consists mainly of two layers that are, from inside to outside:
20 cm concrete and 3 cm insulation. Moreover, approximately half of the building
roof (at the north side) is covered by a pitched roof that is, in turn, covered by
tiles. Because of this roof configuration, the cool roof application took place on
the flat portion of the roof only.
The cool coating used for the Iraklion Case Study is a Cool white paint
manufactured by ABOLIN with the solar reflectance of 89% and the infrared
emittance of 0,89. According to the procedure adopted in the EU Cool Roof
Project, the coating has a maximum temperature surface of 39.8°C. According to
the procedure developed within the US Cool Roof Rating Council, the coating has
a solar reflectance index (SRI) of 113.
The cool coating was applied on 15 July 2009. It is important noting that due to
mould problems, a layer of a special ABOLIN paint for interior was installed
indoors.
The picture below (Fig. 16), the same of the Kaisariani case study, shows the
spectral reflectance of the used cool coating. The two upper photos on the right
offer a view of the flat roof portion after the cool coating application in July (Fig.
14 and Fig. 15). The third picture on the left presents the calculated temperature
(blue line) of the external surface of the roof, before and after the cool coating
application (Fig. 17).
Figure 14: Cool roof installed

Figure 15: Cool roof installed
Figure 17: Calculated roof temperature before and after the cool roof application
Figure 16: Reflectance of the cool coating

Results
whole year.
The graph on the right shows the measured indoor and outdoor air temperature,
with global horizontal radiation during the monitoring period (Fig. 18). The
picture below presents the TRNSYS frame were data of the building were
inputted (Fig. 19).
Figure 18: Measured indoor and outdoor air temperature, with global horizontal radiation
The calculation in free floating conditions shows that the difference in the indoor
temperature reaches 1.5ºC during the summer months and it is reduced by 0.5ºC
in the winter period. Hence comfort benefits in summer are higher than penalties
during the heating season.
When applying the cool coating the energy demand changes. The cooling load
reduction is estimated in approximately 27%, while the heating load is increased
by 42.4%. The total energy saving is, by the way, close to 20%. This is attributed
to the fact that the energy consumption for heating is small; hence the variation is
high in percentage but small in absolute numbers, being the cooling loads
prevalent in this specific building.
To be noted that, even cool roof is net heating penalty technique, the cool roofs
application is the most effective solution comparing to increased insulation or
windows improvement for the specific building in this climatic conditions. This
can be inferred in the lower graph on the right (Fig. 20).
Figure 20: Comparison of energy saving techniques
CONTACTS:
Dr Denia Kolokotsa
Environmental Engineering Department, Technical University of Crete GR 73100
Chania
Tel: +30 28210 37808 - E-mail: dkolokotsa@enveng.tuc.gr
Office laboratory building in Italy

(indirect)
Locality
The building is located at the Municipality of Trapani, a town located along the
western coast of Sicily, Italy. The locality has the typical Mediterranean climate.
The building needs to be heated in winter and cooled in summer, to ensure the
thermal comfort conditions (Fig. 21).
Figure 21: Urban context

The studied building is part of a complex including a school, a gym and a
playground. This public building host the offices for the administrative and
management activities of the school and two teaching laboratories. The building
consists of a single floor and has an irregular rectangular shape. The two main
façades are north-west and south-east oriented. The net area of the building is 706
square meters.
The framework of the building is of reinforced concrete and the masonry consists
of volcanic limestone blocks not insulated. The external surface finishing is of
gray plaster. The windows consist of single glass glazing with aluminum frame.
The roof external finishing is of gray concrete tiles. The ground floor is above an
air cavity partially filled with water. Artificial lighting is provided by the use of
fluorescent lamps. The operation schedule of the building is: 9:00-17:00 from
Monday to Saturday excluding national holidays, the use of the single rooms may
vary according to the year period.
Figures on the right show the urban context, an aerial view and the plan of the
building (Figs. 21, 22, and 23).
Figure 23: First floor plan


The roof surface is about 800 square meters, one of the largest monitored
applications of cool roofs. The roof is flat, hence no particular restraints existed for
the selection of the cool roof products. The initial roof surface was covered by
concrete tiles, made darker by the soiling through the years. This is a typical product
for flat roofs in southern Europe. No direct measurements were carried out in this
case, but the solar reflectance of the roof was estimated to be 0.25 (Fig. 24).
The cool roof application was a white double layer paint on primer. This is an
eco-friendly organic water paint based on milk and vinegar. The solar reflectance
is 85.9% and the infrared emittance is 0.88. These values refer to the initial
conditions. The figure at the bottom left of the page show the reflectance curve.
Figures in the page present some details about roof characteristics and works. The
picture high on the right shows the roof initial conditions, where the soiling effect
affected the albedo of the structure (Fig. 25). The photo in the middle shows men
at work applying the cool material (Fig. 26). The image shows the increase of the
white colouration depth when applying the second coat above the first one. The
third shot presents the comparison between the coo roof applied on the monitored
building and the initial roof, still present on the mechanical laboratory (Fig. 27).
Figure 25: Initial roofing tiles

Figure 26: Men at work: first and second coat
Figure 27: View of the initial (front) and of the cool (back) roof of the building
Figure 24: Reflectance of the cool coating

RESULTS
whole year.
The cool roof application reduces the net cooling energy demand by 54% of the
building, if cooled. The cooling energy reduction would be 24%, in case the same
building would be well thermally insulated. The cool roof resulted to be the most
efficient cooling energy solution among the several tested ones.
The effect of the cool roof is also a strong decrease of the operative temperatures
in the not cooled building configuration. It was found that in two monitored
rooms the percentage of hours with the temperature higher than 27°C decreased
from 50-55% to less than 15%.
Surface temperatures 1-20/08 Measured not painted and painted - Predicted not painted
Ts- not painted measured

60 Ts - painted measured
T air
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
01/08 03/08 05/08 07/08 09/08 11/08 13/08 15/08 17/08 19/08 21/08
Figure 28: Air and surface (cool and initial roof) temperature profiles
Figures on the right show some results. The upper graph shows the measured
thermal profile of the roof, with and without the cool material application (Fig.
28). The infrared images below show the different behavior between the cool roof,
front view, and the initial installed tiles, higher part of the roof. Pictures were
taken at 08.00, 11.00, 14.00, 17.00, 20.00, 22.00 during a sunny day in late
August (Fig. 29). The photos show how the conventional and cool materials have
similar temperatures early in the morning (both have high thermal emittance ) but
the different reflectance induces significant differences during daytime and during
the first night hours.
Figure 29: Infrared image after the cool roof application
CONTACTS:
Carlo Romeo
ENEA – UTEE ERT Via Anguillarese 301, 00123 Rome
Tel. +39 06 30484053– email: carlo.romeo@enea.it
Residential building in France
Building use: Not Cooled Year: 2009
Performance assessment: Thermal comfort (indirect)
Locality
The building, named “Le Parvis”, is composed of 87 dwellings in 4 stories and it
was built in 1995. The building is located in Poitiers, France. The climatic zone is
mainly heating dominated, with some thermal comfort concern in summer ((Fig. 30).
Figure 30: Building area

The studied portion of the building is the duplex dwelling located below the roof.
The dwelling has an attic space, separating the roof from the heated zone. The net
total area of the building is 27 m2, split on the two floors.
The windows are PVC with double glazing; the walls are insulated with 100mm
of polystyrene. The attic is insulated with 200 mm of mineral wool in the ceiling
and 100 mm of rock wool for the roof. The ventilation rate of the building is quite
well defined by the mechanical ventilation: the air entrances located within the
living room and both rooms at the second floor, and the exhaust system is located
in the kitchen, the WC and the bathroom. This ventilation rate varies during the
day depending on the use of the different rooms. The infiltration rate is not well
defined and depends on the people use of openings.
The building has the heating system but no cooling system, as usual in most parts
of France for dwellings. The impact of cool roof here is mainly related to the
indoor thermal comfort in summer.
The pictures on the left show the whole building complex (Fig. 31), the dwelling
cross section and floor plans (Fig. 32).
Figure 31: Building cross section, the analysed dwelling is highlighted in blue
Figure 32: Duplex dwelling floor plans


The slope of the roof is low, actually 11.8%. The terrace roof is made of steel
cladding insulated by a 100 mm mineral wool and sealed by asphalt, consisting of
a self-protected elastomeric double layer. The slight roof slope is oriented toward
the East and there is no shade provided by the surrounding buildings and other
external obstructions, being all smaller or with the same height of the selected
building.
The cool roof application consists of a cool coating especially designed for low
sloped roof. The coating is produced by Soprema. The main thermo-physical
properties are: solar reflectance of 0.88 and infrared emittance of 0.9. The cool
roof installation was implemented at the end of July 2009.
The pictures on the right present the roof works. The upper photo shows the initial
very dark asphalt layer of the roof (Fig. 34). The picture in the middle shows the
visual differences between the initial roof and the cool coating (Fig. 35). The
lower photo presents the final appearance of a portion of the roof with the sensor
installed for the surface temperature monitoring (Fig. 36).
The graph below (Fig. 33) presents the measured surface temperature during the
building monitoring. The different response of the roof can be easily inferred. Few
hours exceed 35°C after the cool coating application, while peaks of 70°C were
registered during the phase of the experiment.
Figure 34: Initial roofing system

Figure 35: View of the initial and cool roof, taken during the installation
Figure 36: Instrumentation installed for the cool roof monitoring
80.0 °C
Ts measure [°C]
70.0 °C
60.0 °C
50.0 °C
40.0 °C
30.0 °C
20.0 °C
10.0 °C
0.0 °C
Figure 33: Surface temperature during the monitoring

RESULTS
whole year.
The assessment was carried according to the external surface and indoor operative
temperatures. The most influenced zone was the attic. The calculation shows that
the cool coating let the mean operative temperature decrease 30.8°C to 22.4°C
during the monitoring. The standard deviation decreases also from 9.8°C to 4.5°C.
The difference is strongly attenuated in the room below, due to the high thermal
insulation. The consequence is the mean operative temperature reduction from
24.9°C to 24.2°C. Also the maximum operative temperature reduction was limited
to less than 1°C, from 30.2°C to 29.3°C.
The calculations were performed for the not insulated configuration, with more
significant results. The cool painting let the mean values of operative temperatures
decreasing from 32.3 to 22.4°C in the attic and from 23.6 to 29.4°C in the room.
The maximum temperature decrease from 41.4 to 32.1°C
operative temp. °C [asphalt] outdoor temp. °C operative temp. °C [cool paint]

60.00
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
Figure 37: Operative temperatures in the attic with and without cool coating - insulated building
The graphs on the right present the results of the calculation starting from the
measured and calibrated data (Fig. 37). The graphs report the outdoor, indoor with
cool roof and indoor without cool roof operative temperatures during the
monitoring period. The difference between the insulated (two upper graphs) and
the not-insulated configuration in the attic and in the room can be inferred (Fig.
38, Fig. 39, Fig. 40).
30.00
28.00
26.00
24.00
22.00
20.00
Figure 38: Operative temperature in the room with and without cool coating - insulated building
operative temp. °C [asphalt] outdoor temp. °C operative temp. °C [cool paint]

70.00
60.00
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
Figure 39: Operative temperature in the attic with and without cool coating - not insulated building

50.00
45.00
40.00
35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00
Figure 40: Operative temperature in the room with and without cool coating - not insulated
building
CONTACTS:
Emmanuel Bozonnet
Université de la RochelleAv. M. Crépeau, 17042 La Rochelle
Tel +33 546458546 – E-mail: emmanuel.bozonnet@univ-lr.fr
Office building in UK
Building use: Not cooled Year: 2009

(indirect)
Locality
A portion of building hosts the estates office at Brunel University, located on the
top floor of a four storey building. The top floor was constructed in 1995. The
building is located in London, UK, a heating dominated climate, but with
significant cooling demand in non residential buildings (Fig. 41).
Figure 42: Floor plan with the indication of the installed temperature sensors
Figure 43: Internal view of the office area

The studied portion of the building consists of one open office area and three separate
office rooms. The total floor area is 137 m2 of which the open office area accounts for
97.6 m2. The floor to ceiling height is 2.65 m. The area hosts from 10 to a maximum
of 15 staff workers at a time. Each work place is provided with a computer.
The open office area has 6 windows, each room has one opening. The windows
are fitted with horizontal window blinds. The office has central heating system
and it naturally ventilated building. Some individual have small table fans. The
external wall structure is made of 0.125m thick concrete block work. This
concrete block work is covered with 0.18m insulation layer and a ZnAl cladding.
The floor is made of 0.15m thick concrete slab. On top of this concrete floor
synthetic carpet is laid. All the internal walls are made of dry wall partition.
The upper right picture presents the view of the building portion interested in the
roof coating. The figure in the middle shows the building scheme (Fig. 42), the
plan also indicates the positions of the temperature sensors. The lower photo
shows an internal view of the office area (Fig. 43).

The roof is flat and the structure consists of 0.15 m thick concrete slab. Originally,
a 0.04 m insulation layer was placed on top of the slab and covered with a layer of
water proofing material (asphalt based). The initial solar reflectance is estimated
in 0.1 During the second part of the experimental period, the cool roof material
was applied on top of the asphalt.
The cool material consists of an Abolin Company Cool Barrier 0.12 coating. In
the attempt of balancing solar gain in winter and solarprotection in summer a non
white painting was applied on this building. The cool barrier paint was applied as
per manufactures specification by a reputed contractor. The solar reflectance of
the pink coating is 0.7 and the infrared emittance is 0.88.
Pictures on the right show: the view of the roof before the cool material application
with the mounting of the surface temperature sensors (thermocouples were protected
from solar radiation by covering the top with rock wool and white cement plaster)
(Fig. 45); the structure of the roof with the layers it consists of (Fig. 46); the works
for the cool painting application (Fig. 47).The graph below shows the roof surface
temperature before and after the cool roof application (Fig. 44).
Figure 45: Initial roofing system

Figure 46: Layers of the initial roofing system
Figure 47: View of the roof during the cool roof application
Figure 44: Surface temperature during the monitoring
RESULTS
whole year.
Concerning the not cooled building and considering the 0.1 and 0.6 albedo values,
there is reduction on maximum and average internal air and operative
temperatures in summer. The maximum internal air temperature is reduced by
1.2°C in and the average air temperature by 2°C. The application causes a
significant thermal comfort improving, since the maximum operative temperature
is reduced by 2.2°C and the average operative temperature by 5.3°C.
Heating load was increased and cooling load was decreased with an overall
reduction for the cooled building. There is a reduction of heating and cooling
demand and this varies between less than 1 and 8.5% during the year, as a
function of different albedo values. Lower ventilation rates achieved higher
energy savings in cooled building.
Applying cool roof technology could be beneficial in terms of increased thermal

comfort in the summer and could decrease overall energy use. Energy savings are
dependent on building construction and operation.
Figures on the left show: temperature profiles before and after the cool material
application(Fig. 48); improving of the indoor air temperature raise respect to the
outdoor (Fig. 49); energy savings as a function of thermal insulation(Fig. 50).
Figure 48: Air and (internal and external) surface temperature during the monitoring
Figure 49: Outdoor-indoor air temperature differences before and after the cool roof applciation
Figure 50: Calculation of the overall energy (heating + cooling) savings as a function of roof
thermal insulation
CONTACTS:
Maria Kolokotroni
Howell Building,, Mechanical Engineering, Brunel University, Uxbridge,
Middlesex UB8 3PH
Tel: +44 (0) 1895 266688 - Email: maria.kolokotroni@brunel.ac.uk
Residential house in Italy
Building use: Not cooled Year: 2006
Performance assessment: Thermal comfort (direct)
Locality
The experimental building was funded by the former Italian Ministry of Industry
to assess the energy performances and promote energy efficient solutions at
national level. The building is located in the northern outskirts of Rome, a
climatic zone characterized by significant heating and cooling demands (Fig. 51).
Figure 51: View of the experimental building “Casa Intelligente”
Figure 52: Floor plan of the building with the position of the air temperature sensors
Figure 53: Internal view of the monitored room

The house consists of two identical flats, one at each level, with the same external
vertical surfaces and orientation. The lower flat has an unheated space below, the
upper story has the flat top roof above. Each flat, with an area of approximately 70
m2, consists of a kitchen, a bathroom, a bedroom and a living room. The U-value of
the walls is 0.5 W/m2K, the reflectance of the outdoor ochre walls is unknown but
estimated between 0.4 and 0.5. The solar factor of the windows is 0.35.
The two living rooms were selected as testing rooms and equipped with three air
temperature sensors, located in different spot of the room and placed at 120
centimeters from the room floor. The building was in free floating conditions and
unoccupied during the test campaign. The air exchange was provided through the
windows infiltration.
The upper right picture presents the view of the experimental building; the scheme
in the middle shows the testing room plan with the position of the three air
temperature sensors (Fig. 52), whose average was the parameter was used for the
estimation of the cool roof impact; the third photo show a wide angle view of the
testing room (Fig. 53).

The cool roof was applied on the portion of the flat roof corresponding to the
living room below. The roof was made of concrete beams and hollow bricks, the
U-value of the roof is 0.4 W/m2K, after removing the suspended ceiling. The
initial roof was covered red clay tiles, but was covered with a darker coating in
order to see the building response with higher solar gains. The solar reflectance of
this coating was measured and the value resulted to be 0.13.
The cool roof application was a white double layer paint on primer. This is an
eco-friendly organic water paint based on milk and vinegar. The solar reflectance
is 85.9% and the infrared emittance is 0.88. These values refer to the initial
conditions. The figure at the bottom left of the page show the reflectance curve.
Pictures on the right show: the heat flux meters mounted on the internal surface of
the roof (Fig. 55); the spectral reflectance curves of the brown and the white
coatings, applied on the roof (Fig. 56); the surface temperatures measured on the
treated and not treated portions of the roof during three days in August (a peak
difference on 24°C was registered during the first of the three days) (Fig. 57). The
photo below shows the appearance of the white and brown coating after 4 years from
application. It has to be noted that the cool roof application consisted of a single coat
for a seasonal evaluation, not for an enduring roofing solution (Fig. 54).
Figure 55: Heat flux meters installed on the room ceiling (suspended ceiling removed)
Figure 56: Spectral reflectance of the brown and white coating

Figure 57: Surface temperature profiles during three days in summer
Figure 54: Initial and cool coating applied on the roof. Products appearance after 4 years ageing
RESULTS
The performance assessment for this case study is indirect. Air and surface
temperatures were measured during summer 2006 and the evaluation in based on
the results comparison.
The air temperature of the room (2) at the second floor was always higher respect
to the room at the first floor (room 1) with the brown paint on the roof. This
temperature was higher than 1.5° in the 60% of the time. The average temperature
was 28.3 and 30°C for the room 1 and 2 respectively. The temperature at room 2
was lower than room 1 in the 97% of the time and the difference was more than
0.5° in the 40%. The effect of the white painting was making the second floor 2
cooler than the first floor in most of the time. This means that the roof is not a
source of heat and solar gains, but becomes an heat sinks.
The internal surface temperature monitoring showed that the effect of the cool
roof application induced an average reduction of 2.4° C during the period
monitoring, with an important impact on the thermal comfort.
Cumulative (Tfloor2 - Tfloor1) distribution (%)

100
paint
90
no-paint
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
<-1 <-0.5 >0 >1 >1.5 >2
(°)
Figure 58: Cumulative distribution of temperature differences at floor 1 and 2
Figure 59: Air temperature profiles at floor 1 and 2
The figure up on the right shows the cumulative distribution of the temperature
difference between the room at the second and the first floor (Fig. 58). The graphs
in the middle presents the air temperature profiles in the two test rooms after the
cool roof application (Fig. 59). The impact of the solar reflectance can be easily
inferred. The lower graph presents the potential impact of the cool roof during the
first part of the monitoring (Fig. 60). Starting from the measured data at the first
and second floor and applying a linear regression technique of the measured data,
it was possible to estimate with good approximation the reduction of the
temperature during the first period, the result was a potential reduction of 2.1°C of
the internal air temperature.
Figure 60: Measured and predicted daily air temperatures
CONTACTS:
Michele Zinzi
ENEA – UTEE ERT
Via Anguillarese 301, 00123 Rome – Tel. +39 06 30486256 –
E-mail: michele.zinzi@enea.it
Tiled roof of a residential house in Central Florida
Performance assessment: net energy demand
This case study is one between several typical houses in Florida studied by Parker
and Barkaszi (1997), from 1991 to 1994.
Locality
The house is located in Merritt Island, central Florida, where the cooling energy
demand can be decreased with reflective roofs. Yet, the relative humidity and
nighttime temperatures stay relatively high, as central Florida is a humid
subtropical climate (Fig. 61, Fig. 62).
Figure 61: View of the building before coating
Figure 62: View of the building after coating

Local meteorological conditions
 Ambient air temperature (°C)
 Solar radiation (W/m2)
 Relative humidity (%)
 Wind speed (m/s)
Indoor measures
 Interior living-room air temperature (°C)
 Kitchen air temperature (°C)
 Ceiling surface temperature (°C)
 Slab floor temperature (°C)
 Indoor relative humidity (%)
Attic conditions
 Roof surface temperature (°C)
 Roof decking temperature (°C)
 Attic air temperature (°C)
Space Cooling Energy Use
 Air conditioner watt-hours (Wh)

This is a 158 m² house with a tile roof. The original roof, as shown on the
opposite photo, is made of old dark grey tiles (cement). The solar reflection of
0.20 was measured with a spectral pyranometer sensitive to the radiant energy in
the 0.28-2.8 micrometer range.
The house is occupied and cooled with an air conditioner of 10.6 kW and a low
seasonal coefficient of performance (SCOP) of 2.05. The comfort temperature
was set by occupants before the experiment and then maintained at the same value
before and after the roof refurbishment.
The attic is insulated with a thermal resistance of 1.8 m²K/W.
The measurements were done from the 3rd to the 16th of July before the cool
coating, and from the 2nd to the 15th of August after. The meteorological
conditions and indoor sensors (cf. opposite details) were measured every five
seconds and stored to the data logger as 15 minutes averages.
Cool roof Technology and Application

The cool roof was a white elastomeric coating applied on the roof during the mid
summer, as it can be seen on the previous photo.
The comparison was conducted for similar days before and after the cool coating
application. The opposite figures show the evolution of the temperatures which
highlight the strong decrease of the maximum temperatures, from 55.7°C to
38.3°C for the roof and from 44.4°C to 33.6°C for the attic air temperature (Fig.
63, Fig. 64). Yet the shape of the curves stay identical, with a time shift due to the
material inertia, and similar minima due to the similar night thermal exchange, as
the thermal emissivity of the roof is not affected by the color change.
Figure 63: Temperatures before the application of the cool coating

Figure 64: Temperatures after the application of the cool coating
RESULTS
The performance assessment for this case study is directly correlated to the air
conditioning electricity use as shown on the opposite figure before and after the
cool coating application (Fig. 65). The indoor air temperature is maintained in
both cases at the initial set point for the inhabitants comfort (around 27.5°C), and
the electricity demand decreases by 11.6kWh per day, i.e. this is 20.2% energy
reduction for a typical summer day. The peak power demand decreases by 988 W.
Figure 65: Air conditioning electricity use and indoor air temperatures before and after coating
CONTACTS:
Parker D.S. and Barkaszi J.

Florida Solar Energy Center, 1679 Clearlake Road, Cocoa, FL 32922, USA
Residential house in West Florida
Performance assessment: net energy demand and indoor air temperature
This case study is one between several typical houses in Florida studied by Parker
and Barkaszi (1997), from 1991 to 1994.
Locality
The house is located in West Florida where the cooling energy demand can be
decreased with reflective roofs. The relative humidity and nighttime temperatures
stay relatively high, as West Florida is a humid subtropical climate.
Local meteorological conditions
 Ambient air temperature (°C)
 Solar radiation (W/m2)
 Relative humidity (%)
 Wind speed (m/s)
Indoor measures
 Interior living-room air temperature (°C)
 Kitchen air temperature (°C)
 Ceiling surface temperature (°C)
 Slab floor temperature (°C)
 Indoor relative humidity (%)
Attic conditions
 Roof surface temperature (°C)
 Roof decking temperature (°C)
 Attic air temperature (°C)
Space Cooling Energy Use
 Air conditioner watt-hours (Wh)

This is an 84m² house with an asphalt shingles roof. The initial albedo was
measured at 0.08 with a spectral pyranometer sensitive to the radiant energy in the
0.28-2.8 micrometer range.
The house is occupied and cooled with an air conditioner of 5.3 kW and a
seasonal coefficient of performance (SCOP) of 2.64. The comfort temperature
was set by occupants before the experiment and then maintained at the same value
before and after the roof refurbishment. However, in this case the cooling system
was very often not able to maintain the set temperature due to the lack of cooling
power.
The house has one storey and an attic without any insulation system.
The measurements were done during June for the initial roof and from
the 21th of August to the 20th of September for the cool coated roof. The
meteorological conditions and indoor sensors (cf. opposite details) were
measured every five seconds and stored to the data logger as 15 minutes
averages.
Cool roof Technology and Application

The cool roof was a white elastomeric coating applied on the asphalt shingles during the mid summer.
The comparison was conducted for similar days before and after the cool coating
application. The opposite figures show the evolution of the temperatures which
highlight the strong decrease of the maximum temperatures, from 65.4°C to
37.5°C for the roof and from 47.8°C to 31.2°C for the attic air temperature. Yet
the shape of the curves stay identical, with a time shift due to the material inertia,
and similar minima due to the similar night thermal exchange, as the thermal
emissivity of the roof is not affected by the color change (Fig. 66, Fig. 67).
Figure 66: Temperatures before the application of the cool coating
Figure 67: Temperatures after the application of the cool coating
RESULTS
The performance assessment for this case study is directly correlated to the air
conditioning electricity use as shown on the opposite figure before and after the
cool coating application. The indoor air temperature is maintained in both cases at
the initial set point for the inhabitants comfort (around 27.5°C), and the electricity
demand decreases by 5.6kWh per day, i.e. this is 25.0% energy reduction for a
typical summer day. Moreover, the total daily air conditioning use decreased by
11.9kWh under peak day conditions, i.e. 47% energy savings.
Yet these savings are not completely significant, as prior to the roof
refurbishment, the indoor set point was often not obtained due to the insufficient
cooling power as can be seen on the opposite figures. In these days, the air
conditioner ran at its maximum power from 1 to 10pm as the indoor air
temperature is increasing at 26.5°C for a set point around 23-24°C. After the
refurbishment, and for similar days (same outdoor temperatures), the set point is
always maintained and the air conditioner is cycling with a short peak period from
5 to 6pm (Fig. 68, Fig. 69, Fig. 70).
Figure 68: Air conditioning electricity use and indoor air temperatures before and after coating
Figure 69: Extreme day air conditioning demand and indoor air temperature before coating
Figure 70: Extreme day air conditioning demand and indoor air temperature after coating
CONTACTS:
Parker D.S. and Barkaszi J.

Florida Solar Energy Center, 1679 Clearlake Road, Cocoa, FL 32922, USA
CONCLUSIONS
All case studies presented here demonstrate the strong impact of cool roofs on the
maximum surface temperature which decreases e.g. by 21.9°C in Florida, 24°C in
Italy or 35°C in France. These results highlight the direct potential on the
environment temperatures of not cooled buildings. The cool roof technology has
also direct consequences on the building thermal loads, which were measured
either with the indoor air temperatures or the AC energy demand evolution. Peaks
of more than 50% were reached for the cooling energy consumption estimation,
being heating penalties lower the cooling gains.
The air conditioning systems are more widely used in hot climate like in
Mediterranean regions as Greece, Italy and large area of United States, concerning
the reviewed case studies. The results demonstrate the potential for typical
buildings with weak insulation systems. In general variations and savings are
directly connected with the building use, climatic conditions, insulation and solar
control strategies.
Using cool roofs has in any case a direct impact on the urban heat island
mitigation, quite critical phenomenon affecting medium and large cities at almost
all latitudes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Declared none.
REFERENCES
[1] Akbari H, Bretz S, Kurn D, Hartford H. Peak power and cooling energy savings of high
albedo roofs. Energy and Buildings 1997; 25: 117–126.
[2] Akbari H, Konopacki S. Calculating energy-saving potentials of heat-island reduction
strategies. Energy Policy 2005; 33: 721–756.
[3] Parker D S, Barkaszi J. Roof solar reflectance and cooling energy use: field research results
from Florida. Energy and Buildings 1997; 25 (2): 105-115.
[4] Suehrcke H, Peterson E L, Selby N. Effect of roof solar reflectance on the building heat
gain in a hot climate. Energy and Buildings 2008; 40: 2224–2235.
Energy and Buildings 2007; 39 (11): 1167–1174.
[7] Zinzi M. Cool materials and cool roofs: Potentialities in Mediterranean buildings. ABER -
Advances in Building Energy Research 2010; 4: 201-266.
Index
A
air quality, 31, 176
Aluminium coatings:, 40
asphalt pavement, 73
Asphalt Shingles., 41
ASTM E1918, 112, 117, 118
ASTM Standard C1549, 112, 115
ASTM Standard E903-96, 75, 112, 113
B
Biological contamination, 46
Bitumen Roofing, 42
C
Climate predictors, 18
Colored cool paints, 55
Cool pavements, 45, 79, 111
Cool pigments, 81, 91, 93, 98, 107
Cool roof, 26
Cool Roof Calculator, 161
Cool Roof Rating Council, 25, 29, 35, 51, 112, 125, 182, 195, 202, 207, 214
Cool roof segments, 195, 197, 198, 208
cooling energy, 16, 21, 28, 31, 43, 44, 71, 74, 124, 147, 150, 155, 159, 166, 167, 234
D
DOE calculator, 160
E
Energy codes, 202
energy demand, 31, 32, 43, 147, 148, 149, 150, 159, 181, 203, 212, 214, 215, 217, 223,
229, 231
EU-Cool Roofs, 163
F
Four flux models, 137, 145

Index Cool Materials for the Built Environment 385
FTIR Spectrometer, 122
G
Green Building Programmes, 202
H
Heating load, 157, 161, 225
heatwave, 166
I
infrared emittance, 30, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 45, 46, 48, 49, 60, 159, 160, 161, 195, 211,
214, 217, 221, 224, 227
Instrumentation, 111, 125, 221
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 194, 202
K
Kubelka Munk, 131
L
lacquers, 88, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107
LEED, 50, 177, 202
M
Metal roof, 41
N
nanocomposites, 82, 96, 97, 102
natural ventilation, 23
NIR reflectance, 86, 91, 92, 93, 102, 106
Non-residential buildings, 151
O
Overheating hours, 157
P
Paints, 26, 81, 93
Pavements, 51, 72
photodegradation, 66, 70
pigment dispersions, 93, 94
Policy Advocacy, 180
Policy Landscape Assessment, 171, 172, 173, 178, 180, 182
portable emissiometer, 121, 125
R
real applications, 210
Rebate Schemes., 202
Residential Buildings, 124
S
silane dispersants, 81, 95
Single-ply roofing, 40
solar gains, 148, 214, 227, 228
Solar reflectance, 34, 39, 47, 55, 57, 59, 66, 75, 76, 113, 114, 117, 118, 123, 198
Solar Reflectance Index, 35, 50, 123, 125, 209
spectrophotometer, 63, 74, 112, 113, 114, 122, 132, 133
stakeholder, 172, 199, 201, 207
T
thermal comfort, 16, 43
Thermal comfort, 211
thermal emittance, 26, 34, 37, 38, 77, 82, 83, 84, 93, 107, 111, 112, 120, 121, 122, 123,
124, 195, 219
thermochromic coatings, 29, 61, 64, 65, 66, 70, 71
Thickness Insensitive Spectrally Selective (TISS) paint coatings, 84
Tile, 41
TISS paint, 81, 85, 86, 93, 96, 103, 104, 106
TSSS paint coatings, 83, 107
U
urban heat island, 14, 15, 16, 27, 28, 32, 50, 54, 55, 58, 59, 61, 72, 79, 126, 127, 148,
166, 167, 170, 177, 194, 211, 234
V
vegetation, 17, 20, 28, 29, 44, 162, 198
Index Cool Materials for the Built Environment 387
W
weathering, 40, 46, 52, 113, 118
Weathering
Accelerated weathering, 46
Artificial weathering, 46
Natural Weathering, 46
White coatings, 40
World Business Council for Sustainable Development, 193, 209.

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Advances in the Development of Cool

Materials for the Built Environment

1. Urban Heat Island and Mitigation Strategies at City and Building

2. White or Light Colored Cool Roofing Materials 33

3. Colored Cool Materials 72

4. Research on Thermochromic and PCM Doped Infrared Reflective

5. Cool Pavements 104

6. Materials Aspects of Solar Paint Coatings for Building Applications 120

7. Cool Materials Rating Instrumentation and Testing 174

9. Energy and Environmental Aspects of Cool Materials 231

10. Policy Aspects of Cool Materials 273

11. Cool roofs Economics and Marketing Perspective 309

12. Cool Roofs’ Case Studies 333

Mitigation of urban heat islands, or simply cooling urban areas, is a strategy

The book is scientifically thorough and provides hands-on knowledge that is

Inappropriate housing is characterized by poor indoor environmental conditions

color-changing phase and optical properties are discussed. Innovative materials

The following teams should be acknowledged for their valuable contribution:

 Athena Consulting Group, Belgium

 Department of Building, National University of Singapore

 Faculty of Science & Engineering, Setsunan University

 Heat Island Group, Concordia University, Montreal, Canada

 Italian National agency for new technologies, Energy and sustainable

 Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, USA

 Mechanical Engineering, Brunel University, UK

 National Institute of Chemistry of Ljubljana, Slovenia

 National Kapodestrian University of Athens, Greece

 Technical University of Crete, Greece

 University of la Rochelle, France

Julie Garman - Kolokotsa

Steve Kardinal Jusuf

Lidija Slemenik Peršea

Nyuk Hien Wong

Department of Building, National University of Singapore, 4 Architecture Drive,

Abstract: Extensive urbanization has resulted to economic, social, energy &

Denia Kolokotsa, Mattheos Santamouris and Hashem Akbari (Eds)

ventilation is another important strategy of UHI mitigation. It is important to understand

DEFINITION OF URBAN HEAT ISLAND

Extensive urbanization has resulted in economic, social, energy & environmental

1. Softscape (trees, grass and soil) is replaced by hard surfaces (asphalt

3. Anthropogenic heat from the buildings, air conditioning systems and

4. Surface infiltration is prevented due to efficient disposal of rain water

5. Contaminants that create an unpleasant urban atmosphere due to the

The aforementioned factors influence the amount of incoming and outgoing

Table 1: UHI intensity in several countries around the world

City Intensity (K)

2. Building materials: Materials, such as concrete and brick, have large

3. Greenhouse effect: The polluted urban atmosphere traps the long-

4. Anthropogenic heat source is generated by the industrial combustion,

5. Evaporative cooling: Vegetation and water can mitigate the UHI

6. Urban ventilation: Wind is able to remove heat by turbulent and

The UHI phenomenon is exacerbated by human energy release overheating and by

be provided for their planning purposes [26]. As an information and evaluation

Figure 3: UC-ReMap City of Stuttgart (Source: Ministry of Economy Baden-Wuerttemberg,

Urban Climatic Recommendation Map (UC-ReMap) targets to the planning

Urban Climatic Map at Estate Level

Daily minimum (Tmin), average (Tavg) and maximum (Tmax) temperatures of a

due to the urban morphological characteristics, i.e. building, pavement and

2. Urban morphology predictors. Those are the percentage of pavement

Researchers have conducted various investigations and measurements in relation

Figure 5: First viewing level of the map

Figure 6: Second viewing level of the map

Figure 7: Third viewing level of the map