Sustainable

Concrete
THE ENVIRONMENTAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC
SUSTAINABILITY CREDENTIALS OF CONCRETE
Concrete - the ABOUT THIS PUBLICATION
This publication is for anyone who would like to know how concrete contributes
material of choice positively to a sustainable built environment. It will be of interest to architects,
engineers, contractors and clients as well as others involved with the design,
construction or operation of buildings and infrastructure.
for sustainable
The majority of people see concrete as a popular and robust building material. Less
appreciate that it is also a key material of choice for those looking for a sustainable
construction. solution. This publication shows just how concrete can help achieve sustainable
construction.

There are now over 260 definitions of sustainability, but it is not a new philosophy…

"We have not inherited the world from our forefathers

- we have borrowed it from our children."
Kashmiri proverb

CONTENTS
Introduction 1
Concrete and the UK Environment 2
Cementing the Future 4
Sustainability… in Creation 6
A Sustainable Lifecycle 6
Sustainability… at the End of Life 8
Concrete and the UK Economy 10
Concrete and UK Society 12
Summary 16
References 17

Front Cover (Left to Right)

Berkeley Homes housing estate, Oxford. Courtesy of Marshalls; Spinnaker Tower, Portsmouth.
Courtesy of LUSAS; Aggregates - 94% increase in the use of recycled and secondary aggregates - see page 6
 1

INTRODUCTION
Concrete is one of the most versatile and durable construction materials known to man, making it the most widely
used construction material in the world. In fact, concrete is second only to water as the most consumed substance
on Earth [1]. It is ubiquitous in our built environment, being used in schools, hospitals, homes, offices, roads, railways,
dams etc. and has played a major role in the shaping of civilisation from as long ago as 7,000 BC [2].

Concrete is a man-made inorganic and inert material produced by mixing cement, supplementary cementitious
materials, water, fine aggregate (sand), coarse aggregate (gravel or crushed stone) with or without admixtures,
reinforcement, fibres or pigments. The ingredients are proportioned and engineered to produce a concrete of a
specific strength and durability, so it is ‘fit for purpose’ for the job for which it is intended.

The concrete sector is a vital component of the UK economy, directly employing over 40,000 people, in turn
supporting the construction industry that employs approximately 7% of the UK population [3] and accounts for
approximately 10% of the UK’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) [4].

For society to continue developing in the way it has done, we need to pay more attention to our environment.
In recent times we have realised that:

• The world’s finite natural resources are being used and discarded at a rate that the UK (and the world in general)
cannot sustain.
• The emissions caused by the consumption of these resources, and more importantly, the way we use our built
environment, are causing environmental pollution and degradation and are leading to global climate change.

How protecting the environment is best achieved is often a matter of opinion rather than fact, dependent upon
different perspectives of the environment and views of nature. Recently, a concept has emerged that has
attempted to bring together the best aspects of the differing viewpoints to try and harmonise the development of
mankind with the protection of the environment. This is the concept of ‘Sustainable Development’.

Sustainable development involves maintaining our current rate of development whilst leaving suitable resources
behind for later generations to continue to develop. Therefore, environmental problems must be tackled by
considering their relationship with both the state of the economy and the well-being of society. We must take a
holistic approach to each facet of sustainability; the environment, the economy and society. Taken together, this
triple bottom line includes everything that we need to consider for a healthy, prosperous and stable life.

FIGURE 1 -
THE TRIPLE
BOTTOM LINE
OF SUSTAINABILITY

In the 1980s, increasing concern about the effects of economic development on health, natural resources and the
environment led the United Nations to release the Brundtland Report ‘Our Common Future’, 1987. This report
defines sustainable development as “development which meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.

This publication will demonstrate how concrete can contribute positively to both this and future generations’
sustainability.
 2

“In the long term, the CONCRETE AND THE UK

economy and the ENVIRONMENT
Concrete has embodied environmental impacts as a result of the quarrying of raw
materials, the energy used in its production and associated carbon dioxide (CO2)
environment are the emissions. As with all products it will eventually reach the end of its useful life. The
cement and concrete industries are frequently and mistakenly perceived as arch-
polluters in the UK’s industrial landscape – a perception which scientific research
same thing. If it is disproves. In fact, both these industries are far from complacent in the face of the
need for further improvement in environmental performance. Some are actively

unenvironmental it is involved in activities to reduce the environmental impacts of the production of

concrete, including:
• Reduction in the amount of polluting and ‘greenhouse’ gases emitted during the

uneconomical. That creation of concrete.

• More efficient use of resources in concrete production, including re-used materials
and by-products from other industrial processes.

is the rule of nature” • Better re-use of waste and other secondary materials such as water, aggregate, fuel
or other cementitious material.
• Lower reliance on quarrying material or sending construction and demolition waste
Mollie Beattie to landfill by maximising the use of recycled material where practical.
• Development of low-energy, long-lasting yet flexible buildings and structures.
• Exploiting the thermal mass of concrete in a structure to reduce energy demand
over the lifetime of a building.
• Environmental restoration after industrial activity has ceased.

CONCRETE’S ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

IN PERSPECTIVE
Before considering the work that industry has done to mitigate its environmental
impacts, it is useful to put concrete’s ecological impacts into perspective. When
environmental indicators such as emissions to air, land, energy and water use are
combined, concrete’s overall environmental impact stood at just 2.1% of the UK
total in 2001 [3].

CO2, a greenhouse gas, is of key concern in climate change. In the UK the

3
construction of our built environment accounts for 10% of CO2 emissions. Of this,
TABLE 1 – ECO2 KG/T AND KGM FIGURES the manufacture and delivery of concrete accounts for 2.6% of our CO2 emissions
BUILDING COMPONENTS (*[10]) [5]. This should be compared to the use of the built environment which accounts
for 50% of our CO2 emissions, and the 26% of our CO2 emissions that arise from
COMPONENT/MATERIAL ECO2 KG/T ECO2 KG/M3
transport [6]. These figures show how important the in-use impacts of our built
DENSE CONCRETE AGGREGATE BLOCK [8] 75 147 environment are compared to the embodied impacts.
AERATED CONCRETE BLOCK [8] 240 121

GENERIC LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE BLOCK [9] 120 168

Under the UK Climate Change Programme the UK plans to deliver the Kyoto
Protocol targets of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 12.5% below all 1990
GEN1: CONCRETE FOUNDATIONS [10] 75 173
levels. The long term goal is to reduce CO2 emissions by some 60% of their 1990
RC40: STRUCTURAL CONCRETE [10] 153 372 level by 2050 with real progress by 2020. Ongoing innovations in concrete
RC50: HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE [10] 176 436 technology mean that concrete can and should make a significant contribution to
STRUCTURAL STEEL [11] * 1932 15313
the achievement of this target [8]. Table 1 shows the embodied CO2 (ECO2) for
several different types of concrete, steel and timber (different boundary conditions
TIMBER, UK FOREST SOFTWOOD [12] ** 336 141
may apply due to age of available data for timber and steel, see references).
TIMBER, UK FOREST HARDWOOD [12] ** 449 353

CHIPBOARD, UK FORESTRY [12] 819 512
* Density taken from EN 1991-1-1:2002, Eurocode 1. Actions on structures.
General actions. Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings.
** Density taken from EN 338:2003, Structural timber, strength classes
Furthermore, using ground granulated blastfurnace slag (GGBS) or fly ash (FA) in
concrete, either as a mixer addition or through a factory-made cement, significantly
reduces the overall greenhouse gas emissions associated with the production of
concrete. The reduction in overall greenhouse gas emissions from the values in
Table 1 can be as high as 40%, depending on the concrete mix design and the
application.

EMISSIONS DOWN, ENERGY
EFFICIENCY UP
Through a combination of market forces, government intervention
and the industry’s own initiatives, the cement and concrete
industries have steadily improved their environmental
performance. Across the EU, specific energy consumption in the
production of cement clinker has reduced by 30% since the 1970s.
Similarly, dust emissions have been cut by 90% over the last 20
years [13]. Between 1998 and 2005, the UK cement industry
achieved reductions in carbon dioxide to air of 18%; a 46%
reduction in sulphur dioxide, 17% in oxides of nitrogen and 60%
saving in particulate matter [3].
SUSTAINABILITY CONTINUES TO IMPROVE
Technological advances mean modern manufacturing processes
continue to use less energy and produce lower emissions. As a
result of the UK cement industry investments in abatement
technologies, the total environmental burden to air in 2005 has
been reduced by 35%, compared to the 1998 level. The
environmental burden is a measure of the cement industry
emissions divided by the environmental assessment level for
oxides of nitrogen, sulphur and particulate matter [3].
The concrete industry too has reduced its environmental impact. A
2002 study examined concrete’s performance across 13 separate
environmental indicators, and found an overall improvement of
17% between 1994 and 2001 [3].
The UK cement and concrete industry is continuing to contribute
to UK Waste Strategy by consuming waste produced by other
industries and recycling its own waste. The cement industry is
playing an important role in minimising some of the country’s
waste disposal problems and by processing selected wastes into
alternative cement kiln fuels. The use of such materials also
provides other environmental benefits such as a reduction of
emission to air of other pollutants, principally oxides of nitrogen.
In 2005, the cement companies introduced programmes to ensure
compliance with the European Union Waste Incineration Directive,
which applies to all the plants that recover energy from waste or
incinerate waste for disposal. Consequently, almost 5% of raw
materials and 14% of fossil fuels were replaced by waste
materials, adding up to over one million tonnes of waste being
used in the year.
FIGURE 2: CLIMATE CHANGE AGREEMENT CEMENT
INDUSTRY PERFORMANCE 1990 TO 2005[14]
(CEMENT SPECIFIC ENERGY CONSUMPTION KWh/te)
3
The ready-mix and precast concrete producers are also actively
engaged in improving their sustainability credentials. All of their
plants must comply with strict environmental legislation and the
majority of operators either have ISO 14001 accreditation or meet
it without formal certification [15].
The use of recycled water at concrete plants is also growing, for
example one major producer recycles water at 65% of its ready-
mix sites. In 2002 the company also utilised 557,000 tonnes of
construction and demolition waste and 768,000 tonnes of
supplementary cementitious material [16].
A statistical breakdown of environmental impacts such as the one
shown in Table 1 is useful as it enables comparison with other
building materials. For example on a purely mass basis, the CO2
produced per tonne of structural steel is about 10 times greater
than that of reinforced concrete [17]. This comparison is less
appropriate when comparing structural elements. Nevertheless, for
a range of typical structures, reinforced concrete construction
gives a better than average performance at 1.5 to 2.5 GJ/m2, with
structural steel alternatives ranging from 2.6 to 2.9 GJ/m2 [17].
Up-to-date figures on the environmental impacts of concrete are
available at www.sustainableconcrete.org.uk.
ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE
OF CONSTRUCTION
To measure the environmental performance of construction
products the UK has a Certified Environmental Profiles for
Construction Products Scheme, accredited by the Building
Research Establishment (BRE) which makes a lifecycle analysis or
LCA of building materials. As the momentum towards
sustainability gathers pace, this scheme will provide specifiers with
the knowledge they are starting to demand on the environmental
sustainability credentials of construction products.
A number of profiles are available for generic and company
specific concrete products. Many of these score an ‘A’, the highest
rating currently available under the scheme. Manufacturers
participating in the scheme have found that it has driven process
efficiency and environmental improvements at their works,
increasing recycling rates and decreasing energy use.
A similar scheme to BRE’s Certified Environmental Profiles,
European Product Declarations (EPDs), is currently being developed
by the International Standards Organisation (ISO) and CEN and
will potentially be seen in the UK in the near future.
4
Through performance
to reputation: The UK
cement industry will
continually improve
its sustainable
development
performance. It will
be a sector recognised
as leading the way
by 2010.
UK cement industry’s Sustainable
Development Task Force
St. James Apartments, Birmingham
CEMENTING THE FUTURE
Concrete could not be made without cement. Cement production involves the heating of
blended and ground raw materials which may consist of: limestone or chalk, clay or shale,
sand, iron oxide and gypsum. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), is the most common
variety of cement manufactured in the world.
All 14 cement plants in the UK operate in accordance either with the international
environmental management standard ISO 14001 or are Environmental Management
Scheme (EMAS) accredited[3].
Collectively, UK cement manufacturers have signed a Climate Change Agreement with
government to deliver an overall energy efficiency improvement across their sector of
26.6% by 2010, against a base year of 1990. Figures collected in 2005 show the cement
industry to be on target to achieve these efficiency goals having already achieved a
saving of almost 25%, as shown in Figure 2 [14].
Cement making is an energy-intensive business. Aware of its potential for making a
significant contribution to industry efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, an
international consortium of 14 global cement manufacturers formed the Cement
Sustainability Initiative (CSI) in 1999. Three of the UK’s four cement companies were
founding members of the CSI, while the fourth major manufacturer supports its
objectives. Following the findings of the US$4 million Battelle publication, the CSI worked
with the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) to launch its
‘Agenda for Action’ in 2002 [18].
The Agenda for Action addresses six areas against which it promotes collective and
individual company action – see Table 2 for a summary of the four areas directly related
to the environment. One significant outcome already achieved is the use by more than
600 sites worldwide of the CSI’s CO2 Protocol. These sites are committed to measuring
and publishing their CO2 emissions annually as a formal mechanism for developing a
climate change mitigation strategy [18].
TABLE 2: CEMENT SUSTAINABILITY INITIATIVE/ WORLD
BUSINESS COUNCIL FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
ACTIONS AND PROJECTS [18]
Joint projects Individual company projects
Climate Protection
Develop a CO2 Protocol for the Develop a climate change mitigation
cement industry. strategy, with targets and progress by
(Already delivered) 2006.(Progressing, about half the initiative’s
members have published specific targets)
Fuels and raw materials
Develop a set of guidelines for the Apply guidelines at all sites. (Progressing.
responsible use of conventional and The founding companies are applying the
alternative fuels in kilns. guidelines, whilst some of the newer
(Already delivered) companies are still working towards this goal)
Emissions reduction
Develop an industry protocol for Make emissions data publicly available
measurement and monitoring of all and accessible to stakeholders by 2006.
emissions. (Already delivered) (11 of the 18 companies involved are
reporting this information publicly)
Local impacts
Develop guidelines for an Apply the guidelines and draw up
Environmental and Social Impact rehabilitation plans for operating quarries
Assessment process. and plants, for communication to
(Already delivered) stakeholders by 2006. (5 companies have
reported on some aspect of this so far)
 5

Although there are environmental impacts associated with cement and concrete production, we must not
lose sight of the role that concrete and cementitious materials play in our built environment and the value of
this built environment in our quality of life. The British Cement Association (BCA), in association with Forum
for the Future, has developed a business case for sustainable development with the purpose of assessing the
costs and benefits of the UK cement industry in terms of its economic, environmental and social impacts
[19]. The overall findings of the business case are positive and are outlined in Figure 3.

FIGURE 3 – COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF CEMENT PRODUCTION,

BCA/FORUM FOR THE FUTURE [19]

600
500
Benefits (£ million)

400
300
200
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Costs (£ million)

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This work highlights the importance of approaching sustainability holistically; all facets, social, environmental
and economic should be considered equally. To consider only one element skews the perception of the overall
performance; embodied and in-use or upstream and downstream facets must be considered if we are to
achieve real sustainability.

Testing at Padeswood Plant in North Wales,

courtesy of Castle Cement.

TABLE 3: REDUCTION IN EMISSIONS A practical example of progress being

TO AIR BY NEW CEMENT KILN* AT made is the new kiln at Castle
Cement’s Padeswood plant in North
PADESWOOD, NORTH WALES [14] Wales. This opened in 2005, and
replaces three older and less efficient
3 old kilns 1 new kiln % kilns at the site. There has been a 60%
(tonnes) (tonnes) change increase in output of clinker compared
to production from the old kilns, and
CO2*** 411,000 427,000 +3.9* the new kiln achieves some
outstanding reductions in emissions,
SO2 4,057 375 -91 including a 43% reduction in dust, 57%
reduction in Nitrogen oxides and a
NOx 2,167 937 -57
91% reduction in Sulphur Dioxide [14].
VOC** 489 22.5 -95

Dust 66 37.5 -43

Figures based on output of 500,000 tonnes of clinker. *The small increase in CO2 by 3.9% is due to increased production from the
new kiln. In fact, CO2 per tonne of cement has reduced by 37%. ** VOC = volatile organic compounds. *** Net CO2
6

At all stages of our SUSTAINABILITY…

product lifecycle IN CREATION
There has been a 45% decrease in the production of primary aggregates between
1989 and 2001 and a 94% increase in the use of recycled and secondary
we shall reduce our aggregates. This shift towards recycled or alternative aggregates in place of freshly
quarried material is forecast to continue. By 2011, 30% of all aggregates are
expected to come from a non-primary source, equivalent to 70 million tonnes [20].
environmental
TABLE 4: SUPPLY OF PRIMARY V. SECONDARY AND RECYCLED
footprint and AGGREGATES (TONNES MN.), 1989-2011 [20]
1989 2001 FORECAST % CHANGE FORECAST
2011 1989-2001 % CHANGE 1989-2011

maximise the PRIMARY 300 164 164 -45 -45

RECYCLED
& SECONDARY 32 50 70 +94 +119

contribution we make TOTAL 332 214 234 -35 -29

to our employees, A SUSTAINABLE LIFECYCLE

Like any other building material, concrete has a life-span. Compared to other
building materials, concrete is by far the most durable, with a typical design life of
neighbours and to at least 60 years and often much longer. In environmental terms, it is useful to
think of concrete as having three phases of life – starting with its creation, then its

wider society. use in buildings and structures, and ending with reuse of the structure due to the
design flexibility afforded by concrete solutions or recycling concrete once the
building has reached the end of its viable use.
Concrete Sustainability
Working Group, 2004 Concrete is a recyclable material. Most people do not stop to think of what
happens to the rubble when a structure is demolished, apart from assuming it all
A concrete home can have lower carbon emissions than homes goes to landfill. But in fact anything up to 95% of a building’s components can be
built of other materials, due to concrete's innate thermal mass. recycled, including the most heavily reinforced concrete [21].
Image courtesy of Gusto Homes.
But the rewarding challenge for designers is to ensure that the UK’s existing and
new build housing stock is more environmentally sustainable. Typical new build
homes in the UK use three-and-a half times more energy in-use than those in
Denmark or Germany [22]. The economic section of this publication considers how
the inherent thermal mass properties of concrete could make a real contribution to
reducing the carbon emissions from Britain’s homes.*

*See page 11.


INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY
Secondary materials are useful by-products of other industrial
processes, notably fly ash, ground granulated blastfurnace slag
(GGBS) and china clay waste, which would potentially otherwise be
sent to landfill. Apart from the obvious attractions of creating a use
for these materials, their incorporation in factory made cements or
as concrete mixer additions translates into direct reductions in
quarrying, energy consumption and CO2 emissions.
GGBS is a useful by-product recovered from blast-furnaces used in
the production of iron and can be used un-ground as a coarse
aggregate or as a supplementary cementitious material where it
can replace up to 70% of cement in a concrete mix. Fly ash is a
useful by-product from coal-fired power stations and is
environmentally beneficial. Together, fly ash and GGBS account for
around 15% of total UK consumption of cementitious material. The
UK uses approximately 1.5 million tonnes (Mt) of GGBS and fly ash
as cementitious replacement every year, with the following
environmental benefits [23]:
• Reduction in annual CO2 emissions of 1.5Mt
• Reduction in primary energy use by 2,000 million kilo
Watts per hour
• Saving of 1.5Mt of quarry material
• Saving of 1.5Mt of landfill
The advantages of these materials do not stop there. Their
beneficial chemical properties in conjunction with Portland Cement
produce extremely workable and durable concretes that are highly
resistant to penetration by chloride ions, sulphates and other
chemicals*. The Spinnaker Tower in Portsmouth is a prestigious
example, where a 50% GGBS replacement concrete mix was used in
its construction [24].
Spinnaker Tower, Portsmouth.Courtesy of LUSAS.
7
TACKLING BRITAIN’S TYRE MOUNTAIN
Every year the UK produces 400,000 tonnes of waste tyres, posing a
significant environmental problem [25]. Legislation prevents the
dumping of tyres in landfill in a progressive ban which will be
complete during 2006.
Currently around 40% of waste tyres are recycled into retreads, all-
weather surfaces and other uses, but that still leaves 28 million
tyres with seemingly nowhere to go [25].
Used tyres make an ideal kiln fuel for the production of cement,
without any adverse environmental effects. Kiln temperatures are so
high that tyres burn without fumes or flame – and what’s more the
residue from burning tyres can be chemically treated and reused
again as fuel.
The obvious pay-off from burning tyres is the fossil fuel and carbon
emissions saved. It is estimated that the UK cement industry
currently consumes 5.6 million waste tyres. Trials are also underway
with other alternative fuels in cement making, such as recycled
liquid fuel, inert processed sewage pellets (PSP) and packaging
waste.
Used tyres have even been recycled into concrete as they contain
steel fibre, according to recent research sponsored by the
Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) [25]. The research found
that recycled steel fibre (which is cheaper than conventional steel
fibre) leads to an increase in concrete’s strength, ductility and
toughness, making it suitable for a range of specialised applications
such as impact and acoustic barriers.
REINFORCED CONCRETE RECYCLING
About half of all concrete produced in Britain is reinforced. Unlike
structural steel the reinforcing steel made in the UK is made
entirely from recycled steel, which itself can be recovered for reuse
at the end of the building or structure’s life. Although steel
manufacture is an extremely energy-intensive business, the energy
needed to produce one tonne of reinforcing steel is as low as half
of that needed to make one tonne of structural steel from
iron ore [17].
Tyre feeder in operation at
Lafarge Westbury plant.
8

Due to the flexibility SUSTAINABILITY… AT THE

and adaptability of END OF LIFE
It is more than likely that a modern concrete building will come to the end of its
life because no further use can be found for it, rather than the concrete having
concrete, seemingly failed due to age. The traditional approach in this situation would have been to
demolish the building, but cost-efficiency, coupled with the sustainability
imperative, means that the reuse of buildings is becoming more common.
redundant structures Due to the flexibility and adaptability of concrete, seemingly redundant structures
can often be stripped back to their core and then rebuilt to new, contemporary
can often be stripped specifications. If a building has to be demolished, then it provides a potentially rich
source of recycled aggregate (RA) for a range of applications. RA was estimated to
account for almost a fifth of the UK’s aggregates supply in 2001[20]. That
back to their core and proportion is set to grow in the years to come.

A specific subset of recycled aggregates is recycled concrete aggregates (RCA)

where the masonry content is limited to not more than 5%. The performance
then rebuilt to new, characteristics of RCA are better than RA and consequently there are fewer
restrictions on the use of RCA in concrete. Provision for the use of RCA in concrete
is given in BS 8500-2.
contemporary About 75-80% of secondary and recycled aggregates are thought to end up as
sub-base and fill, including use in road building and airfield pavements. The wide
specifications. taxiways at Terminal 5, Heathrow Airport, built to accommodate the coming
generation of ‘super jumbo’ aircraft use RCA. Amec estimated that it used 100,000
tonnes of RCA at Heathrow in the 12 months to August 2004 [26].

In May 2001, the Highways Agency issued modifications to its Specification for
Highway Works, permitting the extended use of secondary aggregates and RA for
most applications. Extensive use was made of on-site aggregates in the building of
the M6 toll road between Birmingham and Manchester, limiting the need for off-
site quarrying and for lorry traffic to and from the site [27].

Recycled concrete. Courtesy of Hanson Aggregates
GREEN LIGHT FOR MORE CONCRETE RECYCLING
New European standards for concrete and aggregates recently came into force in
the UK, clearing the way for the greater use of recycled concrete in new concrete
manufacture [24]. The new regulations effectively allow all potentially available
materials to be reused. It is accepted that recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) can
be used to replace up to 30% of virgin aggregate in concrete, without having to
adjust the mix of other elements [27]. Provision for use of RCA in concrete is given
in BS 8500-2 [27].

As part of its sustainability agenda, the government’s policy for the supply of
construction aggregates up to 2018 is that demand should first be met from
secondary and recycled resources and the balance provided from primary
sources [20].

Construction and demolition waste (C&DW) is the UK’s largest single source of
recycled material, representing 72% of all recycled and secondary materials used in
construction in 2001 [20]. Of this approximately 10% of C&DW is used directly in
the manufacture of new concrete [20]. The rest is used in low-grade applications
such as sub-base and fills, with some diverted into high quality uses such as
asphalt [20]. This down-cycling preserves our reserves of primary aggregate for
applications where the quality of aggregate is important for durability and
performance.
 9

It must be noted that there are several obstacles to
overcome in raising this percentage, not least the
locations of supply and demand, the availability
and consistency of RCA itself and the historically
adverse perception of its quality. To help reduce
and remove these barriers, the Waste Resources
and Action Programme (WRAP) was set up in 2002
to promote the greater use of recycled and
secondary aggregates, including RCA [28].
RETURNING QUARRIED LAND
WITH ‘ENVIRONMENTAL’
INTEREST
Aggregates can only be extracted from where the
minerals are situated. Fortunately in the UK the
aggregates required to produce concrete are
ubiquitous and plentiful which allows for suitable
sites to be easily selected.

WRAP is entirely funded through the Aggregates

Quarrying is in fact only a temporary land-use and
Levy Sustainability Fund, and, since its inception, it
a quarry’s environmental restoration after use
has invested over £10 million in total with £2.2
effectively means the site has been borrowed
million in reprocessing infrastructure [28]. This
from, rather than permanently lost, to nature. For
investment will secure the supply of almost one
a sand and gravel quarry, mineral extraction will
million extra tonnes of recycled and secondary
usually take place for 10-15 years, while for a rock
aggregates. Having secured continuing funding
quarry, a 40-year life is typical [30]. Restoration is
from DEFRA and the Scottish Executive, WRAP has
already planned before work starts in the quarry
now set its sights on delivering a 10% increase in
and environmental restoration follows closely
the use of non-primary aggregates in higher-value
behind extraction on a progressive basis. What was
applications such as the manufacture of concrete.
once low-grade agricultural land for example is
restored after abstraction for uses such as
£7 MILLION REPROCESSING recreation and the creation of wildlife habitats.
SITE TACKLES LONDON’S
CONSTRUCTION AND Many of the UK’s nature reserves have been
created on the sites of former quarries, including
DEMOLITION WASTE
over 700 [30] of the almost 7,000 Sites of Special
The London Remade Construction and Demolition
Scientific Interest (SSSIs) and many of them are
Waste site in Greenwich tackles some of the
still supported and maintained by the quarrying
14 million tonnes of C&DW produced by London
companies. SSSIs are the finest sites for wildlife
every year and primarily reprocesses the debris for
and natural features in the UK, supporting many
reuse in concrete production rather than as
rare and endangered species, habitats and natural
low-value bulk fill – making it the first of its kind
features. The purpose of SSSIs is to safeguard for
in the UK [29].
present and future generations sites of high
natural importance and they therefore make a
The facility is capable of processing 200,000
vital contribution to the ecological processes
tonnes of C&DW per year or approximately 1,500
upon which we all depend.
tonnes every day [29]. The site is built on
brownfield land, and its location alongside the
river Thames gives the potential for more
transportation of waste and RCA by river rather
than road [29].

Hanson Aggregates/RSPB Dungeness Reserve. This former quarry has been restored in an award-winning project.
10

Utilising concrete’s CONCRETE AND THE UK

inherent high thermal ECONOMY
Concrete is the ‘backbone’ of the UK construction industry. Whether a building’s
structure is made of concrete, steel or timber, it will undoubtedly be built on
mass makes financial concrete foundations. The floors of commercial or industrial premises are also
typically concrete.

sense: As the UK economy grows, so does the construction sector, and within that, the
demand for concrete. Since 1999, the country’s GDP has grown by an average
annual percentage of just over 5%, translating into a growth for the construction
• Massive savings and building materials industries. In 2004, the construction industry employed 6.6%
of Britain’s total workforce and generated around 10% of its GDP.

in fit out and TABLE 5: UK ECONOMIC, CONSTRUCTION AND

CONSTRUCTION-RELATED STATISTICS, 1999-2005 [4]
construction. UK 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

ALL INDUSTRY GDP £MN. 966,551 1,005,542 1,027,095 1,048,456 1,074,858 1,108,890 **

• Massive savings in CONSTRUCTION GVA* £MN. 42,512 45,975 50,904 55,020 59,855 64,747 **

MINING & QUARRYING

GVA £MN. 17,052 24,689 23,252 22,011 21,534 21,876 **
heating and cooling CONSTRUCTION
EMPLOYMENT ‘000 1,793 1,843 1,862 1,877 1,928 1,998 2,052

ALL INDUSTRY GVA £MN. 800,611 840,979 882,735 930,297 985,558 1044,165 **

ALL INDUSTRY
EMPLOYMENT ‘000 28,697 29,180 29,516 29,674 29,953 30,221 30,474

* GVA or Gross Value Added = GDP less taxes incl. VAT, plus product subsidies.
Figures shown are at basic prices and have not been adjusted for inflation.
** = Not available at the time of going to press.

Concrete Construction: the backbone of the UK economy.

THE LOCAL MATERIAL
Concrete’s economic significance as an essential supplier to the UK’s construction
industry is considerable. But the UK’s almost complete self-sufficiency in concrete
and the materials needed for its manufacture make it even more attractive – both
economically and environmentally. A key principle of sustainability is that a product
should be consumed as near to the place of its production as possible to:

• Minimise the need for transport and the associated environmental, economic and
social impacts of transportation.

• Support the local economy and hence local society.

• Prevent the export of the associated environmental impacts of production to

another location with less stringent environmental and social protection
legislation.

The UK is also highly self-sufficient in cement, where imports represented just

11.6% of the country’s total production in 2002 [31]. For aggregates, including
crushed rock and sand and gravel, the situation is better still, with the UK producing
99.99% of its annual requirement [30].

CONCRETE AND THE
HOUSEHOLD ECONOMY
Due to our dependence on fossil fuels and the
dwindling UK reserves we must face-up to increasing
energy costs and the real risk of fuel poverty which will
potentially impact the most vulnerable groups of our
society.
The UK climate is changing. Current predictions from
the UK Climate Impacts Programme (UKCIP) show that
by the 2080s, annual temperatures for the UK may
increase between 2-3.5oC. In London this could be as
high as 8oC, taking the peak summertime temperature
to over 40oC [32]. This will have a considerable impact
on the temperature of the internal environment of the
buildings that we are designing and building today,
especially those of a lightweight construction, which
are likely to overheat by 2020 and need energy-
intensive air conditioning to make them
comfortable [33].
In all buildings, heat is generated by people, cooking,
electrical equipment, computers, lighting and passive
solar gain which means that buildings can overheat
during the summer.
A particular benefit of concrete is its high thermal mass
[33]. In the summer exposed concrete absorbs this heat
gain and keeps the internal temperature 6-8oC below
the peak external temperature, providing internal heat
gains are kept reasonably low and good solar shading is
provided. Night-time ventilation is then used to cool
the building, priming it for the next day [34].
In winter, thermal mass in concrete walls and floors
stores energy from the heating system, passive solar
energy and the incidental heat from cooking, lighting,
people or other internal sources. This stored energy is
then released at night, thus sustaining warmer
overnight temperatures and reducing the use of heating
energy [34].
Excellent airtightness is also easily achieved
with concrete construction; this results in better
managed air change rates, reduced energy consumption
for space heating and financial savings for the
occupant. Concrete homes have achieved airtightness
rates even better than the demanding Swedish design
benchmark of 2.88 m3/h/m2 @ 50 Pa [22], which is of
growing relevance as airtightness requirements are set
to become more stringent in each successive revision to
the UK Building Regulations.
Another benefit of utilising concrete’s thermal capacity
and introducing natural ventilation is the improvement
in natural light. Exposed concrete can reflect light far
into a building’s interior and this can reduce the need
for artificial lighting, saving energy and therefore
money.
11
CONCRETE: A NET UK EXPORT
As mentioned previously the UK can be 100%
self-sufficient in concrete production, insulating the
country from the international volatility often seen
in the oil and iron ore markets. The economic good
news extends further, in that concrete and many of
its component materials are net exporters, helping
the balance of payments and contributing to
national wealth.
In 2005, the UK exported 535,000 tonnes of ready
mixed concrete, worth nearly £9 million to the UK
economy [36]. For precast concrete in 2005,
£130.5 million worth was exported [37].
The UK’s self-sufficiency in concrete compares
favourably to the situation for construction’s other
main building materials, steel and timber. UK steel
production was 11.7 million tonnes in 2002,
although approximately 50% of this was exported.
A further 8.72 million tonnes of steel were
imported into the UK in that year (ISSB). A simple
calculation based on these figures shows that the
UK needed to import almost 60% of its total
requirement for steel, including structural steel, in
2002 [37].
Similarly for timber, more than 98% of the timber
used in Britain for construction is imported [38].
A recent BRE report shows that timber’s
predominant impact on the environment comes
from the transportation of the raw materials.
These constituted 99.5% of all impacts with the
largest contributions due to the long distances
travelled to bring in sawn timber from Canada,
Finland and Sweden [39]. One of the problems
with importing timber is that as much as 60% of
the tropical timber used in the UK comes from
illegal logging [40].
Jubilee Library, Brighton. A high thermal mass building.
(Architect: Bennetts Associates)
12

Concrete is intrinsically CONCRETE AND UK SOCIETY

Concrete is a locally produced material that supports local employment and the
interwoven into the fabric of our society. The use of exposed concrete to maximise thermal mass
allows us to use natural environmental systems to cool and heat our built
environment.
fabric of our society.
In naturally ventilated concrete buildings, the provision of openable windows can
provide good airflow and a degree of occupant control, which has a positive effect
What value do you put on the occupants “comfort”. The exposed concrete used in naturally ventilated
buildings can reflect light far into a building’s interior. This can reduce the need for
artificial lighting, improving the quality of light for the occupants and helping to
on the benefit of a safe prevent eye strain. Furthermore, as concrete is naturally inorganic and inert it does
not need treatment with additional toxic chemical treatments, such as the Volatile
Organic Compounds (VOCs) used to preserve timber. The bonus of concrete is that,
and secure supply of when used in naturally ventilated buildings, it provides a healthier indoor air quality
and can help to reduce the incidence of sick-building syndrome in commercial
buildings. Physical proof of concrete’s inherent neutrality is its use in the London
drinking water, with no ring-main – a vast engineering undertaking, twice as long as the Channel Tunnel,
which supplies 50% of the capital’s water supply [17].

cholera, typhoid or SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES

The Government is committed to developing ‘sustainable communities’ which have

dysentery? been defined as:

“Places where people want to live and work, now and in the future. They meet the
diverse needs of existing and future residents, are sensitive to their environment, and
contribute to a high quality of life. They are safe and inclusive, well planned, built and
run, and offer equality of opportunity and good services for all.” [41]

There are many ways in which concrete products can contribute positively to these
An example of concrete's durability: the houses at Marine
aims. Concrete offers a range of ‘value-added’ benefits that are inherent properties
Crescent, Folkestone. Originally built in 1870, the seaside
buildings only required minimal repairs to its original concrete of the material and come at no extra cost. Benefits such as inbuilt fire resistance,
structure to convert for new occupants. See case study at strength, robustness and durability, which last throughout the life of the structure.
www.concretecentre.com

DURABILITY
Concrete produces structures that are durable and resistant to weather, vermin and
pests. Concrete buildings and products have been tried and tested, and can offer a
minimum 60 year service life with little or no maintenance. However in reality many
concrete structures will last for centuries. There is no process of natural decay in
concrete products and they will therefore be able to cope with environmental shifts,
which is particularly important in view of long-term weather variations predicted
due to climate change in the UK. MORI and others carry out surveys of people’s
perceptions of UK house-building. The long-term durability of concrete and masonry
construction is well understood by designers and the public, as shown by figures
from MORI, in which 71% of those surveyed considered that masonry built houses
had the longest life expectancy of all construction options [42].

ROBUSTNESS
The full structural capacity of a masonry or
concrete wall, with its considerable reserve of
strength and ability to accommodate future
changes, far exceeds design requirements. It is this
inherent robustness that has enabled traditionally
built houses to cater for increased loads emanating
from alterations and adaptation.
Their strength also facilitates the introduction of
concrete upper floors which provide clear spans
between external walls and will support internal
masonry walls. All internal walls below become
non-load bearing, producing a design where the
layout can be altered to cater for future changes in
living requirements, so satisfying the government’s
requirement for ‘lifetime homes’ [43].
Design codes, Government documents and other
standards such as those issued by the Highways
Agency give clear and effective requirements and
guidance on the robustness of structures, i.e.
ensuring that structures will not succumb to
progressive collapse if one part becomes
compromised. This benefit is understandably
important: people need to be able to rely on the
design of a structure to maintain its robustness
even, to a reasonable degree, during extreme
events. Concrete structures are particularly robust –
the reinforcement ensures that alternative load
paths are utilised in the event of a problem. The
effectiveness of the continuity in concrete
structures is unsurpassed.
FIRE RESISTANCE
Concrete does not burn or melt: it cannot be ‘set on
fire’ like other materials and it does not emit any
toxic fumes when affected by fire. It will also not
produce smoke or drip molten particles [44]. A
100mm thick, single leaf masonry or concrete wall
provides two hours fire resistance, which is up to
four times greater than that typically required for
housing. Similarly, precast concrete flooring will
resist fire for at least one hour, which can easily be
extended to two hours with a minor design
modification [44].
As a material, concrete meets the requirement for
Class 0, in respect of surface spread of flame which
is the highest product performance classification
within the Building Regulations Part B. Concrete and
masonry also meet the top grade in the new
LPS 2023 – the fire performance component of the
LPS 2020 Loss prevention standard for innovative
dwellings [45].
13
ACOUSTIC INSULATION
The sound insulation and acoustic performance of
buildings has grown in importance, primarily due to
the growing demand from government for
increased density of dwellings [46]. The number of
complaints about noise has risen both due to this
closer proximity and the new demands placed on
housing (e.g. entertainment systems). For this
reason, the UK Building Regulations Part E improved
sound insulation within all types of buildings,
especially dwellings.
In general, increasing the mass of a wall or floor
improves the sound insulation of a room; hence
concrete and masonry offer a good barrier to
airborne sounds, while impact sound is easily
controlled with appropriate floor and ceiling
finishes. A range of ‘Robust Details’ (RDs) for both
masonry and concrete walls and concrete floors has
been agreed by the Building Regulations Advisory
Committee [47]. These offer approved construction
choices for both party walls and separating floors
and include aspects of the external wall in
controlling sound between dwellings.
Good acoustic properties can also be achieved for
multi-occupancy residences such as hotels, prisons,
student accommodation etc. using a range of
concrete options. One example is tunnel form
construction (in which the walls, floors and ceilings
are made from cast in-situ concrete using high
quality reusable formwork). At the University of
East Anglia, two separating floors in a new student
accomodation block, consisting of 250mm of
concrete with a stuck-down carpet and no ceiling
finish beneath, were tested. Both exceeded the
regulations by more than 5dB for both airborne
and impact sound insulation and easily met the
levels required by Robust Details.
University of East Anglia. The new block of student accommodation, built in concrete using
tunnelform construction, was acoustically tested in August 2004 with excellent results.
Photography: Grant Smith.
14

Acoustic design is not all about isolating sound from one room to another.
Concrete and masonry The UK is becoming an increasingly noisy country due to the increase in road
traffic, railway usage, airport activity and the general increase in urban density.
Research has shown that inhabitants of high noise areas have increased levels of
walls are accepted as stress-related conditions such as high blood pressure and heart disease.

Concrete provides an excellent solution for noise problems around airports,

being solid and robust motorways and railway lines. Concrete acoustic barriers are increasingly being used
to protect the countryside and residential developments from noise from these

and this benefit sources [54].

SECURITY
should not be Rising crime is causing increasing concern about personal safety, not only in
relation to crime on the streets but also intrusions into our buildings. Security has
underestimated. been improved by way of locks and alarm systems to windows and doors, but what
of the structure itself?

Concrete and masonry walls are accepted as being solid and robust and this benefit
should not be underestimated. But it cannot be assumed that all other forms of
construction offer the same degree of robustness and security. The implication of
the term ‘Robust Detail’ [47] is that all forms of construction meeting this
requirement are physically robust, but this is not necessarily true. They are only
robust in terms of reliably meeting the sound insulation requirements (as in the
Building Regulations Part E). The term does not relate to robustness in a wider
sense e.g. structural robustness or impact resistance. For example, the Robust
Details for acoustic properties of separating walls require two strong 100mm tied
leaves of masonry. On the other hand, alternative methods of construction for
party walls use a much more lightweight form of construction, which is reduced
still further within the roof space.

In light of climate change predictions it is also important that we consider the

The sustainable drainage solution at a new housing
development in Oxford, developed by Marshalls.
Image courtesy of Marshalls.
security of our built environment to debris penetrating the built fabric during storm
events. Research conducted by the Texas Tech University’s Wind Engineering
Research Center concluded that an exterior concrete wall is one of the premier
systems for ensuring safety for homeowners from debris carried by tornado- and
hurricane-force winds. University researchers conducted a series of analytical and
physical tests of numerous exterior wall systems for residential housing, subjecting
them to projectiles driven by the severest of winds. Only concrete wall systems
were proven to withstand 100% of all known hurricane-force winds, and over 99%
of tornado-force winds [48].

SAVING WATER AND PREVENTING FLOODS

Given the emphasis of the Code for Sustainable Homes on the need for stricter
water conservation measures, it is useful to look briefly at concrete’s role in this
area. In urban areas, conventional drainage systems are not always able to cope
with sudden heavy rainfall, as shown by the frequency of flash flooding in the wake
of storms. What is more, intense, torrential downpours are expected to become
more common in the UK as a result of climate change.

To combat this problem, and also to support more biodiversity, concrete sustainable
urban drainage systems (SUDS) are an environmentally benign way of managing
surface water run-off. Typically built of precast concrete blocks, SUDS rely on
gravity to take run-off from hardstanding areas into a specially designed concrete
storage tank and drainage system. Often these drainage systems make use of
balancing ponds where reed-beds and other natural filtering methods clean and
purify the water. These mini-wetland habitats can become a haven for wildlife,
enhancing the quality of our built environment, as well as protecting our built
environment from floods.

To assist the process of managing rainwater,
hardstandings can also be made of cast in-situ
permeable no-fines concrete which, instead of
causing water to run-off immediately, absorbs the
rain slowly and steadily, allowing it to pass
gradually into a water course, sewer or drainage
system in a controlled way.
PRESERVING OPEN
COUNTRYSIDE
It is projected that up to 60% of the additional
2.8 million homes planned by the government will
be built on previously developed, brownfield sites
[49] – thereby limiting urban encroachment on
virgin, greenfield land.
The reuse of brownfield land is often made possible
by cementitious materials. Cement-based
stabilisation, capped by a solid concrete layer, is one
way of reclaiming contaminated industrial sites for
residential development [50]. This method is likely
to become more popular in light of the latest EU
landfill directive, effective from July 2004, which
places further limits on the land-filling of hazardous
waste.
A further way of preserving open countryside is by
making the ‘ecological footprint’ of a building
smaller by utilising concrete basements. The
government is driving for more efficient use of land
with a target housing minimum density of between
30 and 50 dwellings per hectare. The addition of an
extra floor in a basement can enable the developer
to reduce the plot size for a given floor area and
therefore decrease the size of the ecological
footprint while potentially increasing the number of
units on a development.
A wide range of concrete basement construction
options are available, including masonry, cast in-situ
concrete, precast panels and modular units. These
solutions offer efficient use of land, with no overall
increase in the height of the building; resulting in a
land saving of around 26% due to the increase in
housing density.
Utilising the lower ground floor also increases the
value of the property by increasing desirability as a
result of the extra space. Concrete basements also
add to a building’s stability on difficult sites
through deeper foundations, so making the use of
some marginal land cost-effective.
For detached properties of equal floor area, with
and without basements, the basement house will
show energy savings in the region of 10% because
the basement has additional insulation from the
soil, unlike an above-ground structure [51].
15
A number of low-energy homes have made use of
this advantage, while also providing an area for water
tanks to store heat energy collected by solar panels.
SUPPORTING RENEWABLE
ENERGY – LITERALLY
The government intends that 10% of the UK’s
electricity needs should be met by renewable
sources by 2010. To help meet this goal, plans have
been announced for 15 new large-scale offshore
wind farms around Britain’s coast, complementing a
number of existing, smaller wind-power sites [52].
The design of the masts that support the wind
turbines is a particular challenge as these structures
are subjected to harsh environmental conditions.
The problem of load resistance and vibration has
become more acute as larger wind turbines have
been commissioned. In response, two Dutch
companies have patented a hybrid mast, replacing a
conventional steel tower with a partial precast
concrete solution. In tests, not only was the hybrid
tower stronger than a tubular steel mast, it also
reduced the noise pollution considerably [30]. Noise
is one of the most commonly cited planning
objections against the location of wind turbines.
For offshore wind turbine applications, Danish
company Tech-wise [43] has conducted favourable
studies into the use of high strength Compact
Reinforced Concrete (CRC) for the tower. The
research concluded that CRC was cheaper than
steel to construct and install; unlike steel it did not
need a vibration damper; and that it was both
highly durable against chloride and highly ductile if
hit by shipping [53].
Brownfield remediation limits A precast concrete wind tower
encroachment on virgin, greenfield land. in Germany. Image courtesy of
Courtesy of Halton Borough Council. The Concrete Society.
16

“Only when the last SUMMARY

Sustainability is a complex area encompassing environmental, economic and social
tree has died, the last aspects that are intrinsically interwoven. Each pillar of sustainability must be
considered equally to ensure a holistic approach is achieved.

river been poisoned, Sustainability is now being recognised as a vital and central core to development,
rather than a ‘nice to have’ and has become an essential aspect of any enterprise’s
license to operate. The cement and concrete sector industries in the United
and the last fish been Kingdom recognise this and have committed themselves to the production of a
more sustainable product.

caught will we realise Concrete is a construction product which has environmental impacts, as all
construction products do. The industry recognises this and many of the mitigating
measures currently in use across the sector have been outlined in this document.
we cannot eat But as demonstrated in this publication and all around us in our built environment,
concrete products can play an important positive role in minimising the impacts of
our built environment and the ways it can protect us as our climate changes.
money.” We have all heard the saying “You get what you pay for” but with concrete, any
investment comes with inherent value added benefits and gives outstanding
Cree Indian proverb returns with interest, all at no extra cost. Concrete indeed, is the sustainable
construction material of choice.

FIGURE 4: THE SUSTAINABLE BENEFITS OF CONCRETE

Quality you Known

can trust Sound Investment Product
for the Future

Acoustic Privacy
Thermal Mass
Slice House, Brazil – an entry to The Concrete Centre ROBUST FLEXIBLE
Sustainability Award. For details of current awards Reduced
see www.concretecentre.com/awards. Maintenance
Image courtesy of Marcelo Nunes. Small
Ecological Concrete
Footprint
DURABLE
Whole Life Quality of
Water Performance Life
Fire
Supply Performance
Protection
 17

REFERENCES
1 Aitken P C, Cements of yesterday and today; concretes of tomorrow, Cement and Concrete Research 1349-1359, 2000
2 Concrete through the Ages – from 7000 BC to AD 2000, British Cement Association, 1999
3 Performance: a corporate responsibility report from the UK cement industry, British Cement Association, 2006
4 Sourced from: Sorrell S, Energy Policy no.31, United Kingdom National Accounts (The Blue Book) 2004 and Office for
National Statistics Cement, Concrete & Making the link: climate policy and the reform of the construction industry, 2003
5 The UK Construction Industry: Progress towards more Sustainable Construction 2000-2003, Sustainable Construction Task Group, 2003
6 UK Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1990-2004 (issue 1.1), NETCEN, 2006
7 For more information on the Kyoto protocol, visit the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at
http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.html
8 BRE Environmental Profiles database, Building Research Establishment (BRE), 2006
9 Taken from: the Environment Division, BREEAM Centre, Building Research Establishment (BRE), UK, 2005
10 Draft-in-proof, The Concrete Centre study, Embodied CO2 of various concrete mixes, The Concrete Centre, 2006
11 Amato A and Eaton K J, A comparative environmental life cycle assessment of modern office buildings, Steel Construction Institute, 1998
12 Rosso S, Environmental life-cycle of kitchen refurbishment, Thesis in School of Environment (Interim), University of Brighton, 2006
13 Alternative Fuels in Cement Manufacture - technical and environmental review, CEMBUREAU, Brussels, 1997
14 Key Issue: Climate Change, British Cement Association, 2006
15 Moving the Industry Forward – Best Practice Awards 2005, British Precast, 2005
16 For more information on Hanson, visit Hanson plc at www.hansonplc.com
17 Ecoconcrete, British Cement Association, 2001
18 WBCSD, The cement sustainability initiative: our agenda for action, World Business Council for Sustainable Development, 2002
19 The UK cement industry. Benefit and cost analysis, British Cement Association and Forum for the Future, 2005
20 Overcoming barriers to recycling, Waste Resources and Action Programme (WRAP), 2003
21 Recycling Concrete and Masonry, Environmental Council of Concrete Organisations, USA, 1999
22 One Million Sustainable Homes Campaign, WWF-UK, 2004
23 Higgins D, Parrott L & Sear L, Defining and improving the environmental impacts of the concrete industry, 2002
24 Swamy, R, Designing concrete and concrete structures for sustainable development, CANMET/ACI International Symposium on Concrete Technology for
Sustainable Development, Vancouver, Canada, 2000.
25 Demonstrating steel fibres from waste tyres as reinforcement in concrete, DTI Partners in Innovation project.
26 For more information on Amec, visit Amec at www.amec.com.
27 BS EN 206-1:2000 and BS 8500-1:2002, British Standards Institution. Visit www.bsi-global.com
28 Stakeholder Update: Aggregates, Waste Resources and Action Programme (WRAP), May 2004
29 For more information on C&DW visit the London Remade Construction and Demolition Waste Site at www.londonremade.com
30 Sustainable Development – Building our Strategy, QPA, 2005
31 Construction Statistics Annual 2003, DTI, 2003
32 The Climate is Changing – Time to Get Ready, Environment Agency, 2005
33 Climate change and the indoor environment: impacts and adaptation TM36, CIBSE, 2005
34 Thermal Mass – A concrete solution for changing climate, The Concrete Centre, 2005
35 Ready mixed concrete product sales and trade, PRA26630, Office for National Statistics Construction Statistics Annual 2003, DTI, 2003
36 Ready mixed concrete product sales and trade, PRA26630 2005 Edition, Office of National Statistics, DTI, 2005
37 Monthly statistics of building materials and components, No. 373, Office of National Statistics on behalf of dti, March 2006
38 Rao, S, Yates, A, Brownhill, D, Howard, N, EcoHomes: The environmental rating for homes, BRE, 2000
39 Client Report: Environmental profile of a timber frame house - an initial study Client report number 204-233, BRE, 2001
40 European league table of imports of illegal tropical timber, Friends of the Earth, 2001
41 Securing the Future, Defining UK SDS, HM Government, 2005
42 Attitudes towards house construction, MORI, 2001 – based on nationally representative quota sample of 1,979 adults
43 The Lifetime Homes concept was devised by The Joseph Rowntree Trust in 1991 and adopted within Building Regulations Approved Document, Part M:
Access to and use of buildings, Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, 2000; updated 2004
44 Concrete and Fire: using concrete to achieve safe, efficient buildings and structures, The Concrete Centre, 2004
45 The loss prevention standard for innovative dwellings (LPS 2020), 2005. For more information see www.bre.co.uk
46 Arising from: Planning Policy Guidance 3 – Housing, Creating sustainable residential communities, Para 57. Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, 2000, and
Planning Policy Statement 1: Creating sustainable communities, Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, 2004
47 For further information on Robust Details visit www.robustdetails.com
48 Concrete Homes, PCA Portland Cement Association, 2002
49 For more information on brownfield land, visit the UK Land Directory at www.uklanddirectory.org.uk/brownfield.htm
50 The Essential Guide to Stabilisation/Solidification for the Remediation of Brownfield Land using Cement and Lime, British Cement Association, 2004
51 Anderson B R, Ward T I, Thermal Performance of Dwellings with Basements, Client Report 90/93, BRE, 1993
52 Concrete Wind Towers – Concrete solutions for offshore and onshore wind farms, The Concrete Centre, 2005
53 For more information on Mecal, visit www.mecal.nl
54 Cutting down noise with precast concrete and masonry barriers, British Precast, 2005
 666.97

For further information on how to achieve sustainability

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by using concrete visit www.concretecentre.com
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The Concrete Centre, Riverside House

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Ref: TCC/05/03
ISBN: 1-904818-43-9
First published 2007
© The Concrete Centre