Journal of Blood Medicine
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Physical and psychosocial challenges in adult
hemophilia patients with inhibitors
Sue duTreil
Louisiana Center for Bleeding
and Clotting Disorders, Tulane
University Health Sciences Center,
New Orleans, LA, USA
Correspondence: Sue duTreil
Tulane University Health Sciences
Center, 1430 Tulane Ave TB-31,
New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
Tel +1 504 988 3567
Fax +1 504 988 3508
Email sdutreil@tulane.edu
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http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/JBM.S63265
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Abstract: Numerous challenges confront adult hemophilia patients with inhibitors, ­including
difficulty in controlling bleeding episodes, deterioration of joints, arthritic pain, physical dis-
ability, emotional turmoil, and social issues. High-intensity treatment regimens often used in
the treatment of patients with inhibitors also impose significant scheduling, economic, and
emotional demands on patients and their families or primary caregivers. A comprehensive
multidisciplinary assessment of the physical, emotional, and social status of adult hemophilia
patients with inhibitors is essential for the development of treatment strategies that can be
individualized to address the complex needs of these patients.
Keywords: adult hemophilia patients with inhibitors, adherence, physical challenges, psycho-
social challenges, health-related quality of life
Introduction
While bypassing agents can achieve an effective level of control for most bleeding
episodes in hemophilia patients with inhibitors, their hemostatic efficacy is not equiva-
lent to that of factor replacement in patients without inhibitors and bleeding is harder
to control.1 Patients with inhibitors have worse treatment-related outcomes, including
greater incidence of joint abnormalities, more rapid progression of arthropathy, more
chronic joint pain,2–5 and an increased incidence of intracranial hemorrhage than patients
without inhibitors.6 The assumption has been that these poor outcomes are the result of
inadequately controlled intra-articular bleeding in patients with inhibitors. However,
a prospective study of patients with hemophilia and inhibitors has reported joint and
other types of bleeds at lower frequencies than those described in some studies of
patients without inhibitors.7 Additional factors that might contribute to these outcomes
include comorbidities and high-intensity treatment and are discussed later.
The purpose of this paper is to review the major psychosocial challenges faced by
adult patients with inhibitors where such data exist, to describe the need for psychoso-
cial data specific to patients with inhibitors, and to suggest psychosocial intervention
strategies for patients dealing with the challenges of hemophilia with inhibitors. In
order to identify articles describing these issues, literature searches were conducted
through PubMed for the term “hemophilia OR haemophilia” in combination with
“quality of life”, “social”, “family”, “psychosocial”, “work”, “self-esteem”, “stress”,
and “psychological”. Searches were limited to the last 10 years, English language, and
adult populations ($18 years of age). Results from these searches were combined
and duplicates, laboratory, and genetic studies removed. Studies involving patients
Journal of Blood Medicine 2014:5 115–122 115
© 2014 duTreil. This work is published by Dove Medical Press Limited, and licensed under Creative Commons Attribution – Non Commercial (unported, v3.0)
License. The full terms of the License are available at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/. Non-commercial uses of the work are permitted without any further
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duTreil
with inhibitors were then hand-selected from a search for
“inhibitor”.
Physical impact of inhibitors
in patients with hemophilia
Hemophilic arthropathy in patients
with inhibitors
Hemophilic arthropathy is an ongoing cumulative process
that eventually results in damaging joint effects.8–11 The long-
term effects on joints include limited range of motion (ROM),
deformity, crippling disability, and chronic pain.3,4,12–14
­Studies have confirmed that patients with inhibitors experi-
ence greater ROM limitations and joint pain at an earlier
age than those without inhibitors.3,4,15 Patients with high-titer
inhibitors clearly demonstrate worse clinical and radiological
joint scores than patients without inhibitors, and a three-fold
increased risk of disability,3,4,12 due to more rapidly progres-
sive joint disease.2,11,16
Strategies for joint disease management
in patients with inhibitors
Several strategies are important in the management of
evolving joint disease in patients with inhibitors, including
exercise, physical therapy, orthopedic interventions, and pain
management.10 In addition, recent studies17–19 suggest that
the prevention of joint bleeding may be possible with the
regular use of secondary prophylaxis with bypassing agents,
a therapeutic modality that could be helpful in interrupting
the progression of joint disease if started early in patients who
are experiencing repeated bleeding in a particular joint.
Physical inactivity, especially early in a patient’s clinical
course (prior to the development of end-stage joint disease)
can lead to weight gain and muscle weakening, both of which
may increase the likelihood of joint bleeds.3,4,20,21 In patients
with and without inhibitors, exercise is essential to strengthen
muscles and maintain general fitness, which in turn can protect
joints and improve patients’ physical, emotional, and social
well-being.22 Low-impact activities such as swimming are
highly recommended because they can improve overall fitness,
build muscle strength, and reduce the risk of joint bleeds.22–24
Supervised physical training can reduce bleeding frequency,
increase isometric muscular strength, and increase propriocep-
tive performance.25,26 Some other sports, such as golf, tai chi,
and bicycling, are deemed to be of safe-to-moderate risk,27 and
may be appropriate for patients with inhibitors, particularly
with routine prophylactic coverage with bypassing agents
when necessary to prevent joint bleeds.17,18 Even with some
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existing joint disability, adult patients with inhibitors should
be encouraged to find an appropriate, individualized exercise
plan that can help to protect joints that have not yet experi-
enced significant damage.
Physical therapy may be helpful in restoring joint
motion, muscle flexibility, and strength, particularly for
patients with chronic synovitis that has not yet progressed
to end-stage joint disease.28,29 For patients with inhibitors,
isometric exercises are best for beginning physical therapy
followed by cautious use of resistive exercises. A distinct
set of exercises is utilized for each joint to help maintain
or improve ROM, proprioception, and muscle strength.28,29
Physical therapy may also be helpful in restoring function
after muscular bleeds.
Orthopedic procedures have become an increasingly
important option to improve mobility and quality of life (QoL)
in the inhibitor population;30–32 however, the benefits and risks
should be determined on an individual basis. A comprehensive
approach by the hemophilia care team to manage expectations
for surgical improvement of orthopedic status in patients with
inhibitors is imperative to optimize the outcome.
Pain
A serious consequence of progressive joint disease that can-
not be surgically corrected in all patients with hemophilia is
chronic pain; often, this pain persists despite the patient’s and
medical team’s best efforts to control joint bleeding and dis-
ease progression.12,13,33,34 Intractable pain can lead to chronic
narcotic use, and in some patients, dependence on alcohol
and illicit drugs to augment attempts at pain relief.34
While the early administration of bypassing agents and
appropriate use of pain medication are useful for managing
pain associated with acute bleeds, pain management for
patients with chronic arthropathies that are not amenable
to medical, physical, or surgical interventions can be quite
difficult. In addition to analgesic medications, therapies
for arthropathy may include cryotherapy, hydrotherapy,
­electrotherapy, acupuncture, relaxation techniques, and gentle
manual mobilization of arthropathic joints. 11,13,23,28,29,35,36
Managing moderate to severe pain with the use of opioid
analgesics is often necessary; however, opioid analgesics may
have serious long-term side effects, including issues of drug
dependence.13,34 For chronic pain that is difficult to manage,
patient referral to a pain clinic is appropriate.
Comorbid conditions
In addition, comorbid conditions may further complicate
the management of adult patients with or without ­inhibitors;
Journal of Blood Medicine 2014:5
Dovepress Physical/psychosocial issues in hemophilia patients with inhibitors

the most serious include human immunodeficiency virus without inhibitors3,44 (Table 1). As would be expected based
(HIV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections,37 arthritis,8,12 on these factors, the QoL of patients with inhibitors is lower
osteoporosis,38,39 and obesity.20 HIV- and HCV-positive than for non-inhibitor hemophilia patients.4,12,13,33,45 A limited
individuals may contend with significant clinical problems number of studies of psychosocial well-being have been per-
related to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) or formed in patients with hemophilia (reviewed by Cassis46),
liver disease, both of which are associated with increased and data exploring the specific issues faced by patients with
bleeding symptoms and clotting factor consumption.37 inhibitors are largely lacking and highlight the need for more
Increased incidences of osteoporosis and arthritis may studies in this area.
result from recurring hemarthroses and frequent limb
immobilization.38,39 Higher body mass index, an increasing Health-related QoL
problem among all segments of the US population, can be Taken together, the challenges faced by patients with
particularly problematic for patients with arthropathy in inhibitors (Table 1) combine to have a significant negative
weight-bearing joints because it is associated with greater impact on well-being, as well as psychosocial functional
limitations of ROM.4,20 As with any aging population, older status.3,14,33 Patients are affected in both their personal and
patients with inhibitors may also experience other comorbid professional lives. Studies of health-related QoL have shown
conditions such as diabetes, hypertension, renal disease, and that significantly more patients with inhibitors had difficul-
cancer.21,40 ties managing daily life challenges compared with those
without inhibitors.3,14,33 Work-related challenges include
Effect of high-intensity medical absenteeism, concerns about insurance coverage,
treatment approaches and limitations for advancement and promotion.3 A greater
Aggressive high-intensity treatment approaches, including proportion of patients with inhibitors may be unemployed
immune tolerance induction (ITI) for inhibitor eradication
and prophylactic use of bypassing agents, are often indicated
Table 1 Outcomes for hemophilia patients with and without
to mitigate bleeding risk and improve patient QoL.1,17,41,42 inhibitors
Highly effective treatment options are more limited for
Parameter Patients Patients
individuals with inhibitors compared with those without with without
inhibitors.1,2,11 Frequently used treatment options in patients inhibitors inhibitors
with inhibitors include high-intensity factor concentrate Risk of disability (odds ratio)16 2.9 1.0
regimens and require a major commitment of time and Daily activities-related problems (%)3 50 72
Positive health rating (%)16 69 80
resources from patients and their families. These regimens
Gilbert clinical scale (0–72), median5 23.5 15
include: 1) ITI therapy to eradicate recently developed Pettersson’s radiological scale (0–78), 24 22
inhibitors,41 2) administration of higher doses of factor VIII   median5
(.50 IU/kg) to control bleeding for patients with low-titer Joint abnormality (%)15 72.2 38.4
Home therapy (%)4 60.7 46.7
inhibitors (,5 BU),43 and 3) prophylactic regimens consist- Mobility-related problems (%)3 75 33
ing of frequent administration of bypassing agents to prevent  Wheelchair use 24 4
bleeding in an attempt to interrupt joint bleeding and further  Walking aid 50 29
Experience of pain/discomfort (%)3 72 49
joint deterioration for patients with high-titer inhibitors
Pain scale (0–18), median5 4 3
(.5 BU).17,18 These therapeutic strategies pose significant Hospitalization from bleed-related 62.1 28.7
challenges to patients and their families due to cost, time   complications (%)4
commitments, and the need to maintain rigorous adherence Prior 1-year history of hospitalization 16 4
  for orthopedic surgery (%)3
to the protocols being used.
Orthopedic surgery during study 66 37
  period (%)3
Psychosocial impact of inhibitors Cost range of orthopedic surgery (US$)44 5,000–500,000 5,000–50,000
on patients with hemophilia School absenteeism3
 Mean number of days 35.5 11.6
Patients with inhibitors also have higher incidences of Patients (%) 87 60
mobility-related problems,3,4,15,16 hospitalizations,3,4 school Work absenteeism3
and work absenteeism,3 and difficulty maintaining a job,3  Mean number of days 50.3 30.6
Patients (%) 80 71
along with higher treatment costs, compared with patients

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or ­u nderemployed, or may receive disability income 3
compared with patients without inhibitors and the general
population.16,47
Social issues associated with employment, disability sta-
tus, medical absenteeism, and insurance coverage also nega-
tively impact patient perception of self and self-esteem. Low
self-esteem has been correlated with depression, ­anxiety, and
low social expectations; patients with hemophilia with or
without inhibitors have been shown to have lower self-esteem
than healthy subjects.48 In addition to these challenges, the
inhibitor patient may struggle with:
• Self-autonomy because he needs assistance with self-care
when joint damage does not allow him full ROM;
• fear that he may have a bleed that cannot be stopped;
• and embarrassment that he is unable to compete with
other men in sports, personal relationships, and physical
appearance.
Approaches to assist the patient with these psychosocial
issues can include problem solving, self-care, anger manage-
ment techniques, encouraging more social contacts, and open
communications with family and medical professionals.49
Mental health
We speculate that loss of independence, the inability to
achieve educational goals, and difficulty with employment
suffered by many patients with inhibitors likely contribute
to low self-esteem. In a study50 of 60 hemophilia patients
(seven ,20 years of age and 53 .20 years of age) who were
compared to 78 healthy subjects, it was found that subjects
with hemophilia had lower self-esteem than the control group
and that self-esteem correlated with the potential to develop
depressive or anxiety disorders.
Catastrophizing is a coping strategy used by hemophilia
patients who lack a personal sense of psychosocial well-
being, and strong positive correlations have been described
between the use of this coping mechanism and pain and dis-
ability in these patients.34 Adult hemophilia patients utilize
coping strategies similar to patients with other chronic disease
or pain states, although the use of such a strategy has been
shown to be independent of disease severity.34,48
Up to one-third of individuals with a serious medical
condition have symptoms of depression;46,51 experience at our
hemophilia treatment center suggests a similar rate exists in
our hemophilia patient population. Men affected by depres-
sion often report experiencing fatigue, loss of interest, and
irritability rather than the feelings of sadness or guilt that are
more commonly reported by women, reflecting a significant
gender difference.51 Moreover, depression worsens health
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scores when diagnosed in conjunction with other chronic
illnesses.46,48,51 Social isolation and depression may also
occur in patients with inhibitors as the result of having a
long-term chronic condition accompanied by pain and limited
mobility.46 Referrals for psychological and social support to
combat depression and feelings of isolation are critical for
the well-being of these patients.
Self-esteem and effects on adherence
A major key to success is patient adherence to the complex
medical treatment regimens required for patients with inhibi-
tors, because even brief periods of nonadherence can lead to
a major loss in efficacy of the treatment regimen in general.
For example, interruption of daily factor VIII infusion given
for ITI may lead to reemergence of an inhibitor that had
been responding to the tolerance program and may result in
the loss of gains previously made at a high cost. Similarly,
a patient on prophylaxis with daily bypassing therapy who
has experienced benefit in the prevention of joint bleeding
may experience recurrent joint bleeding and joint deteriora-
tion with an interruption of therapy.
The demanding nature of high-intensity treatment regi-
mens, such as ITI and prophylaxis, used in many patients with
inhibitors can significantly affect adherence rates of adult
patients with inhibitors.41,45,52,53 One study of 47 hemophilia
patients (including 28 adults) noted that adherence to high-
intensity regimens was significantly worse than adherence
to on-demand treatment regimens.52 High-demand regimens,
such as ITI and prophylaxis, require regular infusion therapy
in the absence of symptoms, often skewing patient percep-
tion that prophylactic treatment is unnecessary.45,53 A global
survey found that overall compliance rates declined in an
age-related manner, with the lowest rate at 36% in those
aged 19–58 years.54 Other major barriers to adherence include
patient failure to understand treatment benefits, patient denial,
poor venous access, lack of family support, lifestyle interfer-
ence, teenage rebellion, time constraints, relief or disappear-
ance of symptoms, and forgetfulness.54,55
In order to adhere to complex therapy that is not based
on present symptoms but on a longer view of achieving and
maintaining health in the future, patients have to be forward-
looking and optimistic, and should appreciate that their future
health is worth the present investment. There is evidence in
individuals with diabetes mellitus that self-esteem impacts
treatment adherence,56 and that low self-esteem results in
patients placing a low-priority value on the effort required
to adhere to a complex treatment process that may serve as
a negative reminder of health impairment. Since the study
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associating low self-esteem with poor adherence was in
patients with diabetes, further studies evaluating this causal
pathway in patients with hemophilia should be done prior
to developing and implementing interventions to raise self-
esteem. It is important that efforts are made to help patients
address negative attitudes, expressions, and beliefs that are
suggestive of self-esteem problems.
Psychosocial intervention strategies
Psychosocial professionals often use the “strengths
perspective”57 when working with patients. This approach
assumes that all individuals have strengths, access to
resources, and the capacity to grow. It also assumes that
people learn from difficulties they encounter in life as well
as from their successes. The primary intervention strategy
used in the strengths perspective is based on developing these
capacities in order to overcome adversity and achieve goals.
The strategy encourages positive coping skills, including
motivation, resilience, willpower, and the ability to see illness
as an opportunity that will help the patient to more readily
accept his disease and adhere to the treatment plan. Psycho-
social professionals are trained to listen to the patient’s life
story, which often includes the patient’s cognitive, emotional,
and behavioral reactions to situational events in his life. By
learning to listen beyond the failed and pathological reactions,
the psychosocial professional hears the coping mechanisms
or strengths the person uses to live in the present and to find
a path to the future.
Psychosocial professionals often engage the patient by
using cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) techniques to
help relieve the patient’s negative feelings.58 The National
Alliance on Mental Illness describes CBT as a technique
based on the theoretical concept that behaviors and feelings
are formed by our thoughts and that we can learn new ways
of thinking.59 CBT is a proven theory that has shown to be
a somewhat more superior treatment than antidepressants
in adults with depression.60 Consequently the psychosocial
professional will help patients and their families recognize,
challenge, test, and change negative thoughts and unrealistic
beliefs into positive, realistic ones. This is done by having
the patient or family member reframe the negative thought or
unrealistic belief. Reframing begins with establishing that the
negative thought is only one way of describing the problem
situation, and then visualizing and verbalizing other versions
of the problem that are more positive. An example would be
a college student with an inhibitor who believes he is not an
intelligent person because he failed a test. His psychosocial
professional would help him reframe this conception by
Journal of Blood Medicine 2014:5
Physical/psychosocial issues in hemophilia patients with inhibitors
helping him to see that it was just one test and to think about
what might have caused that one test to be a problem. Did he
do all the homework assignments in that subject? Does he
know how to study for a test? What does he think he needs
to pass the next test? This introduction to a more realistic
concept of the problem gives the patient a new way to think
about it; one that is more positive and gives hope that the
problem can be fixed.
Adult hemophilia patients with inhibitors are usually
patients with joint disease, and consequently, are experienc-
ing much pain. In a recent article,61 a list of interventions that
are non-pharmacologic are given for pain management in
patients with hemophilic arthropathy, including acupuncture,
biofeedback, CBT, distraction, exercise, guided imagery,
herbal therapy, hydrotherapy, hypnosis, integrative therapy,
physical therapy, therapeutic massage, and transcutaneous
electrical neurostimulation (TENS). Of these interventions,
acupuncture, physical therapy, and TENS address the physical
pain directly. The other interventions could be and are used
by psychosocial and medical professionals to intervene with
emotional and behavioral reactions to difficult life situations,
including pain.
An article in the National Hemophilia Foundation’s
publication, HemAware,62 gives descriptions by patients
with inhibitors of their use of self-hypnosis to control joint
pain. There is no way to measure pain objectively, so it is
the patient’s perception of pain that determines their level of
pain. These patients report that having a method to calm the
mind while internally visualizing the pain decreasing does
impact the level of pain experienced.
Meditation is another intervention that is similar to hypno-
sis, in that it can be used as a self-induced form of relaxation.63
It takes less time than hypnosis and its purpose is simply to
induce a relaxed state, but not so relaxed that that the brain
is open to suggestion, as is the case with self-hypnosis. One
achieves this state of relaxation by quieting oneself, usually
with deep breathing and becoming mindful of that breathing.
Visualizations (for example, thinking of being on a beach or
in the forest) can also be used to bring the patient to this state.
By practicing meditation periodically during the day, patients
with inhibitors have found their overall pain has been reduced
and that they cope better emotionally.
Recommendations for an integrated
approach to challenges faced
by the inhibitor patient
Interventions to improve the QoL of patients with inhibitors
are best handled by a multidisciplinary team approach that
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duTreil
includes physicians, nurses, social workers, physical and
occupational therapists, and psychologists. Clinical care
includes the prevention and management of bleeding events
and complications of bleeding, and regular exercise and visits
to a physical therapist to maintain good joint health, slow or
prevent the development of musculoskeletal complications,
and mitigate chronic arthropathies and chronic pain.
The psychosocial component of the comprehensive
care model is highly important for patients with inhibitors.
Screening for symptoms of low self-esteem, low coping
skills, depression, anxiety, and substance abuse should
begin early in life and continue throughout adulthood. The
psychosocial team member helps the inhibitor patient to
improve or enhance his QoL by counseling and assisting him
in obtaining a wide range of services and resources regarding
his adjustment to having hemophilia with an inhibitor. These
resources may be needed to address educational needs, career
choices, employment, finances, transitioning to adulthood,
interpersonal relationships, parenting skills, self-esteem,
coping skills, mental health, substance abuse, aging, and
end of life issues. Additionally, assessing patients’ commit-
ment to treatment and adherence to complex therapies may
be best accomplished by psychosocial team members so
that intervention strategies can be instituted early to provide
these vulnerable patients with the best chance at achieving
and maintaining a good QoL.
Adjunctive therapeutic strategies for adult patients should
ideally include vocational contingency planning for possible
work-related disruptions caused by bleeding and disability.
Finally, familial and caregiver support, combined with effec-
tive intervention strategies by the multidisciplinary team,
will assist in building good self-esteem and positive coping
strategies such as problem solving and increased socializa-
tion skills in patients, leading to improved physical and
emotional well-being.
Treatment plans should involve the entire comprehensive
team and encompass both physical and psychosocial evalua-
tions and intervention strategies. The goals of intervention are
to maintain good physical function, prevent joint disease and
chronic pain (when possible), and screen patients for early
signs of mental health problems that can negatively impact
QoL and adherence to treatment.1,34,46
Acknowledgments
Editorial assistance was provided by Jim Loss, PhD, CMPP,
ETHOS Health Communications, Newtown, PA, USA,
with financial assistance from Novo Nordisk, in compliance
with international guidelines for Good Publication Practice.
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I would like to thank Cindy Leissinger, MD, for her review
and contribution to the manuscript.
Disclosure
The author reports no conflict of interest in this work.
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