Sag Le) TH oS Ban a ag ‘AT RAR eeOu EDITION Calculus and Analytic Geometry George B. Thomas, Jr. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Ross L. Finney With the collaboration of Maurice D. Weir Naval Postgraduate School Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Reading, Massachusets + Menlo Park Calfomia > — New York DonMils, Ontario. * Wokingham, England = Amsterdam Bonn + Sydney © Singapore Tokyo + Maid SanJuan’ + Milan * PansAcquisitions Editor Development Editor ‘Managing Editor Senior Production Supervisor Senior Marketing Manager ‘Marketing Coordinator Prepress Buying Manager Art Buyer Senior Manufacturing Manager ‘Manufacturing Coordinator 2, = e World Student Series Laurie Rosatone Production Editorial Services Barbara Pendergast Marianne Lepp Art Editors Susan London-Payne, Connie Hulse Karen Guardino Copy Editor ‘Barbara Flanagan Jennifer Bagdigian Proofreader Joyce Grandy Andrew Fisher Text Design Martha Podren, Podren Design; Benjamin Rivera Geri Davis, Quadrata, Ine ‘Sarah MeCracken Cover Design Marshall Hearichs Joseph Vetere Cover Photo John Lund Tony Stone Worldwide Roy Logan Composition ‘TSI Graphics, In. Evelyn Beaton Technical Ilustration Tech Graphics Photo Credits: 142, 238, 408, 633, 722, 875, 899, From PSSC Physics 2, 1965; D.C. Heath & Co. with Education Development Center, Inc., Newton, MA. Reprinted with permission 186, APYWide World Photos 266, Scott A. Burns, Urbana, IL 287, Joshua E. Bares, Univer- sity of Hawaii 354, Marshall Henrichs 398, © Richard F.Voss/IBM Research 442, © Susan Van Eten 872, AP/Wide World Photos 888, © 1994 Nelson L. Max, University of Califor: nia(Biological Photo Service; Graphic by Alfted Gray 938, ND Roger-Viollet 1068, [NASAJJt Propulsion Laboratory Reprinted with corrections, une, 1998 Copyright © 1996 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.All rights reserved. No ‘art ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored ina retrieval system, or transmitted, inany form or by any means, electronic, mechanical photocopying, or otherwise, Without the prior writen permission ofthe publisher. Printed inthe United States of| America 456789 10-VH.99 98 ISBN 0-201-40015-4Contents Tothe Instructor vil Tothe Student >i Preliminaries Real Numbers andthe Real Line 1 Coordinates, Lines, and Increments 8 Functions "17 Shifing Graphs 27 ‘rigonometrc Functions 35 QUESTIONS TOGUIDE YOURREVIEW 47 PRACTICE EXERCISES 48, ADDITIONAL EXERCISES—THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS. 49) Limits and 4.1 Rates of Change and Limits SI nui 12 Rules forFinding Limits 61 Continuity 413 Target Values and Formal Definitions of Limits 66 14 Extensions ofthe Limit Concept 78 15 Continuity 87 1.6 Tangent Lines 97 QUESTIONS To GuIDE YouR REVIEW 103, ADDITIONAL EXERCISES—THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 108 Derivatives 2.1 The Derivative of a Function 109 22 Differentiation Rules 121 23 RatesofChange 131 24 Derivatives of Tigonometsic Functions 143 25° TheChain Rule 154 2.6 Implicit Ditferemiation and Rational Exponents 164 27 — Related Rates of Change 172 QUESTIONS To GUIDE YOURREVIEW 180__PRACTICE EXERCISES 181 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES—THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 185 Applications of 3:4 ome Values of Functions 189 Derivatives 32 TheMean Value Theorem 196 3.3 TheFint Derivative Test for Local Exteme Vales 205iv Contents 34 Graphing with y’ andy” 209 35 Limits as x—> 4, Asymptotes, and Dominant Terms 220 36 Optimization 233 3.7 Linearization and Different 3B Newon'sMethod 260 (QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR REVIEW 268 PRACTICE EXERCISES 269 [ADDITIONAL EXERCISES-—THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 272 Is 248 Integration 41 Indefinite Inegrals 275, 42 Differential Equations, Initial Value Problems, and Mathematical Modeling 282 43° tmegration by Substiution—Running the Chain Rule Backward 290 44 Estimating with Finite Sums 298 45 Riemann Sums and Definite Integrals 309 46 Properties, Area, and the Mean Value Theorem 323) 47 The Fundamental Theorem — 332 4B Substitution in Definite Imtegrals 342 49° Numerical Invgration 346 (QUESTIONS TOGUIDE YOUR REVIEW 356 __PRACTICEEXERCISES 357 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES—TMEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 360 Applications of 5.1 Areas Between Curves 365 Integrals 52 Finding Volumes by Slicing 374 53. Volumesof Solis of Revoution—Disks and Washers 379 54 indica Shells 387 55 Lenglhsof Plane Cuves 393 56 Areasof Surfaces of Revoltion 400 57 Moments and Centers of Mass 407 5B Work 18 59 Fluid Presures and Forces 427 5.10 The Basi Patem and Other Modeling Applications 434 QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR REVIEW 444 PRACTICEEXERCISES. 444 [ADDITIONAL EXERCISES THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 47 Transcendental 6.1 Inverse Functions and Their Derivatives 449 Functions 6.2 Natural Logarithms 458 63 The Exponential Function 467 64 © atandlog.x 474 65 Growthand Decay 482 66 — LHopiul’s Rule 491 67 — Relative Rates of Growth 498 68 Inverse Tigonometric Functions S04 69 Derivatives of Inverse rigonometrc Functions; Integrals $13 6.10 Hyperbolic Functions 520 6.11 First Order Differential Equations 529 6.12 Fuler’s Numerical Method: Slope Fields S41 QUESTIONS TOGUIDE YOUR REVIEW S47___PRACTICE EXERCISES S48, ADDITIONAL EXERCISES—THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS SSI Techniques of 7A Basicimegraton Formulas 555 Integrati 72 Inegntionby Pans 562Infinite Series Conic Sections, Parametrized Curves, and Polar Coordinates Vectors and Analytic Geometry in Space Vector-Valued Functions and Motion in Space 101 10.2 103 104 105 106 10.7 a na 3 na ns Contents Partial Fractions 569 ‘Trigonomettc Substitutions 578 Integral Tables and CAS 583 Improper Integrals 594 (QUESTIONS 10 GUIDE YOUR REVIEW 605 PRACTICE EXERCISES 605 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES—THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS. 69, Limits of Sequences of Numbers 613 ‘Theorems for Calculating Limits of Sequences 622 Infinite Series 630 ‘The Integral Tet for Series of Nonnegative Terms 640 Comparison Tests for Series of Nonnegative Terms G44 ‘The Ratio and Root Tess for Series of Nonnegative Terms 639 Alterating Series, Absolute and Conditional Convergence 655 Power Series 663 ‘Taylor and Maclaurin Series 672 Convergence of Taylor Series; Err Estimates 678 Applications of Power Series 688. (QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR REVIEW 699 PRACTICE EXERCISES 700 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES—THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS. 703, Conic Sections and Quadratic Equations 709 Classifying Conic Sections by Eccentricity 723 Quadratic Equations and Rotations 728 Parametrizatons of Plane Curves 734 Calculus with Parametrized Curves 744 Polar Coordinates 751 Graphing in Polar Coordinates 756 Polar Equations for Cnie Sections 764 Iniegration in Polar Coordinates 770 (QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR REVIEW T77__-PRACTICE EXERCISES 78, ADDITIONAL EXERCISES—THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 783, Vectors inthe Plane 787 ‘Cartesian (Rectangular) Coordinates and Vectors in Space 795 Dot Products 806 Cross Products 815, Lines and Planes in Space 822 Cylinders and Quadri Surfaces 829 Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates 841 (QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR REVIEW 47 PRACTICE EXERCISES 848 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES—THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS. 851 \ector-Valued Functions and Space Curves 855 Modeling Projectile Motion 868 ‘Are Length and the Unit Tangent Vector T 876 ‘Curvature, Torsion, and the TNB Frame 881 Planetary Motion and Satellites 893, (QUESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR REVIEW 902 PRACTICE BXERCISES 902 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS. 905 vvi Contents Multivariable 12.1 Functions of Several Variables 909 Functions and 122 Limitsand Contimiity 917 123 Paria Devivaives 924 Partial Derivatives 12:4 itfeeniabiliy, Linaiation, and Difeentials 933 125 TheChain Rule 948 426 Parl Devvatives with Constrained Variables 952 127 Directional Derivatives, Gradient Vectors, nd Tangent Planes 957 128 Extreme Values and Saddle Points 970 329° Lagrange Muipliers 980 1210 Taylor's Formula 989 ‘QuESTIONS TO GUIDE YOUR REVIEW 958 PRACTICE EXERCISES 994 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 98 Multiple Integrals 13.1. Doubletnegrls 1001, 432 Areas, Momeni, and Center of Mass 1012 433 Doubletmegras in Polar Form — 1020 334 Tile Integr in Rectangular Coordinates 1026 435° Masesand Momentsin Tiree Dimensions 1034 436 Tipe negra in Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates 1039 437 Subsinions in Maliple Inegrals 1088 (QuesTINsTOGUIDE YOUR REVIEW 1055 PRACTICEEXERCISES 1056 [ADDITIONAL EXERCISES THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 1058 Integration in 1441 Linetnegrals 1061 Vector Fiel 142 ids, Work, Circulation, and Fox. 1067 ect Eels 143, Path Independence, Potential Functions, and Conservative Fields 1076 444 Green's Theorem inthe Plane 1084 445 Sorace Area and Surface Integrals 1096 445 Parnmetied Surfaces 1106 447 Stokes Theorem 1114 448 The Divergence Theorem anda Unified Theory 1123 ‘Quesmions 10 Gumpe Your Review 1134 PracticeEXERGISES 1134. ADDITIONAL EXERCISES —THEORY, EXAMPLES, APPLICATIONS 137 Appendices AA Mathematical Induction A-1 82 Proofsof Limi Theorems in Section 12 At ‘3° Complex Numbers A-7 AA Simpson's One-‘Thint Role A-17 AS Cauchy's Mean Value Theorem andthe Songer Form of 'Hopita's Rule 18 AS Limite Tha Arse Fequendy 4-20 A The Distributive Law for Vector Cross Products A-2L ‘AB Deverminans and Cramer's Rule A-22 ‘AQ Euler's Theorem andthe Increment Theorem A-29 Answers A385, Index 61 A Brief Table of Integrals 71CAS Explorations and Projects (Listed by chapter and section) Preliminaries P4 How the graph of y= (axis affected by changing a PS How the graph of fx)=A sin (2n/B\x~C)) + D responds to changes in A, B, and D Chapter 1 Limits and Continuity 1.1 Comparing graphical estimates of limits with CAS symbolic lmitealelations 13. Exploring the formal definition of i for specifi epilons graphically 116 Observing the convergence of secant inst tangent it by finding deltas Given f(x), find fx) asa imit. Compare the graphs of f and and plot selected tangents 26 _Difleremiateimplicily and plot implicit curves together swith tangent fines Chapter 3 Applications of Derivatives 3.1 Finding avout extrema by analyzing anf” numerically and graphically 3.7 Estimating the error in a linearization by plotting f(x), 1, and 0) Lh Chapter 4 Integration 44 Find he average vale of) andthe point or pins were itis assumed 45° Exploring Riemann sums and thi mits 47 a) Investigating the reltnshp of Fu) = [3/19 ato F(x) and f(x) 1) Analyzing Fo) = fide Chapter 5 Application of integrals 5.1 Finding intersections of cures 55 Arc length estimates Chapter 6 Transcendental Functions 6.1 Graphing inverse functions an their derivatives 6.12 Exploring differential equations graphically and numeri- cally with slop fields and Euler approximations Chapter 7 Techniques of integration 75 Using CAS to integrate. An example of a CAS-resistant integra 7.6 Exploring the convergence of improper integrals, Chapter 8 Infinite Series 8.1 Exploring the convergence of sequences. Compound interest with deposits and withdrawals. The logistic diference equation and chaotic behavior 85 Exploring Tz (IMn"sin*n)) a series whose conver gence or divergence has not yet been determined 8.10 Comparing functions’ liner, quadratic, and cubic approximations Chapter 9 Conic Sections, Parametrized Curves, and Polar Coordinates 98.5 Exploring the geometry of curves that ar defined implc- ily o explicitly by parametric equations. Numerical estimate ofthe lengths of nonelementary paths 9.8 How the graph of r= kel +e cos 8 is affected by changes ine and k How the ellipse r= a(1 ~e*)(1 +2608 8) responds to changes ina and e Chapter 10 Vectors and Analytic Geometry in Space 10.6 Viewing quadic surfaces from different positions 10.7 Equations of spheres in cylindrical, spherical, and rectan ‘ular coordinate systems: Coordinate conversions and surface plo Chapter 11. Vector-Valued Functions and Motion in Space 11.1 Plotting tangents to space curves, Exploring the general hetix 11.4 Finding and ploting circles of curvature inthe plane. Finding x, T, N, and B for curves in space Chapter 12 Multivariable Functions and Partial Derivatives 12.1 Ploting surfaces <= (x, ) and associated level cures. 128 Classifying critical points and identifying extreme valves using information gathered from surface plots, level ‘curves, and discriminant values 12.9. Implementing the method of Lagrange mult functions of thee and four independent variables Chapter 13 Multiple Integrals 133° Changing Cartesian integrals into equivalent polar integrals for evaluation 134 Evaluating triple integrals over slid regions Chapter 14 _ Integration in Vector Fields 14.1) valuing fof,» 2)ds numerically 14.2 Exiting the work done by a vectored slong a given path inspace 144 ‘Applying Green's theorem o find counterclockwise circulationTo the Instructor This Is a Major Revision ‘Throughout the 40 years that it has been in print, Thomas/Finney has been used to support a variety of teaching methods from traditional to experimental. In response tothe many exciting currents in teaching calculus inthe 1990s, the new edition is the most extensive revision of Thomas/Finney ever. We have built on the traditional strengths of the book—excellent exercises, sound mathematics, variety in applica- tions—to produce a flexible text that contains all the elements needed to teach the ‘many different kinds of courses that exist today. ‘A book does not make a course: The instructor and the students do. With this in ‘mind we have added features to Thomas/Finney 9th edition to make it the most flex- ‘ible caleulus teaching resource yet. ‘The exervises have been reorganized to facilitate assigning a subset of the ‘material ina section The grapher explorations, all accessible with any graphing calculator, many suitable for in-class and group work, have been expanded, ‘New Computer Algebra System (CAS) explorations and projects that re- 4uire a CAS have been included. Some of these can be done quickly while others require several hours. All ate suitable for either individual or group ‘work, You will find a list of CAS exercise topics following the Table of Contents ‘+ Technology Connection notes appear throughout the text suggesting exper ‘ments students might do with a grapher to supplement their understanding of a given topic. These notes are meant to encourage students to think of their grapher asa casually available tool, like a pencil ‘© We revised the entie frst semester and large pars of the second and third semesters to provide what we believe is a cleaner, more visual, and more ac- cessible book. ‘With all these changes, we have not compromised our belief thatthe fundamental goal of a calculus book is to prepare students to enter the scientific community. Students Will Find Even More Support for Creative Problem Solving ‘Throughout this book, we have included examples and discussions that encourage students to think visually and numerically. Almost every exercise set has easy t052, Recovering 3 faneon rm its dete 2) ete flowing oman 1 gape cn fe ‘ee ical (28) 1 The gph of ft de fl espe ied 1 Tae gph a he pit 2.9, i) The eae of fit ey noe aig 21 218 Th deviate graph for tees 2 1) Regn pa asi te ph st (2.0) Tothe Instructor ix Technology Tet Ves You can experinent with gt vals 06 3 aphing uly. Graph he ncton peter with target ital sine by Inia ies above and bow te proposed ii. Adjust te range or se ‘nom ‘vei tbe fonctions behavior asic the tage nel lee. Then ‘ete what happens when Ju ty to Bid an teal of xvas that wil cp the fncion rates within the ere nena See ao Execs 7-14 CAS Execs 61-63) For exami, his for fl) = VTF~Zand tne tata (1.822) nthe ans That, pap j= fe) athe ns y= L895 = 22. Then {the ret terial (198, 2.02) a (1.998, 2000), mid-level exercises that require students to generate and interpret graphs 28 4 tool for understanding mathematical ot real-world relationships Many sections also contain a few more challenging problems to extend the range ofthe mathematically curious. ‘This edition has more than 2300 figures fo appeal tothe studens* seometric inition. Drawing lessons aid students with dificult 3- dimensional sketches, enhancing thet ability to think in space In this edition we have increased the use of visualization internal tthe disus- sion, The burden of exposition is shared by art in the body of the text when we fel that pictures and text together will convey ideas better than words alone Throughout the text, students are asked to experiment, investigate, and explain, Writing exercises are placed throughout the text. In ad tion, ach chapter end contains ist of questions that sk students tor view and summarize what they have leaned. Many ofthese exercises ‘make good writing assignments 149 tad thes tance ine Students Will Master Techniques Problem Solving Strategies We believe thatthe students learn best when proce- ural techniques ae laid out as clearly as possible. To this end we have revisited the summaries ofthe steps used to solve problems, adding some where necessary, delet- ing some where a thought process rather than a technique was at issue, and making ‘each one cleat and useful. As always, we are especially careful that examples in the text follow the steps outlined by the discussion, Exercises Every exercise set has been reviewed and revised. Exercises are now {grouped by topic, with special sections for grapher explorations. Many sections alsox To the Instructor Hidden Bohovor (Checklist for Graphing a Function y =f) Simeon ccopucr gees otk fo syn. phot forte ehne she fen even? od? Fores ign! pcre 2 ate freon ashi of «hoot function? have a set of Computer Algebra System (CAS) Explorations and Projects, a new fea- tute for this edition, Within each group, the exercises are graded and paired. Within this framework, the exercises generally follow the order of presentation of the text. Exercises that requite a calculator or computer are identified by icons: calcu- lator exercise, 88 graphing utility (such as graphing calculator) exercise, and @Com- puter Algebra System exercise Analyze dint ens Divide aoa! ancos int polyoma + remainder. 4. Check for asympos and venmable dscoatnules Ts toe aero denominator aay pit?” ‘What hoppers t= 0? Compute fan! sole f° =O. Keni el pois and eerie Intals f ie a & Compute" to deemineconciity and inflection points 1. Skah the graphs gener! sap. 1K Eva fat special wales endpoints, ra point, itecep) 9. Graph f sing doin ems, goer sap, and Spec as fo Within the exercise sets, we have practice exercises, exercises that encourage critical thinking, more challenging exercises (in subsections marked “Applications and Theory”), and exercises that require writing in English about concepts. Writing, exercises are placed both throughout the exercise sets, and in an end-of-chapter fea ture called “Questions to Guide Your Revies Chapter End At the end of each chapter are three features with questions that summarize the chapter in different ways Questions to Guide Your Review ask students to think about concepts and ver- balize their understanding without trying to calculate numeric answers. These are, as always, suitable for writing exercises. Practice Exercises provide a review of the techniques, ideas, and key applica- tions. Additional Exercises—Theory, Examples, Applications supply challenging ap- plications and theoretic problems that deepen the understanding of mathemati- eal ideas. Applications, Technology, History—Features That Bring Calculus to Life Applications and Examples It has been a hallmark of this book through the years that we illustrate applications of ealeulus with real data based on already familiar sit uations of situations students are likely to encounter soon. Throughout the text, we cite sources fr the data andior articles from which the application are drawn, help- ing students understand that calculus isa curent, dynamic field. Most ofthese applTothe Instructor xi cations are directed toward science and engineering, but there are . many from biology and the social sciences as well. clea iacra af eqed eh mene ie es | Technology: Graphing Calculator and Computer Algebra Sys- section area A(x) of the submerged portion of the ball at each tems Explorations Virtually every section of the text contains cal- let As fcmone cade emai cor The he ‘culator exercises that explore numerical pattems and/or graphing Shcttetra sumenones Sunes terior | calculator exercises that ask students to generate and interpret Seer me mcs eet dor Peston. | graphs as tool fo understanding mathematical and real-world rela- Sciatic athays=ssrawese1Pramcnte | tionships. Many ofthe calculator and graphing calculator exercises are suitable for classroom demonstration or for group work by st dents in or out of cas. Computer Algebra System (CAS) exercises have been added 0 every chapter. These exercises, 160 in all, have been tested on both Mathematica and Maple. A ful list of CAS exercise topics follows the Table of Contents ‘As in previous editions, sec’'x has been defined so that its range,[0, w/2) U (n/2, x], and derivative, 1/(ld V3? - 1), agree with the results returned by Computer Algebra Systems and scientific cal- calatos. Sutin | abner ae [Notes appear throughout the text encouraging students to ex: plore with graphers 2) ite Pps Spleen vole the at History Any student is enriched by seeing the human side of ‘mathematics. As in earlier editions, we feature history boxes that de- scribe the origins of ideas, conflicts concerning ownership of ideas, and interesting sidelights into popular topics such as fractals and chaos. 2) The gee in he ute ae fr tea, ich igh Sn tmnt wa es wets, | The Many Faces of This Book ee eee Mathematics Is a Formal and Beautiful Language A good part of the beauty ofthe calculus lies inthe fact that it is a stunning cre- ation ofthe human mind. As in previous editions we have been care- ful o say only what is true and mathematically sound, In this edition we reviewed cevery definition, theorem, corollary, and proof for clarity and mathematical correct- Even Better Suited to Be the Reference Text in a Reform Course Whether cal- culus is taught by a traditional lecture or entirely in labs with individual and group learning which focuses on numeric and graphical experimentation, ideas and tech- niques need to be articulated clearly, This book provides the exercises for computer and grapher experiments and group learning and, ina traditional format, the summa- tion ofthe Iesson—the formal statement of the mathematics and the clear presenta- tion of the technique. ‘Students Will Learn from This Book for Many Years to Come We provide far ‘more material than any one instructor would want to teach. We do ths intentionally. ‘Students can continue to learn calculus from this book long after the class has ended. It provides an accessible review of the calculus a student has already studied. It is a resource for the working engineer or scientist.xl To the Instructor Content Features of the Ninth EcTothe Instructor xiii Supplements for the Instructor OmniTest? in DOS-Based Format: This easy-to-use software is developed ex- clusively for Addison-Wesley by ips Publishing, a leader in computerized testing and assessment. Among its features are the following. ‘+ DOS interface is easy to learn and operate. The windows look-alike inter- face makes it easy to choose and control the items as well asthe format for each test ‘+ You can easily create make-up exams, customized homework assign- ‘ments, and multiple test forms to prevent plagiarism. OmniTest’ isxiv To the Instructor ng the program can automatically insert new num- bers into the same equation—creating hundreds of variations of that equa tion. The numbers are constrained to keep answers reasonable. This allows {you to create a virtually endless supply of parallel versions of the same test, ‘This new version of OmniTest also allows you to “lock in” the values shown in the model problem, if you wish. ‘© Test items are keyed by section to the text. Within the section, you can se- leet questions that test individual objectives from that section. ‘© You can enter your own questions by way of OmniTest™s sophisticated ‘editor—complete with mathematical notation. Instructor's Solutions Manual _ by Maurice D. Weir (Naval Postgraduate School) ‘This two-volume supplement contains the worked-out solutions for all the exercises inthe text. Answer Book contains short answers to most exercises in the text. Supplements for the Instructor and Student ‘Student Study Guide by Maurice D. Weir (Naval Postgraduate School). Orga- nized to correspond with the text, this workbook in a semiprogrammed format in- creases student proficiency with study tips and additional practice. Student Solutions Manual by Maurice D. Weir (Naval Postgraduate School) ‘This manual is designed for the student and contains carefully worked-out solutions toll of the odd-numbered exercises inthe text. Differential Equations Primer A short, supplementary manual containing ap- ‘proximately @ chapter’s-worth of material. Available should the instructor choose 10 ‘cover this material within the calculus sequence. Technology-Related Supplements Analyzer” This program is a tool for exploring functions in calculus and many other disciplines. It can graph a function of a single variable and overlay graphs of, other functions. It can differentiate, integrate, or iterate a function. It can find roots, ‘maxima and minima, and inflection points, as well as vertical asymptotes. In addi- tion, Analyzer* can compose functions, graph polar and parametric equations, make “sauilines Sr-erceydnako roimated.roayueices. with changing,narameters. IeX- ploits the unique flexibility ofthe Macintosh wherever possible, allowing input to be either numeric (from the keyboard) or graphic (with a mouse). Analyzer* runs on ‘Macintosh Il, Plus, or better. ‘The Calculus Explorer Consisting of 27 programs ranging from functions to vee- ‘or fields, this software enables the instructor and student to use the computer as an “electronic chalkboard.” The Explorer is highly interactive and allows for manipula- tion of variables and equations to provide graphical visualization of mathematical relationships that are not intuitively obvious. The Explorer provides user-friendly ‘operation through an easy-to-use menudriven system, extensive on-line documenta- tion, superior graphics capability, and fast operation. An accompanying manualTothe Instructor xv cludes sections covering each program, with appropriate examples and exercises. Available for IBM PC/compatibles. InSight A calculus demonstration software program that enhances understanding of calculus concepts graphically. The program consists of ten simulations. Each pre- sents an application and takes the user through the solution visually, The format is interactive. Available for IBM PC/compatibes. Laboratories for Calculus I Using Mathematica By Margaret Hoft, The Univer- sity of Michigan-Dearborn. An inexpensive collection of Mathematica lab experi- ‘ments consisting of material usually covered in the first term of the calculus se~ uence. Math Explorations Series Each manual provides problems and explorations in calculus. Intended for self-paced and laboratory settings, these books are an excel- Tent complement othe text. Exploring Calculus with a Graphing Calculator, Second Edition, by Char- lene E. Beckmann and Ted Sundstrom of Grand Valley State University. Exploring Calculus with Mathematica, by James K. Finch and Millianne Lehmann of the University of San Francisco. Exploring Calculus with Derive, by David C. Amey of the United States Mili- tary Academy at West Point Exploring Caleulus with Maple, by Mark H. Holmes, Joseph G. Ecker, William E. Boyce, and William L. Seigmann of Rensselaer Polytechnic Insti tute, Exploring Caleulus with Analyzer*, by Richard E, Sours of Wilkes Univer- sity Exploring Calculus with the IBM PC Version 2.0, by John B. Fraleigh and Lewis I Pakula of the University of Rhode Island.xvi Tothe nstructor Acknowledgments ‘We would like to express our thanks forthe many valuable coati- butions ofthe people who reviewed this book as it developed through its various stages: Manuscript Reviewers Erol Barbu, University of Idaho Neil. Berge, University of linois at Chicago George Bradley, Duquesne University Thomas R.Caplinget, Memphis State University Curis L. Card, Black ills Stare University James C. Chesla, Grand Rapids Community College PM, Dearing, Clemson University Maureen H. Fenrick, Mankato State University ‘Stuart Goldenberg, CA Polytechnic State University Johnny L- Henderson, Auburn University James V. Herod, Georgia Institue of Technology Paul Hess, Grand Rapids Community College Alice J Kelly, Santa Clara University Jeuel G.LaTore, Clemson University Pamela Lowry, Lawrence Technological University Jobn E. Marin, Il, Sana Rosa Junior College James Martino, Johns Hopkins University James R. MeKinney, California Sate Polytechnic University Jeff Morgan, Texas A & M University F.1.Papp, University of Michigan—Dearborn Peter Ross, Santa Clara University Rouben Rostamian, University of Maryland—Battimore County William L. Siegmann, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute John R. Smart, University of Wisconsin—Madison Dennis C. Smolarski 8.1, Santa Clara University Bobby N. Winters, Pitsburgh State University ‘Technology Notes Reviewers Lynn KamstraIpina, University of Wyoming Robert Flagg. University of Southern Maine Jeffrey Stephen Fox, University of Colorado at Boulder James Martino, Johns Hopkins University Cat W. Moms, University of Missouri—Columbia Robert G. Stein, California State Universty—San Bernardino ‘Accuracy Checkers Steven R. Finch, Massachuserts Bay Community College Paul R. Lezak, MathSof Ine. John R. Mati, Tarrant County Junior College Jeffrey D. Oldham, Stanford University Exercises In addition, we thank the following people who reviewed the exe: cise sels for content and balance and contributed many of the in teresting new exercises: Jennifer Eales Szydlik, University of Wisconsin Madison ‘Aparna W. Higgins, University of Dayton William Higgins, Witenberg University Leonard F. Klosinski, Sanza Clara University David Mann, Naval Postgraduate Schoo! Kirby C. Smith, Teas A & M University Kirby Smith was als a pre-evison reviewer and we wish to ‘thank him for his many helpful suggestions ‘We would like to express our appreciation to David Canrigh, Naval Postgraduate School, for his advice and his contributions to the CAS exercise ses, and Gladwin Bartel, at Otero Junior Col lege, for is many helpful suggestions. Answers ‘We would like to thank Cymthis Hutcherson for providing answers for exercises in some ofthe chapters inthis edition. We also ap- preciate the work of an outstanding tam of graduate students at ‘Stanford University, who checked every answer in the text fora ‘curacy: Miguel Abreu, David Cardon, Tanya Kalich, Jeffrey D. ‘Oldham, and Jule Roskies Jeffrey D. Oldham also tested al the CCAS exercises, and we thank him fr his many helpful sugges- Other Contributors ‘We are particularly grateful to Maurie D. Weir, Naval Postgradu- ate School, who shared his teaching ideas throughout the prepara tion ofthis book. He produced the final exercise sets and wrote most ofthe CAS exercises for this edition. We appreciate his con- ‘tan encouragement and thoughtful advice, ‘We thank Richard A. Askey, University of Wisconsin—Mati- son, David MeKay, Oregon State University, and RichardG. ‘Montgomery, Southern Oregon State Coleg, for sharing their teaching ideas for this edition. ‘We are aso grateful fo Erich Laurence Havenstein, College ‘of DuPage, for generously providing an improved treatment of chaos in Newton's method, and to Robert Carson, University of Colorado, Colorado Springs, for improving the exposition ia the section on relative rates of growth of functions.To the Student What Is Calculus? Calculus isthe mathematics of motion and change. Where there is motion or growth, ‘where variable forces are at work producing acceleration, calculus is the right math- cematics to apply. This was tre inthe beginnings ofthe subject, and itis true today. Calculus was first invented to meet the mathematical needs ofthe scientists of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, needs that were mainly mechanical in na- ‘ure, Differential calculus dealt with the problem of calculating rates of change. It «enabled people to define slopes of curves, to calculate velocities and accelerations of moving bodies, to find firing angles that would give cannons their greatest range, ‘and to predict the times when planets would be closest together or farthest apart. In- tegral calculus dealt with the problem of determining a function from information about its rate of change. It enabled people to calculate the future location of a body from its present position and a knowledge ofthe forces acting on it, to find the areas Of irregular regions in the plane, to measure the lengths of curves, and to find the volumes and masses of arbitrary solids ‘Today, calculus and its extensions in mathematical analysis are far reaching in ‘deed, and the physicists, mathematicians, and astronomers who first invented the subject would surely be amazed and delighted, as we hope you will be, to see what a profusion of problems it solves and what a range of fields now use it in the mathe- ‘matical models that bring understanding about the universe and the world around us, ‘The goal ofthis edition is to present a modern view of calculus enhanced by the use of technology. How to Learn Calculus Learning calculus is not the same as learning arithmetic, algebra, and geometry. In those subjects, you lear primarily how to calculate with numbers, how to simplify, algebraic expressions and calculate with variables, and how to reason about points. lines, and figures in the plane. Calculus involves those techniques and skills but de- velops others as well, with greater precision and at a deeper level. Calculus intro: duces so many new concepts and computational operations, in fact, that you will no longer be able 10 lear everything you need in class. You will have to learn a fair amount on your own or by working with other students. What should you do to Team? 1, Read the text. You will not be able to learn all the meanings and connections ‘you need just by attempting the exercises. You will need to read relevantxviii To the Student passages in the book and work through examples step by step. Speed reading ‘will not work here. You are reading and searching for detail in a step-by-step logical fashion. This kind of reading, required by any deep and technical con- tent, takes attention, patience, and practice. 2. Do the homework, keeping the following principles in mind. a) Sketch diagrams whenever possible, ) Write your solutions in a connected step-by-step logical fashion, as if you were explaining to someone else. ‘€) Think about why each exercise is there. Why was it assigned? How is it re- lated to the other assigned exercises? 3. Use your calculator and computer whenever possible. Complete as many gra- pher and CAS (Computer Algebra System) exercises as you can, even ifthey are rot assigned. Graphs provide insight and visual representations of important ‘concepts and relationships. Numbers can reveal important patterns. A CAS gives you the freedom to explore realistic problems and examples that involve calculations that are too difficult or lengthy to do by hand, 4. Try on your own to write short descriptions of the key points each time you complete a section ofthe text I you succeed, you probably understand the ma- terial. Fyou do not, you will know where there is a gap in your understanding. Leaming calculus is a process—it does not come all at once. Be patient, perse- vere, ask questions, discuss ideas and work with classmates, and seck help when you need it right away. The rewards of learning calculus will be very satisfying, both in- tellectually and professionally. GBT, Jr, State College, PA RLF, Monterey, CAPreliminaries Overview This chapter reviews the main things you need to know to start calculus. ‘The topics include the real number system, Cartesian coordinates in the plane, straight lines, parabolas, circles, functions, and trigonomety. Real Numbers and the Real Line ‘This section reviews real numbers, inequalities, intervals, and absolute values Real Numbers and the Real Line ‘Much of calculus is based on properties ofthe real number system. Real numbers are numbers that can be expressed as decimals, such as 412 ‘The dots ... in each case indicate that the sequence of decimal digits goes on forever, ‘The real numbers can be represented geometrically as points on a number Tine called the real line. 7 oe ‘The symbol R. donotes either the real number system or, equivalently, the real line Properties of Real Numbers ‘The properties ofthe real number system fall into three categories: algebraic prop- erties, order properties, and completeness. The algebraic properties say thatthe real ‘numbers can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided (except by 0) to produce ‘more real numbers under the usual rules of arithmetic. You can never divide by 0. 12 Preliminaries “The order properties of real numbers are summarized in the following lis. ‘The symbol = means “implies” Notice the rules for multiplying an inequality by a number. Multiplying by a Positive number preserves the inequality ‘multiplying by a negative number reverses the inequality. Also, reciprocation reverses the inequality for numbers of the same sign. Rules for Inequalities Ifa, 6, and ¢ are real numbers, then: L acbratccbte 2 a 0 ac —b < 8 a>05130 6. Wan psn orbah mnt <> ‘The completeness property of the real number system is deeper and harder to define precisely. Roughly speaking, it says that there are enough real numbers to complete” the real number line, in the sense that there are no “holes” or “gaps” in it. Many of the theorems of calculus would fail if the real number system were not complete, and the nature of the connection is important. The topic is best saved for a more advanced course, however, and we will not pursue it Subsets of R We distinguish three special subsets of real numbers 1. The natural numbers, namely 1,2,3,4, 2. The integers, namely 0, £1, +2, 23... 3. The rational numbers, namely the numbers that can be expressed in the form ofa fraction m/n, where m and n are integers and n # 0. Examples are 1A ea sa 3 ‘The rational numbers are precisely the real numbers with decimal expansions that are either a) terminating (ending in an infinite sting of zeros), for example, 75000...=0.75 or )_ repeating (ending with a block of digits that repeats over and over), for example The bar incase = 2.000009...=2.9, bck of epening it foe ‘The set of rational numbers has all the algebraic and order properties of the real numbers but lacks the completeness property, For example, there #8 no rational number whose square is 2; there isa “hole in the rational ine where w2 should beTable 1 Types of intervals, 1. Real Numbers and the Real Line 3 Real umber tat are not ational ar clled Irrational numbers. Tey are char- acterized by having nomteinatng and nonepating decimal expansions Examples ate x, V2. 95, and loge} Intervals A subset of the real line is called an interval if it contains at least two numbers and contains all the real numbers lying between any two of its elements. For example, the set of all real numbers x such that x > 6 is an interval, as isthe set of all x such that 2 < x < 5. The set of all nonzero real numbers is not an interval; since 0 is absent, the set fails to contain every real number between —1 and 1 (for example) Geometrically, intervals correspond to rays and line segments on the real line, along with the real line itself, Intervals of numbers corresponding to line segments are finite intervals; intervals corresponding to rays and the real line are infinite Intervals. ‘A finite interval is said to be closed if it contains both of its endpoints, half- ‘open if it contains one endpoint but not the other, and open if it contains neither endpoint. The endpoints are also called boundary points; they make up the in- terval’s boundary, The remaining points of the interval are interior points and together make up what is called the interval's interior. Finite: Notation ab) (61 (6) @.b) (@,00) [a,00) (20.6) (20,01 (20,00) Set Graph (la a} tele =a) br <3) —_— ° fale =) IR Get ofall real 7 numbers)4 Preliminaries 1 Solutions for Example 1 Solving Inequalities ‘The process of finding the interval or intervals of numbers that satisfy an inequality in x is called solving the inequality. EXAMPLE 1 Solve the following inequalities and graph their solution sets on the real line. a) We-1 5 can hold only if x > 1, because otherwise 6/(x ~ 1) is undefined or negative. Therefore, the inequality will be preserved if we multiply both sides by (x — 1), and we have zs Muliply bo sides bys =. |Add Sto both sides. onetl ‘The solution set is the half-open interval (1, 11/5] (Fig. le). a Absolute Value ‘The absolute value of a number x, denoted by |x|, is defined by the formula Pett EXAMPLE2 —[3|=3, 0|=0, |-3|= -lalj=lal Notice that |x| > 0 for every real number x and |x| =0 if and only if x = 0,It i important to remember that vat = a). Do not write va% = a unless you already know that a = 0. —1=s——sI— $ ° 3 eth 1-4-9 t 4 2 Absolute values give distances between points on the number line. Notice that absolute value bars in ‘expressions like |—3+5) also work lke parentheses: We do the arithmetic inside before taking the absolute value. 1 Real Numbers and the Real Line 5 Since the symbol J/@ always denotes the nonnegative square root ofa, an alternate efinition of |x| is Ix] = v2. Geometrically, |x| represents the distance from x to the origin O on the real line. More generally (Fig. 2) lx —y| = the distance between x and y: ‘The absolute value has the following properties. Absolute Value Properties inal Amtersndismpsvhve e ste st an 2 ut =[oth) These va ora ite pra fol 2 [efeith Teamsters ie peo the absolute values 4. a+) <|a\+[b| The triangle inequality ‘The absolute value of the sum of two numbers is less than or equal to the sum of their absolute values. a and b differ in sig, then |a + bs less than |a| + [In all oer cases, a + Bl equals [a+ J EXAMPLE 3 -345)=[2]=2< 1-314 /51=8 1B+51 = 81 = 131+ 15) =3-5|=|-8|=8=|-31+/-5) a EXAMPLE 4 Solve the equation [2x ~ 3 Solution The equation says that 2x — 3 = +7, so there are two possibilities: de-3=7 0 2e-3=—7 Fave cqations Solve a wu ‘The solutions of [2x ~ 3] = 7 are x = 5 and x =~! Inequalities Involving Absolute Values ‘The inequality [a) < D says thatthe distance from a to 0 is less than D. Therefore, ‘a must lie between D and —D.6 Preliminaries The symbol 4 means “if and only if," implies and is implied by.” ——— =< 5 % 12 The solution set of the inequality ix—5]<9 is the interval (-4, 14) graphed hhere (Example 5). ® 4 Graphs of the solution sets (a 1, 21 ‘and (b) (=e, 112, «) in Example 7 Intervals and Absolute Values If Dis any positive number, then jal4 68-3025 1se-3s7-38 830-1) >2640) ater? send garter? tee! nn fa-a1 3B Ra3e>s Fa “hs Quadratic Inequal Solve the inequalities in Exercises 35-42. Express the solution sets as iervals of unions of intervals and graph them, Use the result a = [al as appropriate. a8 8 <2 Beaded Maeved Logpel Pe Miers b MEW = yaa tye 2, what can you say about x? ) Confirm your findings in (a algebraically Coordinates, Lines, and Increments ‘This section reviews coordinates and lines and discusses the notion of increment Cartesian Coordinates in the Plane ‘The positions of all points in the plane can be measured with respect to two perpendicular real lines in the plane intersecting in the O-point of each (Fig. 5). These lines ate called coordinate axes in the plane. On the horizontal x-axis, numbers are denoted by x and inerease to the right. On the vertical y-axis, numbers are denoted by y and increase upward. The point where x and y are both 0 is the Origin of the coordinate system, often denoted by the letter O. If P is any point in the plane, we can draw lines through P perpendicular to the two coordinate axes. Ifthe lines meet the x-axis at a and the y-axis at b, then a i the x-coordinate of P, and b is the y-coordinate. The ordered pair (a,b) is the point’s coordinate pair. The x-coordinate of every point on the y-axis is 0, The y-coordinate of every point on the x-axis is 0. The origin is the point (0,0) ‘The origin divides the x-axis into the positive x-axis to the right and the negative x-axis to the left. It divides the y-axis into the positive and negative y- axis above and below: The axes divide the plane into four regions called quadrants, ‘numbered counterclockwise as in Fig. 6. 5 Cartesian coordinates. A Word About Scales ‘When we plot data in the coordinate plane or graph formulas whose variables have different units of measure, we do not need to use the same scale on the two axes. If ‘we plot time vs. thrust for a rocket motor, for example, there is no reason to place ‘the mark that shows 1 sec on the time axis the same distance from the origin as the ‘mark that shows 1 Ib on the thrust axis. When we graph functions whose variables do not represent physical measure- ‘ments and when we draw figures in the coordinate plane to study their geometry and trigonometry, we try to make the scales on the axes identical. A vertical unit2 Coordinates, Lines, and Increments 9 sh0.3) Second int gacrant 24°02) Guadeane co Go 6 The points on the axes all have coordinate pairs, ‘but we usually label them with single numbers. Notice the coordinate sign patterns in the quadrants. Of distance then looks the same as a horizontal unit. AS on a surveyor's map or a scale drawing, line segments that are supposed to have the same length will look as if they do and angles that are supposed to be congruent will look congruent. Computer displays and calculator displays are another mater. The vertical ‘and horizontal scales on machine-generated graphs usually differ, and there are corresponding distortions in distances, slopes, and angles. Circles may look like ellipses, rectangles may look like squares, right angles may appear to be acute ‘or obtuse, and so on. Circumstances like these require us to take extra care in interpreting what we see. High-quality computer software usually allows you to ‘compensate for such scale problems by adjusting the aspect ratio (ratio of vertical to horizontal scale). Some computer screens also allow adjustment within a narrow range, When you use & grapher, try to make the aspect ratio 1, oF close to it. Increments and Distance When a particle moves from one point in the plane to another, the net changes in its coordinates are called increments. They are calculated by subtracting the ‘coordinates of the starting point from the coordinates of the ending point. EXAMPLE 1 In going from the point A(4, ~3) to the point B(2, 5) (Fig. 7), the increments in the 4- and y-coordinates are dx=2-4=-2, ay a =) Definition ‘An increment in a variable is a net change in that variable, Ifx changes from x; f0 x, the increment in x is Arenoa. EXAMPLE 2. From C(5,6) to D(S, 1) (Fig. 7) the coordinate increments are =0 Ay=1-6=-5, a 7 Coordinate increments may be positive, negative, or zero. Ax =5-10 Preliminaries tristan is doin aP + ln—wP Vea + O27 28.93) >| ‘The distance between points in the plane is calculated with a formula that comes from the Pythagorean theorem (Fig. 8) Distance Formula for Points in the Plane bao] 5 | ‘The distance between P(x}, y1) and Q(x, y2) is | P60 3p Od d= VB? + (y= VGa 0)? + O2 a * % 8 To calculate the distance between Plas, yr) and Qtr, y2), apply the Pythagorean theorem to triangle PC. EXAMPLE 3 a) The distance between P(—1,2) and QG, 4) is VG- CDF + 4-2) (AP + OF = V2 = V4-5 = 25. 1b). The distance from the origin to P(x, y) is VEO FOF = VF EY. a Graphs ‘The graph of an equation or inequality involving the variables x and y is the set of, all points P(x, y) whose coordinates satisfy the equation or inequality. EXAMPLE 4 Circles centered at the origin a) Ifa > 0, the equation x pa = mpc al ots Pe) whee tance from the origin is ix? 9 4, These points lie on the circle of radius a centered at the origin, This circle is the graph of the equation x+y' sa? Fig, 9) 1) Points (x,y) whose coordinates satisfy the inequality x2 + y* 2 8 the set of all numbers obtained by squaring numbers greater than or equal 10 2. In symbols, the range is (27}x = 2} or (yly = 4) oF [4 0). EXAMPLE 3 Funetion Domain x) Range (9) ein (0.1) (20.0)U00,09) (20,0) (0, 00) (0.2) (0.9) (eo.4l (0.20) ‘The formula y = /T=¥? gives areal y-value for every x in the closed interval from —1 to 1. Beyond this domain, 1 ~ x? is negative and its square root is not a real number. The values of 1 — x? vary from 0 to 1 on the given domain, and the square roots of these values do the same. The range of VT — x7 is [0,1] ‘The formula y = 1/x gives areal y-value for every x except x = 0, We cannot divide any number by zero. The range of y = 1/x, the set of reciprocals of all nonzero real numbers, is precisely the set of all nonzero real numbers ‘The formula y = VX gives a real y-value only if x = 0. The range of y = V® is (0,00) because every nonnegative number is some number's square rot (namely, itis the square rot ofits own square).20 Preliminaries 25 This circle isnot the graph of a function y = fait falls the vertical line test. Computers and graphing calculators graph functions in much this way—by stinging together plowed points—and the same question arises. In y = YEH, the quantity 4 —x cannot be negative. That is, 4 — x > 0, or x <4. The formula gives real y-values forall x < 4. The range of /4 = is (0, 20), the set of all square roots of nonnegative numbers. a Graphs of Functions ‘The graph of a function fis the araph ofthe equation y = f(x). It consist ofthe points in the Cartesian plane whose coordinates (,y) are input-output pars for f Not every curve you draw is the graph of a function. A function f can have only one value f(x) foreach x in its domain, $0 n0 vertical line can intersect the graph ofa function more than once. Thus, acirele cannot be the graph of a function since some vertical lines intersect the circle twice (Fig. 25). If ais in the domain of 4 function f, then the vertical line x = a will intersect the graph of fin the single point (a, f(a). EXAMPLE 4 — Graph the function Solution Step 1: Make a table of xy-pairs that satisfy the function rule, in this case the equation y = x? Step 2: Plot the points (x,y) whose Step 3: Draw a smooth curve through coordinates appear in the table. the plotted points. Label the curve with its equation, over the interval [—2, 2] How do we know that the graph of y = x? doesn’t look like one of these curves?26 Useful graphs. Domain: (x, Range (0,2) Domain: (0%) Range: (0.2) Domain: (=, 0) (0,2) Range: (0.2) _— Domain: (=) 3 Functions 21 To find out, we could plot more points. But how would we then connect them? The basic question still remains: How do we know for sure what the graph looks like between the points we plot? The answer lies in calculus, as we will see in Chapter 3. There we will use a marvelous mathematical tool called the derivative to find a ‘curve’s shape between plotted points. Meanwhile we will have to settle for plotting points and connecting them as best we can. Figure 26 shows the graphs of several functions frequently encountered in calculus. It is a good idea to Tear the shapes of these graphs so that you can recognize them or sketch them when the need arises. Donan: 2, =) Domain: (2) Range: =.=) Range: (0.2) Ranges 2%) Om Doman: (0) Range” (0.2)22 Preliminaries Sums, Differences, Products, and Quotients Like numbers, functions can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided (except Where the denominator is zero) to produce new functions. If fand g are functions, then for every x that belongs to the domains of both fand g, we define functions f+ a. f—8, and fg by the formulas (f + 8)) = fx) +8) (= 90) = fe) ~ 200 f9)) = Feet Atany point of D(J)P D(g) at which g(x) #0, we can ls define the function fig by the formula, (Qin = 22 eotere £09 40, & a(x) Functions ean also be multiplied by constants: If¢ is @ real number, then the function ef is defined forall x in the domain of f by (cA) = ef. EXAMPLE 5 Function Domain f (0.20) ® oe. a (20.11 fre 10.1 = DU) DE) fre (0.11 es (0.11 fee Fem) = fs =VFT=H (0.1) i = sls wf 10,1) (= excludes) gy 8 fi —oextie aif f= Fa) “Va 0.1) = exces) Gy Composite Functions Composition is another method for combining functions Definition fffand g are functions, the composite function fo g ("fcircle g") is defined by (Fogyx) = figs) ‘The domain of f © g consists ofthe numbers xin the domain of g for which 152) ies in the domain off3 Functions 23 few ‘The definition says that two functions can be composed when the range of the first lies in the domain of the second (Fig. 27). To find (f 0 g)(x), we first find g(x) Sige) and second find f(g(x)) si ‘To evaluate the composite function g © f (when defined), we reverse the order, * finding f(x) first and then g(f(x)). The domain of g 0 f is the set of numbers x in the domain of f such that f(x) lies in the domain of g. ‘The functions fog and go f are usually quite different. a, EXAMPLE 6 If f(x) = J and g(x) = x41, find a) (fogs) BOA) (Fo) — @) (gogya). 27 The relation of fog to g and f Solution Domain » [-1,00) >) 10,00) ° (0.00) ® Ror (00, 20) To see why the domain of fo g is [=1,c0), notice that g(x) = x-+ 1 is defined for all real x but belongs to the domain of f only if x +1 > 0, that is to say, if Even Functions and Odd Functions—Symmetry AA function y = f(x) is even if f(x) = (4) for every number x in the domain (of f Notice that this implies that both x and —x must be inthe domain of f The function f(x) = x? is even because f(—x) = (~2) Fo, ‘The graph of an even function y = (x) is symmetric about the y-axis, Since F(x) = f(a) the point (x,y) lies on the graph if and ony if the point (~x, ») iies on the graph (Fig. 28a). Once we know the graph on one side of the y-axis, wwe automatically know it onthe other side. A function y (x) is odd if f(—x) = —f(x) for every number x in the domain of f. Again, both x and —x must le in the domain of. The function f(x) = x7 is odd because f(—x) = (=x)' = =x3 = ~ f(x), ‘The graph of an odd function y = /(x) is symmettic about the origin F(x) = —F(), the point (x,y) lies on the graph if and onl ifthe point (—x, —») iies on the graph (Fig. 28). Here again, once we know the graph of fon one side ‘ofthe yaxis, we know it on both sides. con 28 (2) Symmetry about the y-axls. If x,y) ison the graph, so is (-x, y)- (6) Sym- metry about the origin. If, y) ison the graph, 50 is (=x, ~y).24 Preliminaries 29 The absolute value function 30 To graph the function y = f(x) shown here, we apply different formulas to different parts ofits domain (Example 7) 131. The graph of the greatest integer function y= Lx lies on or below the line 0 It provides an integer floor for x Piecewise Defined Functions Sometimes a function uses different formulas on different parts of its domain. One example is the absolute value function mel Bt whose graph is given in Fig. 29. Here are some examples. EXAMPLE 7 The function is defined on the entire real ine but has vats given by different formulas depending on the postion of x (Fig 30. a EXAMPLE 8 The greatest integer function ‘The function whose value at any number x isthe greatest integer less than or equal 10 x is called the greatest integer function or the integer floor function. It is ’ 26, Graph the folowing equations and explain why they are not graphs of functions of x ® kl +bI Even and Odd Functions In Exercises 27-38, say whether the function is even, odd onthe. 2. f(x) =3 2%. fo) BL get be eel Bes) ext be 38 602) M860) 36. (= 1) 38 h(t) =2Ie1 +1 Sums, Differences, Products, and Quotients In Exercises 39 and 40, id the domains and ranges of f. 8, +. and f + 8. 8. fed=n goy=VvE=T 40. f(x) = VFI, al) = ve=T In Exercises 41 and 42, find the domains and ranges of f.8,f/ and g/f 4 fe) =2 gas +1 fel galt ve26 Preliminaries Composites of Functions 4B. IF fe) = x45 and g(x) = 2? ~ 3, find the following. ®) fe) » ef 8 fe) @ (fo) 2 FYC3) © s@e) 8) fU@) hy (et) AIF fs) =x =1 and g(x) = 1/41) ind the following ® £02) » ara) 8 fe) @ fe) © TY) sea) 8) sua) hy (et) 4S. Mute) = 4x ~ 5, v(x) = 2°, and f(x) = I, find formulas for the following, 2) wocseen) b) wi feoed)) © uiseny) @) v(fus))) © Fuivn)) fee) 46.18 f(2) = Ji, els) = 4/4, and h(x) = 4x — 8, find formulas for the following. a) haifa by Argun”) © gth(fo)) a) asthe) © fle) H fig Let fox) =x=3, 90) = V% A) =H, and jO0 ‘ress each of the functions in Exercises 47 and 48 as a composite involving one or more of fg, and j aa) y » oy @ oy 0 4a) y » oy a oy 5 49. Copy and complete the following table ws) oe) a rT by rt? ° VES ® ° x t nt x 150, 4 magic trick, You may have heard of a magic trick that goes like this: Take any number. Add 5. Double the result. Subtract 6 Divide by 2. Subtract 2. Now tell me your answer, and TI tell you what you started with Pick a number and ty it ‘You can sce what is going on if you lt x be your orginal number and follow the steps to make a formula f(x) for the number you end up with Piecewise Defined Functions Graph the functions in Exercises 51-54, a ro-| The Greatest and Least Integer Functions 857, For what values of xi (a) xj = 09 (6) [x] = 02 158, What real numbers «satisfy the equation Lx} = [x1? 158, Docs [x] = ~Lx) forall al? Give reasons for your answer, 60. Graph the function ld, x20 I x0 Why is f(x) called the integer part of x? Even and Odd Functions G1, Assume that f is an even function, ¢ i an odd function, and both fand g are defined on the ene real ine FR. Which of the following (where defined) are even? odd? Sie4 Shifting Graphs 27 a fe » fig oO elf 1% Grapher ® asf 9 mee D Foe 65 omimarion of Exanple 5) Graph te fansions f(s) = VE 8) sof fof id g08 ter) = A= lope wih the (2) sum, @) Proce 62. Cana fantion be bth eren and oa? Give reasons for your) wo ference, wo uae answer 64. Let f(x) = x ~7 and g(r) ?. Graph f and g together with fogand go f. 33 To shift the graph of fx) ‘down), we add positive (or neg: constants to the formula for f Shifting Graphs ‘This section shows how to change an equation to shift its graph up or down or to the right or left. Knowing about this can help us spot familiar graphs in new locations. It can also help us graph unfamiliar equations more quickly. We practice mostly with circles and parabolas (because they make useful examples in calculus), but the methods apply to other curves as well. We will revisit parabolas and circles in Chapter 9. How to Shift a Graph ‘To shift the graph of a function y = f(x) straight up, we add a positive constant to the righthand side of the formula y = f(x), EXAMPLE 1 Adding 1 10 the righthand side of the formula y = 3? to get 22-41 shifts the graph up 1 unit (Fig. 33). a ‘To shift the graph of a function y = f(x) straight down, we add a negative constant tothe right-hand side ofthe formula y = f(x), EXAMPLE 2. Adding ~2 to the right-hand side of the formula y = x* to get y= x2 ~2 shifts the graph down 2 units (Fig. 33). a ‘To shift the graph of y = f(x) to the left, we add a positive constant to EXAMPLE 3 Adding 3 t0.x in y =x? to get y = (x +3)? shifts the graph 3 units to the left Fig. 34) a ataposie > y= er) 34 To shift the graph of y =x? to the left, we add a positive constant to x. To shift the graph to the right, we add a negative constant to x28 Preliminaries ponte ee 35 The graph of y =» shifted to three new positions in the xy-plane, ‘To shit the graph of y = (2) tothe right, we add a negative constant tox EXAMPLE 4 — Adding —2 to xin y = x? to get y = (x — 2) shifts the graph 2 units to the right (Fig. 38). a Shift Formulas ‘VerricaL SHIFTS yo k= f(x) or Shifts the graph up k units if k > 0 y= FC) +k Shifts it down [kl units if k <0 Horizonta SHIFTS y=fa-h Shifts the graph right h units if h > 0 Shifts it left Yh] units if h < 0 EXAMPLE 5 ‘The graph of y= (x 2)! —2 is the graph of y = x° shifted 2 ‘units to the right and 2 units down. The graph of y = (x-+ 1)? +3 is the graph of| y= 2 shifted I unit to the left and 3 units up (Fig. 35). a Equations for Circles AA circle is the set of points in a plane whose distance from a given fixed point in the plane is constant (Fig. 36). The fixed point is the center of the circle the constant distance isthe radius. We saw in Section 2, Example 4, thatthe circle of radius a centered at the origin has equation x? + y* = a*. If we shift the circle to By) place its center at the point, k), its equation becomes (x — h)* + (y — k)? = a*. ‘The Standard Equation for the Circle of Radius a Centered at the h, &) AY +b? a) Gah sO- 8 of * 36 A crcl of radius a in the xy-plane, EXAMPLE 6 If the citcle x° + y* = 25 is shifted 2 units to the left and 3 units with center at (hf). up, its new equation is (x +2)? + (y —3)? = 25. As Eq, (1) says it should be, this is the equation of the circle of radius 5 centered at (hk) = (~2,3).. EXAMPLE 7 — The standard equation for the circle of radius 2 centered at B.4is @&=37 +9 -47 = @ @-3F +O 4 = 4,4 Shifting Graphs 29 ‘There is no need to square out the x- and y-terms in this equation. In fact, it is better not to do so. The present form reveals the cicle's center and radius.) EXAMPLE 8 Find the center and radius of the circle (=P +045) Solution Comparing (WP +-bP =a’ with (=P eG 4sr=3 shows that = 1, k= 5, and a= V3, The center is the point (h, 8) = (1, 5) the radius is a = V3. a Technology Square Window's We use the term "square window” when the units oF scalings on both axes are the same, In a square window graphs are true in shape. They are distorted in @ nonsquare window. ‘The term square window does not refer to the shape of the graphic dis- play. Graphing calculators usually have rectangular displays. The displays of Computer Algebra Systems are usually square. When a graph is displayed, the x-unit may differ from the y-unit in order to fit the graph in the display, resulting in a distoned picture. The graphing window can be made square by shrinking or stretching the units on one axis to match the scale on the other, giving the true graph. Many systems have built-in functions to make the win- dow “square” IF yours does not, you will have to do some calculations and set the window size manually to get a square window, or bring to your viewing some foreknowledge ofthe tre picture. (On your graphing utility, compare the perpendicular lines yy = x and y2=—x+4 in a square window and @ nonsquare one such as [—10, 10] by (10, 10}. Graph the semicircle y = VB x? in the same windows. << | ax ZA semicircle graphed distorted by a rectangular window. If an equation for a circle is not in standard form, we can find the circle’s center and radius by first converting the equation to standard form. The algebraic technique for doing so is completing the square (see inside front cover). EXAMPLE 9 Find the center and radius of the circle Xt yt tae 6y—330 Preliminaries Bnet (r= WF + = Wa Lite, y a Interior ¢e— ? + - Wh? (» (P44 $4) +O? = 6y 49) = 34449 (42 +0- 3 = 16 Weite each quadratic a 2 squared liner expression. With the equation now in standard form, we read off the center's coordinates and the radius: (i) = (~2, 3) and a a Interior and Exterior ‘The points that lie inside the circle (x — h)? + (y ~ 8)? than a units from (h,k). They satisfy the inequality (WP +B? a? 4a? are the points less EXAMPLE 10 Inequality Region 224 y2<1 Interior ofthe unit circle 22+y"<1 Unit circle plus its interior P4y?>1 Exterior of the unit circle 22+ y"21 Unit circle plus its exterior a Parabolic Graphs ‘The graph of an equation like y Se? that has the form is a parabola whose axis (axis of symmetry) is the y-axis. The parabola’s vertex (Point where the parabola and axis cross) lies at the origin, The parabola opens upward if a > 0 and downward if a <0. The larger the value of |al, the narrower the parabola (Fig. 38) If we interchange x and y in the formula y wwe obtain the equation2 ene atxigin 39 The parabola x = ay” is symmetric ‘bout the a-axis. It opens tothe right if 2>0 and to the left ita <0, 40. The graphs of the functions y = VX and y = =X join at the origin to make the graph of the equation x =? (example 11) la y = ax?, a> 0, shifted h Units to the right and k units up. 4 Shifting Graphs 31 With x and y now reversed, the graph is a parabola whose axis is the x-axis and whose vertex lies at the origin (Fig. 39). EXAMPLE 11 The formula x = y* gives.x asa funtion of y but does not give y asa function of x If we solve for y, we find that y = +x. For each positive Value of x we get avo valves of y instead ofthe required single value. ‘When taken separately, the formulas y = J/¥ and y =~ do define functions of x. Each formula gives exactly one value of y foreach possible value of x. The raph of y = Vr isthe upper half ofthe parabola x = y®. The graph of y = —J/F is the lower half (Fig. 40). a The Quadratic Equation y = ax? +bx+c, a#0 To shift the parabola y u? horizontally, we rewrite the equation as y=atr— my" To shit it verically as well, we change the equation to yok=ate—W @ ‘The combined shits place the vertex atthe point (tk) and the axis along the line x=h ig. 4b. Normally there would be no point in multiplying out the right-hand side of| Eq. 2). In this case, however, we can learn something from doing so because the resulting equation, when rearranged, takes the form ax tbr te Cc} ‘This tells us thatthe graph of every equation ofthe form y = ax? + bx +0, #0, is the graph of y = ax? shifted somewhere else. Why? Because the steps that take us from Eq. ) to Eq. (3) ean be reversed to take us from (3) back to (2). The curve y= ax? + dx +c has the same shape and orientation as the curve y = a ‘The axis of the parabola y = ax? + bx + tums out tobe the ine x = ~b/(2a). The yimercept,y = c is obtained by setting x = 0. ‘The Graph of y = ax? 4dx 40, a¥0 The graph of the equation y = ax? + bx + c,4 £0, is a parabola. The parabola opens upward if a > 0 and downward if a < 0. The axis is the line b oa ® ‘The vertex ofthe parabola is the point where the axis and parabola intersect. Its x-coordinate is x = ~b/2a; its y-coordinate ig found by substituting x = —b/2a in the parabola’s equation EXAMPLE 12 Graphing a parabola Graph the equation y32. Preliminaries 3) 7 vereris( Pint symmetric \ wives \ \ 2a) Inept y (0,8) 19 ee \ I Tnerepts at yscdands=2 42 The parabola in Example 12. Exercises 4 Shifting Graphs 1. Figue 43 shows the graph of y = tins, Write equations forthe new graphs Poston(a) | y =r \ 43, The parabolas in Exercise 1. Solution We take the following steps. Step 1: Compare the equation with y = ax? + bx + to identify a, b, and c. ‘Step 2: Find the direction of opening. Down, because a < 0. ‘Step 3: Find the axis and vertex. The axis is the line en 54.18) ane ar =) ae so the s-cooninate ofthe vertex is —1. The y-coordinate is ye-fept-cn+4=2 The vertex is (-1, 9/2) Step 4: Find the intercepts (if any) Sey =0in te pabo' cq, Solve as wal (D044) xa ‘Step 5: Sketch the graph. We plot points, sketch the axis (lightly), and use what wwe know about symmetry and the direction of opening to complete the graph Gg. 42), = shifted to two new posi- 2, Figure 4 shows the graph of y = x? shifted to two new positions ‘Write equations for the new praphs. \ 4 je (a) yaa Pasion (6) Exercise 2.‘3. Match the equations listed in (a)-() to the graphs in Fig. 4. a) y=u-Di-4 ») +2 yah 42 @) ya49=2 Poston 1 Pesiion’3 ay 45. The parabolas in Exercise 3. 4. Figure 46 shows the graph of y = —x? shifted to four new posi- tions. Write an equation foreach new graph x ua 3 wy \e 29 © @ 45 The parabolas in Exercise 4. ercises 5-16 tell how many units and in what diretion the graphs ofthe given equations are to be shifted. Give an equation forthe shifted graph. Then sketch the original and shifted graphs together, Exercises 433 lubeling each graph with its equation. Use the graphs in Fig. 26 for reference as needed. Sx hy 249 Down, let 2 6 thy =25 Updiets 8 Left 1, down 1 Right 1, down 1 VE Let 081 Vi Right 3 M1, y=2r—7 Up? sa yeu mes pansion! 1. x=y? Left 14, x= ~3y? Up 2, right 3 AS. y=1/x Up 1, right 1 16 y= 1x? Left Graph the Functions in Exercises 17-36, Use the graphs in Fig. 26 for reference as necded, down 1 my 18, y= V9 wy 2, y=N"=x1-1 ay Dyal-vE By y= OB 2 yas 6 ytde ». By =O HIM HL By= a, y= 4-2 a. a 3 37. The accompanying figure shows the graph of a function f(x) with domain (0,2) and range (0, 1. Find the domains and ranges ofthe following functions, and sketch their graphs a fay 42 b fey-1 9 20 @ -s) © fe+2) 5 fe-0 8) foo by) ~sa+D4134 Preliminaries 38, The accompanying figure shows the graph ofa function (2) with ‘domain (=, 0} and range [3.0]. Find the domains and ranges ofthe following functions, and sketch their graphs. a) 0 ») 20) © si+3 @ 1-8 © st?) D st~2) ) sl-9 by a=) Circles In Exercises 39-44, find an equation for the circle with the given center C(h£) and radius a. Then sketch the circle in the x»plane. Include the circles center in your sketch. Also, label the cizcle's x= and y-intecepts, if any, with their coordinate prs. B.C00.2), .C-3.0, @=3 MCCS, a=V 2 CLD), a3 HK CEVI-0, a=2 44 CBI, ‘Graph the circles whose equations ae given in Exercises 45-50 Label cach circles center and interceps (if any) with their coordinate pair 48 Phy dar ay td 46, P49? Be 4 4y 4 16=0 a8 ty a3y—4=0 48 8+)? -4r— 0/4) =0 Bt y de bay 20 80.849? 420 Parabolas Graph the parabotas in Exercises 51-58, Label the vertex, axis, and mercepts in each ease. SL yarta2e-3 S2 ya har$3 SB yaa tae BA y= ae ae 6-5 $6 yah ar 43 La Layee petetd Sh y=—bt4ored 59. Graph the parabola of fs) = vr (60. Graph the parabola y = 3~2x — x2, Then find the domain and range of g(x) = V3=2r =. x =2, Then find the domain and range Inequalities Describe the regions defined by the inequalities and pairs of inequal ites in Exercises 61-68, OL Pty>7 @ etyes GB HIP ty s4 PH O-2 24 GBttyot, etyted 6 Pays HPL 1 Pty 46) <0, y>— Pty dr t2y> 4, >? 69. Write an inequality that describes the points that ie inside the circle with center (2, 1) and radius V6. 70, Write an inequality that describes the points th cincle with center (4,2) and rads 4 ‘TL, Writ a pur of inequalities that describe the points that le inside or on the circle with center (0,0) and radius J, and on oF to the right of the vertical line though (1,0) "72 Write pair of inequalities that describe the points that lie outside the ciele with center (0, 0) and radius 2, and inside the circle tha has center (1,3) and passes through the origin. lie outside the Shifting Lines "3, The line y=mx, which passes through the origin, is shifted vetially and horizontally t© pass through the point (x09). Find an equation for the new line. (This equation is called the line's point-slope equation) ‘TA, The line y =x is shifted venically o passthrough the point (0,b). What isthe new line's equation? Intersecting Lines, Circles, and Parabolas In Exercises 75-82, graph the two equations and find the points in hich the graphs intersect 7. ya2, Py Boxty=h =p +y Tyna Bxty=0, yon(enIF 1 @-ty Lotty @ CAS Explorations and Projects In Exercises 83-86, you wll explore graphically what happens to the raph of y = flax) as you change the value of the constant a. UseCAS or computer grpher to perform the following steps 8) Potthe function y = f(x) together with the function y = fax) {or a= 2,3, and 10 over the specified interval. Describe what happens 0 the graph as @ increases through postive values. 5 Trigonometric Functions 35 seep (10.10 =» by Plotthe funetion y = f(x) and. “F(ax) forthe negative values 3. What happens to the graph inthis situation? (©) Plot the function y = f(x) and y = flax) for the fractional Trigonometric Functions ‘This section reviews radian measure, trigonometric functions, periodicity, and basic In navigation and astronomy, angles are measured in degrees, but in calculus itis best to use units called radians because of the way they simplify later calculations Let ACB be a central angle in a unit circle (circle of radius 1), as in Fig. 47, 47 The radian measure of angle ACB is the length of the arc Aa. values a =1/2,1/3,1/4. Describe wht happens 10 the raph wen f= trigonometric identities. Radian Measure (Section 2. Dewees Rais aire % 4 48 The angles of two common triangles, in degrees and radians. ‘The radian measure @ of angle ACB is defined to be the length of the circular are AB. Since the circumference of the circle is 2x and one complete revolution of a circle is 360°, the relation between radians and degrees is given by the following equation, x radians = 180° EXAMPLE 1 Conversions (Fig. 48) Convert 45° to radians: 45. rad gals ‘omvert = rad to degrees: 6 P= 3 Convert $ rad to deg eae36 Preliminaries Psiive Neste 49. Angles in standard postion in the xy-plane. Conversion formulas 1 degree = 25 (~ 0.02) radians Degrees to radians: mutply by + ntin= 2 edo Radians to degrees: muiiply by “2° Cinie fra 51 The radian measure of angle ACB is the length @ of arc A’ on the unit circle centered at C. The value of # can be found from any other circle as sir ‘An angle in the xy-plane is said to be in standard position if its vertex lies at ‘the origin and it initial ray lies along the positive x-axis (Fig. 49). Angles measured ‘counterclockwise from the positive x-axis are assigned positive measures; angles measured clockwise are assigned negative measures. ‘When angles ae used to describe counterclockwise rotations, our measurements ccan go arbitrarily far beyond 2 radians or 360°. Similarly, angles describing clockwise rotations can have negative measures of all sizes (Fig. 50), ae 50 Nonzero radian measures can be positive or negative. ‘There is a useful relationship between the length s of an arc AB on a circle of radius r and the radian measure @ of the angle the are subtends at the circle’s center C (Fig. 51). If we draw a unit circle with the same center C, the arc A'B? cut by the angle will have length 8, by the definition of radian measure. From the similarity of the circular sectors ACB and A’CB', we then have s/r = 0/1.hypotenase opposite é ‘adjacent op sing = 2 bop mp i bop coo 2 seep = BP yp a np as uno = cae o= ai} np 52 Trigonometrc ratios of an acute angle. Pes) '53. The trigonometric functions of a ‘general angle @ are defined in terms of x, yand 1 adjacent ‘54. The new and old definitions agree for acute angles. 5 Trigonometric Functions 37 Radian Measure and Are Length Notice that these equalities hold precisely because we are measuring the angle in radians, ‘Angle Convention: Use Radians From now on in this book it is assumed that all angles are measured in radians unless degrees or some other unt is stated explicitly. When we talk about the angle 2/3, we mean 2/3 radians (which is 60°), not x /3 degrees. ‘When you do calculus, keep your calculator in radian mode. EXAMPLE 2 Consider a circle of radius 8. (a) Find the central angle subtended by an are of length 27 on the circle. (b) Find the length of an arc subtending a central angle of 32/4. Solution a) 6 The Six Basic Trigonometric Functions You are probably familiar with defining the wigonometric functions of an acute angle in terms ofthe sides ofa right triangle (Fig. 52). We extend this definition to ‘obtuse and negative angles by first placing the angle in standard positon ina circle of radius r We then define the trigonometric functions in terms of the coordinates, ‘of the point Prx, y) where the angle's terminal ray intersects the circle (Fig. 53) Sine: sing = * Cosecant: ese = © r y Cosine: cos. = = Secant: seco = 2 » x Tangent: tano => Cotangent: cot @ =~ These extended definitions agree with the right-triangle definitions when the angle is acute (Fig. 54), ‘As you can see, tan and sec@ are not defined if x = 0. This means they are38 Preliminaries Pix) = (roon rsin ‘55. The Cartesian coordinates of a point inthe plane expressed in terms of rand 2. 156. The acute reference triangle for an angle 6. 57 The triangle for calculating the sine and cosine of 2nP radians (Example 3) not defined if @ is 4/2, 37/2, .... Similarly, cot and ese are not defined for values of @ for which y=0, namely @=0, sim, & 2, Notice also the following definitions, whenever the quotients are defined. cot see ese ‘The coordinates of any point P(x, y) in the plane can now be expressed in terms of the point’ distance from the origin and the angle that ray OP makes with the postive x-axis (Fig. 55). Since x/r = cos@ and y/r = sin®, we have sind. o reosé, y Values of Trigonometric Functions If the circle in Fig. 53 has radius become 1, the equations defining sin@ and cos cos =x, sind =y. We can then calculate the values of the cosine and sine directly from the coordinates ‘of P if we happen to know them, or indirectly from the acute reference triangle made by dropping a perpendicular from P to the x-axis (Fig. 56). We read the magnitudes of x and y from the triangle’s sides. The signs of x and y are determined by the {quadrant in which the triangle lies. EXAMPLE 3 Find the sine and cosine of 2xr/3 radians. Solution ‘Step 1: Draw the angle in standard position in the unit circle ane write in the Tengths of the sides of the reference triangle (Fig. 57).5 Trigonometric Functions 39 y Step 2: Find the coordinates ofthe point P where the angle’s terminal ray cuts the circle: s a 2n 1 — Oo cos 5 = x-coondinate of P = —5 an v3 * in = = y-coordinate of P = sin = y-coordinate of P= o T c A useful rule for remembering when the basic trigonometric functions are tan pos 05 pos positive and negative is the CAST rule (Fig. $8). EXAMPLE 4 Find the sine and cosine of —x /4 radians. 58 The CAST rule. Solution ‘Step 1: Draw the angle in standard position in the unit circle and write in the lengths of the sides of the reference triangle (Fig. 59) 59. The triangle for calculating the sine and cosine of “ald radians (Example 4) Step 2: Find the coordinates of the point P where the angle’s terminal ray cuts the circle: ) = rcoimt fP = a Calculations similar to those in Examples 3 and 4 allow us to fil in Table 2. Table 2. Values of sin 6, cos 8, and tan @ for selected values of 6 Degrees 10-35-90 as sw 13S 180) radians) =x 3nd m0 sin @ 0 Va 1 YO CCS vino cos 0 1 -¥in 0 Vn 1 Vn fin 1 0 YR | tne o 1 - 0 va 1 4 “1 °40. Preliminaries A Domain: x #2 %= Range: ( i i =) {60 The graphs of the six basic ‘trigonometric functions as functions of radian measure, Each function's periodicity shows clearly in its graph, Periods of trigonometric functions Period x: tan (x +x) = tnx cot (x +x) = cotx Period 2: sin (x +22) 0s (x +2n) = cos sec (x +22) =seex ose (62) =esex yorcosx Ranges) (111 Doman: ll el numbers excepto Steger malipls of 72 =.=) Range: an * Domsin: 4 0,29,22%, Domin: x ¥ 02m, 22m, Range! 2,-11U01,2) Ranges (=.=) Graphs ‘When we graph trigonometric functions inthe coordinate plane, we usually denote the independent variable by x instead of 8. See Fig. 60, Periodicity ‘When an angle of measure x and an angle of measure x + 2 are in standard posi tion, their terminal rays coincide. The two angles therefore have the same trigono- tmettic values. For example, cos (x + 2) = cos x, Functions like the wigonometic functions whose values repeat at regular intervals ae called period. Definition ‘A function f(x) is periodic if there is a positive number p such that SO + p) = f(x) for all x The smallest such value of p is the period of f ‘As we can sec in Fig. 60, the tangent and cotangent functions have period p ‘The other four functions have period 2 Figure 61 shows graphs of y = cos2x and y = cos(x/2) plotted against the ‘graph of y = cos.x. Multiplying x by a number greater than 1 speeds up a trigono- metric function (increases the frequency) and shortens its period. Multiplying x by 8 positive number less than 1 slows a trigonometric function down and lengthens its period.5 Trigonometric Functions 41 61 (a) Shorter period: cos 4/2) 082s. (b) Longer Pleo 8, in 8, 62 The reference triangle for a general angle 8 ‘The importance of periodic functions stems from the fact that much of the behavior we study in science is periodic. Brain waves and heartbeats are periodic, as are houschold voltage and electric current. The electromagnetic field that heats food in a microwave oven is periodic, as are cash flows in seasonal businesses and the behavior of rotational machinery. The seasons are periodic—so is the weather. ‘The phases of the moon are periodic, as are the motions of the planets. There is strong evidence that the ice ages are periodic, with a period of 90,000-100,000 years If so many things are periodic, why limit our discussion to trigonometric func- tions? The answer lis ina surprising and beautiful theorem from advanced calculus that says that every periodic function we want to use in mathematical modeling can be written as an algebraic combination of sines and cosines. Thus, once we learn the calculus of sines and cosines, we will know everything we need to know 10 ‘model the mathematical behavior of periodic phenomena, Even vs. Odd ‘The symmetries in the graphs in Fig. 60 reveal thatthe cosine and secant functions are even and the other four functions are odd: Even oaa cos (=x) =cosx sin (2) = ~sinx sec (=x) =secx tan (—x) = —tanx ese (—x) = —esex cot (~x) = ~cotx Identities Applying the Pythagorean theorem to the reference right triangle we obtain by dropping a perpendicular from the point P(cosé, siné) on the unit circle to the a-axis (Fig, 62) gives cos? 8 + sin? @ @ ‘This equation, true for all values of 8, is probably the most frequently used identity in trigonometry.42 Preliminaries, Dividing Eg. (2) in turn by cos* # and sin? gives the identities ‘You may recall the following identities from an earlier course. Al the trigonometric identities you will need in this book derive from Eqs. (2) and @). Angle Sum Formulas c08(A + B) = cos A.cos B~ sin Asin B sin(A-+ B) = sin AcosB +e0s Asin B 8) ‘These formulas hold for all angles A and B. There are similar formulas for cos (A ~ B) and sin (A ~ B) (Exercises 35 and 36), Substituting @ for both A and B in the angle sum formulas gives two more useful ident Instead of memorizing Eqs. (3) you might Find it helpful to remember Egs. (4), and then recall where they came from, Double-angle Formulas cos 20 = cos? @ ~ sin® @ ® sin 26 = 2 sin 8 cos 8 Additional formulas come from combining the equations cox? 8 +sin? = 1, cos? Asin? 8 We add the two equations to get 2 cos? @ = 1-+-c0s 20 and subtract the second from the first to get 2sin? @ = 1 — cos 28. Additional Double-angle Formulas ap _ Leos 20 cos? @ = 0 og _ 1 ¢08 20 sin? @ = SE @ ‘When @ is replaced by 8/2 in Eqs. (5) and (6), the resulting formulas are called hhalf-angle formulas. Some books refer to Eqs. (5) and (6) by this name as well.Exercises 5 43 (aos 8.asin 6) 163 The square of the distance between A ‘and B gives the law of cosines. The Law of Cosines Ifa, b, and c are sides of a triangle ABC and if 6 is the angle opposite ¢, the a ‘This equation is called the law of e ‘We can see why the law holds if we introduce coordinate axes with the origin at C and the positive x-axis along one side of the triangle, as in Fig. 63. The coordinates of A are (b, 0); the coordinates of B are (a cos 8, a sin 8). The square of the distance between A and B is therefore (acos 6 — 6)? + (asin 6)? (cos! 0 + sin’ 8) +6? — 2ab cos 8 T 4B 2ab cos 8. Combining these equalities gives the law of cosines. ‘The law of cosines generalizes the Pythagorean theorem. If @ = /2, then cos =O and ct = a? +6" Exercises 5 Radians, Degrees, and Circular Arcs 4 CALCULATOR If you roll a L-m-diameter wheel forward 30 1. On a circle of radius 10 m, how long isan are that subtends ao over Level ground, through what angle wil the wheel tum? central angle of (a) 4sr/5 radians? (b) 110"? “Anse in radians (Co the nearest tent) and degees (othe nearest 2. A central angle ina circle of radius 8 is subtended by an are of aad length 10x. Find the angle’s radian and dearee measures 3, CALCULATOR You want to make an 80° angle by marking an Evaluating Trigonometric Functions anc onthe perimeter of a 12in-tiameter disk and drawing lines 8, Copy and complete the table of function values shown on the from the ends ofthe ae tothe dsk's center. To the nearest tenth following page. Ifthe function is undefined at a given angle, ofan inch, how long should the are be? enter “UND.” Do not use calculator or tables.44 Preliminaries ° ) What is the average ofthe highest and lowest mean daily temperatures shown? Why is this average the vertical shift ofthe funtion? CAS Explorations and Projects In Exercises 67-70, you will explore graphically the general sine fast 7 (S00) +0 1s you change the values of the constants A, B, C, and D. Use a CCAS ot computer grapher to perform the steps in the exercises. 67. The period B. Set the constanis A= 3,C 4) Plot f(x) forthe values B= 1, 3, 2x, Sm over the interval fo T t C * ol {65 Normal mean air temperature at e [_ Cre et re as, El foy=arin( 2ic-s0n)e28B® (Ss I Gouri creo Tenge ‘Variation a Sine Curve?" by B, M. Lando ° oeR Las Hea Ca At 7 1971) Ta Feb Mar Apr May Jon ol ‘Rug. Sep Oct Now Deo Jan Feb Mar—4r < x = 4 Deseribe what happens to the graph ofthe general sine function asthe period increases. 1b) What happens to the graph for negative values of B? Try it with B= 3 and B= (68, The horizontal shift C, Setthe constans A = 3, B = 6, D =: 8) Plot f(x) for the values C=O, 1, and 2 over the interval ~tn

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