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    Jet Engine Fundamental of Theory Design Operations

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    Xavier Averos

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Enid es FUNDAMENTALS OF THEORY, DESIGN AND OPERATION Klause Hiinecke This ein first published in 1997 by Motorbooks International Publishers 8 Volesaes, 729 Prospoct venue, POBox 1, Osseo, WI S430 USA 4 npesson 2003 1 1997 Kins Huensske Previously published by Aiefe Publishing Li Shrewsbury, Enel “This ean upd eton of Frugiiclverte~ Ive Telit wad Pedton by Klaus Hoencck, Fist published ia Germany in 1987 ky Matorbach Vera, Sti. All eight oserved With the exception of quoting bo passages fo the borpose of review no pr oft publication ry be epaced Wino Pro wniten permision Hm the Publisher “Motorbooks international isa ceri wademath ester wit the Une Sises Patent tie “The information inthis bok er and complete t he Best of ou Inowlodue All ecommendstons are made thou any varie on the [uta ds auth or publisher, who ale dclm an Hab someon Ww he use of his dia or spectc deals We recognize tat some words, model names snd designations. for example, ‘meniona hee are the propery ofthe tadermar hier We ase tha oe ‘Mnifiation purposes omy. This 91 an fc pubicaton “Motorbooks International books a also ansible at count in bulk "juni for indus or calespromotonal se For deals wrt Special ‘Ses Manager athe Polisher ress Libary of Congress Catalogng-in-Pblcaton Data Avail, ISBN 0-7403.0459-9 Pring and bound ia Great Briain by Bids Lid, swe hdl co ak Preface “This book i concerned with one ofthe most fascinating machines of modem times the gas turbine ato-ongins. Gas turbine technology is ported to provide concise, well-founded survey of thisinteresting Feld of aeronautical engineering, dealing not only with all relevant “cgine components, but also alressing problems of airlrame-engine intearation, both for subsonic transports and supersons fighters. ‘Material for this book was gathered from distinguished sources troughout the work Ast of engine main datas given in the “anpendit to make the book also useful as a work of reference This book is intended primarily for those who wish to broaden their ‘knowledge about turbine engine technology andthe associated prob: lems, The book is likewise sited to engineers inthe shops, personnel of aines and armed forees, and undergraduate studentsin support of thei training Klaus Huenocke Acknowledgements “The material of ths book was collected from numerous distinguished sourvss throughout the world, I would like to express my sincote srt itude to the following institutions (even ifnames may have changed in the meantime): AlliedSignal Ine, Phoenix, Arizona, USA “The Bocing Company, Seattle, Wash, USA, General Elctrie Airraft Engines, Evendale, Ohio, USA Lockneed Fort Worth, Texas, USA Lockheed Martin Corp, Bethesda, Maryland, USA ‘McDonnell Douglas Corp, St Louis. Miss, USA Northrop Corp, Los Angeles, Calif, USA Rolls-Royce pl, 65 Buckingham Gate, London, UK Saab Scania AB, Linkiping, Sweden Turbo-Union Ltd, Bristol, UK, United Technologies Prat && Whitney, E Harton, Conn, USA Volvo Aero Corp, Trollhattan, Sweden {am particulaey grateful to che following persons: Donald D. Archer (Boeing Flight Test), Waller A. Barron (Grumman), Willa A. Schoncberger (Northrop), Erwin HL. Sshuldt land Alexa Oerel (Geoeral Eectrs, Germany), Volker Otto (Garret, rast Simon (Deutsche Lufthans. Kiaus Huewrexe Contents 2 Turbine aircraft propulsion LL History 12 Engine clasication 121 Turbojt engines 122 Turboprop engines 123. Turbotan engines 23.1 Low bypuss-rtio turbofan engines 1232. High bypase-ratio turbofan engines 124 Turboshaft engines 12° Engine tation designation Jet engine fundamentals, Gascharactenstes Engine syle Thre Basie laws in ud dynamics Types oF Now Streaming and sreamtube ‘Conservation of mater ‘Conservation af energy Engine performance parameters Systems of units Air intakes Subsonic intakes Supersonic lows ‘Speed of sound and Mach number Pressure waves in air ‘Compression shock Supersonic fw over wedge and cone Supersonic air intakes Intake configuration and operation Supersonic intakes ~case studies ‘The Compressor 441 Compressor performance parameters 42 Compressor types 42.1 Centntuga compressor a Axial compressors Compressor stage operation Compressor charactersies (Compressor operation Compressor ete studies Combustion chamber “The combustion poeess Combustion chamber characteristics “Types of combustors 1 Caretype combustion chamber 2 Annulaetype combustion chamber 3 Canainnulartype combustors Turbine 61 Design and operation Gl Taroine nozle 2 Constan-presure turbine 1.3 Reaction turbine 1.4 Turbine blade desin ‘2° Turbine assembly - case studies 3 High-temperature operation Exhaust nozzle TA Convergent nozzle 72 Convergentidivergent nozzle 73 Reverse thrust ‘Thrust augmentation S41 Rebeat 82 Water injection Engine systems Fel system Fuel pumps Fuel control unit Spray nozzles Tecengine fuels Labrication system etre system 94 Startingsystem 94.1 Engine starting 942 Typesof starters 9.5” Engine monitoring and operation 10 Environmental considerations To. Nose 102 Exhaust emissions 11. Engine/airframe integration Subsonic transport acral, Undering instalation Fuselage installation ‘Oxersing installation ‘Combat aireraft. Intake installation considerations Abed flowfield 1 ur i ur 1 1 1 Appendix 1 Commercial turbofan engines Appendix 2 Military turbofan engines Index a 1 = Turbine aircraft propulsion 1.4 History The idea of utilizing the physical prineple of reation ona large scale by means of rockets is usually attributed to China in the thrteeth ‘century: Nott after the second work! war, however di racket th nology mature toa state which made the les of pace travel a practical possibilty, owing largsy Toa gant step forward daring the war ise How similar the delay in the development of turbines! Although curiest model ofthe steam turbine date hack o the I?theentiry, prac tical application oF the turbine engine had co wait unt the rm a the Doth ceniary, by competing succesfully aginst the then dominating reciprocating seam ensine. Today, the ats turbine engine isthe most ‘widespread nl most effective method of alrraft propulsion, having Elmont totally dspliced the reciprocating engine which, up to the T9et, was the common power source in aviation, Appearing in the form of tutbojet, turbofan, turboprop. or turboshal engine, the gas turbine represents one of the most important technological achiever ‘ments in aviation, the sucessful introduction of which made possible ® tremendous aceeration of progres in al ikl of aviation The following historical milestones are worthy of mention as major steps toward turbine engine development, culminating i the se ofthe fs turbine for aierat propulsion 1500 Leonardo da Vinci porirays a pale whee which is driven by ascending hot ar orotate a barbecue spit 1629" the Italian engineer Giowanm Branca desiens a wrbine wheel “riven by asteam et Thisappeas to be the fist known evidence ofan nial How impulse turbine (see Chapter 6). 1687. the English philosopher and mathematician Sirsa Newton formulates thre laws of motion which form the basis of odor jet Propulsion, secording to which 1 body remains either attest, oF in motion of constant veloxty Unless an extemal force acts om the bod 2 the sum of forces acting on a body equals the produet ofthe ‘body's masstimes acceleration produced by these forces free = mass times acceleration): 3 forevery fore acting on a body, the body exerts a force of qual ‘magnitude and opposite dgction along thesume line of action as the orginal force 2 set engines Asa proof of the third la, an attempt was made to utilize reaction forces t9 move Newton's steam wagon. Due to excess Weight of the bolle structre the attempt ile, T791-_the Englishman fohn Barber is granted a patent fora ga riven turbine engine which utilizes the thermodynamic cycle ofthe ‘modern gas turbine Intendod asa stationary gas turbine for industial ‘Use the porser plant was to comprise tas generator with compressor, combustion chamber snd turbine wheel ~ componente that are Fundamental to tnday’s engines. The Barber eagine was never bul howover. 1824" forthe ist time inthe technica iterature the word nines used. The Frenchman Burdin denotes 8 waterwheel desighed by im fsa turin RAS "the Swedish enginove Patri de Laval rons the first use steum turbine. The charaeteriste shape ofthe nozle produces super- Sone velocity at nozzle eit (Gee Chapter 7). 1897 in England a Parson scam turbine to power a ship is tested for the first time. Seven years later the Gecman turbine-driven erser Litecis aanched 19K ~ the French Armungauf brothers ean the ist gas turbine engine. Ignition ofthe gaseous mixture of pressurized air ad gas accomplished by heated wires. 1908 — German Hane Holewarth runs w gas turbine with valve ‘strolled combustion chamber and electrical ignition ofthe Fask-air 913 — the Freach engineer Lorn is granted a patent on a ramet device, Attempts to build hardware fs due to inadequate materials. 1918 ~ at General Eletric inthe United States, Sonford Mose develops an exhaust turbo-charger for reciprocating sro-engines. This Isthetirt application of gus turbine in an acral propulstoa system 1930 Frank Ihitle of Great Britein applied for his patent ‘Improvements relating to the Propulsion of Aircraft and other Vehicles. in which he describes @ jet engine with musta axial compressor followed by aentefugal compressor. annular combustion ‘chamber, single-stage axial turbine, anda nozzle, Based on this patent (Grtish 347,200), he frst White engine succesfully ran in April 1927The engine ran on gui fuel 1937--German engineering scientist Pahst wn Ohain, employed with the Heinkel airraft company. runs a turbojt engine producing 25) 44aN ($80 Ih) of thrust. Stila to the Whittle desig, Ohait's He S- engine featured a ceniifuzal compressor. Engine fel was gaseous hydrogen to avoid combustion problems, 1999-4 zisoline-burning derhative of Obain’s engine, the He $3, developing 500 daN (1100) thrust, at a weight of 360 daN (995 Tb, Turbine aicrat propulsion 3 New in ¢ Heinkel He 178 experimental jt aircraft on the world’s first turbojet pomete Might. 1840 the Junkers ummo 004 axalow turbojet uns atthe Junkers ‘engine company in Germans. Ansel Frans pioneered development of the axial flow turbojet, as opposed to the centfugal OW designs of the orginal Whitle and Ohzin engines. 1941 in Great Britain, the Gloster E2839 experimental jet airraft flew with White's WLA engine which developed 400 dat (880 Ib) of thrust ata weight of 280 da (623 1b) 1941 in the US, General Electric was entrusted by the US Army Air Force with developing and producing Whittle-ype jet engines hich ed tothe design ofthe J33centifugal-ow compressor engine Bel was authorize to design the XP-S9A experimental aieral 1942. in Germany the Messrachmitt Me-262 (win-engined Fighter, postered by the Tunio OD4A engine. first ew in July of this year. BY arch 1945, almost 6000 Jumo 004A jet engines had been bull 1943 in Great Britain development and production of the White engine is taken over by Ralls Royoe. The Gloster Meteor 1 fighter, powered by to Whittlestype Rolls Royce Welland engines, enters RAF service in 1984 ‘Thos eatly steps aid the foundation of modern high-¢hrust engines, Fig Thev79tubodto Gaara Elete was lence put ay courts 4.2 Engine classification According t their tas, diferent types of engine exist A distinctions made with reference to design characteristics suchas numb of pools, Prneiple of compression, distribution of airflow within the engine, tization ofthe exhausts, Basically, there are fou types oF turbine engine wed in irra turbojet, turbofan, turboprop, turboshaf “Turbojet and turbofan engines provide propulsive forces directly by reaction forces generated by the exhaust gas, Turbofan engines, Particle are classified according tothe portion of mass airflow that 4 JetEngines isbypassed around the basic engine and are typically denoted high- bypass of low-bypus-ratio engines. Ina turboprop, the energy of the hot gas suse to deve an adie tional, butseparate turbine which in tur providesshaft power to drive propeller. The gas when eshausting rom the nozele, hs transmitted ‘nest of its energy tothe turbines, ith small amount of energy ‘remaining forthe generation of thrust, Ta turboshat engine al of the usable hot gas energy is extracted and converted into shaft power, by an additional (ree) turbine. This {ype of engine is typically used with helicopters, but is similarly ‘ployed in ausiliary power units to provide pneumatic and electric power for aioraft ground operation 121 Tubojet engines ‘Theeariest ype ofa turbo-propulsion engine was the turbojet. Simple by design, but largely superseded through technological progres, 3 lurbojet is made up othe following components (Fig 1-2) mult.stage compressor combustor single or multistage rubine Inorder to Function propery to produce thrust an ar asake and an cevhaust system are required to process the afl. “The ai fist enters the intake seclion which must deliver a smooth and uniform stream of air tp the compressor. The compressor it 4 mechanical device, fast rotating ir -pump” whose task ito raise the pressure ofthe ai. The resultant energy transfer eads toa isenotoly Inpressure, but also in temperature and density. ‘On discharge from the compressor, the pressutiad air enters the combustion chamber, where fel s injected and burned, ths adding Compressor _Combutin ehamber — — i912 Components ls uboet engine Turbine aircraft propulsion § 7 een Fig 3 commoners cf General ct 79 rot naire 6 Jet Engines hugely more enorgy to the sion. Energy transfer at tis setion is achieved by a chemical reaction. The combustion process Teds to 2 Stoop increase in temperature, whereas pressure remains virtually onstant Tis ere thatthe aifow w deckvely processed to take on the characteristics of t exe useful for gs turbine operation, Le. produce mechanical work efficienly ‘The frst station where enorsy is absorbed fom the gs is in the as turbine, which gave this class of engines its name. A gas turbine s the ‘complementary part compressor, 10 which i igily Tike by & holla shal or spoof, The tsk ofthe lrbine to convert gas enerey into mechanical work to dive the compressor, and also some acces. Sories necessary for engine operation. ‘The energy content ofthe hot gas is not depleted when the gas discharges Irom the turbine. Infact, the three components consisting Df compressor, combustion ehamber and turbine combined hase processed the allow such that a as available fo do some work ‘Therefore, these units together ae termed 4 as eenertor, regardless of engine type Ina turbojet, as its name implies, a major part of the heat and prestr energy ofthe gus estab to be converted ito kinetic nergy This the task ofthe exhaust nozzle which fof characteristic tube-like shape to accomplish energy conversion from heat and pressure to velocity. High exhaust velocity Hs & prerequisite to the seperation of thrust, Exhaust velocity may be increased further by aflerhurning o vast ‘augmentation, 4 simple but fus-exhausting method of adding more heat downstream of the turbine. famous turbojet ofthis kind Was the General Electric J79 eagine which powered the Starfighter and Phantom combataicraft Although of dated technology, theseairralt ‘ofthe ities and sixes ate stl lying with some air frees. Layout of the 479 engine nicely illustrates basie component design of turbo- ‘ropulsion engines and may conveniently serve to explain moder jt engine technology in subsequent chapters (Fig 1-3) 1.22 Turboprop engines Thecentral element ofa turbine engine isthe gus generator which typi- «ally comprises compressor, combustionand turbine sections. BY aiding nine anda noe, arbojet rex, I the turbine setion ofa gas generator is designed so that more ‘nergy is abstracted from the hot gas than i necessary to drive the ‘compressor and some auxiliaries, the excess shaft power may be used {drive a propellor (Fig 1-8). While the basic layout of a urbopeop 5 Sinilar to plain turbojet, dfers mainly by Turbine aitrat propussion 7 Fg i F10tandt-4coneatarratottia sites, ponsredty General Eeors \7atubopt era ~ an adstional turbine to drive the propeller, ~ a'vsosspoo! arrangement ofthe rotational machinery, and, ‘mechanical edution gear to convert the high rotational speed OF the turbine tothe more moderate speed ofthe propel. 8 Jet Engines aerssue wine Proper sat Fiot5. Tubserop on Whereas turbojet f designed to accelerate relative lor wir mass flow to's high exhavst velocity, a turboprop conversely is designed to soveerate a igh mass ow to & lve selo. This Tul in Unset passed fuel efficiency, although atthe expense of fight speed and cabin = Fla +8. Locke Horus mitary wens, powered by our Garr Mle Turbine aicrat propuision 8 1.23 Turbolan engines AAtflight velocities around Mach 0.8 (or 1000 kmh at 11 km abttude ‘00 kta 40,000) turboprop and turbojet engines alike operate at ow propulsivectficieney, as this Might speed is too high fr the turboprop, but low to the turbojet. The gap is filed by turbofan engines, which exhibit good efficiencies atthe high-subsonic eruise velocities im portant to cil aiaton, but are also important to combat scr for long-range facl-eficient cruise well helt the highly sound barrier ig), Fle ch number ‘Theturbotan has emerged asthe most common ype ofa gasturbine engine for ireraft propulsion, Sila to that of the turboprop, the urbe section s designed to absorb mors energy from the hots thas would be nacessary to drive the compressor alone. The exces shalt [omer i used drive a fan a lom-presre compressor of larger dam ‘ter arranged wpstream ofthe main compressor. Part of thea entering 10 det Engines the engine intake, after beng processed inthe Fan socton, bypasses the Inner or core engine andl expands ina separate nose to provide vol ‘hrst some types mix the cold flaw with the hot exhaust gas rom the ‘ore engine to increase propulsive efficiency (asin the V.2500 engine) (Fig 8), “The amount of ar that js hypassd in ration to the ar that passes through the core engine is termed the hyposerati. A distinction Is ade between low and high bypass-atio engines, the former being fmplosed wath supersonic combat aia and the lator with high- Subvome military and commercial tensport aicrl. 1.2.3.1 Low bypass-ratio turbofan engines In terms of performace, the bottom line today is ful efficiency. Through bypassing, modern engines usc less fuel than ealer engines ‘of comparable thst, but without this technology AN bypass ratio in the range of 0.2:1 tI: 5 elasiid a fw bypass ratio, This means the amount of airflow Dypassed around the core engines oF the order of 2010 100 percent ofthat which pases through ‘he core, or ireferenced to the total ingested air mass, $ to 5 pe cent ofthe intake aieow is bypassed around the cors Bypass-ratios of | were uilized with cary turbofan equipped alsioers ofthe sixes such As the Boeing 727, which had three Pratt & Whitney ITSD turbofans of bypaseratio one. The relatively high exhaust velocities ofthese cagines generate noise levels which now {ds are intolerable for evil application, thus precluding the Tow bypaseratio turbofan from further use with commercial aitiners However, this cass of engines is widely used with modern combat alreraft and due ot ual economy at high-subsonic ight speeds, the Tow bypustratio turbofan provides the fighter with increased a= obaction, Tusbine averat propusion + Fig 9 Leoinaod C181 para by lou Pra & Winey TFSSPTA ubofans Fig 110 Por Ta itoan ts 12. detEngines Figt-11. General Dynamics F-11 combat ateraft power by to Prat & Fig 1-12. Patt 8 Winey TF30.P-7 wboten (ust ©.200 da, 16-stage mpeestor tage urbe, compressa press ate 753), Turbine aircraft propulsion 13 1.28.2 High bypass-raio turbofans ‘The economy of transport aiferalt was greatly improved with the advent of the high bypast-ratio turbofan. Fiest introduced with the Lockheed CSA military transport this technology was quickly adopted for civil use. Engines of bypuss-ratio 5:1 and more are classified as high bypass-rario engines. These found thee ist civilian use i the late sisties with high-capacity wide-body liners such a the Boeing 787, Lockheed L-1011 TriStar snd MeDonell Douglas DC-10, Atypical feature of this type of engine i the large singk-stge fan ‘operating uptream ofthe basic or core engine fom which ts ciectly area) pressure free, plane 9: Gn flight direction, Le negative ‘a acting at area less ent of exhaust nozzle PLAy-A,) bp acting textarea of exhaust nozle: pA, ‘rust fore acting in ight dirgetien): ‘Summing al frees in horizontal direction: Sum=* PAs BUAyAD-PrAs T= Asi p) ‘The third step is to determine the timewise variation of the ‘momentum, i.e. momentum divided by time, which is egul othe srt ‘ofall forces a a ‘momentum _ mass x velocity ‘The varitonnmomentumemergsasa produ of ' . sevanaprodust of qinitie: ats ded hy tine and aco The any has ded Sp tin ithe ow asi aught ene in «een ine a tse pu eth denon tp nts ew Boh wat Hc i ce aio the oes re ttinassion tc andnveloty.Iihecane ofajrenpes tse is the exhaust velocity. ee ° Theahove duce, svat oniy forte gine at est iz tel ining ofl sero ar lt fight a ay he Stow approncing the engine ned) cas wth take ‘momen myth hob det hen clang an Jetengine fundamentals 35 ‘Considering all the effects stated, the thrust equation assumes the following simplified) form: T= thle, 9) + A (Dr mass fate of ot, ls 6 jetexhaust velocity is % Intake velocity. ms P Static pressure, Nin A sre, subscript intake station Subseripi 9 exhaust station Example a) Assumptions the exhausting et expands to ambient pressure snare fo me Sahn ky Res So xeon = 300mm = 304 Th neon ft i rely gen in lsNewon, AN, DelaeNewton, dahon ings ina ow te Vu = 1970 Tse T= a1 (Wau Vaud & = Libby /sve® 19 7ORUse — ONS _ 6955 5, wt be 2.4 Basic laws in fluid dynamics [As many Row phenomena follow a regular pattern, thie behaviour is entirely predictable. This property is uso made use of in uid “Ogmamics Which i special branch of physics 24.1 Types of fw iow pasting throush a duct may be ether steady or unsteady. The Now ir considered stead sf uid parameters like yelocty, pressure temperature remain constant at any arbitrary ross section othe duct. Tet values may vary, however, rom one section to another along the 38 Jet Engines flow path. The overall steamline pattern essentially remains unchanged with Gime. In a jet engine atcrusing Might conditions, for ‘example, ow parameters are constant everywhere ‘AL compressor discharge there is high pressute ofthe airflow, low xelocity, and elevated temperature due fo the compression action, Similarly. low parameters are also constant at turbine discharge, though ta different level, characterized by much higher temperature and velocity, but lower presi, ‘A flow is considered tnseady, if xypical How parameters at any one «ross section change with time” Unsteady phenomena in Uirbojt fengine occur during acceleration and deceleration when adjusting thrust. Flow in a reciprocating engine s unsteady througout 242 Streamline and streamtube Fluid motion, when viewed microscopically, consists of an inconccy. ably large number of molecular particlsin'motion. If we pursue the pth ofthe particles through a tube (which maybe an evhaust nozzle). these par sen to low along steumlines. A characteristic of & streamline ists tangent which at any station pois int the drsction Othe velocity vector. Steamtubes envelope & number of streamlines pussing through a closed cue transverse to the Mov, A stealing may be thought of asa tube having gascous walls within which the Mud flows. A streamtube is made up of ever changing particles, At steady low conditions, asteamtube behaves ke real tube with slid wall In general, streamlines move closer to ach other asthe area ofthe streamtube decreases indicating accelerating Now (Fig 2). This = what happens in a convergent nove. Conversely, as ers sectional = = = => ‘ow accel rae) ‘ow ecaanag ame) Jetengine fundamentals 37 Q ® ‘rea inrsase in sieamsise direction, streamlines move farther apart from each other indicating decelerating flow. Ths what happens ia ‘ifunr, sch esa conventional subsonic) ar intake 243. Conservation of matter ‘One ofthe fundamental concepts of physics is that mater cannot ‘anh. This of great sificanes in predicting Mi Now bebout For dey fod movin, te comsnmy of mater ay he espressed by ung the concept ofsteumlines Thscontnst of mater Sopy sas tutte sane tmount of uk! must flow through exery rou ction of streamtube; Hid cannot vanish witha tat tbe If the shape ofthe tbe known, as for example nan exhaust nore ‘where the whole nore may be regarded as team, How cha ‘teres may be aleustd very ply “This can be demonstrated by fiat smn tat Mid veloc Vis ven ditbute actos then sreamtube area A (Fig 2). id Mow of volume Q per second catering a steamtbe0 eros sonal Sra A, vlna volume flow rat of Flow Rate = Vs Ar Mass flow rates follows by multiplying volume flow rate with density p (Greek rho} B= AVAL Inthe same manner, airflow leaving the tube is calculate: = peVeA, 98 det Engines As mass flow rates both are equal according tothe mas conser exhaust velocity Vs immediately follows: When evaluating this equation, additional information about density pat steamtube discharge is required, incompressible low. ie. density constant fechaust area ovce that oF inlet area exhaust velocity hal hat oft velocity 24.4 Conservation of energy Foran understanding of how a jet engine functions, conservation of | ‘energy is of paramount mportatie, together with a grasp ofthe aw of ‘mass conservation and the thrust equation. We chose as an example @ ‘ection ofa tutbojet engine between combustion chamber inet (station 3) and turbine discharge (station 5, Fig 2-7) This setion was selected ‘because heat of quantity Q is added 10 the gas in the combustion chamber, while mechanicalwork extracted inthe turbine. nthe form of shalt power . 927 Selanng conservation of near Jet engine fundamentals 39 ‘The energy conservation law sates that energy contained in the gas when entering the control volume, plus energy added or extracted Within that control volume, equals the energy of the gas leaving the Control volume. Eneray cannot disappet ‘When entering control volume, the energy ofthe gas comprises the Following components 1 Tateral ener, depending only on the temperature of the gas expressed by thermodynamic quanti specie hett at constant tolinee, and static temperature Le 6 2 Pressure energy. cxpressd by static pressure p; and deasiy py, ie pip 3 Kinetic energy, expressed by the square of the gas velocity, Le en Inthe combustion chamber beat Qs added. In ese analysis, heat (of dimension 3 = Nas in Stunts is usually referenced to mass flow rate (kgs) 1 arrive at consistent dimensions, namely Nas ks = mis. a turbine mechanical energy is extracted which we may denote by ako with dimension ms" in SI unis ‘When the gsi leaving the control volume at urbine discharge (station 5, gts energy consist of the Tolowing component 1 Internal energy te 2 Pressure enersy Ps 3 Kinetic energy c772 ‘Tre following energy balance may now be made: cut Be cus Bogie Without going int Farr dei it shouldbe od hats above uation pets th kn tome I thereat aed oth a nor cial wok extras trom ey sation il eso na genrg We have denoted as state enthalpy bs heck pp=ct Which together with kinetic energy c2 forms total enthalpy H: He gue =e cis denoted as tral temperature which will be frequently used in subsequent chapters, as well as total pressure p. Total quantities 40 Jet Engines merely denote kinetic energy components added to their respective atic values. State quanties such as static pressure p, oF stale temperature & are those which may be measured with hand-beld instruments. In-a jet engine where airflow quickly pases through, Static quanttics could be measured iT instruments could be made to move with the Mud, i. without registering any velodly. Distinction betwen statis and total quantities serves the better (o understand jet, «engine functioning 2.5 Engine performance parameters Performance parameters which are of direct utility to the aircraft designer ae rus and specific fel consumption. Thrust The most important parameter for engine classification is thrust (Chapter 23), ‘Thrust equation: T= ih\es~ 6) + PrAs — BAD) IF the propulsive jet when discharging from the nozzle, is not expanding to atmospheric presur, then atthe exhaust nozle eos Seetion area Ava pressure force Asi ~ parses whic i acting inthe Aieetion ofthe thrust However, the maximum theoretical this! will ‘ot be achievable in this case asthe exhatst Velocity cunot achive is maximum, and the additional presture fore (although supporting thrust) cannot compensate the momentum defi. Highest ficiency ‘obiained withthe nozleadapied. which would equi py= hs ‘Spsifc fuel consumption (SFC) ‘Next to thrust specific fel consumption i one ofthe most important ‘engine performance parameters, defining the amount of fuel used 10 ‘achieve one unit of thrust over a finite period af time. Specie Tul Consumption is frequently given in the dimension of kg fuelidaN thrasthour in ST unis, or Ibm fuelIbfthrusihour in British units Which are both of equivalent value Spee trust Assessment of how efficiently the airflow ofthe engine is converted to “propulsive fore may be made by using parametr mhich states how much thrust is achieved by one unit of mass flow rate. In SU units, specie thrust denotes the amount of thst (in daN oF EN) produ by Tks aielows Jetengine fundamentals 41 ‘The specific thrust parameter may be conveniently used to compare jetongines, ‘Thews elated wo frontal aren Inorder to characterize aerodynamic efficiency, this parameter relates thrust tothe maximum cross-section ofthe engine i | ‘Acrodynamie drag wllinrease wit engine cross-section, Therefore keeping engine maximum diameter small sa yrerequisite for an el= centengine installation, 2.6 Systems of units ‘Twosstens of units pertaining to jet engines arein practical use today 1 the International System of Units (ST system). 2 the British gravitational system oF unis ‘The SI unit system (Systeme International é Units) sa standard- ized system of units adopted by all nstriaiaed nations, though not {eUflly implemented. Throughout the aviation industry other syste Sontinve ta exis, despite obvious shortcomings, Because of he sree Famulariy of some readers with the British systems of wits, examples ang formulae ill aso be piven in these systems, together with appro= pate conversion procedures, “The International System of Unis ‘This system was designed by Halian scientist Giorgi as early as 1901, andi considered the most modern of al sytem used. It ses 6 inde- pendent units, of which four are of significance when dealing with jt engines: ‘the kogran (hy) a8 the unit of mass the meire (st) asthe unit of length the secon asthe unit of time the degree Kelvin (Kas the unit of temperature AAs units of mass, length and time are given, a unit of forse cannot ‘be chowen arbitrarily but is determined by Newton's scoad la (0 = imass times acceleration) The unit of fore selected was of ‘magnitude as to give 1 kg mass an acceleration of Ins. This uit of 42. Jet Engines Force is termed a Newton (IN = Imkgls). This unit ist small to be convenient for denoting engine thrust. Theeefore multiple of the unit lite used: the Deka-Newton ('daN = 10 N) or even more commonly the kilo-Newton KN (TEN = 1000). Other units of measurement such as pressure, energy, power ate derived likewise Table 2-1), ‘he Brith system of units Accepted units of the English gravitational system (EGS) the foor asthe unit of length the pound mass lom) asthe unit of mass the slug asthe unit of mass the pound Ib) as the unit of fore the Second) the uit oF ime the degree Rankine (R) asthe unt of temperature 11 is particularly important to keep in mind that 11 of fore is efined asthe force of gravity acting on a mass of | pound (bm). Hence, IIb of mass corresponds to | pound of weight. For the frequently used engine performance parameter of trast specific fel contumpion TSF), definedas pound massof ful per hour per pound ‘of thrust, his quanitatively may be regarded as pounds weight of ful per hour per pound of thrust ‘Pounds of ful weight flow per hour. Ilvh ree ‘pounds of engine thrust, Ib Quantity Jun Definition force | Nemon, N eneryiwork | ous, power | wat, pressure | Pascal Pa Jet engine fundamentals 43, Also, specifi thrust, another engine performance parameter defines as pounds of thrust pee pound of mass allow per second. may be egurdod as pounds of thtust per pound of aeflow weight per second, having the same numerical value: pounds of engine thrust, 1b ouiade weight airflow per seoond, Is % ‘Conversion between both systems is provided in Table 21, 3 Airintakes Inthe following chapters we wil earn bout the five major turboms- chinery components ofa jet engine: air intake, compressor, ‘combustion chamber, turbine and exhaust section. Each of these ‘contributes uniquely to the generation of thrust. Because the-arflow fiest passes through the ait intake when approaching the engine, it makes sense to start our description with {his section. 1 soon becomes apparent that this relatively simple looking component poses numberof fui flow and mestanieal prob Jems In some supersonic airrat or example, thea intake becomes an extremely complex device requiring enormous effor propery 10 ‘control the alow to the engine, Tnany application subsonic transport or supersonic fighter the ir Jake esentaly Did Mow duct whose tsk sto proces the trl ina way that ensures the engine function propery to generate thrust Depending on engine urrangement and aircralt design speed, a great ‘asety of intake shapes exist. Du to the influenes of intake flow on ‘overall aircraft performance responsibility for intake design ests With the aircraft manufacturer no ie engine maker, However, bth pa ‘ers work closely together to ative at an optimum solution The intake must be deigned to prove the sppropeate amount of airflow requned by he engine and, furthermore, tht this Now when Teaving the intake setion to enter the compressor willbe uniform, sable, and of high quality. These conditions must be mt not only ‘using all phases of it, but slo on the ground, with the airerat at "Rstand the engine demanding maximum thnist prior to take-off Good take design is therefore a prerequisite installed engine pesformance isto comeclose to performance igures obtained at the stati test bench, Tntake design basically s accomplished by appving the las of iid dynamics. As the flow behaves diferent at subsonic and supersonic Tight speeds, a distinction is made betweca intakes that operate mainly insubsonic external low and intakes that operate particularly well in supersonic flow. 3.1. Subsonic air ntakes ‘The standard subsonic ae intake has found widespread application with hgh-subsonicivland military transport srera. Being of quasi. Aitintakes 45

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