neurons [biology and behavior] motor (efferent); interneurons; sensory (afferent)

pns [biology and behavior] rest & digest

sns [biology and behavior] fight or flight

forebrain [biology and behavior] contains thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, limbic system,
and cerebral cortex

midbrain [biology and behavior] contains inferior and superior colliculi

hindbrain [biology and behavior] contains cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and reticular formation

thalamus [biology and behavior] relay station for sensory information

hypothalamus [biology and behavior] maintains homeostasis and integrates the endocrine system
through the hypophyseal portal system (connected to the anterior pituitary)

basal ganglia [biology and behavior] smoothens movements and helps maintain postural stability

limbic system [biology and behavior] controls emotion and memory; contains the septal nuclei,
amygdala, hippocampus, and fornix

septal nuclei [biology and behavior] structure dealing with pleasure-seeking

amygdala [biology and behavior] structure dealing with fear and aggression

hippocampus [biology and behavior] structure dealing with memory

fornix [biology and behavior] structure dealing with communication within limbic system

frontal lobe [biology and behavior] executive function and motor functions

parietal lobe [biology and behavior] sensations and spacial processing

occipital lobe [biology and behavior] visual processing

temporal lobe [biology and behavior] sound production and speech processing

acetylcholine [biology and behavior] parasympathetic nervous system, muscle control

neurotransmitter

epinephrine, norepinephrine [biology and behavior] sympathetic nervous system neurotransmitters

dopamine [biology and behavior] smooth movements, posture neurotransmitter

seratonin [biology and behavior] mood, sleeping, eating neurotransmitter

GABA [biology and behavior] brain "stabilization" neurotransmitter

endorphins [biology and behavior] natural painkillers neurotransmitter

nature v. nurture [biology and behavior] genetics v. environment

sensation v. perception [sensation and perception] conversion of physical stimuli to neurological signals
v. processing of sensory information

threshold [sensation and perception] minimum stimulus that causes a change in signal
transduction

weber's law [sensation and perception] the JND is proportional to magnitude of stimulus with
constant proportions

signal detection [sensation and perception] theory that deals with non-sensory factors on perception
(motives, expectations)

response bias [sensation and perception] four outcomes: hit, miss, false alarm, correct negative

adaption [sensation and perception] decrease in response over time

visual pathway [sensation and perception] retina, optic nerve, optic chasm, optic tracts, lateral
geniculate nucleus, visual radiations, visual cortex

auditory pathway [sensation and perception] cochlea, vestibulocochlear nerve, medial geniculate
nucleus, auditory cortex

cochlea [sensation and perception] detects sound

utricle, saccule [sensation and perception] detect linear acceleration

semicircular canals [sensation and perception] detect angular acceleration

smell [sensation and perception] detection of chemicals by olfactory chemoreceptors

taste [sensation and perception] detection of dissolved compounds by taste buds

somatosensation [sensation and perception] detection of pressure, vibration, pain, modalities

kinesthetic sense [sensation and perception] detection of body in space

bottom-up processing [sensation and perception] recognition of objects by parallel processing, feature
detection (slower)

top-down processing [sensation and perception] recognition of objects by memories and expectations
(faster)

gestalt principles [sensation and perception] ways the brain infers missing parts

habituation [learning and memory] becoming used to a stimulus

dishabituation [learning and memory] when a second stimulus intervenes, causing resensitization

observational learning [learning and memory] learning by watching others

associative learning [learning and memory] learning by pairing behaviors and consequences

classical conditioning [learning and memory] a form of associative learning where neutral stimulus
becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus
operant conditioning [learning and memory] a form of associative learning where behavior is
modified by reinforcement or punishment

awake [cognition, consciousness, and language] beta and alpha EEG waves, able to perceive, process,
etc

stage 1 of consciousness [cognition, consciousness, and language] theta EEG waves, light sleep

stage 2 of consciousness [cognition, consciousness, and language] theta EEG waves, sleep
spindles and K complexes

stages 3 and 4 of consciousness [cognition, consciousness, and language] delta EEG waves, dreams,
memory consolidation, sleep disorders

REM sleep [cognition, consciousness, and language] beta EEG waves, appears awake, but dreaming,
sleep disorders

dyssomnia [cognition, consciousness, and language] sleep disorder classification dealing with
amount or timing of sleep

parasomnia [cognition, consciousness, and language] sleep disorder classification dealing with odd
behaviors during sleep

depressants [cognition, consciousness, and language] stimulate sense of relaxation and reduced
anxiety

stimulants [cognition, consciousness, and language] stimulate arousal

opiates (opioids) [cognition, consciousness, and language] stimulate decreased pain perception
and euphoria

hallucinogens [cognition, consciousness, and language] stimulate distortions of reality and fantasy

sensory memory [cognition, consciousness, and language] memory that lasts less than a second

short-term (working) memory [cognition, consciousness, and language] memory that lasts less than a
minute

long-term memory [cognition, consciousness, and language] memory that lasts a lifetime, broken
up into explicit (conscious) and implicit (unconscious) memory

explicit (conscious) memory [cognition, consciousness, and language] aka declarative memory,
broken up into episodic memory (events) and semantic memory (concepts and facts)

encoding [cognition, consciousness, and language] putting new information into memory

semantic network [cognition, consciousness, and language] network that store facts, retrieval is
based on priming interconnected nodes of this network

piaget's stages of cognitive development [cognition, consciousness, and language] include

sensorimotor stage, pre operational stage, concrete operational stage, formal operational stage

heuristics [cognition, consciousness, and language] "rules of thumb", assist in decision making
selective attention [cognition, consciousness, and language] type of attention where you can pay
attention and also determine if other things require attention also

divided attention [cognition, consciousness, and language] type of attention where you pay
attention to multiple things at a time through automatic processing

wernicke's area [cognition, consciousness, and language] language comprehension

broca's area [cognition, consciousness, and language] speech production

broca's aphasia [cognition, consciousness, and language] each word requires great effort to generate

arcuate fasciculus [cognition, consciousness, and language] connects broca's and wernicke's areas

conduction aphasia [cognition, consciousness, and language] cannot repeat words

extrinsic motivation [motivation, emotion, and stress] motivation based on external circumstances

intrinsic motivation [motivation, emotion, and stress] motivation based on internal drive or
perception

instinct motivation theory (IMT) [motivation, emotion, and stress] theory that states that motivation is
innate, fixed patterns of behavior

arousal motivation theory (AMT) [motivation, emotion, and stress] theory that states that
motivation is the state of being awake and reactive to stimuli, Yerkes-Dodson law

yerkes-dodson [motivation, emotion, and stress] law that states that optimal performance happens at
mid-arousal (too high = anxious, too low = too little interest)

drive reduction [motivation, emotion, and stress] theory that states that people act to relieve internal
states of tension

maslow's hierarchy of needs [motivation, emotion, and stress] prioritizes needs into 5 categories
(from highest to lowest priority) : physiological needs, safety and security, love and belonging, self-
esteem, and self-actualization

seven universal emotions [motivation, emotion, and stress] happiness, sadness, contempt,
surprise, fear, disgust, anger

james-lange (JL)[motivation, emotion, and stress] theory of emotion where the first response is nervous
system arousal and the second is conscious emotion

cannon-bard (CB) [motivation, emotion, and stress] theory of emotion where the first response is
nervous system arousal and conscious emotion and the second is action

schachter-singer (SS) [motivation, emotion, and stress] theory of emotion where the first response is
nervous system arousal and cognitive appraisal and the second is conscious emotion

primary appraisal [motivation, emotion, and stress] classifying something as either stressful,
benign-positive, or irrelevant
secondary appraisal [motivation, emotion, and stress] determining whether someone can cope with
stress

general adaption syndrome [motivation, emotion, and stress] alarm, resistance, and exhaustion are
the 3 stages

schizophrenia [psychological disorders] psychotic disorder where reality is distorted

major depressive disorder [psychological disorders] at least 1 major depressive episode

pervasive depressive disorder [psychological disorders] a depressed mood for at least 2 years

seasonal affective disorder [psychological disorders] major depressive disorder with seasonal onset
(depression in winter)

bipolar I disorder [psychological disorders] at least 1 manic episode

bipolar II disorder [psychological disorders] at least 1 manic episode and at least 1 hypomanic
episode

cyclothymic disorder [psychological disorders] hypomanic episodes with dysthymia

generalized anxiety disorder [psychological disorders] constant disproportionate and persistent

worry

specific phobias [psychological disorders] irrational fears of specific objects

social anxiety disorder [psychological disorders] anxiety from social situations

agoraphobia [psychological disorders] fear of places where its hard to escape

panic disorder [psychological disorders] recurrent attacks of intense, overwhelming fear (and may lead
to agoraphobia)

obsessive-compulsive disorder [psychological disorders] obsessions and compulsions

body dysmorphic disorder [psychological disorders] unrealistic negative evaluation of one's

self/body

dissociative amnesia [psychological disorders] inability to recall past experience

dissociative identity disorder [psychological disorders] 2+ personalities/identities

depersonalization (derealization) disorder [psychological disorders] detachment from

body/environment

freud's stages of psychosexual development [formation of identity] conscious, preconscious,

unconscious; superego, ego, id (glacier); based on tensions caused by the libido (sexual desire), failure at
any stage = fixation

erickson's stages of psychosocial development [formation of identity] trust v mistrust, autonomy v

shame, initiative v guilt, industry v inferiority, identity v role confusion, intimacy v isolation, generativety
v stagnation, integrity v despair
kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning development [formation of identity] includes 6 stages divided
into 3 phases : pre conventional, conventional, and post conventional

vygotsky's theory of cultural and biosocial development [formation of identity] describes the
development of language, culture, and skills

psychoanalytic [personality] perspective that personality results from unconscious urges and desires;
freud said id, superego, and ego, jung said collective unconscious and archetypes

humanistic [personality] perspective that focuses on people's internal feelings as they strive
towards happiness; maslow said hierarchy of needs, rogers said unconditional positive regard

type and trait [personality] theory that states that personality can be described as a number of traits
that carry behaviors

eysenck's three major traits [personality] psychoticism (agressiveness), extraversion (life of the
party), neuroticism (negative)

big five traits [personality] openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism
(OCEAN)

somatic symptom disorder [personality] at least one somatic symptom that causes
disproportionate concern

illness anxiety disorder [personality] stressin about coming down with a medical condition

conversion disorder [personality] unexplained symptoms affecting motor/sensory functions

type a personality [personality] odd, eccentric, "weird" personality

type b personality [personality] dramatic, emotional, "wild" personality

type c personality [personality] anxious, fearful, "worried" personality

social facilitation [social processes, attitudes, and behavior] when someone performs either
better or worse around others

deindividualization [social processes, attitudes, and behavior] the loss of self-awareness in a group

bystander effect [social processes, attitudes, and behavior] when someone is less likely to
respond to a person in need when in a group

peer pressure [social processes, attitudes, and behavior] social influence from one person to another

group polarization [social processes, attitudes, and behavior] decisions become more extreme in a
group

groupthink [social processes, attitudes, and behavior] decisions made based on the group's ideas
and nothing outside of it

assimilation [social processes, attitudes, and behavior] when one culture melts into another
multiculturism [social processes, attitudes, and behavior] when multiple cultures live in one place for
increased diversity

subculture [social processes, attitudes, and behavior] one group distinguishes itself from the
primary culture to which it belongs

socialization [social processes, attitudes, and behavior] to develop "norms"

stigma [social processes, attitudes, and behavior] disapproval of a person because of differences

display rules [social interaction] unspoken rules that govern expression of emotion

dramaturgical [social interaction] approach of creating an image for yourself like actors do

fundamental attribution error [social perception and behavior] bias toward making dispositional
attributions rather than situational ones

ethnocentrism [social perception and behavior] judging other cultures based on your own cultures
values (in-group v out-group)

functionalism [social structure and demographics] function of each component of society

conflict theory [social structure and demographics] theory that shows how power differentials are
created and maintain control

demographics [social structure and demographics] the "statistical arm of society"

demographic transition [social structure and demographics] an increase or decrease in society bc of

birth or death rates, due to industrialization

incidence [social stratification] (new cases) / (pop at risk) * time

prevalence [social stratification] (total cases) / (pop at risk) * time

morbidity [social stratification] degree of illness associated with a disease

mortality [social stratification] deaths associated with a disease

nucleus [the cell] organelle that contains all the genetic material necessary for replication of the cell

mitochondrion [the cell] location of many metabolic processes and atp production (organelle)

lysosomes [the cell] membrane-bound structures containing hydrolytic enzymes capable of

breaking down many different substrates

rough er [the cell] interconnected membranous structure with ribosomes studding the outside;
site of synthesis of proteins destined for insertion into a membrane

smooth er [the cell] interconnected membranous structure where lipid synthesis and detoxification
occurs

golgi apparatus [the cell] membrane-bound sacs where posttranslational modification of proteins occurs
peroxisomes [the cell] organelles containing hydrogen peroxide; site of beta-oxidation of very long
chain fatty acids

phospholipid bilayer [the cell] made up of cholesterol and embedded proteins; hydrophilic
phosphate heads on the exterior, hydrophobic fatty acids on the interior

cell theory [the cell] contains 4 basic tenants : all living things are composed of cells, the cell is the
basic functional unit of life, cells arise only from preexisting cells, cells carry genetic information in the
form of dna (passed from parent to daughter cell)

cocci [the cell] spherical bacteria

bacilli [the cell] rod-shaped bacteria

spirilli [the cell] spiral-shaped bacteria

gram-positive bacteria [the cell] bacteria that has large amounts of peptidoglycan in the cell wall

gram-negative bacteria [the cell] bacteria that has smaller amounts of peptidoglycan in the cell wall,
along with lipopolysaccharides

prokaryotic flagella [the cell] has a basal body that acts as a motor

binary fission [the cell] cell division for prokaryotes; circular chromosome replicates and attaches to
the cell wall, plasma membrane and cell wall grow along the midline, forming daughter cells

cell division [reproduction] g1, s, g2, m, mitosis, meiosis (I and II)

g1 phase [reproduction] cell division phase where cell increases its organelles and cytoplasm

s phase [reproduction] cell division phase where dna is replicated

g2 phase [reproduction] cell division phase where cell increases its organelles and cytoplasm
(same as g1)

m phase [reproduction] cell division phase where cell actually divides into 2

mitosis [reproduction] prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase (PMAT)

meiosis [reproduction] PMAT * 2; occurs in spermatogenesis (sperm formation) and oogenesis (egg
formation)

meiosis I [reproduction] 2 pairs of sister chromatids form tetrads and crossing over leads to
genetic recombination during prophase I, homologous chromosomes separate during metaphase I

meiosis II [reproduction] identical to mitosis, but without replication

early development [reproduction] cleavage, implantation, gastrulation, neurulation

cleavage [reproduction] first stage of early development; mitotic divisions

implantation [reproduction] second stage of early development; embryo implants during blastula
stage
gastrulation [reproduction] third stage of early development; ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm form

neurulation [reproduction] fourth stage of early development; germ layers develop a nervous
system

ectoderm [reproduction] "attack"oderm; nervous system, lens of eye, inner ear

endoderm [reproduction] "endernal" organs; lining of digestive tracts, lungs, liver, pancreas

mesoderm [reproduction] "means"oderm; muscle, skeleton, circulatory system, gonads, kidney

liver [homeostasis] it's roles in homeostasis include: 1. gluconeogenesis, 2. processing of nitrogenous

waste (urea), 3. detoxification of wastes/toxins, 4. storage of iron and vitamin a, 5. synthesis of bile and
blood proteins, 6. beta-oxidation of fatty acids to ketones, 7. interconversion of carbs, fats, and aa's

layers of the skin [homeostasis] stratum comeum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum
spinosum, stratum basalis (come, let's get sun burnt)

osmoregulation [homeostasis] filtration in the glomerulus (passive), secretion of acids, bases, and ions
from intestinal fluid to filtrate, reabsorption (essential substances from filtrate to blood; passive and
active)

aldosterone [homeostasis] stimulates na+ reabsorption, k+ and h+ secretion, increasing water

reabsorption/blood volume/blood pressure

antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin) [homeostasis] increases collecting duct's permeability to water

to increase water reabsorption; secreted by posterior pituitary with high solute concentration in blood

kidneys [homeostasis] regulate salt and water concentrations in the blood; functional unit is the
nephron

direct hormones [endocrine system] hormones that directly stimulate organs

tropic hormones [endocrine system] hormones that stimulate other glands

secondary messengers [endocrine system] peptides act via

hormone binding [endocrine system] steroids act via

secondary messengers or hormone binding [endocrine system] amino acids act via

anterior pituitary [endocrine system] fsh, lh, acth, tsh, prolactin, endorphins, gh (FLAT PEG); come
from the

posterior pituitary (hypothalamus) [endocrine system] oxytocin, adh; come from the

thyroid [endocrine system] thyroid hormones, calcitonin; come from the

adrenal cortex [endocrine system] glucocorticoids, mineralcorticoids; come from the

adrenal medulla [endocrine system] epinephrine, norepinephrine; come from the

pancreas [endocrine system] glucagon, insulin, somatostatin; come from the

testes [endocrine system] testosterone; comes from the

ovary [endocrine system] estrogen, progesterone; come from the

pineal gland [endocrine system] melatonin; comes from the

heart [endocrine system] atrial natriuretic peptide; comes from the

thymus [endocrine system] thymosin; comes from the

menstrual cycle [endocrine system] follicular, ovulation, luteal, menstruation

follicular [endocrine system] first stage of the menstrual cycle, fsh causes growth of a follicule

ovulation [endocrine system] second stage of the menstrual cycle, lh causes follicle to release egg

luteal [endocrine system] third stage of the menstrual cycle, corpus luteum forms

menstruation [endocrine system] fourth and final stage of the menstrual cycle, endometrial lining
sheds

neuron [nervous system] the functional unit of the nervous system

resting potential [nervous system] 3 na+ pumped out for ever 2 k+ pumped in

action potential [nervous system] stimulus acts on the neuron, depolarizing the cell membrane

impulse propagation [nervous system] depolarization (Na+ in) and repolarization (K+ out) along the
nerve axon

the synapse [nervous system] at the synaptic knob, voltage-gated ca2+ channels open, sending ca2+
into the cell; vesicles then fuse with the presynaptic membrane sending the neurotransmitter across the
synaptic cleft; the neurotransmitter then binds to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, triggering
depolarization

rest [nervous system] all gates open

depolarization [nervous system] na+ gates open

repolarization [nervous system] na+ gates inactive, k+ gates open

hyper polarization [nervous system] all gates closed

sarcomere [musculoskeletal system] the contractile unit of fibers in skeletal muscle; has thin actin
and thick myosin filaments

muscle contraction [musculoskeletal system] includes initiation, sarcomere shortening, and

relaxation

contraction initiation [musculoskeletal system] when depolarization of a neuron leads to an action

potential

sarcomere shortening [musculoskeletal system] when the sarcoplasmic reticulum releases ca2+ which
binds to troponin and the actin filament, tropomyosin shifts, exposing myosin-binding sites, myosin
binds, atpase activity allows myosin to pull thin filaments towards the center of the h zone, and then atp
causes dissociation

contraction relaxation [musculoskeletal system] when ca2+ is pumped back into the sarcoplasmic
reticulum

osteoblasts [musculoskeletal system] build bone

osteoclasts [musculoskeletal system] breaks down bone

bone reformation [musculoskeletal system] when inorganic ions are absorbed from the blood for
use in bone

bone resorption [musculoskeletal system] when inorganic ions are released into the blood

the heart [circulation]

three circulation portal systems [circulation] liver (hepatic), kidney, and brain (hypophyseal); blood
travels through an extra capillary bed before returning to the heart

foramen ovale [circulation] connects right and left atria in fetal circulation

ductus arteriosus [circulation] connects pulmonary artery to aorta in fetal circulation

ductus venosus [circulation] connects umbilical vein to inferior vena cava, connecting umbilical
circulation to central circulation in fetal circulation

plasma [circulation] aqueous mix of nutrients, wastes, hormones, blood proteins, gases, and salts

erythrocytes [circulation] red blood cells; carries oxygen

hemoglobin [circulation] has four subunits that carry o2 and co2, iron controls binding and releasing

oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation [circulation] increased heat/co2 pressure, decreased pH, bohr

effect

leukocytes [circulation] white blood cells; function in immunity

platelets [circulation] release thromboplastin, ca2+, via k, which converts inactive prothrombin to
active thrombin, which converts fibrinogen to fibrin, which surrounds blood cells to form the clot

antigens [circulation] located on the surface of blood cells

blood type a [circulation] rbc antigen a, anti-b antibody, donates to a and ab, receives from a and o

blood type b [circulation] rbc antigen b, anti-a antibody, donates to b and ab, receives from b and o

blood type ab [circulation] rbc antigen a and b, no antibody, donates to only ab, received from all

blood type o [circulation] no rbc antigen, anti-a and b antibodies, donates to all, reviews from only o

gas exchange [respiration] occurs across the thin wall of alveoli; deoxygenated blood enters
pulmonary capillaries that surround the alveoli; o2 from inhaled air diffuses into capillaries where it
binds with hemoglobin and returns to the heart; co2 from tissues diffuses from capillaries to alveoli and
is exhaled

fetal respiration[respiration] gas and nutrient exchange occurs across the placenta; fetal hemoglobin has
a higher affinity for o2

digestion

lipid digestion [digestion] when chyme is present, the duodenum secretes cck (cholecystokinin)
hormone into the blood, which stimulates the secretion of pancreatic enzymes and bile and promotes
satiety; bile made in the liver emulsifies fat in the small intestine but isn't an enzyme; lipase is an
enzyme made in the pancreas that hydrolyzes lipids (also in the small intestine)

salivary amylase [digestion] produced in the salivary glands, functions in the mouth; starch -->
maltose

pancreatic amylase [digestion] produced in the pancreas, functions in the small intestine; starch -->
maltose

maltase[digestion] produced in the intestinal glands, functions in the small intestine; maltose --> 2
glucoses

sucrase [digestion] produced in the intestinal glands, functions in the small intestine; sucrose -->
glucose/fructose

lactase [digestion] produced in the intestinal glands, functions in the small intestine; lactose -->
glucose/galactose

pepsin [digestion] produced in gastric glands (chief cells), functions in the stomach; hydrolyzes peptide
bonds

trypsin [digestion] produced in the pancreas, functions in the stomach; hydrolyzes peptide bonds and
converts chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin

chymotrypsin [digestion] produced in the pancreas, functions in the small intestine; hydrolyzes
peptide bonds

carboxypeptidases a and b [digestion] produced in the pancreas, functions in the small intestine;
hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at c-end

aminopeptidase [digestion] produced in the intestinal gland, functions in the small intestine;
hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at n-end

dipeptidase [digestion] produced in the intestinal gland, functions in the small intestine; hydrolyzes
pairs of amino acids

enteropeptidase [digestion] produced in the intestinal gland, functions in the small intestine;
converts trypsinogen to trypsin

humoral immunity [immune system] specific defense; active and passive immunity; b-lymphocytes
(memory and plasma cells)
memory cells [immune system] remember antigen to speed up secondary response

plasma cells [immune system] make and release antibodies - IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, IgE

active immunity[immune system] when antibodies are produced during an immune response

passive immunity [immune system] when antibodies are produced by one organism and
transferred to another

cell-mediated immunity [immune system] specific defense; t-lymphocytes (cytotoxic t-cells, helper t-
cells, memory cells, suppressor t-cells)

cytotoxic t-cells [immune system] destroy cells directly

helper t-cells [immune system] activate b and t-cells and macrophages by secreting lymphokines

suppressor t-cells regulate b and t-cells to decrease anti-antigen activity

nonspecific immune response [immune system] includes skin, macrophages, inflammatory response,
passages lined with cilia, and interferons (proteins that help prevent virus spreading)

lymph vessels [immune system] meet at the thoracic duct in the upper chest and neck, draining into
the left subclavian vein of the cardiovascular system

lacteals [immune system] collect fats by absorbing chylomicrons in the small intestine

lymph [immune system] excess interstitial fluid that vessels carry

lymph nodes [immune system] swellings of vessels with phagocytic cells; they remove particles from
lymph

law of segregation [classical genetics] homologous alleles(chromosomes) separate so that each

gamete has 1 copy of each gene

1:2:1, 3:1 [classical genetics] if both parents are Rr, the alleles separate to give a genotypic ratio of
... and a phenotypic ratio of ...

law of independent assortment [classical genetics] alleles of unlinked genes assort independently in
meiosis

9:3:3:1 [classical genetics] AaBb parents will produce AB, Ab, aB, and ab gametes and the phenotypic
ratio for this cross is ...

unlink genes (prophase 1) [classical genetics] crossing over during meiosis I can

far apart [classical genetics] genes are most likely unlinked when

1 map unit [classical genetics] 1% recombination frequency is

12% [classical genetics] x and z frequency

8% [classical genetics] x and y frequency

4% [classical genetics] y and z frequency

autosomal recessive [classical genetics] pattern of inheritance that skips generations

autosomal dominant [classical genetics] pattern of inheritance that appears in ever generation

x-linked[classical genetics] sex-linked pattern of inheritance where there is no male-to-male

transmission and more males are affected

hardy-weinberg equilibrium [evolution] when frequencies of a population are stable; no mutations,

large population, random mating, no migration, equal reproductive success

nucleic acids [molecular genetics] basic unit is the nucleotide

deoxyribose dna's sugar

ribose rna's sugar

purines (A, G) double-ringed bases

pyrimidines (C, U, T) single-ringed bases

structural genes [molecular genetics] genes that have dna that codes for protein

operator gene [molecular genetics] gene with the repressor binding site

promotor gene [molecular genetics] rna poly I's 1st binding site (it's a kind of gene)

inducible systems [molecular genetics] need an inducer for transcription to occur

repressible systems [molecular genetics] need a compressor to inhibit transcription

point mutations[molecular genetics] one nucleotide is substituted by another; they are silent if the
sequence of amino acids doesn't change

frameshift mutations [molecular genetics] insertions or deletions of nucleotides shift reading frame;
protein doesn't form, or is non-funcitonal

viruses [molecular genetics] acellular structures of dna or rna in a protein coat

lytic cycle [molecular genetics] when a virus kills the host cell

lysogenic cycle [molecular genetics] when a virus enters host genome

plasmids [genetics of prokaryotic cells] extragenomic material within bacteria

episomes [genetics of prokaryotic cells] plasmids that can be integrated into the genome within
bacteria

transformation [genetics of prokaryotic cells] occurs when a bacterium acquires genetic material and
inserts it into the host cell genome (antibiotic resistance)

conjugation [genetics of prokaryotic cells] the bacterial form of mating; 2 cells forming a cytoplasmic
bridge (made of sex-pili) that allows them to transfer genetic material (one-way)
transduction [genetics of prokaryotic cells] occurs when a bacteriophage acquires genetic material
from a host cell, the material is packaged with viral genetic material, and the bacteriophage then infects
another bacterium

chiral, S, amphoteric [amino acids, peptides, and proteins] all amino acids are BLANK (L), have the
BLANK configuration, and are BLANK (can react as a base or an acid)

nonpolar amino acids [amino acids, peptides, and proteins] glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine,
methionine, proline (GAV LIMP)

polar amino acids [amino acids, peptides, and proteins] serine, threonine, asparagine, glutamine,
cysteine (STN QC)

aromatic amino acids [amino acids, peptides, and proteins] tyrosine, tryptophan, phenylalanine (YWF)

acidic amino acids (-) [amino acids, peptides, and proteins] glutamic acid, aspartic acid (ED)

basic amino acids (+) [amino acids, peptides, and proteins] lysine, arginine, histidine (RHK)

low pH (acidic) [amino acids, peptides, and proteins] amino acids are fully protonized at

neutral pH [amino acids, peptides, and proteins] amino acids are zwitterions at

high pH (basic) [amino acids, peptides, and proteins] amino acids are fully deprotonated at

pI (isoelectric point) [amino acids, peptides, and proteins] averaging pKa values that refer to
protonation/deprotonation gives you the

peptide bonds [amino acids, peptides, and proteins] formation is a condensation (dehydration)
reaction with a nucleophilic amino group attacking and electrophilic carbonyl; broken by hydrolysis

primary structure [amino acids, peptides, and proteins] linear sequence of amino acids (like
letters)

secondary structure [amino acids, peptides, and proteins] local structure, stabilized by hydrogen
bonding; alpha helices and beta pleated sheets (like words)

tertiary structure [amino acids, peptides, and proteins] three-dimensional structure stabilized by
hydrophobic interactions, salt bridges, hydrogen bonding, and disulfide bonds (like sentences)

quaternary structure [amino acids, peptides, and proteins] interactions between subunits (like
paragraphs)

denaturation [amino acids, peptides, and proteins] heat and solutes cause

structural proteins [nonenzymatic protein function and protein analysis] proteins that are fibrous;
collagen, elastin, keratin, actin, tubulin (CEKAT)

motor proteins [nonenzymatic protein function and protein analysis] proteins that can generate force
through a conformational change; myosin, kinesin, dynein (MKD)

binding proteins [nonenzymatic protein function and protein analysis] proteins that bind a
substrate either to sequester it in the body or to hold its concentration at a steady state
cell adhesion molecules (CAM's)[nonenzymatic protein function and protein analysis] molecules that
bind cells to other cells or surfaces; cadherins, integrins, selectins (CIS)

antibodies [nonenzymatic protein function and protein analysis] aka immunoglobulins; target
antigens

ion channels [biosignaling] channels that can be used to regulate ion flow into or out of a cell; 3 main
types : ungated, voltage-gated, and ligand-gated

enzyme-linked receptors [biosignaling] receptors that participate in cell-signaling through

extracellular ligand binding and initiation of secondary messenger cascades

g protein-coupled receptors [biosignaling] receptors that have a membrane-bound protein

associated with a trimeric G protein and also initiate secondary messenger systems

ligases [enzymes] enzymes that join 2 large biomolecules

isomerases [enzymes] enzymes that catalyze interconversion of isomers

lyases [enzymes] enzymes that cleave without water

hydrolases [enzymes] enzymes that cleave with water

oxidoreductases [enzymes] enzymes that catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions

transferases [enzymes] these move functional groups from one molecule to another

enzymes [enzymes] these lower activation energy and rate of a reaction, but NOT gibbs free
energy or enthalpy (because those deal with final equilibrium position)

saturation kinetics [enzymes] as substrate concentration increases, reaction rate increases until it
hits a max; v = vmax[S] / km + [S]; at 1/2 Vmax, [S] = km

michaelis-menten kinetics [enzymes]

lineweaver-burk kinetics [enzymes]

cooperative enzymes [enzymes] enzymes that show a sigmoidal curve on a michaelis-menten plot

competitive enzymes [enzymes] bind at the active site, increase Km, and do not change Vmax

noncompetitive enzymes [enzymes] bind at the allosteric site, do not change Km, and decrease
Vmax

mixed enzymes [enzymes] bind at the allosteric site, can increase or decrease Km, and decrease Vmax

uncompetitive enzymes [enzymes] bind at the allosteric site, decrease Km, and decrease Vmax

carbohydrates [carbohydrate structure and function] organized by number of carbons and functional
groups

trioses, tetroses[carbohydrate structure and function] 3 carbon sugars, 4 carbon sugars

aldoses [carbohydrate structure and function] sugars with aldehydes

ketoses [carbohydrate structure and function] sugars with ketones

d-sugars [carbohydrate structure and function] sugars with last carbon with -OH group on the
right

l-sugars [carbohydrate structure and function] sugars with last carbon with -OH group on the left

enantiomers [carbohydrate structure and function] non-superimposable mirror images; l-sugars and
d-sugars are

diasteriomers [carbohydrate structure and function] differ at one carbon at least; make up epimers
(differ at chiral carbon) and anomers (differ at anomeric carbon)

anomeric carbon [carbohydrate structure and function] new chiral center in a ring closure;
contained the carbonyl in straight chain form

alpha anomer [carbohydrate structure and function] -OH on anomeric carbon trans to functional group

beta anomer [carbohydrate structure and function] -OH on anomeric carbon cis to functional group

fructose [carbohydrate structure and function]

glucose [carbohydrate structure and function]

galactose [carbohydrate structure and function]

mannose [carbohydrate structure and function]

monosaccharides [carbohydrate structure and function] oxidation-reduction reactions,

esterification, and glycoside formation are all reactions of BLANK

monosaccharides fructose, glucose, galactose, mannose

disaccharides sucrose, lactose, maltose

polysaccharides cellulose, starch, glucose

glycoside formation [carbohydrate structure and function] when one anomeric carbon links to
another sugar; the basis for building complex carbohydrates

cellulose [carbohydrate structure and function] polysaccharide; plant cell walls, fiber

starches (amylose and amylopectin) [carbohydrate structure and function] polysaccharides; energy
storage form for plants

glycogen [carbohydrate structure and function] polysaccharide; energy storage form for animals

nucleosides [dna and biotechnology] contain a five-carbon sugar bound to a nitrogenous base
WITHOUT phosphate groups

nucleotides [dna and biotechnology] contain a five-carbon sugar bound to a nitrogenous base AND
phosphate groups; adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine, uracil
watson-crick model [dna and biotechnology] dna model where backbone is alternating sugar and
phosphate groups; always read 5' to 3'; 2 antiparallel strands wound in a double helix; purines pair with
pyrimidines

chargaff's rules [dna and biotechnology] rules that state that purines and pyrimidines are equal in
number (A=T, C=G)

46 [dna and biotechnology] dna is organized into BLANK chromosomes in human cells

nucleosomes, histone protein (H1) [dna and biotechnology] dna is wound around histone proteins
(H2A, H2B, H3, H4) to form BLANK which are stabilized by another BLANK

chromatin [dna and biotechnology] dna and its associated histones make up

heterochromatin [dna and biotechnology] dense, transcriptionally silent dna

euchromatin [dna and biotechnology] less dense, transcriptionally active dna

telomeres [dna and biotechnology] the ends of chromosomes; high G-C content to prevent
unraveling

centromeres [dna and biotechnology] in the middle of the chromosome, hold sister chromatids
together until they're separated in the anaphase; high G-C content to prevent unraveling

prokaryotic dna replication [dna and biotechnology] one origin of replication per chromosome,
helicase unwinds dna strands, then stabilized by single-stranded dan-binding protein, rna primers
synthesized by primase, dna synthesized by dna poly III, rna primers removed by dna poly I, rna replaced
with dna by dna poly I, okazaki fragments joined by dna ligase, positive supercoils removed by dna
topoisomerase II, telomeres not synthesized

eukaryotic dna replication [dna and biotechnology] multiple origins of replications per
chromosome, helicase unwinds dna strands, then synthesized by primase, dna synthesized by dna
polymerases alpha and gamma, rna primers removed by range h, rna replaced with dna by dna poly
gamma, okazaki fragments joined by dna ligase, positive supercoils removed by dna topoisomerase II,
telomeres synthesized by telomerase

dna replication [dna and biotechnology] semi-conservative; one old parent strand with one new
daughter strand is incorporated in each of the 2 new dna molecules

dna polymerase[dna and biotechnology] synthesizes new dna strands; reads template dna 3' to 5' and
synthesizes new strand 5' to 3'

leading strand [dna and biotechnology] strand that requires only 1 primer and can then be synthesized
continuously

lagging strand [dna and biotechnology] strand that requires many primers and is synthesized in
discrete "okasaki" fragments

recombinant dna [dna and biotechnology] dna composed of nucleotides from two different
sources
dna cloning [dna and biotechnology] a fragment of dna is introduced into a vector plasmid.
restriction endonuclease cuts the fragment with the plasmid, leaving sticky ends which can bind. once
replicated, bacterial cells can be used to create a protein or be lysed the isolate the fragment from the
plasmid.

dna libraries [dna and biotechnology] large collections of known dna sequences; include genomic
libraries and cdna libraries

genomic libraries [dna and biotechnology] libraries that contain large fragments of dna, including
coding and non-coding regions of the genome. these cannot be used to create recombinant proteins or
for gene therapy.

cdna libraries [dna and biotechnology] aka expression libraries; libraries that contain smaller
fragments of dna which only include the exons of genes expressed by the sample tissue. these can be
used to create recombinant proteins or for gene therapy.

hybridization [dna and biotechnology] the joining of complimentary base pair sequences

pcr [dna and biotechnology] making millions of copies of a dna sequence from a small hybridization
sample

agarose gel electrophoresis [dna and biotechnology] separates dna molecules by size

southern blotting [dna and biotechnology] used to detect the presence and quantity of various
dna strands in a sample

central dogma of biology [rna and the genetic code] dna --> rna --> proteins

start codon [rna and the genetic code] AUG

stop codons [rna and the genetic code] UAA, UAG, UGA

redundancy and wobble [rna and the genetic code] these allow mutations to occur without
affecting the protein

point mutations[rna and the genetic code] silent , nonsense (truncation), missense, and frameshift
mutations are all caused by...

silent mutations [rna and the genetic code] mutations that have no effect on protein whatsoever

nonsense mutations [rna and the genetic code] mutations that create a premature stop codon; aka
truncation mutations

missense mutations [rna and the genetic code] mutations that produce a codon that codes for a
different amino acid

frameshift mutations [rna and the genetic code] mutations that result from nucleotide addition or
removal and change the reading frame of subsequent codons

rna v dna [rna and the genetic code] a ribose sugar v. a deoxyribose, a uricil v. a thymine, single-
stranded v. double-stranded
mrna (messenger rna) [rna and the genetic code] carries the message from dna into the nucleus via
transcription of the gene; later travels into the cytoplasm to be translated

trna (transfer rna) [rna and the genetic code] brings in amino acids; recognizes the codon on the
mrna using its anticodon

rrna (ribosomal rna) [rna and the genetic code] makes up much of the ribosome; enzymatically active

transcription step 1 [rna and the genetic code] helicase and topoisomerase unwind the dna double
helix

transcription step 2 [rna and the genetic code] rna poly II binds to TATA box in promotor region

transcription step 3 [rna and the genetic code] hnrna is synthesized from dna template

posttranscriptional modifications [rna and the genetic code] 7-methylguanylate triphosphate cap
added to 5' end, poly A tail added to 3' end, splicing done by spliceosome (introns removed and extrons
ligated together); alternative splicing combines different eons to acquire different gene products

translation [rna and the genetic code] initiation, elongation, termination (all of this occurs in the
ribosome)

posttranslational modifications [rna and the genetic code] folding by chaperones, formation of
quaternary structure, cleavage of protein or signal sequences, covalent addition of other biomolecules
(phosphorylation, glycosylation, prenylation)

operons (jacob-monod model) [rna and the genetic code] inducible or repressible clusters of genes
transcribed as a single mrna (in prokaryotes)

transcription factors [rna and the genetic code] factors that search for promotor regions and
enhancer regions in the dna

promoters [rna and the genetic code] are within 25bp's of transcription start site

enhancers [rna and the genetic code] are more than 25bp's from start site

osmotic pressure [biological membranes] the pressure applied to a pure solvent to prevent
osmosis; related to the concentration of a solution (a colligative property)

passive transport [biological membranes] membrane transport that does not require atp because
the molecule is moving from high concentration to low concentration

simple diffusion [biological membranes] no transporter (type of simple diffusion)

osmosis[biological membranes] diffusion of water (type of simple diffusion)

facilitated diffusion [biological membranes] uses transport proteins (type of simple diffusion)

active transport [biological membranes] membrane transport that uses atp (primary) or another ion
gradient (secondary); secondary active transport can be further classified as symport or antiport

endocytosis, exocytosis [biological membranes] these are methods of engulfing material into cells or
releasing material into the exterior of cells, both via the cell membrane
pinocytosis [biological membranes] ingestion of liquid into the cell from vesicles

phagocytosis [biological membranes] the ingestion of solid materials into the cell

glycolysis [carbohydrate metabolism] occurs in the cytoplasm, does not require oxygen, yields 2
atp / glucose;

hexokinase [carbohydrate metabolism] important enzyme in glycolysis; present in pancreatic beta-

islet cells as part of the glucose sensor; responsive to insulin in the liver

hexokinase [carbohydrate metabolism] important enzyme in glycolysis; traps glucose

pfk-1 [carbohydrate metabolism] important enzyme in glycolysis; rate-limiting step

pfk-2 [carbohydrate metabolism] important enzyme in glycolysis; produces f2,6-bp, which activates
pfk-1

g3pdh [carbohydrate metabolism] important enzyme in glycolysis; produces nadh

3-phosphoglycerate kinase, pyruvate kinase [carbohydrate metabolism] important enzymes in

glycolysis; both perform substrate-level phosphorylation

irreversible reaction enzymes [carbohydrate metabolism] hexo(glucose)kinase, pfk-1, pyruvate kinase

lactate dehydrogenase [carbohydrate metabolism] nadh from glycolysis is oxidized aerobically by the
electron transport chain and anaerobically by BLANK

pyruvate dehydrogenase [carbohydrate metabolism] converts pyruvate into acetyl-coA;

stimulated by insulin, inhibited by acetyl-coA; yields 2 nadh / glucose molecule

citric acid cycle (cac) [carbohydrate metabolism] takes place in the mitochondrial matrix; oxidizes
acetyl-coA into co2 and generates nadh and fadh2 and gtp; yields 6 nadh, 2 fadh2 and 2 gtp / glucose
molecule)

electron transport chain [carbohydrate metabolism] takes place on the matrix-facing surface of
the inner mitochondrial membrane; nadh donates electrons to the chain, which are passed from one
complex to the next. reduction potentials increase down the chain until the electron ends up on oxygen
with the highest reduction potential; nadh cannot cross inner membrane by itself so it must use either
the glycerol-3-phosphate shuttle or the malate-aspartate shuttle

proton-motive force (oxidative phosphorylation) [carbohydrate metabolism] the electrochemical

gradient produced by the etc across the inner mitochondrial membrane

chemiosmotic coupling (oxidative phosphorylation) [carbohydrate metabolism] converting the

energy that comes from the higher proton concentration in the inner membrane space (as opposed to
the matrix) to atp

atp synthase [carbohydrate metabolism] generates atp from adp and inorganic phosphate

net energy yield (from carbohydrate metabolic processes) [carbohydrate metabolism] 2 atp from
glycolysis + 2 atp from cac + 25 atp from nadh + 3 atp from fadh2 = 30 - 32 atp / glucose molecule
glycogenesis [carbohydrate metabolism] glycogen synthesis; the building of glycogen using glycogen
synthase and branching enzyme

glycogen synthase [carbohydrate metabolism] creates an alpha 1,4, glycosidic links between
glucose molecules. activated by insulin in liver and muscles; part of glycogenesis to build glycogen

branching enzyme [carbohydrate metabolism] moves a block of olgioglucose from one chain and
connects it as a branch using an alpha 1,6 glycosidic link; part of glycogenesis to build glycogen

glycogenolysis [carbohydrate metabolism] glycogen breakdown using glycogen phosphorylase and

debranching enzyme (opposite of glycogenesis)

glycogen phosphorylase[carbohydrate metabolism] removes single glucose 1-phosphate molecules by

breaking alpha 1,4 links; activated by glucagon in the liver to prevent low blood sugar; during exercise, it
is activated by epinephrine and amp to provide glucose; part of glycogenolysis to breakdown glycogen

debranching enzyme [carbohydrate metabolism] moves a block of oligoglucose from a branch and
connects it to a chain using an alpha 1,4 link; part of glycogenolysis to breakdown glycogen

gluconeogenesis [carbohydrate metabolism] opposite of glycolysis (same enzymes); mostly

occurs in the liver, in the cytoplasm and mitochondria

pyruvate carboxylase, PEP carboxykinase [carbohydrate metabolism] in gluconeogenesis,

pyruvate kinase is bypassed by

f1,6bp [carbohydrate metabolism] in gluconeogenesis, pfk-1 is bypassed by

g6p [carbohydrate metabolism] in gluconeogenesis, hexokinase is bypassed by

pentose phosphate pathway [carbohydrate metabolism] generates nadph and sugars for
biosynthesis; occurs in cytoplasm; main enzyme is g6pdh; activated by nadp+ and inhibited by nadph
and insulin; yields 2 nadh and 2 atp

postprandial (absorptive) state [bioenergetics and regulation of metabolism] metabolic state where
insulin secretion is high and anabolic metabolism prevails

postabsorptive (fasting) state [bioenergetics and regulation of metabolism] metabolic state where
insulin secretion is low and glucagon and catecholamine secretion is high

prolonged fasting (starvation) [bioenergetics and regulation of metabolism] metabolic state where
glucagon and catecholamine secretion is dramatically high and most tissues rely on fatty acids

liver (metabolism) [bioenergetics and regulation of metabolism] maintains blood glucose through
glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis; processes lipids, cholesterol, bile, urea, and toxins

adipose tissue (metabolism) [bioenergetics and regulation of metabolism] stores and releases lipids

resting muscle (metabolism) [bioenergetics and regulation of metabolism] converts carbohydrates as

glycogen and uses free fatty acids for fuel
active muscle (metabolism) [bioenergetics and regulation of metabolism] may use anaerobic
metabolism, oxidative phosphorylation, direct phosphorylation (creatine phosphate), or fatty acid
oxidation

cardiac muscle (metabolism) [bioenergetics and regulation of metabolism] uses fatty acid oxidation

brain (metabolism) [bioenergetics and regulation of metabolism] uses glucose except in prolonged
starvation where it uses ketolysis

lipid transport [lipid and amino acid metabolism] transportation via chylomicrons, vldl, idl, ldl, and hdl

cholesterol metabolism [lipid and amino acid metabolism] cholesterol may be obtained through dietary
source or through synthesis in the liver; key enzyme in cholesterol biosynthesis is hmg coa-reductase

palmitic acid [lipid and amino acid metabolism] the only fatty acid that humans can synthesize;
produced in the cytoplasm from acetyl-coa transport out of the mitochondria

fatty acid oxidation [lipid and amino acid metabolism] occurs in the the mitochondria following
transport by the carnitine shuttle via beta-oxidation

ketone bodies [lipid and amino acid metabolism] form during a prolonged starvation state due to
excess acetyl-coa in the liver (ketogenesis); ketolysis regenerates acetyl-coa for use as an energy source
in peripheral tissues

protein catabolism [lipid and amino acid metabolism] protein digestion occurs in the small
intestine; carbon skeletons of amino acids are used for energy though gluconeogenesis or keno body
formation; amino groups are fed into the urea cycle for excretion

atomic weight [atomic structure] the average of the weighted masses of the naturally occurring
isotopes of an element

the mole [atomic structure] a unit used to count particles, represented by avogadro's number;
(mass of sample) / (molar mass)

isotopes [atomic structure] multiple species of atoms with the same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons for any given element

planck's quantum theory [atomic structure] energy emitted as electromagnetic radiation exists in
discrete bundles called quanta

bohr's model of the hydrogen atom

lyman series [atomic structure] the group of hydrogen emission lines corresponding to transitions
between upper levels n>1 to n=1

absorbance spectrum [atomic structure] characteristic energy bands that show where electrons
absorb energy

heisenberg's uncertainty principle [atomic structure] it is impossible to know the position and
momentum of an electron at the same time

n, shell, n [atomic structure] quantum number 1; denotation, character, value

l, subshell, 0 to n-1 [atomic structure] quantum number 2; denotation, character, value

ml, orbital, -l to l [atomic structure] quantum number 3; denotation, character, value

ms, spin, -.5 or .5 [atomic structure] quantum number 4; denotation, character, value

electron configuration [atomic structure]

hund's rule [atomic structure] orbitals are always filled so that there's a maximum of half full
orbitals within each subshell

valence electrons [atomic structure] electrons on the outside energy shell that are responsible for
bonding

top right [bonding and chemical interactions] increasing electron affinity trend, towards the
BLANK

top right [bonding and chemical interactions] increasing ionization energy trend, towards the
BLANK

bottom left [bonding and chemical interactions] increasing atomic radius trend, towards the BLANK

bottom left [bonding and chemical interactions] increasing metallic character trend, towards the
BLANK

octet rule [bonding and chemical interactions] an atom will bond until it fills its outermost shell,
wants to have a configuration like the noble gases

lewis structure steps [bonding and chemical interactions] 1. draw skeleton of the compound, 2. count
all valence e's, 3. draw bonds bw central atom and others, 4. complete octets, 5. place any extra e-s on
the central atom

formal charge [bonding and chemical interactions] the charge an electron would have if all e-s were
shared equally

polar covalent bond [bonding and chemical interactions] a bond where e-s aren't shared equally, but
pulled toward the more electronegative atom

bond dipoles, shape [bonding and chemical interactions] molecules with non polar bonds will always
be non polar. molecules with polar bonds may be polar or non polar depending on the orientation of the
BLANK, or BLANK

180 [bonding and chemical interactions] in linear compounds, the angle between e- pairs is BLANK

120 [bonding and chemical interactions] in trigonal planar compunds, the angle between e- pairs is
BLANK

109.5 [bonding and chemical interactions] in tetradhedral compunds, the angle between e- pairs is
BLANK

90, 120, 180 [bonding and chemical interactions] in trigonal bipyramidal compounds, the angle
between e- pairs is BLANK
90, 180 [bonding and chemical interactions] in octahedral compounds, the angle between e- pairs is
BLANK

ligands [bonding and chemical interactions] donor molecules that use coordinate covalent bonds

chelation [bonding and chemical interactions] the central cation being bonded to the same ligand
multiple times is referred to as BLANK

hydrogen bond [bonding and chemical interactions] when the partial positive charge of a hydrogen
atom interacts with the partial negative charge of electronegative atoms of nearby molecules

dipole-dipole interactions [bonding and chemical interactions] when polar molecules orient
themselves so that the positive region of one molecule is next to the negative of another molecule

dispersion forces [bonding and chemical interactions] when the electrons shared in a covalent
bond are really located randomly throughout the orbital, causing transient polarization

combustion [compounds and stoichiometry] where fuels (like a hydrocarbon) react with oxidants
(like oxygen) to produce oxide and water

combination reaction [compounds and stoichiometry] reaction where 2+ reactants form a product

decomposition reaction [compounds and stoichiometry] reaction where a compound breaks down to 2+
substances (usually from heating or electrolysis)

single-displacement [compounds and stoichiometry] reaction where an atom of one molecule is

replaced by another

double-displacement [compounds and stoichiometry] aka metathesis reactions; reaction where

elements from 2+ compounds displace each other to form 2 new compounds

net ionic [compounds and stoichiometry] equation that shows only the compounds actually
participating in the reaction

catalyst [compounds and stoichiometry] a substance that increase reaction rate without being
consumed (by lowering the reaction rate)

rate = k[A]x[B]y [kinetics and equilibrium] rate law equation

Kc or Qc = [C]c[D]d/[A]a[B]b [kinetics and equilibrium] law of mass action; Aa + Bb = Cc + Dd

Keq [kinetics and equilibrium] > 1 = more products, < 1 = more reactants; = 1 = equilibrium

le chatlier's principle [kinetics and equilibrium] determines the direction in which the reaction will
proceed when subject to stress (change in temp, concentration, pressure, etc)

law of conservation of energy [thermochemistry] law that dictates that energy cannot be created nor
destroyed

isolated system [thermochemistry] a system that cannot exchange energy or matter with the
environment
open system [thermochemistry] a system that can exchange both energy and matter with the
environment

closed system [thermochemistry] a system that can exchange energy but not matter

isothermal process [thermochemistry] a process where the system's temperature remains constant

adiabatic process [thermochemistry] a process where no heat is exchanged

isobaric process[thermochemistry] a process where pressure remains constant

isovolumetric (isochoric) process [thermochemistry] a process where volume remains constant

calorimetry [thermochemistry] indicates conditions where heat changes are measured

Q = mc∆T [thermochemistry] heat absorbed equation

state functions [thermochemistry] only the initial and final states matter; examples include pressure,
temperature, density, volume, enthalpy, internal energy, entropy, free energy

enthalpy (∆H) [thermochemistry] indicates heat changes at constant pressure

standard heat of formation [thermochemistry] the enthalpy change that would occur if one mole of
a compound formed directly from its elements

standard heat of reaction [thermochemistry] the enthalpy change that would occur if the reaction
were carried out under standard conditions; PRODUCTS - REACTANTS

hess's law [thermochemistry] states that enthalpies of reactions are additive; the reverse of a
reaction has the same enthalpy as the forward reaction

bond dissociation energy [thermochemistry] the average of the energy it takes to break a bond in
one mole of gaseous molecules

bond enthalpy [thermochemistry] bonds broken (+) + bonds formed (-) =

entropy[thermochemistry] the distribution/randomness of a system

gibbs free energy [thermochemistry] a thermodynamic criterion for determining spontaneity of a

reaction;

760 torr, 760 mmHg, 101,325 Pa [the gas phase] 1 atm =

p1v1 = p2v2 [the gas phase] boyle's law

v1/t1 = v2/t2 [the gas phase] charles's law

p1/t1 = p2/t2 [the gas phase] gay-lussac's law

n1/v1 = n2/v2 [the gas phase] avogadro's principle

p1v1/t1 = p2v2/t2 [the gas phase] combined gas law

PV = nRT [the gas phase] ideal gas law

van der wall's equation of state [the gas phase] accounts for the deviations from ideality that occur
when pressure, temperature, volume changes

Pa = PtXa [the gas phase] dalton's law of partial pressure; total pressure of a gaseous molecule =
the sum of partial pressures of individual components

vRMS = √(3RT / M) [the gas phase] root-mean-square speed

colligative properties [phases and phase changes] physical properties where only the number of
particles matters, not their nature; usually associated with dilute solutions

∆Tf = iKfm [phases and phase changes] freezing point depression equation

∆Tb = iKbm [phases and phase changes] boiling point elevation equation

n = iMRT [phases and phase changes] osmotic pressure equation

Pa = XaPoa [phases and phase changes] Raoult's Law; vapor pressure lowering; solutions that obey
this law are called ideal solutions

rate1 / rate2 = √(M2/M1) [phases and phase changes] Graham's Law of Diffusion and Effusion

diffusion [phases and phase changes] when gas molecules distribute through a volume by
random motion

effusion [phases and phase changes] when gas molecules distribute through a volume under
pressure through a small opening

CASHn Gia, except HAPpy CBS [solutions] soluble salts

not CASHn Gia [solutions] insoluble salts

mass solute / mass solution * 100 [solutions] % mass composition

Xa = na / ntotal [solutions] mole fraction equation

m = moles solute / liter solution [solutions] molarity equation

m = moles solute / kg solvent [solutions] molality equation

N = grams solute / liter solvent [solutions] normality equation

arrhenius [acids and bases] definition where acids produce excess H+, bases produce excess OH-

bronsted-lowry [acids and bases] definition where acids donate PROTONS, bases accept PROTONS

lewis [acids and bases] definition where acids are ELECTRON acceptors, bases are ELECTRON donors

10^-14 [acids and bases] Kw = [H+]{OH-] = pH + pOH =

[H3O][A] / [HA] [acids and bases] Ka =

[OH][B] / [BOH] [acids and bases] Kb =

salt formation (naturalization reaction) [acids and bases] acids + bases = salt + water (a neutralization
reaction)

hydrolysis [acids and bases] salt + water = acids + bases (opposite of salt formation)

amphoteric species [acids and bases] a species that can act as an acid or a base

titration [acids and bases] determines the molarity of an acid or base by reacting a solution
(known volume, unknown concentration) with another solution (known volume, known concentration)

pH = pKa [acids and bases] half-equivalence point in titration

pH = pKa + log[A]/[HA] [acids and bases] henderson-hasselbach equation; determines the pH of a

solution in a buffer region where concentrations of the species and its conjugate are equal

oxidation [redox reactions and electrochemistry] loss of electrons

reduction [redox reactions and electrochemistry] gain of electrons

oxidizing agent [redox reactions and electrochemistry] causes oxidation and is therefore reduced itself

reducing agent [redox reactions and electrochemistry] causes reduction and is therefore oxidized itself

galvanic cells [redox reactions and electrochemistry] (-) ∆G --> spontaneous; supplies energy and does
work; this energy can be harnessed through half-cells (splitting the reaction up into half-reactions)
connected by an apparatus for the flow of electrons

electrolytic cells[redox reactions and electrochemistry] (+) ∆G --> nonspontaneous; in electrolysis,

electric energy is required for a reaction

reduction potential [redox reactions and electrochemistry] the tendency to of a species to acquire
electrons and be reduced

standard reduction potentials [redox reactions and electrochemistry] standards used to calculate the
standard electromotive force (emf), or the difference in potential between two half-cells

tert-butyl

neopentyl

isopropyl

sec-butyl

isobutyl

-oic acid [nomenclature] carboxylic acid suffix

-anhydride [nomenclature] anhydride suffix

-oate [nomenclature] ester suffix

-amide [nomenclature] amide suffix

-al [nomenclature] aldehyde suffix

-one [nomenclature] ketone suffix

-ol [nomenclature] alcohol suffix

cis-trans isomers [isomers]

cyclic strain [isomers] includes angle strain (stretching angles) or torsional strain (eclipsing) or
nonbonded strain (interactions with subunits)

enantiomers [isomers] MIRROR IMAGES; differ at ALL chiral centers

diasteriomers [isomers] NOT mirror images; differ at SOME chiral centers

R [isomers] clockwise priority groups around a stereocenter = BLANK configuration

S [isomers] counterclockwise priority groups around a stereocenter = BLANK configuration

Z [isomers] an alkene is BLANK (configuration) if the highest-priority substituents are on the SAME
SIDE of the double bond

E [isomers] an alkene is BLANK (configuration) if the highest-priority substituents are on OPPOSITE

SIDES of the double bond

SN1 v. SN2

nucleophiles [alkanes] "nucleus-loving", have lone pairs or π bonds that can form new bond to
electrophiles; more electron density = more nucleophilicity

increased nucleophilicity [alkanes] increasing charge =

decreased nucleophilicity [alkanes] increasing electronegativity, bulkier molecules, and protic

solvents =

protic solvents hydrogen donating solvents are called

nucleophilicity [alkanes] determined by 4 factors : charge, electronegativity, steric hinderance, solvent

bacicity (F- > Cl- > Br- > i-) [alkanes] in aprotic solvents, nucleophilicity parallels BLANK

protons, nucleophiles (I- > Br- > Cl- > F-) [alkanes] in protics solvents, good bases pick up BLANK and are
worse BLANK

top left periodic table trends, bacicity goes towards the BLANK

bottom left, top left periodic table trends, nucleopilicity goes towards the BLANK for protic solvents
and the BLANK for aprotic solvents (like bacicity)

electrophiles [alkanes] "electron-loving", have a (+) charge, increase with increased (+) charge;
carbonyl carbon, substrate carbon in an alkane, carbocations

leaving groups [alkanes] molecular fragments that retain electrons after heterolysis (both electrons go
to one product after bond breakage); the best ones stabilize extra electrons; weak bases, large groups
with resonance, large groups w ewg's
determining mechanisms [determining organic mechanisms] know your nomenclature, identify
functional groups, other reagents, the most reactive functional group, the first step of the reaction, and
consider sterospecifity

alcohols [alcohols] have higher boiling points (less soluble) than alkanes

alcohol synthesis [alcohols] addition of water to π bonds, sn1 and sn2 reactions, reduction of
carboxylic acids, aldehydes, ketones, esters

alcohol reactions [alcohols] substitution reactions after protonation or leaving group conversion

heteroatom the atom that is not C or H (F, Cl, Br, I)

alkyl halide

amine

aldehyde

ketone

imine

carboxylic acid

anhydride

ester

amide

oxidation [organic redox] loss of electrons, fewer H bonds, more bonds to heteroatoms (o, n, etc)
(takes the H from a molecule)

reduction [organic redox] gain of electrons, more H bonds, fewer bonds to heteroatoms (o, n, etc)
(adds H to a molecule)

oxidizing agents[organic redox] agents that have high affinity for electrons (O2, O3, Cl2) or unusually
high electron states (Mn7+, Cr6+)

reducing agents[organic redox] agents that have low electronegativities and ionization energies;
sodium, magnesium, aluminum, zinc, metal hydrides, pretty much anything with an H and are therefore
stable

PCC [organic redox] an oxidizing agent, converts primary alcohols to aldehydes

mesylates, tosylates [organic redox] alcohols can be converted to these to make them better leaving
groups from substitution reactions

protecting groups [organic redox] alcohols can be used as these for carbonyls, as reaction with a
dialcohol forms an unreactive acetal; can be removed with an aqueous acid

phenol [phenols and quinone derivatives] the H of this group is particularly acidic bc the oxygen-
containing anion is resonance-stabilized by the ring
quinones [phenols and quinone derivatives] treatment of phenols with oxidizing agents produces
these

hydroxyquinones [phenols and quinone derivatives] further oxidation of quinones produces

these; most have biological activity

ubiquinone [phenols and quinone derivatives] aka coenzyme Q; a vital electron carrier associated
with complexes I, II, and III of the etc; can be reduced to ubiquinol and oxidized back (called the Q cycle)

aldehyde synthesis [aldehydes] oxidation of primary alcohols and ozonolysis of alkenes

aldehyde reactions [aldehydes] michael additions, nucleophilic addition to a carbonyl, aldol

condensation, and decarboxylation

carboxylic acids [carboxylic acids] have pka values around 4.5 because of resonance stabilization of the
conjugate base; electronegative atoms increase acidity with inductive effects; bp is higher than alcohols
because these can form 2 H bonds

conjugate acid-base pairs

carboxylic acid synthesis [carboxylic acids] oxidation of primary alcohols with KMnO4, hydrolysis
of nitriles

carboxylic acid reactions [carboxylic acids] ester formation, reduction to alcohols,

decarboxylation

lactams [cyclic carboxylic acid derivatives] cyclic amides

lactones [cyclic carboxylic acid derivatives] cyclic esters

carboxylic acid derivatives [carboxylic acid derivatives] acyl halides (most reactive), anhydrides,
carboxylic acids + esters, amides (least reactive)

acyl halide

pyrophosphate (PPi) [phosphorous-containing compounds] P2O7-4; released during formation of

phosphodiester bonds in DNA; unstable in aqueous solution and is hydrolyzed to form 2 molecules of Pi

extraction [purification methods] separates dissolved substances based on differential solubility in

aqueous v. organic solvents

distillation [purification methods] separates liquids based on boiling points (which depend on
intermolecular forces); types include simple, fractional, and vacuum distillation

simple distillation [purification methods] separates two liquids with boiling points below 150C and
that are at least 25C apart

fractional distillation [purification methods] separates liquids when their boiling point are LESS than
25C apart

vacuum distillation [purification methods] separates liquids when boiling points are GREATER than
150C (decreased pressure = decreased boiling point)
filtration [purification methods] separates solids from liquids

chromatography [purification methods] uses a stationary phase and a mobile phase to separate
compounds based on size or polarity

recrystallization [purification methods] separates solids based on solubility in varying temperatures

electrophoresis [purification methods] separates macromolecules based on size or charge

thin-layer [purification methods] type of chromatography used to identify a sample stationary

phase - polar card, mobile phase - nonpolar solvent

reverse-phase [purification methods] type of chromatography used to identify a sample, opposite of

thin-layer; stationary phase - nonpolar card, mobile phase - polar solvent

column [purification methods] type of chromatography used to separate a sample into components;
stationary phase - polar gel or powder, mobile phase - non polar solvent

ion-exchange [purification methods] type of chromatography used to separate components by charge;

stationary phase - charged beads in column, mobile phase - non polar solvent

size-exclusion [purification methods] type of chromatography used to separate components by size;

stationary phase - polar, porous beads in column, mobile phase - non polar solvent

affinity [purification methods] type of chromatography used to purify a molecule of interest; stationary
phase - beads coated with antibodies, mobile phase - non polar solvent

gas [purification methods] type of chromatography used to separate vaporizable compounds;

stationary phase - crushed metal, mobile phase - inert gas

high-performance liquid [purification methods] type of chromatography with same use as

column chromatography (separate a sample into compounds), but more precise; stationary phase -
small column with concentration gradient, mobile phase - non polar solvent

infrared spectroscopy [spectroscopy] measures molecular vibrations of characteristic functional

groups

UV spectroscopy [spectroscopy] involves passing uv light through a chemical sample and plotting
absorbance v wavelength

NMR [spectroscopy] look for types of protons (# of peaks), position of peaks (further left = downfield
= more deshielded), integration of peaks (larger integration = more protons/peak), and splitting (H's on
adjacent carbons will split into n + 1 sub peaks)

vectors [kinematics] force and velocity are examples of BLANK

scalars [kinematics] mass and speed are examples of BLANK

uN [kinematics] static friction, the force that must be overcome to set an object in motion, ≤

uN [kinematics] kinetic friction, the force that opposes the motion of objects moving relative to
each other, =
newton's first law (law of interia) [newton's law] a body in motion will remain in motion unless
acted upon by another force

newton's second law [newton's law] F = ma is BLANK

newton's third law [newton's law] Fb = -Fa is BLANK

G(m1m2) / r^2 [newton's law] newton's law of gravitation --> Fg =

v^2 / r [newton's law] centripital acceleration (ac) =

mv^2 / r [newton's law] centripital force (Fc) =

translational equilibrium [newton's law] ∑F=0 is BLANK

Fdcos(ø) [work and energy] linear work = ; also, +W = expansion, -W = compression, and W = area
under a P v. V curve)

W/t [work and energy] power, or the rate at which work is performed, =

.5mv^2 [work and energy] kinetic energy (Ke) =

mgh [work and energy] potential energy (U) =

aLo∆T [thermodynamics] linear thermal expansion (when temperature increases, length of a solid
increases "a lot"), ∆L =

ßVo∆T [thermodynamics] thermal volume expansion ∆V =

conduction [thermodynamics] transfer of energy via molecular collisions

convection [thermodynamics] transfer of heat by physical motion of a fluid

radiation [thermodynamics] transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves

gained, lost [thermodynamics] Q = mc∆T; Q > 0 means heat is BLANK, Q < 0 means heat is BLANK

mL [thermodynamics] heat of transformation, or the quantity of heat needed to change the phase
of 1 gram of a substance, Q =

Q - W [thermodynamics] first law of thermodynamics; ∆U =

-W [thermodynamics] in an adiabatic process, ∆U =

Q [thermodynamics] in a constant volume process, ∆U =

W [thermodynamics] in an isothermal process, Q =

second law of thermodynamics [thermodynamics] states that entropy, or disorder, increases

m/V [hydrostatics and nuclear dynamics] density, p =

pobject / pwater (10^3) [hydrostatics and nuclear dynamics] specific gravity (of a submerged object) =

F/A [hydrostatics and nuclear dynamics] pressure, P =

Po + pgh [hydrostatics and nuclear dynamics] absolute pressure, P =

P + Patm [hydrostatics and nuclear dynamics] gauge pressure, Pg =

A1v1 = A2v2 [hydrostatics and nuclear dynamics] continuity equation (of fluids)

bernoulli's equation [hydrostatics and nuclear dynamics]

p(buoy)v(submerged)g [hydrostatics and nuclear dynamics] Buoyant Force = weight of object

submerged =

archimedes' principle [hydrostatics and nuclear dynamics] the buoyant fouce is equal to the weight of
the displaced fluid

sink, float [hydrostatics and nuclear dynamics] if the weight of the fluid displaced is LESS THAN the
object's weight, the object will BLANK; if GREATER THAN, it will BLANK

F1/A1 = F2/A2 [hydrostatics and nuclear dynamics] pascal's principle, or that a change in pressure in an
enclosed system is transmitted undiminished

k(q1q2) / r^2 [electrostatics] coulomb's law, F =

kq1 / r^2 [electrostatics] electric field, E =

torque [electrostatics] an electric dipole feels no new translational force, but experiences a BLANK
about the center causing it to rotate so that the dipole moment aligns with the electric field

U / q (J / C) [electrostatics] electrical potential, V =

W/q [electrostatics] potential difference (voltage), V =

Q/t [circuits] current, or the flow of electric charge (from high to low potential), I =

IR [circuits] ohm's law, V =

pL / A [circuits] resistance, or opposition to the flow of charge (increases with increasing temperatures)
R=

kirchhoff's laws [circuits] 1. the sum of current flowing into a junction must equal the sum of the current
leaving at any junction, and 2. the sum of voltage sources = the sum of voltage drops around a closed-
circuit loop

1 / (1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3) [circuits] resistance in parallel, Req =

R1 + R2 + R3 [circuits] resistance in series, Req =

IV, V^2 / R, I^2R[circuits] power dissipated by resistors, P =

Q/V [circuits] capacitance, or the ability to store charge per unit volume, C =

C1 + C2 + C3 [circuits] capacitance in parallel, Ceq =

1 / (1/C1 + 1/C2 + C3) [circuits] capacitance in series, Ceq =

.5CV^2 [circuits] energy stored by capacitors, U =

1 / T, f*lambda [waves] wave equations, f = , v =

nv / 2L, 2L / n [waves] standing waves and open pipes equations, f = , lambda = ,

nv / 4L, 4L / n [waves] closed pipes equations, f = , v =

P/A [sound] sound intensity, I =

10log(I / Io) [sound] sound level, ß =

f(v+vo) / (v-vs) [sound] doppler effect; observer and detector moving closer = + in numerator and - in
denominator, and vice versa; f'

c/v [optics] refraction, n =

n1sinø1 = n2sinø2 [optics] snell's law

dsinø = n*lambda [optics] diffraction, dark fringes equation

1/o + 1/i = 1/f = 1/r [optics] optics (thin spherical lenses) equation

concave mirror [optics] + f ; an object placed WITHIN focal length will form a VIRTUAL and ENLARGED
image

convex mirror [optics] - f ; an object placed inside the focal length will form an UPRIGHT VIRTUAL
image

converging (convex) lens [optics] used to correct hyperopia (farsightedness)

diverging (concave) lens[optics] - f ; image formed is always VIRTUAL and DIMINISHED

converging (convex) lens [optics] + f ; objects WITHIN the focal length form an VIRTUAL and
ENLARGED image; behind the focal length from a REAL and INVERTED image, at the focal point will form
NO image

diverging (concave) lens[optics] used to correct myopia (nearsightedness)

-i / o [optics] magnification, m = ; - m = image is reduced and inverted image and vice versa

hf, hf - W [atomic and nuclear phenomena] photoelectric effect, E = ; K =

c / lambda frequency =

mc^2 [atomic and nuclear phenomena] mass defect, E = ; the difference between the sum of the
masses of nucleons in the nucleus and the mass of the nucleus; this is the binding energy that hold
nucleons within the nucleus

noe^t*-lambda [atomic and nuclear phenomena] half-life equation, n =

alpha decay [atomic and nuclear phenomena]

beta-minus decay [atomic and nuclear phenomena]

beta-plus decay [atomic and nuclear phenomena]

logA + logB [mathematics] logA * B =

logA - logB [mathematics] logA / B =

BlogA [mathematics] logA^B =

log(1 / A) [mathematics] -logA =

small sample size [research design] amplifies effects of statistical anomalies

bias [research design] minimized by proper participant selection, blinding, and randomization;
selection BLANK, detection BLANK, hawthorne effect

beneficence [ethics] requirement to do good

nonmaleficence[ethics] "do no harm"

autonomy [ethics] the ability to act and make decisions for yourself

justice [ethics] considering only morally relevant differences between patients and distributing
healthcare resources fairly

p-value [data analysis] the probability that results were obtained by chance given that the null
hypothesis is true

confidence interval [data analysis] a range of values believed to contain the true value with a given
level of probability