Scientific African 6 (2019) e00160

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Scientific African
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/sciaf

Valorisation of carrot and pineapple pomaces for rock buns

development
Abraham Badjona a, Joseph Adubofuor a,∗, Isaac Amoah b,1,∗, Charles Diako c
a
Department of Food Science and Technology, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
b
Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
c
School of Food and Advanced Technology, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Fast growing food processing industries generate large quantities of by-products including
Received 19 June 2019 pomaces which have less use and create considerable environmental pollution. These by-
Revised 29 August 2019
products can be directly or indirectly used in the development of new food products. In
Accepted 9 September 2019
this study, rock buns formulated at 95:5:0; 90:5:5; 85:10:5 and 80:15:5% for wheat flour:
carrot pomace: pineapple pomace and 100:0:0% for the control respectively were inves-
Editor: Dr. J Agbenorhevi tigated for their nutrient composition and sensory quality. Nutrient composition of the
carrot and pineapple pomaces respectively showed high crude fibre content of 12.84% and
Keywords:
15.05%. Beta carotene and vitamin C concentrations of 2.07 mg/100 g and 15.05 mg/100 g
Pineapple pomace
were recorded for the carrot and pineapple pomaces respectively. Functional properties of
carrot pomace
rock buns the wheat and composite flours were determined and showed that water absorption ca-
functional properties pacity, oil absorption capacity, solubility, swelling power decreased with increased incor-
nutrient composition poration of carrot and pineapple pomaces while bulk density and dispersibility increased.
sensory evaluation Sensory evaluation of the rock buns prepared from the flour blends showed that the sub-
stitution of wheat flour with 15% carrot and 5% pineapple pomaces was the most accepted
by the sensory panellists. Nutrient composition of the most accepted rock buns showed
improved content of ash, crude fibre and beta carotene. Carrot and pineapple pomaces are
thus promising ingredients that can be used in composite formulation with wheat flour
for rock buns development.
© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of African Institute of
Mathematical Sciences / Next Einstein Initiative.
This is an open access article under the CC BY license.
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

Introduction

The current paradigm in the development of new food products involves the valorisation of plant-based by-products
mostly in composite formulation with a base ingredient [9,24]. Valorisation of plant-based by-products in food product de-
velopment is a sustainable approach towards minimizing the environmental impact of plant-based by-product accumulation
and rather increasing economic value for the food industry [29] along with addressing food and nutrition insecurity. Fruit

∗
Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: jadubofuor@gmail.com (J. Adubofuor), isaacamoah458@gmail.com (I. Amoah).
1
Isaac Amoah is currently affiliated to the Faculty of Health and Environmental Sciences, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
and the Riddet Institute, Massey University, Private Bag 11222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2019.e00160
2468-2276/© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of African Institute of Mathematical Sciences / Next Einstein Initiative. This is an
open access article under the CC BY license. (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
2 A. Badjona, J. Adubofuor and I. Amoah et al. / Scientific African 6 (2019) e00160

and vegetable by-products remain one of the most common food industry by-products [24] and hence their valorisation in
food product development is justified. Consequently, carrot pomace has been utilized in the formulation of cookies [9] and
gluten-free sponge cake [22]; broccoli co-products have been incorporated into crackers [20] and blackcurrant pomace has
been used in savoury crackers development [30]. Increased intake of fruits and vegetables due to their rich bioactive com-
pounds reduces incidence of nutrition-related chronic diseases which is currently an issue of great public health concern
[15,26]. In Ghana, carrot is a common grown vegetable in most regions.
Commercial processing of carrot into juice results in the generation of 30–50% of carrot pomace [8]. Carrot pomace is
a rich source of fibre and the bioactive compound beta carotene [9]. The processing of carrots through the application of
blanching softens the texture and consequently facilitates juice extraction [4]. Pineapple on the other hand is one of the
commonly produced tropical fruits grown in countries like Ghana.
During pineapple processing, large quantities of pomace and peels are generated which represent about 25–35% of the
weight of the fruit [21] and are rich sources of fibre.
Rock buns is a convenient snack consumed by all segments of the Ghanaian population. Traditionally, because it is for-
mulated from refined wheat flour, it is usually low in fibre, bioactive compounds, essential vitamins and minerals which are
needed for optimal nutrition and general well-being [6]. Thus, development of rock buns enriched with carrot and pineapple
pomace has a viable prospect in enhancing the nutritional value, promoting dietary diversity and food sustainability. This
study thus determined some nutrient composition of pineapple and carrot pomace, functional properties of its substitution
with wheat to generate composite flours and the evaluation of the sensory property of rock buns prepared from wheat
composite flours. Additionally, the determination of some nutrient composition of the most accepted rock bun was carried
out.

Materials and methods

Sources of raw materials

Chantenay carrots and Sugarloaf pineapples were obtained from the Bantama Market in the Ashanti Region of Ghana.
The wheat flour, milk, salt, margarine, baking powder, sugar, egg and nutmeg powder used for the preparation of rock buns
were obtained from local markets in Kumasi, Ashanti Region of Ghana.

Processing of carrots to obtain pomace

The fresh and matured Chantenay carrots were washed under running tap water to remove dirt and other undesirable
materials. They were sliced into uniform pieces with an average thickness of 5.50 mm and steam blanched at 105 °C for
10 min as described previously [4] to soften the tissues of the carrots for easy extraction of juice. The blanched carrot
was then blended for 7 mins with distilled water at 2:3 (w/v) and the juice extracted using a cheese cloth. The carrot
pomace was sealed in Ziploc R
double zipper high density packages (Ziploc Brand Products, WI, USA) and stored for 15 h in
refrigerator (4 °C). Samples were removed after the storage period for preparation of rock buns.

Processing of pineapple to obtain pomace

Sugarloaf pineapples were washed thoroughly under running water after which they were peeled and cut into small
pieces using a stainless-steel knife. The sliced pineapples were blended for 5 min and the juice extracted using a cheese
cloth. The pomace obtained was sealed in Ziploc R
double zipper high density packages (Ziploc Brand Products, WI, USA),
stored for 15 h in a refrigerator (4 °C). The pomace was used in the rock buns preparation after the storage period.

Determination of some nutrient components

The moisture, ash and crude fibre contents of the carrot and pineapple pomaces and the most accepted rock buns were
determined using standard methods [7]. The determination of the nutrients was carried out in duplicate.

Beta carotene
The method described by Bhat and Bhat [11] was used for beta carotene determination. Five grams of the sample (fresh
pomaces, the most accepted and the control rock buns) was weighed and crushed in 15 mL of acetone using pestle and
mortar. One gram crystals of anhydrous sodium sulfate was added and the supernatant decanted into a beaker. The process
was repeated and the supernatants obtained were transferred to a separating funnel. A 15 mL of petroleum ether was added
and mixed thoroughly resulting in two layers separating out on standing. The lower layer was discarded and upper layer
was collected into 100 mL volumetric flask. The volume was made to 100 mL with petroleum ether as blank. The optical
density was determined using UV–Visible Spectrophotometer (SM23A, Jactermac Germany) at 430 nm.
The beta carotene was calculated using the following formula:
Opt ical densit y o f sample × 13.9 × 104 × 100
Beta carotene(mg/100g ) =
W eight o f sample × 560 × 10 0 0
 A. Badjona, J. Adubofuor and I. Amoah et al. / Scientific African 6 (2019) e00160 3

Vitamin C
The ascorbic acid was determined by iodine titration method [7]. Ten grams (10 g) of the sample was added to 90 mL
of distilled water and mixed thoroughly. The mixture was filtered using a filter paper into a 200 mL conical flask. Ten
millilitres (10 mL) of the sample filtrate was measured into a 250 mL conical flask, and then 75 mL of distilled water and
0.5 mL of starch indicator were then added. The sample was titrated with 0.1 mol L − 1 iodine solution. The endpoint of the
titration was identified as the first permanent trace of a dark blue-black color due to the starch-iodine complex. The amount
of ascorbic acid was expressed in mg/100 g of the sample.

Functional properties of composite flours

The functional properties of the composite flours were carried out in triplicates.

Water absorption capacity

The method of Abbey and Ibeh [1] was adopted for determination of water absorption capacity (WAC) of the flour sam-
ples. One gram of the sample was weighed into a 15 mL pre-weighed dry centrifuge tube. A 10 mL distilled water was
mixed with the flour. It was then centrifuged at 3500 rpm for 15 min using Hettich Zentrifugen D7200 centrifuge (Tuttlin-
gen, Germany). The supernatant was discarded and the tube with its contents reweighed as gram water absorbed per gram
of sample. The gain in mass was the water absorption capacity of the flour sample.
Weight of absorbed water
WAC(% ) = × 100
Weight of flour

Determination of oil absorption capacity

Oil absorption capacity (OAC) was determined using the method of Bencini [10]. One gram of the sample was weighed
into pre-weighed 15 mL centrifuge tubes and thoroughly mixed with 10 mL of vegetable oil using a vortex mixer. The sam-
ple was then allowed to stand for 30 min. The sample-oil mixture was centrifuged at 30 0 0 rpm for 20 min using Hettich
Zentrifugen D7200 centrifuge (Tuttlingen, Germany). Immediately after centrifugation, the supernatant was carefully poured
into a 10 mL graduated cylinder and the volume was recorded. The centrifuge tube (CT) with absorbed oil by the flour was
then weighed
Oil absorption capacity (%) was calculated as follows;
(weight of CT with absorbed oil by flour ) − (weight of CT with flour )
OAC (% ) = × 100
Weight of flour sample

Swelling power and solubility

Swelling power and solubility were determined as described by Oladele and Aina [27]. One gram of the sample was
mixed with 10 mL distilled water in a pre-weighed centrifuge tube and heated at 80 °C for 30 min in a water bath while
shaking continuously. The tube was removed from the bath (Clifton shaking Bath, England), wiped dry, cooled to room
temperature and centrifuged for 15 min at 2200 rpm. The supernatant was evaporated in an oven at 105 °C for 10 min, and
the dried residue weighed to determine the solubility. Solubility was determined using the formula:
Weight of dried sample in supernatant
Solubility(% ) = × 100
Weight of original sample
The swollen sample (paste) obtained from decanting the supernatant was also weighed to determine the swelling power.
Swelling power was calculated using the formula
W eight o f paste
Swelling Power(% ) = × 100
W eight o f sample

Dispersibility determination
Standard method was used for determining dispersibility [19]. An amount of 10 g of the sample was dispersed in a 100 mL
measuring cylinder and distilled water added up to 50 mL mark. The mixture was stirred vigorously and allowed to settle
for 3 h. The volume of settled particles was noted and percentage dispersibility was calculated as follows:
50 − volume o f set t led part icle
Dispersibility (% ) = × 100
50

Bulk density
The bulk density of the flours were determined according to the procedure by Makinde and Ladipo [23]. Ten grams (10 g)
of each flour sample was measured into a 50 mL graduated measuring cylinder. The volume of the sample was determined
before and after gently tapping the base of the measuring cylinder 10 times on a laboratory bench. This was replicated for
each sample for consistency and accuracy. The loose and tapped bulk densities were calculated and expressed as g/cm3 .
4 A. Badjona, J. Adubofuor and I. Amoah et al. / Scientific African 6 (2019) e00160

Table 1
Ingredients used in the preparation of rock buns.

Ingredient Control Wheat flour-carrot pomace-pineapple pomace blend

100:0:0 (W100 ) 95:5:0 (W95 ) 90:5:5 (W90 ) 85:10:5 (W85 ) 80:15:5 (W80 )

Wheat flour 100 95 90 85 80

Carrot pomace (g) 0 5 5 10 15
Pineapple pomace (g) 0 0 5 5 5
Milk (ml) 28 28 28 28 28
Salt (g) 2 2 2 2 2
Margarine (g) 10 10 10 10 10
Baking powder (g) 3 3 3 3 3
Sugar (g) 30 30 30 30 30
Whole egg (g) 40 40 40 40 40
Nutmeg (g) 2 2 2 2 2

Formulations and baking of rock buns from composite blends

The ingredient composition for the rock bun preparation is shown (Table 1). Rock buns samples were prepared using
composite flour consisting of soft wheat flour, carrot pomace and pineapple pomace. The carrot and pineapple pomace and
wheat flour (WF) were blended at varied ratios. Pineapple pomace added was 5% while carrot was increased in percentages
of 5%. The blends were thoroughly mixed with a wooden spoon. All other ingredients aside the composite flour was fixed
to the same amount. Preliminary work was carried out prior to the main preparation which informed the choice of fresh
pomace rather than dried pomaces for the rock buns formulation. Mixing time was adjusted depending on the composition
of the mixture. The batter prepared was then transferred into a baking pan smeared with a thin film of margarine. The gas
oven was pre-heated and the samples baked at about 200 °C for 30 min. After baking, the samples were cooled to room
temperature for 20 min and packed into a ZiplocR
double zipper high density packages (Ziploc Brand Products, WI, USA) for
further analysis.

Determination of weight of rock buns samples

Six rock buns samples of each formulations were weighed using a laboratory scale (Metler Toledo, ML 204/01, Switzer-
land) to obtain an average.

Sensory evaluation of rock buns samples

Consumer acceptability test was conducted on the five fresh rock buns samples using 50 untrained panellists consisting
of undergraduate students of Kwame Nkrumah University of Science Technology. The samples were assessed for crumb and
crust colour, texture, aroma, taste, aftertaste and mouthfeel using a 7-point hedonic scale where 1= dislike very much,
2-dislike moderately, 3-dislike slightly, 4-Neither like nor dislike, 5-like slightly, 6-like moderately, 7-like very much. The
panellists were provided with water to rinse their palate between tasting sessions. Overall mean scores as an indicator of
overall sensory quality of the samples were computed as the average of the mean scores for the attributes for each sample.

Statistical analyses

All the analyses were done using Statistical Package for Social Scientist (SPSS) version 24.0 software except for the factor
analysis (principal component methods) and Hierarchical agglomerative clustering (using Euclidean distances and Ward link-
age) which were carried out using the software XLSTAT [2]. Results on nutrient component of carrot and pineapple pomaces
and the most acceptable carrot-pineapple incorporated rock buns and control sample were analyzed using independent-
samples t-test at 95% confidence interval. The results on functional properties and sensory evaluation of the rock buns
samples were subjected to one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Tukey’s test was used to compare the mean values and
significance differences were established at p<0.05. All analyses were performed at least in duplicates.

Results and discussion

Nutrient components of carrot and pineapple pomaces

There was significant difference (p<0.05) in the nutrient profile of the carrot and pineapple pomaces (Table 2). Moisture,
ash, crude fibre, vitamin C and beta carotene content of 9.33%, 4.03%, 12.84%, 5.76 and 2.07 mg/100 g respectively were
recorded for the carrot pomace. Majzoobi et al. [22] recorded crude fibre (11.54 and 11.08%) and ash content (5.99 and
5.93%) for carrot pomace flour with particle size of 210 and 500 μm respectively. These values compare well with the crude
fibre (12.84%) and ash content (4.03%) recorded for carrot pomace used for this present study. Bellur Nagarajaiah et al.
 A. Badjona, J. Adubofuor and I. Amoah et al. / Scientific African 6 (2019) e00160 5

Table 2
Nutrient composition of carrot and pineapple pomace.

Parameters Carrot pomace Pineapple pomace

Moisture (%) 9.33 ± 0.03 a

19.56 ± 0.16b
Ash (%) 4.03 ± 0.13b 1.58 ± 0.06a
Crude fibre (%) 12.84 ± 0.52a 15.05 ± 0.39b
Vitamin C (mg/100 g) 5.76 ± 0.05a 15.41 ± 0.62b
Beta carotene (mg/100 g) 2.07 ± 0.09a 0.28 ± 0.03b

Values expressed as mean ± SD in the same row with different superscript are
significantly different (p<0.05).

Table 3
Functional properties of composite flours.

Functional Properties W 100:0:0 (W100 ) W 95:5:0 (W95 ) W 90:5:5 (W90 ) W 85:10:5 (W85 ) W 80:15:5 (W80 )

WAC (%) 67.86 ± 1.55 c

83.44 ± 1.78 d
70.09 ± 1.72 c
52.84 ± 1.81 b
46.82 ± 1.84a
OAC (%) 124.35 ± 1.35c 129.71 ± 1.91d 124.38 ± 0.85c 90.76 ± 0.75b 77.38 ± 1.70a
Solubility (%) 3.96 ± 0.08c 3.46 ± 0.06ab 3.39 ± 0.04a 3.61 ± 0.05b 3.30 ± 0.09a
Swelling Power (%) 387.09 ± 0.86e 360.67 ± 0.91d 338.42 ± 3.83c 304.74 ± 0.83b 276.09 ± 1.13a
Dispersibility (%) 58 ± 2.00a 59.33 ± 1.16a 60.67 ± 1.16a 61.33 ± 2.31ab 65.67 ± 2.08b
Tap bulk density (g/cm3 ) 0.72 ± 0.01a 0.81 ± 0.02b 0.84 ± 0.01bc 0.85 ± 0.01c 0.95 ± 0.01d
Loose bulk density (g/cm3 ) 0.52 ± 0.05ab 0.50 ± 0.02a 0.56 ± 0.02ab 0.58 ± 0.01b 0.66 ± 0.01c

Values expressed as mean ± SD in the same row with different superscript are significantly different (p<0.05) WAC = Water absorption
capacity, OAC = Oil absorption capacity, W 100:0:0 = Wheat flour (100%) or control, W 95:5:0 = Wheat flour (95%) + carrot pomace (5%),
W90 = Wheat flour (90%) + carrot pomace (5%) + pineapple pomace (5%), W85 = Wheat flour (85%) + carrot pomace (10%) + pineapple
pomace (5%), W80 = Wheat flour (80) + carrot pomace (15%) + pineapple pomace (5%).

[9] reported beta carotene (607 μg/100 g) for carrot pomace which is lower than the 2.07 mg/100 g obtained in this study.
In the case of the pineapple pomace, moisture (19.56%), ash (1.56%), crude fibre (15.05%), vitamin C (15.41 mg/100 g) and
beta carotene (0.28 mg/100 g) were recorded. Crude fibre and ash content of 24.14 and 3.0 g/100 g have been reported for
pineapple pulp [28] which are higher than the values stated for pineapple pomace. The vitamin C and beta carotene contents
of pineapple pomace have respectively been stated to be 1.82 mg/100 g and 694 μg/100 g on fresh weight basis [33], with the
vitamin C extremely lower and the beta carotene contents a bit higher than the values obtained in this work. The variations
in the nutrient composition could be attributed to differences in the genetic composition, agricultural practices performed,
maturity stage at the time of harvest, postharvest handling and storage conditions [32,35].

Functional properties of composite flours formulated from wheat-carrot-pineapple flour

The functional properties of the composite flour formulations from wheat-carrot-pineapple flours are represented in
Table 3

Water absorption capacity (WAC)

The water absorption capacity of the flours ranged from 46.82 to 83.44%. The lowest value of water absorption capacity
was observed in W80 (46.82%) followed by W85 (52.84%) whereas W95 had a maximum value of 83.44%. There was no
significant difference (p > 0.05) between the control W100 and W90 . However, the control was significantly different (p<
0.05) from W95 , W85 and W80 . The hydration properties of food materials is affected by the chemical structure of the
polysaccharides present, and other factors such as porosity, particle size, ionic form, pH, temperature, ionic strength and
type of ions in solution [14]. In this present work, the pomace used was already hydrated as wet pomace and was used
following favourable responses obtained from preliminary trials carried out on the development of the rock buns. Increased
substitution of carrot pomace with the wheat-pineapple composite flour resulted in reductions in the WAC values which
could be attributed to reduced number of hydrophilic groups from the polysaccharide fibres and proteins from the wheat
flour available to associate with water [16]. Chareonthaikij et al. [12] reported water holding capacities of 1.06, 4.44, 1.20
and 1.32 g water/g sample respectively for wheat flour, pineapple pomace fibre, 5 and 10% pineapple pomace fibre-wheat
composite flour. The authors reported increased water holding capacity (WHC) with increased substitution of wheat flour
with pineapple pomace fibre which is different from the decreasing trend observed in this study. The differences in trend
could be due to the differences in the material used for the analysis [31] as [12] evaluated dietary fibre extracted from
pineapple pomace whereas wet pineapple pomace was used in this work.

Oil absorption capacity (OAC)

The oil absorption capacity for wheat and composite flours ranged from 77.38 to 129.71% with the W95 recorded the
highest OAC of 129.71% and the lowest recorded by W80 . The control sample was significantly different (p<0.05) from W95 ,
W85 and W80 . There was a decreasing trend in the values reported for the OAC of the rock buns which had carrot pomace
6 A. Badjona, J. Adubofuor and I. Amoah et al. / Scientific African 6 (2019) e00160

substituted with pineapple pomace which could be attributed to the reduction in the amount of available fat-soluble vita-
mins from beta carotenes present in the carrot pomace to interact with the oil. Additionally, proteins that have abundant
hydrophobic chains are shown to have a stronger affinity for lipid binding and thus, non-polar amino acid side chains bind
the paraffin chains of fats [17]. Consequently, it could be posited that, the W100, W 95 , W90 samples which showed higher
OAC had abundant available non-polar side chains in their protein molecules than W 85 and W80 [17]. The OAC decreased
when pineapple pomace was increased to 5%.

Solubility
The solubility of the flours ranged from 3.30 to 3.96% and the wheat flour W100 had the highest solubility of 3.96%.
Lower solubility values recorded for the wheat flour-pomace composite flours could be attributed to the existence of strong
bonding forces within the flour granules arising from coagulated protein or fat that form complexes with amylose preventing
it from leaching from the granules [37]. Additionally, the higher solubility values recorded for the control could be due to
the presence of several hydrophilic groups in wheat flour starch and proteins, thus impacting favourably on their ability
to associate better with water and consequently a better dissolution [16]. With the substitution of the wheat flour with
pomaces from carrot and pineapple, there was reduction in the available hydrophilic groups and hence the lower solubility
observed for the test samples. Significant difference (p<0.05) existed between the control W100 and the composite flours.

Swelling power
Swelling power indicates the water holding capacity of flours, which has generally been used to demonstrate differences
between various types of starches [13].The swelling power ranged from 276.09 to 387.09% with W100 having the highest
swelling power (387.09%) followed by W95 while sample W80 had the lowest (276.09%). There was no significant difference
(p> 0.05) between wheat flour W100 and W90 . However, significant difference (p< 0.05) existed between wheat flour W100
and composite flours W95 , W85 and W80. The decrease in swelling power of the carrot and pineapple pomace-substituted
flours could be due to the fact that the hydroxyl/hydrophilic groups in the pomace prior to their addition in composite
preparation with wheat flour was wet/hydrated and consequently less availability of hydroxyl/hydrophilic groups to associate
with water and swell.

Dispersibility
Dispersibility of the carrot and pineapple pomace composite flours increased with increasing carrot and pineapple po-
mace in the flour substitutes. The percentage dispersibility of the wheat and composite flours varied from 58 to 65.67%.
Sample W80 had the highest dispersibility while the lowest was recorded in the wheat flour W100 . There was no signif-
icant difference (p> 0.05) between the wheat flour W100 and W95 , W90 and W85 . The increasing trend observed for the
dispersibility of the composite flours could be due to the dilution of gluten or impairing of bonds formed within the wheat
flour by the fiber from the pomace [36].

Bulk density
Bulk density is a determinant of flour expansion and an indicator of the porosity of food products [18]. The loose bulk
density for wheat and composite flours ranged between 0.50 to 0.66 g/cm3 and was highest for W80 (0.66 g/cm3 ), followed
by W85 (0.58 g/cm3 ) and lowest in W95 (0.50 g/cm3 ). Tap bulk density of the different flours varied from 0.72 to 0.95 g/cm3 .
The highest tap bulk density was observed for W80 (0.95 g/cm3 ) and lowest W100 (0.72 g/cm3 ). There were significant dif-
ferences between (p< 0.05) the tap bulk densities of the composite flours and 100% wheat flour (0.72 g/cm3 ). The results
suggested that addition of carrot and pineapple pomace affected the tapped bulk density. [5] reported the tapped bulk den-
sity of wheat flour to be 0.67 g/cm3 and that of Dioscorea bulbifera flour to be 0.53 g/cm3 which is slightly similar to the
findings in this present work. The tapped bulk densities increased with decreasing wheat flour content in the composite
flours and could be attributed to the carrot pomace which were hydrated as they were added in a wet form and conse-
quently had a heavier mass compared to the control that consisted of dry flour that are expected to be lighter in mass
compared to the wet carrot pomace. However, the loose bulk densities increased with decreasing wheat flour content from
pomace substitution above 10%.

Principal component analyses of composite flour and physicochemical characteristics

The first two principal components explained a total of 98% of the variability in the data (Fig. 1). Principal component
1 was defined by the contrasting relationship between swelling power on one hand and dispersability and loose density
on the other hand. Principal component 2 explains 15% of the variability in the data and is defined by solubility and water
absorption capacity (WAC). Samples with high composite flour (W80 and W85 ) were associated with high dispersibility, loose
density and bulk density. In contrast, samples with low to no composite flour (W90 , W95 and W100 ) were associated with
high OAC, WAC and swelling power. Solubility appears to play limited role in explaining differences among the samples. As
wheat flour is decreased in the composite flour, samples tend to have low swelling power while increasing in loose density,
bulk density and dispersibility along Principal component 1.
 A. Badjona, J. Adubofuor and I. Amoah et al. / Scientific African 6 (2019) e00160 7

Fig. 1. Principal component biplot showing the relationship between the composite flours and their physicochemical characteristics. W100 = [Wheat
flour (100%) or control)], W95 = [Wheat flour (95%) + carrot pomace (5%)], W90 = [Wheat flour (90%) + carrot pomace (5%) + pineapple pomace (5%)],
W85 = [Wheat flour (85%) + carrot pomace (10%) + pineapple pomace (5%)], W80 = [Wheat flour (80) + carrot pomace (15%) + pineapple pomace (5%)].

Table 4
Mean values of sensory attributes of rock buns samples.

Sample Crumb colour Crust Colour Texture Aroma Taste After taste Mouthfeel Overall mean score∗

W100 5.17 ± 1.24a

5.08 ± 1.31a
4.70 ± 1.62a
5.06 ± 1.29ab
4.87 ± 1.36a
4.76 ± 1.31a
5.19 ± 1.34a
4.98 ± 0.20a
W95 5.17 ± 1.03a 5.30 ± 1.09ab 5.08 ± 1.27ab 5.04 ± 1.23a 4.85 ± 1.31a 4.77 ± 1.40a 4.72 ± 1.35a 4.98 ± 0.20a
W90 5.34 ± 1.33ab 5.26 ± 1.35ab 5.09 ± 1.32ab 5.45 ± 1.23abc 5.23 ± 1.30ab 4.81 ± 1.37a 5.19 ± 1.30ab 5.19 ± 0.21a
W85 5.85 ± 0.84b 5.45 ± 1.28ab 5.71 ± 1.17b 5.66 ± 0.92bc 5.38 ± 1.42ab 5.36 ± 1.39ab 5.51 ± 1.22b 5.56 ± 0.19b
W80 5.81 ± 1.07b 5.79 ± 1.20b 5.66 ± 1.44b 5.89 ± 1.05c 5.70 ± 1.41b 5.55 ± 1.25b 5.81 ± 1.35b 5.74 ± 0.12b

Values are expressed as mean ± SD; values in the same column followed by different superscripts are significantly different (p<0.05. W100 -(Wheat
flour (100%) or control), W95 -(Wheat flour (95%) + carrot pomace (5%)), W90 -(Wheat flour (90%) + carrot pomace (5%) + pineapple pomace (5%)), W85
-(Wheat flour (85%) + carrot pomace (10%) + pineapple pomace (5%)), W80 -(Wheat flour (80) + carrot pomace (15%) + pineapple pomace (5%)).
∗
Overall mean score is the average of the means of attributes for each sample.

Sensory evaluation of rock buns samples

Results for the sensory evaluation of the rock buns samples are reported in (Table 4). The mean score recorded for rock
buns colour varied from 5.17 to 5.85 indicating the products were liked slightly. It was observed that rock bun sample with
15% (W85 ) carrot and pineapple pomace scored the maximum score of 5.85 while W 95 recorded the least score of 5.17. It
was observed that increase in replacement level of wheat flour with carrot and pineapple pomace increased the acceptability
of rock buns as the colour became gradually orange with increase in replacement level. There was no significant difference
(p> 0.05) between the control and W95 , W85 , W80 . However, there was significant difference (p< 0.05) between the mean
values of the control, W85 and W80 .
In terms of the crust colour, the highest mean score was recorded for the sample W 80 , followed by W85 and W90 whiles
the lowest score obtained was for W95 and W100 . It was observed that as the amount of carrot and pineapple pomace
substitution increased in the formulations, an intense appealing colour was impacted as perceived by the panellists due to
8 A. Badjona, J. Adubofuor and I. Amoah et al. / Scientific African 6 (2019) e00160

Maillard reaction resulting from the reaction of amino acids and reducing sugars [25]. The pineapple and carrot pomace
possibly facilitated the Maillard reaction due to their sugar composition. Mean score obtained for crust colour showed that
the control and W95 , W90 and W85 did not differ significantly (p> 0.05).
Mean scores for texture sensation of the rock buns varied from 4.70 (neither liked nor disliked) to 5.71 (liked slightly).
Highest mean score was rated for rock buns prepared from W85 , followed by W80 , W95 , and W90 and lowest for the control
(W100 ). Texture score increased with increasing substitution of carrot and pineapple pomace with wheat flour in the formu-
lation of rock buns samples possibly due to the fiber-rich composition of the pomace. There was no significant difference
(p> 0.05) between the control and W95 , W90 . On the contrary there was a significant difference (p< 0.05) between the
control and W85 , W80 .
In the case of aroma, the mean values ranged from score obtained was 5.04 to 5.89 meaning the aroma of the rock buns
were liked slightly. The highest aroma score was observed for W80 whiles the lowest value was recorded in W95 (5.04).
The aroma of composite rock bun samples was preferred by the panellists since their comments indicated that the samples
had a pineapple-like aroma. The evaluation of aroma as a sensory parameter of the products by the panellists showed a
significant difference (p<0.05) between the mean values of the control and 20% flour substitute. However, there was no
significant difference (p>0.05) between the control, W95 , W90 and W85 . The pineapple aroma associated with pineapple
fruit was perceived as a positive attribute in the rock buns formulations.
The mean score for taste varied from 4.85 (neither liked nor disliked) to 5.70 (liked slightly). Flour substitute with 20%
carrot and pineapple pomace recorded the highest mean score in terms of taste followed by W 85 whiles the control W 100
and W 95 recorded the least values. There was no significant difference (p>0.05) between the mean values of the control
and formulations W 95 , W 90 , and W 85 . However, there was a significant difference (p<0.05) between the control and flour
substitute with 20% carrot pomace. Taste scores increased with increasing incorporation of carrot and pineapple pomace
with wheat flour in the formulation of the rock buns. Pineapple and carrot possibly had residual sugars inherently present
in the pomace after juice extraction. These residual sugars possibly impacted on the sweet organoleptic perception that
compelled participants to give a higher ranking for the pomace-incorporated products.
The mean scores for aftertaste ranged from 4.76 (neither liked nor disliked) to 5.55 (liked slightly). The aftertaste of the
formulations with carrot and pineapple was preferred by the panellists compared to the control since panellists comments
indicated that the samples had an appealing lingering taste after consumption. The highest mean score for aftertaste was
W80 while W100 recorded the lowest score. There was no significant difference (p>0.05) between the control (W100 ) and
W95 , W90 and W85 . Meanwhile significant difference (p<0.05) was observed between the control and W80 . The results
indicate that a higher incorporation of carrot and pineapple pomace influenced the taste and aftertaste positively.
The mean score of mouthfeel for rock buns prepared from wheat flour and composite flours ranged from 4.72 to 5.81.
Rock buns with W85 and W80 had the highest scores, though statistically there was no significant difference (p>0.05). How-
ever, the product with 100% wheat flour scored the lowest. The sensory evaluation showed that mouthfeel of rock buns
increased with increasing incorporation of carrot and pineapple pomace in the preparation of the rock buns.
The overall mean values of the sensory attributes was calculated as the average of means of the attributes for each
samples as an index of overall sensory quality. The study revealed that the overall mean values of the rock buns samples
varied from 4.98 to 5.74. The sample with 20% substitution of carrot and pineapple pomace (W80 ) recorded the highest score
whiles the lowest score was observed in W95 and the control sample. There was a significant difference (p<0.05) between
the control and W85 and W80 .

Preference of rock buns samples

Fig. 2 shows the percentage of consumers selecting each sample as the most preferred among the five samples evaluated.
Approximately 51% of panellists mostly preferred the product (W80 ) with 20% substitution above all the samples and about
21% of the panellists indicated their preference for the 15% substitution as a second preferred choice. The third and fourth
were the substitutions with 5 and 10% respectively. Lastly was the control (0% substitution).
Hierarchical agglomerative clustering of the five samples based on their functional properties and sensory characteristics
revealed two clusters as shown in the dendogram (Fig. 3). Samples with high composite flour substitution (W80 and W85 )
were clustered in one group while the rest were grouped together separately in another group. Based on sensory character-
istics, samples W80 and W85 had significantly higher overall means scores compared to the rest of the samples in the other
cluster (p <0.05). These two samples also had higher percentages of consumers selecting them as the most preferred sam-
ples compared to the three samples in the other cluster. In terms of functional properties, samples W80 and W85 had high
values for dispersibility, bulk density and loose density. Clearly, substitution changed the functional and sensory properties
as well as overall sensory quality of the rock buns.

Weight of rock bun samples

The average weight of different samples ranged between 67.25 to 74 g. Formulation W90 and W80 recorded the highest
weight (74.00 g) followed by W85 (73.00 g) and W95 (72.00 g) after baking whiles lowest weight (67.25 g) was recorded in
the control sample W100 . The values indicate increasing weight of rock buns with increase in the amount of carrot and
pineapple pomace. There was however, no significant differences between the weight of all the rock buns.
 A. Badjona, J. Adubofuor and I. Amoah et al. / Scientific African 6 (2019) e00160 9

Fig. 2. Preference of rock buns incorporated with carrot-pineapple pomace. W100 = [Wheat flour (100%) or control)], W95 = [Wheat flour (95%) + carrot po-
mace (5%)], W90 = [Wheat flour (90%) + carrot pomace (5%) + pineapple pomace (5%)], W85 = [Wheat flour (85%) + carrot pomace (10%) + pineapple pomace
(5%)], W80 = [Wheat flour (80) + carrot pomace (15%) + pineapple pomace (5%)].

Fig. 3. Hierarchical agglomerative clustering of five rock bun samples based on functional and sensory characteristics. W100 = [Wheat flour (100%) or
control)], W95 = [Wheat flour (95%) + carrot pomace (5%)], W90 = [Wheat flour (90%) + carrot pomace (5%) + pineapple pomace (5%)], W85 = [Wheat flour
(85%) + carrot pomace (10%) + pineapple pomace (5%)], W80 = [Wheat flour (80) + carrot pomace (15%) + pineapple pomace (5%)].

Nutrient composition of rock buns sample

The nutrient composition of the most accepted rock bun sample and the control are represented in Table 5.
The moisture content of the most acceptable product (W) was 28.45% which was slightly higher than that obtained for
the control (C) rock buns (27.38%). This is consistent with moisture content of 28.44% reported for rock buns prepared by
10 A. Badjona, J. Adubofuor and I. Amoah et al. / Scientific African 6 (2019) e00160

Table 5
Nutrient composition of the most acceptable carrot-pineapple incorporated rock
buns (W) and control (C).

Composition Control C (100:0:0) W (80:15:5)

Moisture (%) 27.38 ± 0.06 a

28.45 ± 0.0b
Protein (%) 7.27 ± 0.03a 6.92 ± 0.04b
Fat (%) 12.08 ± 0.08a 14.9 ± 0.04b
Ash (%) 1.45 ± 0.03a 1.77 ± 0.04b
Fibre (%) 0.42 ± 0.05a 2.85 ± 0.04b
Carbohydrate (%) 51.41 ± 0.24a 44.63 ± 0.04b
Energy (kcal/100 g) 343.22 ± 0.4a 340.24 ± 0.16b
Beta carotene(mg/100 g) 0.05 ± 0.01a 0.5 ± 0.02a

Mean values with different superscripts in the same row are significantly different
(p<0.05). W: the most acceptable rock buns.

substitution of wheat flour with 20% partially dried ripe pawpaw pulp [3]. There was a significant difference (p< 0.05) in
the moisture content of product W and C.
The protein content of the control was found to be 7.27% and significantly different from that of product W which was
6.92%. Bellur Nagarajaiah et al. [9] observed a similar decreasing trend in the protein content of cookies formulated with
carrot pomace. The authors reported protein content of 6.50, 7.25, 7.15, 7.06 and 6.80 g/100 g for carrot pomace, control, 4,
8 and 12%. The incorporation of the fibre-rich carrot and pineapple pomace into the rock buns resulted in a reduction of
protein content due the substitution of the glutenin and gliadin in the wheat flour by the pomace with fruits and vegetables
that are generally low in protein [36]. The most preferred rock buns samples in this study had slightly lower protein than
the rock buns produced from partially dried pawpaw pulp which is reported to be 7.54% [3].
The crude fibre content of the control rock buns was 0.42% and that of the most preferred product was 2.85%. There
was a significant difference (p<0.05) in crude fibre content of product W and the control. Bhat and Bhat [11] reported that
cake made from 20% substitution of wheat flour with pumpkin powder had crude fibre content of 1.31% which is also lower
compared to that obtained in this study. The significantly higher fibre content of the rock buns could impacts on its ability to
induce satiety and thus regulate body weight control, attenuate glycaemic response, improve cardiovascular health, promote
short chain fatty acid development and prevent certain cancers [34].
Fat contributes to the total energy content of a food product. The fat content of the control was 12.08% while that of
the most preferred rock buns was 14.9%. There was a significant difference (p< 0.05) between the control and the most
accepted rock buns samples.
The ash content of the control was 1.45% while product W had an ash content of 1.77%. There was a significant differ-
ence (p<0.05) between the control and the most preferred product. Bhat and Bhat [11] reported that cake made from 20%
substitution of wheat flour with pumpkin powder had an ash content of 3.63%. These values are comparably higher than
that obtained in this study. However, work done by Adubofuor and AmoafoMensah [3] reported that rock buns prepared by
substitution of wheat flour with 20% partially dried ripe pawpaw pulp had an ash content of 1.60% which is comparatively
lower than that obtained in this study. The relatively high ash content of the most preferred product could be due to the
high levels of ash content in carrot and pineapple pomace (Table 2).
The amount of carbohydrate in the control sample was found to be 51.41% which is higher than the 44.63% obtained for
the most preferred product. There was a significant difference (p<0.05) between them. The carbohydrate content of these
rock buns samples is an indicator that the products would be a good source of energy. Addition of carrot and pineapple
pomace to the flour blends resulted in decrease content of carbohydrate of the composite rock buns. This is expected as
the pomaces from the carrot and pineapple used in composite formulation with the wheat flour contained water which
contributed to the weight whereas the control sample contained flour in their dry weight.
The energy content of the control rock buns was 343 kcal/100 g whiles that of the most accepted rock buns samples
had an energy content of 340.24 kcal/100 g.The decrease in carbohydrate and protein contents of the rock buns containing
carrot and pineapple pomace at 20% substitution contributed to the slightly lower energy content of the rock buns. There
was a significant difference (p<0.05) in the energy content between product W and the control. Work done by Adubo-
fuor and AmoafoMensah [3] indicate the energy content of rock buns samples prepared from partially dried pawpaw to be
347.93 kcal/100 g which is slightly higher than that obtained in this study.
Beta carotene concentration in the control rock buns sample was found to be 0.05 mg/100 g while that of product W had
a higher value of 0.5 mg/100 g. There was a significant difference (p < 0.05) between the two samples. The high content of
carotenoids in the most preferred rock buns suggests that consumption of the product would provide some health benefits.

Conclusion

The nutrient composition of carrot and pineapple pomaces in this study indicated that carrot pomace contained rela-
tively high amounts of ash and beta carotene whereas pineapple pomace was low in ash but contained higher amounts
of fibre and vitamin C than carrot pomace. The functional properties of wheat flour and composite flours such as water
 A. Badjona, J. Adubofuor and I. Amoah et al. / Scientific African 6 (2019) e00160 11

absorption capacity, oil absorption capacity, solubility, swelling power decreased with increase in the incorporation of carrot
and pineapple pomace while bulk densities and dispersibility increased. Sensory evaluation showed that rock buns prepared
from substituting wheat flour with 15% carrot and 5% pineapple pomaces was the most preferred. Nutrient composition of
the most preferred rock buns showed improved properties of ash, crude fibre, beta carotene and suggests that carrot and
pineapple pomaces are promising ingredients that can be used in composite formulation with wheat flour for rock buns
development.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors report no conflict of interest.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Abraham Badjona: Methodology, Data curation. Joseph Adubofuor: Conceptualization, Supervision, Methodology, Writ-
ing - review & editing. Isaac Amoah: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing.
Charles Diako: Formal analysis, Writing - review & editing.

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