nd CONTROL AALS Sa ANTata McGraw Hill Published by the Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110008, Control Systems Engineering, 2e Copyright © 2010, by Vijay Nicole Imprints Private Limited, No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system without the prior written permission of the publishers and copyright holders. The program listings (if any) may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication. This edition can be exported from Indie only by the publishers, ‘Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited. ISBN(13): 978-0-07-067193-5 ISBN(10): 0-07-067193-1 Information contained in this work has been obtained by publishers, from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither publishers nor copyright holders guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published he and neither publishers nor copyright holders shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that publishers and copyright holders are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. Laser Typeset at: Vijay Nicole Imprints Private Limited, Chennai - 600 042 Printed at: Saibonds Print Systems Pvt. Ltd, Chennai - 600 095 2QXLCRQFRBRDR,Contents Preface ait CuapTer 1 INTRODUCTION L1__ The History of Automatic Control 1.2 Control System Terminologies 1.3 _ System Representation 1.4 Regulator System 14.1 Example of Open Loop Regulator System 142 Example of Closed Loop Regulator System 15 Example of Servomechanism 1.6 Gomputer Gontrol System 1.6.1 Temperature Control System Using P.C. 1.6.2 Pressure Control System Using P.C. 1.7_Comparison of Open Loop and Closed Loop Systems L21 Advantages of Open Loop Systems 1.72 Disadvantages of Open Loop Systems 1.73 Advantages of Closed Loop Systems 1.74 Disadvantages of Closed Loop Systems 1.8 System Classification 1.8.1 Open and Closed Loop Systems 1.82 Linear and Nonlinear Systems 1.83 Time Invariant and Time Varying Systems 1.84 Continuous and Discrete Systems 185 Deterministic and Stochastic Systems 186 Lumped Parameter and Distributed Parameter Systems 1.8.7 SISO and MIMO Systems 1.8.8 System Classification Based on Components Used _ “Chapter Summary Beenie Cuaprer 2 Maruemarica, Mopeuine or Puysican Systems 2.1 Introduction 21 2.1.1 Mathematical Modeling~Transfer Function Model : 2.1 2.2 Mechanical Systems 2.2 Copyrighted materialvim Control Systems Engineering 2.2.1 Mechanical Translational Systems 23 2.2.2 Rotational System 23 22.3 Dynamic Equations of Mechanical Translational System 23 2.2.4 The Step by Step Procedure 26 23 Lever and Gear Arrangements 2.17 ‘on Model for Elecrical Nenwark 2.9 2.5 Transfer Function of Separately Excited D.C. Generator 2.26 fe 9 stiaehawat C DOM 297 2.6.1 __No Load Transfer Function neh eae Condition 27 Transfer Function of Field C: 4DG.1 2.8 Armature Controlled and Field Controlled. D.C. Motor-Comparison 2.30 Chapter Stmmary . 2.40 Bere Cuarrer 3 ExectricaL ANALOGUE ‘B.1__Inroduction’ : al 3.2 Force-Voltage Analogy 3.1 3.3 Force-Current Analogy 32 (Chapter Summary 3.40 Exerciv . 3.40 Cuaprer 4 Brock Diacram RepucTION TECHNIQUE AND SIGNAL FLow Grapu 4.1 Introduction 4) 42° Block Diagram Representation of a System 42 4.3 Basic Connections for Blocks 3 CG G " z 4.3.2 Parallel Connection 42 © 44 BlockDizgram Algebra 44 4.5 Multiple Input System 4.19 4.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Block Diagram Representation 4.29 4.6.1 Advantages 4.29 46.2 Disadvantages 4.29 4.7 Signal Flow Graphs 4.30 4.8 Definitions of Basic Terms for Signal Flow Graph 4.30 4.9 Basic Rules of Signal Flow Graph 431 Copyrighted matContents m vii 4.10 _ Basic Conneation for Signal Flow Graph 431 4.11 Gain Formula For Signal Flow Graph (Mason's Rule) 432 4.12 _ Signal Flow Graph Conversion from Block Diagram 444 4.13 Application of Mason’s Gain Formula between Output Node and Non-input Nodes 4.66 Chapter Summary 4.68 Breereige 4 Cuarrers Time Response or Freppack Conrrou Systems” 5.1__Introduction 5.1 5:2 Second Order System Model 5.2 5.3 Steady State Error for Step Input 5.3 5.4 Steady State Error for a Ramp Input of @, Slope 5.4 ‘55 TDS as _ 5A 5.6 Transient Response (or Time Response or Dynamic Response) of First and Second Order Systems 82 5.7 Test Signals 5.8 5.71 Impulse Signal 58 5.22 Step Signal _ 5.9 5.73 ___Ramp Signal z 5.9 5.74 Acceleration Signal 5.10 5.8 Review of Partial Fraction Expansion 5.10 5.9 Laplace Transform Table 511 5.9.1 Initial Value Theorem 5.12 5.9.2 Final Value Theorem é 5.12 $9.3 Shift Theorem 4 8 5.10 _ Analytical Method of Determining the Residues 5.13 5.11 Graphical Method of Determining the Residues 5.16 5.12 ‘Transient Response of a First Order System 5.20 5.13 _ Performance Characteristics of First Order System 5.21 $13.1 Time Constant 521 5.13.2 Settling Time 5.22 5133 TimeDelay : 529 5.14 Transient Response of a Second Order System 5.22 "5.15 Step Response of 2 Second Order System 5.22 5.15.1 Underdamped Case ¢ <1 5.23 5.15.2 Critically Damped Case £ =1 5.24 5.153 Overdamped Case ¢ >1 5.25 5.16 _ Expression for the Overshoot M, 5.27viii_m Control Systems Engineering 5.17__ Time Domain Specifications 5.121 __Overshoot 5172 Time Delay ¢ 5.1724 Rise Times, 5.175 Seuling Time? See aoe al een 5.12.7 The Number of Oscillations before Settling Time is Reached 5.18 Impulse Response of a Second Order System 5.19 ‘Type and Order of Feedback System 5.19.1 Static Error Coefficients and Steady State Error 5.20 Steady State Error for Step Input 5.21 Steady State Error for Velocity Input 5.22 Steady State Error for Acceleration Input 5.23 The Generalized or Dynamic Error Coefficients 5.93.1 Alternative Method of Determinin, ic Error Constants 5.24 Steady State Error due to Disturbances 5.95 _ Effects of Adding Poles and Zeros to a Second Order System sp awoke : Sein af a 5.26 PID Controllers 5.27 — PD Connoller 5.28 PU Controller 5.29 Rate Feedback or Tachogenerator Feedback Control 5.20 Reset Contrallers 5.32 _ Effect of Pole Location on Transient Response 5.33 _ The Sensitivity Chapter Stanmary Exar Cuaprer 6 Frequency Domatn Aatysis or ConTrou SysTEMs 6.1__Introduction 6.2___ Advantages of Frequency Response Method 6.3 Frequency Response Plots 63.1 Polar Plot 63.2 Bode Plot 6: Magnitude versus Phase Shift Plot 6.4 — Step by Step Procedure to Draw Folar Plot 5.29 5.29 5.29 5.29 5.30 5.30 5.31 5.31 5.32 5.62 5.62 5.63 5.64 5.65 5.70 5.73 5.81 5.81 5.82 5.83 5.83 5.84 5.85, 5.86 5.89 5.90 5.92 5.96 5.96Contents m ix 6.5 Sketching a Polar Plot 6.3 6.6 Mini onsen Phage Taasle Punch 7 Minimum Phase Ti Funct 6.8 All Pass Transfer Function CLO 69 Correlation between Transient and Frequency Response Methods 6.16 6.10 Bode Plot 6.20 6.11 __ Advantages of Bode Plot 6.20 6.12_General Rule to Drawa BodePlots 6.13 _ Step By Step Procedure to Draw the Bode Magnitude Plot 6.26 6.14 Bode Plot for Glosed Loop Second Order System 6.38 6.15 Determination of Transfer Function from Bode Magnitude Plot 6.41 6.16 Frequency Domain Specifications 6.48 6.16.1 Phase Margin and Gain Margin from Bode Plots 6.49 6.17 _ Obtaining Closed Loop Frequency Response from Open Loop Transfer Function— 6121 The Constant MCirdes 8 6122 ‘The Constant N Circles 62 6.18 Gain Adjustment for the Desired M, Using Constant M Circle 675 1.19 ination of K fc iver ichol’s 6.20 _ Forced Sinusoidal Response 6.80 Chapier Summary , 6.82 Beerge BS Cuaprer 7 Stasivrry or Linear Controt Systems 721__Introduction 2 72__ Relative Stability 12 72.1 Zero Input Stability 73 72.2 _ Asymptotic Stability : 73 72.3_Marginal Stability 73 73___ Impulse Response Funetion 74 74 Stability Definition via Impulse Response Function 14, 75 Characteristic Equation of Control System, 76 76 Stability Condition 76 7.7___Routh’s Stability Criterion 78 78___Factorising the Polynomial Using Routh-Hurwitz Method 741 729 Determination of RHP, LHP and Imaginary Roots from Routh’s Test 745 710 Determination of Marginal Value of K from Routh Test 77x Ml Control Systems Engineering 7.1L Determination of Roots to the Right and Left of any Vertical Line other than the Origin 719 7.12__ Routh’s Test for System with Transportation Lag = 7.23 7.13 Conformal Mappings and the Principle of Arguments 724 714 The Principle of Arguments 730 7.15 Nyquist Stability Criterion 731 7.15.1 Nyquist Criterion-Statement 734 7.15.2 Advantages of Nyquist Stability Criterion 7.34 7.16 Procedure to Count WV, 734 717 Step by Step Procedure of Applying Nyquist Criterion 740 718 Nyquist Test for Systems with Imaginary Axis Poles of G()) 758 719 Determination of Stability from Bode Diagram 7.60 720 Poles of GH(3) on the jw Axis 7.62 721 Nyquist Test for System with Time Delay (Transportation Lag) : 7.80 Chapter Summary 782 Exercise 7.84 Cuarrer 8 Root Locus Tecunigue 81 Introduction Q1 es 5 Pre 83 To Determine the Gain Margin and Phase Margin from Root Locus 8.16 8.4 Root Locus with Addition of Pole: R55 8.5 — Root Locus with Addition of a Zero 8.56 8.6 Root Locus for K<0 (Inverse Root Locus) 8.58 Chapter Summary 8.66 Evan 8.67 Cuarrer 9 DESIGN OF CONTROL SYSTEMS IN TIME AND FREQUENCY Domains 9.1 Introduction 9.1 9.2 Cascade Compensators 9.2 9.2.1 Lead Compensator 92 9.2.2 Transfer Function of Lead Compensator 92 9.2.3 Design of Lead Compensator by Frequency Response Method 94 9.2.4 Design of Lead Compensator Based on Root Locus Technique 97 9.2.5 Design of Lag Compensator 99 9.2.6 Phase Lag Compensator Design by Frequency Response Method 9.10 9.2.7 Phase Lag Compensator Design Using Root Locus Technique 9.14 9.2.8 Design of Lag-Lead Compensator " 9.16 9.2.9 Lag-Lead Compensator Design Using Frequency Response Method __9.18 9.2.10 Design of Lag-Lead Network by Root Locus Method 9.22Contents m xi 9.3. Design of Feedback Controller : Rate or Tachometer Feedback 9.26 94 Design of PID Controllers 9.27 9.4.1 PID Controller Design in the Frequency Domain’ 9.28 94.2 PID Controller Design by Root Locus Method 9.29 Chapter Summary 5 9.33 Exercise 9.34 Cuaprer 10 Conrrou System COMPONENTS 10.1 Introduction 101 10.2 Error Detectors 10.2 Synchros * 102 ‘Transmitter (Synchro Generator) 10.2 Synchro Control Transformer (G:T) (Receiver) 104 ‘Transfer Function of the Synchro 105 A Position Control System Using 2 Pair of Synchros as Error Detector 10.5 Potentiometer 106 Servo System Using Potentiometer as Error Detector . 107 10.3 Servomotors 108 10.8.1 ‘Two Phase AG. Servomotor ‘The Stepper Motor 10.11 Advantages of Stepper Motors 10.11 Disadvantages of Stepper Motors 10.12 ‘Applications of Stepper Motors 10.12 ‘Types of Stepper Motors 10.12 Stepper Motor—The Preliminaries 10.12 Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor 10.14 10.3.9 Rotor Movement 2S 103.10 _ Permanent Magnet Stepping Motor 10.15 10.3.11, Construction of a Two Stack Reluctance Type Stepper Motor 10.17 10.3.12 Haw the Rotor Moves? 2 0B 10.4 Hydraulic Servomotor 2 - 10.20 10.5 Pneumatic Controllers—Advantages 10.20 10.6 Pneumatic Proportional Gontroller—Flapper Valves 10.20 10.7 Gear Trains 10.21 10.8 ‘Tachogenerators 10.92 10.8.1 D.C. Tachogenerator 10.22 10.8.2 A.C. Tachogenerator 10.23 Chapter Summary 10.28 Boeri 2Copyrighted materialPreface Control Engineering which is an exciting and challenging field is a multi-disciplinary subject since many engineers from different disciplines design and implement control systems according to their requirements. An electrical engineer designs a control system to maintain constant output power, a mechanical engineer tries to control the position of a machine’s cutting tool, the chemical engineer develops the design strategy to maintain the speed of a conveyor belt. in all these designs, the engineers need to combine process and control engineering knowledge with design procedures, mathematical skills and analysis tools. The ultimate objective of every one of them is to implement controllers in real time systems. Such an implementation requires very strong mathematical foundation. Ihave written this book with the materials I have collected during my long experience, spanning about four decades of teaching control systems engineering to the undergraduate, postgraduate and doctoral level students in national level reputed institutions, The book in the present form is written to meet the requirements of undergraduate syllabus of Indian universities in general and Anna University in particular, for B.E. degree course in ECE, EEE, CSE, Eé&| and Bio-medical Engineering. Many interesting and advanced topics such as state space modeling and analysis, non-linear systems, digital control systems, Matlab, etc. could not be incorporated in this book as they all have been excluded from the syllabi of most of the universities. The organization of the book is as follows. In Chapter 1, a brief introduction about control system concept is given and various terminologies used are explained. The merits of feedback conceptare illustrated with suitable examples. ‘To understand and contro! complex systems, one must obtain a reasonably good mathematical model. Most of the physical systems are dynamic in nature and they are described by differential equations. In Chapter 2, the method of writing the differential equations for electrical, mechanical, hydraulic and pneumatic systems are explained. Finally, these systems are represented by the classical transfer function model, Mechanical, thermal, hydraulic, pneumatic and electro-mechanical systems can be represented and studied by their equivalent electrical circuits, which can be more easily constructed. In Chapter 3, force-voltage and force- current electrical analogous circuits are constructed for the given mechanical, translational and rotational systems. In different parts of control systems, the physical nature and configuration of different devices and sub-systems may be different. Iti therefore essential to develop a common language for co-ordinated analysis and design as a whole for such systems, This is possible by representing the systems in the block diagram form, irrespective of their physical nature and configuration. Chapter 4 deals with the representation of physical system in block diagram formand its reduction technique to express explicitly the relationship between the input and output variables, To overcome some of the limitations of block diagram respresentaion and tediousness in reduction, signal flow graph hes been suggested. The use of signal flow graph and the application of Mason’s gain formula are also described in this chapter. The ability to adjust transient and steady state performance is a distinet advantage of feedback control systems. To analyse and design a control system, its performance must be defined and measured. The parameters are so adjusted to get the desired response. For the dynamic systems, the performance specifications are given in terms of transient'response and steady state response. In Chapter 5, the transient and steady state responses for standard test signals such as impulse, step and ramp are obtained and the system performance characteristics studied. ‘The steady state response of a system for sinusoidal input is called frequency response of the system, when the frequency is varied for wide range. The frequency response can be used to investigate absolutexiv m Control Systems Engineering stability and relative stability, Important concepts such as phase margin, gain margin, bandwidth etc. are developed in Chapter 6 using polar plot, Bode plot and Nichol’s chart. The stability of feedback control system is very much essential in control systems design. An unstable closed loop system is ofno practical value. It is therefore essential to develop methods to help us analyse and design stable systems. In Chapter 7, Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion, a time domain approach and Nyquist stability criterion, a frequency domain method are discussed and a variety of examples presented. ‘The performance of feedback control system can be described in terms of the locations of the roots of the characteristic equation in the s-plane. By judicious selection of system parameters, the desired response of the closed loop system can be achieved. It is therefore useful to determine how the roots of the characteristic equation move around the s-plane as any one parameter of the system is varied. The graph of the locus of roots of the closed loop systems as one system parameter varies is known as root locus plot and this is discussed in Chapter 8. Determination of closed loop system stability, transient response, phase margin and gain margin are also explained here. & By adjusting the system parameters, the desired response obtained is not sufficient to obtain the desired performance, In such cases we must examine the scheme and obtain a new design that results in suitable systems that give suitable performance. In Chapter 9, such a scheme is described using a compensator. Lead, lag, lag-lead series compensators and PID controllers are designed using both frequency response method and root locus technique. A.closed loop system consists of an error detector, servoamplifier, actuator, gear, feedback transducers, etc. The detailed descriptions of these contorl systems components are given in Chapter 10. The notable features of this book include the following: 1. The syllabus content of control systems engineering for undergraduate level of most of the Indian universities has been well covered. 2. The organization of the chapters are sequential in nature. 3. Theoretical concepts have been supplementedireinforced by worked out numerical examples and presented in a graded manner. 4, Numerous problems that appeared in various university examinations have been solved in a lucid style. Many new problems not discussed earlier have been included. Alternative and simplified methods of solving numerical problems have been given wherever necessary. 5, A large number of problems, short and objective type questions with answers have been added in the exercise of each chapter. 6. The chapter summary given at the end of each chapter, would be helpful to students in summing up essential developments in the chapters. = take this opportunity to thank Shri. P K Madhavan, Managing Director, Vijay Nicole Imprints, Chennai for ‘coming forward to publish this book. { would like to thank Ms. Bindiya Balan, Jr. Acquisitions Editor and others in Vijay Nicole who were associated in the preparation of this book. | also thank the reviewers for their useful suggestions to reshape some of the material contents in the book. | would like to thank my wife Dr S Manimegalai, who was the source of inspiration while preparing this book. Finally 1 would like to dedicate this book to my beloved teachers, (late) Prof. P C Manoharan who introduced me to the fascinating theory of electricity and (late) Dr K L P Mishra who taught me the basics of what the research is about. Their untimely demise indeed had created a big vacuum in my academic life. They were extremely committed to their work. Suggestions and constructive criticism for the improvement of the book are always welcome. Dr S PalaniGHAPTER Introduction In earlier days, people relied on muscle power or used animals to do work which needed lot of energy from them. Simple mechanical devices such as wheels and levers were later used to ease their work. Power from natural resources was also utilised to drive ships, wind mills and water wheels to supplement human energy. Since then slow and steady progress is made in the design and development of devices by means of which people.could utilise power ina convenient way. The early devices predominantly had manual control. Soon it was felt that manual control of machines and equipments ‘was very monotonous and control of certain machines was beyond the physical ability of human being. At this juncture the idea of controlling the machines and equipments by themselves was thought of and the first significant work came in the form of automatic control of centrifugal governor for speed control of steam engines by James Watt in 1769. In recent years automatic control systems have become increasingly important as a very strong problem solving discipline. There are a variety of computer systems that require sophisticated control strategies to achieve acceptable performance within an uncertain environment. They find increased applications in manufacturing, process industries, aircraft control, space research, navigation, biomedical engineering etc. Ina sense the advent of automatic control represents the second industrial revolution. Automatic control systems are physical systems which have dynamic behaviour. The study of control is not only: concerned with engineering applications but also extends to other areas like economics, business, political systems and so on. Control of adisease epidemic by inoculation, increased agricultural production by proper use of fertilisers, irrigation and insecticides, containment of forest fires set in by lightning or other natural means and wild life management for a designed ecological balance are examples of automatic control systems with man made controllers. Sensor equipped industrial robots, refrigeration and air conditioning systems, missile, aircraft, spacecraft, ship guidance, chemical process control, automatic washers, dryers and microwave ovens are examples of human devised control systems with human devised controllers. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES 1. Togivea brief introduction to Control Systems and define various terminologies used. 2. To classify the system and discuss about the advantages and disadvantages of open loop and closed loop systems with examples.1.2m Control Systems Engineering ™ 1.1. THE HISTORY OF AUTOMATIC CONTROL The history behind the theory of automatic control is really a fascinating one. In the year 300 to 1 B.C. the automatic float mechanism was developed in ancient Greece and was used in water clocks and oil lamps. In 1572 the automatic temperature regulator system was used in Europe and in 168] automatic pressure regulators for steam boilers were introduced. These control systems were designed based on intuition and invention. The first significant contribution came from James Watt in 1769 who designed the centrifugal governor for automatic speed control of a steam engine. Only in 1868, a scientific approach was given by Maxwell who developed the mathematical model to control a steam engine. Henry Ford, in 1913 introduced the mechanised assembly machine for automobile production. The United States of America and USSR were two countries that contributed significantly to the development of automatic control theory eventhough they had different approaches. H. W. Bode in 1927 and H. Nyquist in 1932 who worked together in BELL Telephone System, USA, did pioneering works in the frequency domain approach. During the same period the Russians too showed their dominance in the time domain approach. However, during World War II, the engineers and scientists were subjected to tremendous pressure and it became necessary for them to design and construct automatic airplane pilots, gun positioning systems, radar antennas and other automatically controlled war weapons. They used feedback control theory and successfully completed the jobs. ‘The frequency domain approach dominated in the 1940s. However, in 1948, W. R. Evans developed the root locus technique which is a time domain approach. Frequency domain and root locus together formed the core of classical control theory which then gained prominence. They were soon found powerless when applied to multivariable and non-linear systems as they were in general not optimal. Analtenative to classical control theory was thought of for quite sometime and it wag successfully achieved in 1970. The system was described by » first order differential equations and the concept of state was introduced. When the system dynamic equations were converted into ‘state’ equations, the model so developed was called State Space Model. Based on this model, the very popular optimal control theory was developed by L. S. Pontryagin in the former Soviet Union and R. Bellman in the USA independently. This modem control theory was able to cope up with the stringent requirements on accuracy, weight, cost, space etc. In 1980, Robust controllers were developed which effectively rejected the internal and extemal disturbances and parameter variations. When the system complexity increased, control of system variables became more and more difficult. Digital computers were then intentionally introduced to monitor and control the systems and they were in use since 1970, Control techniques based on the theory of Artificial Neural Network, Fuzzy Logic, Genetic Algorithm or a combination of the above have been developed and used since 1990s along with digital computers. These techniques are called recent control techniques. Now, controllers are successfully designed using Ant Colony and Particle Swarm techniques with much improved performance. These Controllers are called intelligent controllers.Introduction m 1.3 @ 1.2 CONTROL SYSTEM TERMINOLOGIES The following terminologies, very frequently used in control system study are defined as follows: System A system is defined as a set (collection) of interconnected objects with a definite relationship between the objects and attributes. The interconnected components provide the desired function. Objects are the parts or components of a system. For example, switches, spring, masses, dash- pots, transistors, transformers, generators, inductors, capacitors, resistors etc. are the objects. Attributes are the characteristics of objects. Given below are some of the objects and their attributes. Objects Attributes Inductor Voltage across and current through inductor Mechanical spring | Spring tension and displacement Switches Speed of operation and state Motor Speed and torque Consider a simple electrical network such as shown in Fig. 1.1 which comprises of a resistor, an ‘inductor and a capacitor connected in series. The network is connected to an external voltage source V,, We call this as a system because there are three objects namely the resistor, the inductor and the capacitor and the attributes of these objects are V, and i, V,.and i and V,. and i respectively. The definite relationship between the object and the attributes are: V,=iR Fig. 1.1 Electrical System Control Systems Control systems are the systems that implement certain objectives. For example we need to control" the speed of an electric motor. The objective here is to maintain constant speed irrespective of load1.4 m Cohtrol Systems Engineering variation, Accessories like potentiometer, tachogenerator ete., connected to the motor form the control system. The motor is the controlled object of the system and its speed is the attribute. Input Input to a system is an attribute of a system varied directly and independently by an operator. In the example cited in Fig. 1.1, voltage source V, is the input because it is the attribute of the system and could be varied independently by the operator. Output Output of a system is an attribute which varies as a result of variation in the input of the system and the output could be observed but not varied directly by the operator. In the example shown in Fig. 1.1, Vi» V, and V,. are taken as outputs. Variables Variables are attributes of asystem. These could be input variables or output variables or intermittent variables. In Fig. 1.1, V, is the input variable and V,, V, and V,, are the output variables. Current i is the intermittent variable. System Parameters Parameters are properties of the objects. In Fig. 1.1 R, Z and C are system parameters. Servomechanism Servomechanism represents the branch of feedback control system in which the output is either mechanical positioning or its time derivatives such as velocity or acceleration. Automatic positioning of anti-aircraft gun, radar antenna, rudders in ships are some examples of servomechanism. Servomechanism is meant as a faithful servant. Regulator System Regulator system is a system which maintains system output at a prescribed level. Speed cantrol of A.C. and D.C. motors, voltage control of A.C. and D.C. generators are examples of regulator systems. @ 1.3 SYSTEM REPRESENTATION All physical systems are described by mathematical relationships and they are represented in block diagrams. The block diagram contains input, output and control system components represented in blocks. Each block also contains the functional relationship between the output and the input. Consider the following equation. C(s) = Ris) G(s) (uy where R(s) is the Laplace transform of the input variable 7(?), C(s) is the Laplace transform of the output variable c(¢), and G(s) is the functional relationship between the output variable and the input variable. Equation (1.1) is represented as a block diagram in Fig, 1.2(a) and this is called an open loop system, Now consider the following equations:Introduction m 1.5 C(s) = Els) G(s) Els) = R(s) - C(s) H(s) (1.2) Forward path element Ris) ‘or power actuator cw Reference input variable oe [Output or controled (Objective or Control action) variable (Result) (a) Error detector Reference Fo) Ee co input +N = as) Quien Erroror (Control action) oF (actuating signal) Hs) |e Foodback element 0) Fig. 1.2 (a) Block Diagram of Open Loop System (b) Block Diagram of Closed Loop System Equation (1.2) is represented as a block diagram in Fig. 1.2(b). This system is called a closed loop or feedback or automatic control system. Fig 1.2(a) representing open loop system is converted into feedback control system by introducing a transducer (feedback element) and an error detector. When the output of the feedback element gets subtracted from the reference input, the system is called negative feedback control system. If the feedback output gets added to the reference input, the system is called positive feedback system. The following definitions which are useful for further study are given below. Open Loop System An open loop system is one in which the control action or actuating signal is independent of the output or the desired result as shown in Fig, 1.2(a). Closed Loop System A closed loop system or feedback control system is one in which the control action depends on the | output. Here there is a definite relationship between the output and input. By comparing/them the difference is obtained and used as a means for control (Fig. |.2(b)).1.6 w Control Systems Engineering Control Action Control action refers to the actuating signal of the system. It is also called by the name error signal. Error Detector It is the comparator which compares the output of the feedback element with the reference input signal and the difference of these two signals appears as the output of the error detector. Feedback Element Feedback element converts the controlled variable to a form which is comparable to the reference input signal. For example, if the reference input is voltage and the controlled variable is speed, then the feedback element (called transducer) converts speed into voltage which is compared with the reference input signal which is also in the form of voltage. Examples of Open Loop System sy Qa | Fig. 13 Toilet Bowel Flushing System (Open Loop) In Fig. 1.3 the most commonly used toilet bowel flushing mechanism is shown. Here the water inlet valve is manually opened to fill water in the tank. As soon as the tank is full, the water flow Q,, is stopped manually by closing the inlet valve. If one forgets to close the input valve it would result in infinite flow of water into the tank and thus resulting in loss of water apart from flooding the area. This is an example of open loop system since correction of control of liquid level is not automatically done when the desired level is reached. Pressure Colbrats: Controller +] Actuator | Damper | Furnace: > Input Fig. 1.4 Furnace Pressure Control Sysiem (Open Loop) Fig. 1.4 depicts another example of an open loop control system represented as a block diagram. The pressure inside furnace is controlled by the rotational position of the damper. The controller is calibrated in terms of pressure and for a given setting adjusts the position of the damper through the actuator.Introduction m Examples of Closed Loop Systems | Dau Fig. 1.5 Toilet Bowel Flushing System (Closed Loop) Consider the toilet bowel mechanism shown in Fig. 1.3. This open loop system could be converted into a closed loop system by adding a float which acts as the feedback element as shown in Fig. |.5. ‘When the water level in the tank decreases, the float would come down allowing more water to flow. Once the desired level of water in the tank is reached, the float moves up pushing the inlet valve up and restricting the flow of water into the tank. This is an example of closed loop system, Pressure > Controller Acuator +—> Damper }—»| Fumace Transducer Fig. 1.6 Furnace Pressure Control System (Closed Loop) Consider the pressure control open loop system shown in Fig, 1.4. This also could be converted into a closed loop system by introducing a transducer in the feedback path as shown in Fig. 1.6. Here the pressure inside the furnace is measured by a pressure transducer whose output is proportional to the pressure applied and is fed back and compared to the calibrated input. The error detectorcompares these two and the error is applied to the controller. When the furnace pressure falls, the transducer output also falls. However, the error signal is increased when applied to the actuator through the controller. For higher error signal the rotational position of the damper is increased which increases the furnace pressure. This process is continuous and acts very fast till the desired pressure is restored inside the furnace. On the other hand, if the furnace pressure increases due to some obvious reason, the transducer output is also now increased which results in the fall of error signal for a negative feedback system. This ultimately decreases the rotational position of the damper thereby decreasing the furnace pressure. This automatic corrective measure continuously acts in the system until the desired pressure of the furnace is restored. Thus, the pressure of the furnace is always retained automatically to the set level. If the desired pressure is changed from one set value to another set value, the feedback path has to be opened and the reference input has to be changed. After getting the desired pressure, the1.8 m Control Systems Engineering feedback path is closed and automatically corrects any change in pressure in the furnace. This is an example for a feedback system. Eyes > action steering >| ‘Muscular Car Fig. 1.7 Biological System Abiological system along with a machine (a motor car) is shown in Fig. 1.7.A driver is steering a car.9, is the desired position and @, is the actual position of the car in the road. The driver is supposed to run the car within the boundaries of the road. To avoid any collision with vehicles coming, from the opposite direction, he should have full control over 6,. By changing the steering of the wheel, he fixes 8, . If there is any deviation between 6, and 8, the eyes of the driver senses this as error ‘e’. The objective of the driver is to make the error ‘e’ zero. If it is not zero, the eyes send actuating signal to the brain. The brain sends signals to the muscle arms which contro! the steering wheel. Once the error “e” becomes zero, the muscle action stops. The eyes of the driver act as the error detector and this is an example of combination of biological and machine feedback control system. If the eyes are closed, the feedback loop is broken and the system becomes an open loop. ™ 1.4 REGULATOR SYSTEM @ 1.4.1 Example of Open Loop Regulator System ¥ (@) 1gRig + Armature Reaction Drops Va Fig. 1.8 (a) Regulator System (Open Loop) (b) Block Diagram of Open Loop regulator SystemIntroduction m 1.9 A regulator system is one which maintains the system output at a prescribed level. In Fig, 1.8(a) a simple voltage control system is shown. The block diagram of this system is shown in Fig. 1.8(b). ‘The reference voltage V, is applied to the field winding of a D.C. generator which is run by a constant speed prime mover. The field excitation induces a voltage V across the generator terminals. When the generator is loaded, the terminal voltage V, falls down gradually as the load current J, increases. This fall in terminal voltage is due to /,R, and the armature reaction drops. As J, increases _ further and further, the terminal voltage V, would fall down very much due to severe armature reaction drop and the /,8, drop. There is no automatic correction in the system to maintain the terminal voltage constant. Therefore to compensate for these drops the potentiometer setting is adjusted thereby increasing the reference voltage , which in turn increases the induced voltage V,. As the load increases, potentiometer setting has to be correspondingly increased manually so that the armature reaction drop and the 1,8, drop is compensated. Hence, at all times the potentiometer setting has to be changed according to the load condition and so close inspection of the system becomes absolutely necessary. Here there is no feedback to the system. This is an example of open loop system. ™@ 1.4.2 Example of Closed Loop Regulator System fa) laRe iof(Ry+Ro} (b) Fig. 1.9 (a) Regulator System (Closed Loop) (6) Block Diagram of Closed Loop Regulator System Consider Fig. 1.9(a) where the system shown in Fig. 1.8(a) is converted into a closed loop by incorporating feedback arrangement. The block diagram of the system is shown in Fig 1.9(b). The only difference between Fig.'1.8(a) and Fig. 1.9(a) is that in Fig. 1.9(a) a part of the output voltage is fed back to the input side and it is compared with the reference input V,. Suppose the terminal1.10 m Control Systems Engineering voltage /, isto be maintained at 220 volts from no load to full load. Initially no feedback is given and on no load, the reference voltage Vis adjusted such that V, is 220 volts. Now the required feedback is given to the system as shown in Fig. 1.9(a). When the generator is loaded, ,R, drop and the armature reaction drop will tend to increase resulting in decrease of V,. The error voltage, e-r-(n ge] A+R increases which in turn increases the excitation of the generator. Therefore yy is automatically increased, This feedback provides automatic correction and the regulation depends on the amount of feedback. @ 1.5 EXAMPLE OF SERVOMECHANISM Output Potentiomoter Fig. 1.10 Servomechanism A simple anti-aircraft positional servomechanism is shown in Fig. 1.10. 6, is the desired output position of the anti-aircraft gun which is driven by a separately excited D.C. motor whose armature is connected to a constant current source. The input potentiometer arm is given an angular displacement of 4, 10 move the gun through an angle 9, . The output potentiometer arm is connected with a gun, The gun in turn is connected through a worm gear. When the input potentiometer arm is rotated through 6, , and if the output is @, , an error voltage e proportional to (8, ~0,) appears. This error voltage is amplified and applied to the field winding of the D.C. motor. The motor moves in such a direction until 0, = 0,. Under this condition e= 0 and the motor stops rotating. This is an example of servomechanism, The output here is the position of the anti-aircraft gun. Automatic position control of radar antenna, positioning of rudders in ships are also examplesof servomechanism.{ntroduction m 1.11 @ 1.6 COMPUTER CONTROL SYSTEM Computers are very much in use in industries such as iron and steel, paper, petrochemical, pharmaceutical etc. Temperature control of a process, level control of a water column, flow control ina pipe line etc. ate all done by the use of personal computers (P.C.). Sometimes, various plants ip large scale industries like paper, iron and steel are controlled by a single computer which is located in acentre place. Monitoring and control of the plants which are located at far off distances are done by the computer using the appropriate software. Few applications of computer control system are briefly described below. ™ 1.6.1) Temperature Control System Using P.C. Pe Inlet ¥ Outlet TT - Temperature transmitter R - Rotameter Thy - Thyristor Fig. 1.11 Computer Controlled Temperature Control System In Fig. 1.1] the temperature control system using P.C. is shown, It is desired to keep the temperature of the water in the tank constant. Cold water is pumped into the water tank as and when required. ‘The water in the tank is heated by aheater coil. Hot water is taken from the outlet of the water tank. The temperature of the outlet water is sensed by the temperature transmitter (TT) and this information is fed into the computer. The computer software is so developed that when the outlet temperature of the liquid is less than the desired temperature the output signal from the computer changes the firing, angle of the thyristor which in turn is connected to the heater coil. This increases the flow of current to the heater coil and thus maintains the outlet liquid temperature constant. The reverse process happens when the temperature of the outlet liquid increases. Thus, monitoring and control of the process variable (temperature) is done by the personal computer. ™ 1.6.2 Pressure Control System Using P.C. The pressure inside a tank is to be maintained constant and at this pressure, air is to be supplied to several plants. Air is pumped into the tank through Control Valve (CV). A Pressure Transmitter (PT) is connected from the pressure tank and the output of the PT is fed into the P.C. A software is developed and a signal from the P.C. is taken, proportional to the pressure in the tank. This output signal from the P.C. is connected to a pressure converter (E/P) which in turn is connected to the control valve. When the pressure inside the tank falls, the P.C. senses this through the PT and sends out a voltage signal which is higher. This in turn makes the pressure output of E/P converter to a1.12 m Control Systems Engineering higher value. This opens the control valve (CV) and allows more air to flow thereby increasing the pressure of air in the tank. The reverse process happens when the pressure level in the tank increases dueto less consumption in the output which is manually controlled by the Gate Valve (GV). Flow and level control monitoring could also be done in a similar way using P.C. P. PT | PL —_ eP - ov Det Outlet. PT. Pressure Transmitter EIP - Current to pressure Converter Pressure tank CV -Control Valve GV -Gate Valve inet Fig. 1.12 Computer Conirolled Pressure Control System @ 1.7 COMPARISON OF OPEN LOOP AND CLOSED LOOP SYSTEMS ™ 1.7.1 Advantages of Open Loop Systems 1, They are the simplest and most economical. 2. They are easier to build. 3. Generally they are stable. . 1.7.2 Disadvantages of Open Loop Systems |. They are less accurate and unreliable. They do not adopt to variation of environmental conditions or to external disturbances. @ 1.7.3 Advantages of Closed Loop Systems |. They are more accurate than the open lodp system owing to feedback. 2. Closed loop systems reject external disturbances and noise. 3. Because of feedback, the closed loop system acts very fast which is essential for certain class of control systems. 4. Because of increased bandwidth of the closed loop system the range of frequencies over which the system responds is increased 5. The sensitivity of the closed loop system for parameter variation is made small by increasing the feedback loop gain. They are less sensitive to noise, disturbances and environmental changes. 6. If the open loop system is unstable, it is possible to make the system stable by a feedback mechanism :Introduction @ 1.13 ™ 1.7.4 Disadvantages of Closed Loop Systems 1. Because of feedback, the system tries to correct itself which sometimes leads the system to oscillate. Closed loop systems are generally less stable than open loop systems. 2. Because of feedback, the overall gain of the system is reduced. 3. Because of additional components required for’ the construction of the closed loop system, the cost is higher and the system is more complex. @ 1.8 SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION Control systems are classified in a number of ways. They are classified as follows: ™ 1.8.1 Open and Closed Loop Systems A system in which the output has no effect on the control action is called an open loop system. These systems operate on a time basis. A system in which the contro! action depends on output is called a closed loop system or feedback control system. Here, the output or part of the output is compared with the reference input and the difference (called control action) is applied to the actuator which changes the output variable. @ 1.8.2 Linear and Non-Linear Systems According to the differential equation describing the dynamics of the system, a system is classified linear or non-linear. Linear system _ A linear systemis one in which the principle of superposition holds good. (ie) it obeys the principles of homogeneity and additivity. Thus if, is the output for r, input, and c, is the output for r, input then, for (a,r,+a,r,) input, the output would be a,c, +a,c,..Such systems are called linear systems and they are described by linear differential equations. Forexample the following differential equation represents a linear system, dx dk “Seat sora fe ag LO (13) In the above equation, x is the output variable, f()) is the input variable and a and b are system parameters. Non-linear system A non-linear system is one in which the system dynamic is described by non-linear differential equation. For example consider the folfowing differential equation. dx dk —> ta— +bsinx = f(t) . ita ft) (4) The above equation represents a non-linear system because of the term sin x. Here the principle of superposition is not satisfied.1.14 m Control Systems Engineering @ 1.8.3 Time invariant and Time Varying Systems > If c(t) is the output of the system for r() input, and c(¢+ 7) is the output of the same system when the input is r( + T), then the system is called time invariant. Here T is the time by which the input is shifted. In such systems, the coefficients of the differential equation describing the system dynamics do not vary with time, Equation (1.3) represents linear time invariant system. Here the parameters aand bdo not vary with time. If a or b in equation (1.3) varies with time the system is called a time Varying system. —™ 1.8.4 Continuous and Discrete Systems In continuous (analogous) system, the plant or the process to be controlled and the actuator are all described by differential equations which could be linear or non-linear. The signals that appear in any part of the system are continuous in nature. On the other hand, in discrete (digital) control system the signals appear at discrete intervals of time and the components connected in the system respond only to discrete signals and the variables appear at discrete intervals. Such system dynamics are described by a difference equation which is given below. Wk = 2) + ay(k- 1) + by) = ul) . (1.5) In equation (1.5) »(¥) is the output variable, u(k) is the input variable and k= 0, 1, 2... . The above equation represents a second order discrete system. @ 1.8.5 Deterministic and Stochastic Systems If the systems have fixed parameters and inputs, they are called deterministic systems. Systems which have randomness in parameters or input are called stochastic systems. @ 1.8.6 Lumped Parameter and Distributed Parameter Systems Systems which have their parameters lumped are described by differential equations. Ifthe parameters are distributed, the dynamics of the systems are described by partial differential equations and such systems are called distributed parameter systems. The resistance, reactance and capacitance in an clectric power transmission line are distributed from sending to receiving ends. However, for simplicity they are treated as lumped parameters. @ 1.8.7 SISO and MIMO Systems If the single input variable is applied to the system and the output variable is also single then the system is called Single Input Single Output (SISO) system. On the other hand if the input and output variables are more than one, then the system is called multi input multi output (MIMO) system. ™@ 1.8.8 System Classification based on Components Used Depending upon the components connected in the system, they are classified as electrical, mechanical, electromechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, thermal etc. Systems could also be classified by the combination of the above classifications. For example a system could be called a linear, time invariant, discrete, lumped parameter, SISO electrical system.Introduction @ 1.15 Example 1.1 For the simple voltage regulator system shown in Fig. 1.9(a), the gain of the amplifier 4= | amp/voltand the generator gain is 100 volts/field ampere. Find the reference voltage V, to have ano load voltage of 250 volts at the generator terminals with a feedback ratio of 0.2. Determine the change in the generator terminal voltage when the load current is increased by 20 amperes if the system is operated (a) open loop (b) closed loop with the feedback ratio of (1) 0.2 and (2) unity. Keep V,, constant. R, = 1 ohm: (A.U., May 2005) Solution Given : A=1; G= 100; ¥,=250; R, = 1 1,= The block diagram of the present scenario is as shown in Fig, 1.9(b). From this figure, (a) V, = EAG=(V,-02V) AG (For feedback ratio of 0.2). On no load, /, = 0 and therefore V,= V, v, =“ 40.27, ng HOH, = 22 0.24250 =525 volts. 100 When the system is open loop, V,+/, R,= AGV, Differentiating V, with respect to /, we get, AV, =—A/,R, = -20volts, Here A/, = 20A (given) (0) With feedback ratio of 0.2, V.+1,R,=(V_-0.2V)AG Differentiating V, with respect to /,, we get AV, +AI,R, = -0,2AV,AG Since AI, =20A -0.952 volts. When the feedback ratio is 1, From the above results it is evident that the closed loop system is more accurate than the open loop system in maintaining the constant output. As the feedback ratio is increased, the deviation of the output from the desired one is decreased. However, the increase in gain may diminish the margin of stability. : 3 Example 1.2 An amplidyne is employed to control the applied voltage of a motor as shown in Fig. 1.13(a). The amplidyne generates an output voltage proportional to the difference between1.16 m Control Systems Engineering reference field current and control field current. The current amplification of the amplidyne is 250 and the generator generates an output voltage of 200 volts/field ampere. The armature resistance of generator is 1 ohm and that of the motor is 1.5 ohm. The control field resistance is 500 ohm and the motor develops a back emf of 200 volts. (a) If the motor takes a current of 20 amperes, determine the current required in the reference winding. (b) Ifthe back emf of the motor is increased to 220 volts, find the change in current in the motor armature winding. WWW 2 (cs) wena § + | 12, | 1500 0 Ve] (a) Vp = 200 ir V, k Ey}, -250 >{G = 200 Me > 13.5 > 4 Ney ws00 f+ (e) Fig. 1.13 Voltage Control using Amplidyne Solution (a) The block diagram of Fig. 1.13(a) is shown in Fig. 1.13(b). The Amplidyne is nothing but aD.C. generator whic has more than one field winding. From Fig. 1.13(b) 1,3.5+200 (vv, = 13.5) 200x250Introduction m 1.17 pledge “500 500 [seem L oom (1, =20A) Bat * *=1"390%250 * 500 =(2.70+20)x2=45.4mA 45.4mA V3.1 +h, +i sae AG * 200x250 i, (b) = Differentiating V, with respect to /,, we get, = RAL +AN , AL, 200x250 ” 500 But, AV, = 20volts 103.5 AI, =-AV, =-20 ‘The armature current in the motor circuit is reduced by 0.193 A. In examples 1.1 and 1.2 only the steady state behaviour of the system is studied. To study the transients one has to take into account the effect of energy storing elements like inductance, moment of inertia etc. CHAPTER SUMMARY 1. The fascinating history of automatic control system is given very briefly. Various terminologies used in control system theory are defined. Open loop and closed loop system concepts are explained with examples and their merits and demerits are also discussed. 4. Typical examples of regulator system and servomechanism are given. Computer controlled systems such as pressure control and temperature control are explained. 6. A brief description of how systems are classified is given at the end. EXERCISE Give short answers in about 3 lines 1. State and explain the principles of superposition. Ic, is the output for’, input and ¢, is the output for r, input and when r, and r, are simultaneously applied to the same system, the output is (¢, + ¢,) for the input (r, + r,). This is the principle of superposition.1.18 m Control Systems Engineering 2, How are feedback systems classified? Feedback systems are classified as a) Linear or non-linear b) Time variant or time invariant c) Lumped parameter or distributed parameter 4) Continuous or discrete 3. What is the effect of positive feedback on stability? With positive feedback all physically realisable systems become unstable. 4, Identify each term in; E(s) = R(s) - C(s) E(s) = Laplace transform of error variable R(s) = Laplace transform of input variable C(s) = Laplace transform of output variable. 5. Define the term Servomechanism. Give one example of a servo. Servomechanism is the branch of study of automatic control in which position or its time derivatives such as velocity or acceleration is the output. Position control of automatic gun, radar antenna, rudders in a ship are examples of servomechanism. 6. State the properties of a linear system. For linear system superposition theorem holds good. If ¢, and c, are output responses for r, and r, inputs, when applied separately, then due to (a7, + Br,) inputs the output response is (otc, + Be,) .In otherwords, for a linear system, properties of homogenuity and additivity are applicable. The stability is independent of the input. 7. Distinguish between open and closed loop control systems. Inan open loop system, the control action is independent of the output. In a closed loop system, the control action depends upon the output. Control action is the difference of the reference input and output or part of output, 8. What is a time invariant system? If c(¢) is the output of a given system for the input r(¢) and c(¢ + 7) is the output of the same system when the input is r (¢ + 7) then the system is called time invariant. Here T is the time by which the input is shifted or delayed. In such systems the coefficients of the differential equations describing the system do not vary with time. 9. Give an example of open and closed loop control systems. The action of a washing machine is an example of an open loop system. Soaking, washing and rinsing are done without measuring the cleanliness of the clothes which is the output. Controlling the temperature of a room using thermostat is an example of closed loop system. The thermostat puts the heating system on or off according to the set temperature by comparing it with a reference temperature. 10. What are the characteristics of feedback? ‘The characteristics of feedback are: System response is insensitive to external disturbances. Effect of parameter variation is minimum. Accuracy is high. Stability is less. However, unstable open loop system is made stable by feedback. System response is faster.Introduction m 1.19 « Define actuating signal. Actuating signal is the signal which is the difference between the reference signal and the feedback signal. 12. Give four example for open loop control system. Four examples of open loop control systems are: a) Traffic control by means of signals operated on a time basis b) Speed control of D.C. motor without feedback c) Control of pressure inside a furnace by the rotational position of a damper d) Voltage control of a D.C. generator without feedback. 13. Define a regulator system. A regulator system is one in which the output is maintained at a prescribed level. 14, What do you understand by control action? The “control action” refers to the actuating signal of the system. 15, What is the necessity of using an amplifier in a simple closed loop system? The actuating signal is comparatively a weak signal and therefore it becomes necessary to amplify this before it is applied to 2 power actuator. 16, Define ‘system’. A system is defined as a set (collection) of interconnected objects with a definite relationship between the objects and attributes. 17, Why negative feedback is used in control sytems? Positive feedback: has the tendency to make the system unstable. On the other hand, negative feedback makes even the unstable system stable. Hence, negative feedback is used in control systems. 18, Name three applications for feedback control systems. Automatic pressure control in a boiler, automatic voltage control in A.C. and D.C. generators and automatic positioning of anti-aircraft gun control are the three applications of feedback control systems. 19, Name three reasons for using feedback control systems and at least one reason for not using them. The closed loop system acts very fast. Accuracy is high. If the open loop system is unstable, it is possible, by proper feedback to make the closed loop system stable. The cost of feedback system is high. Choose the correct answer 1. A linear system is one which is described by a) Simultaneous equations b) Differential equation ¢) Differentiat equations obeying superposition theorem d) Equations with constant parameters 2. Consider the following equation Px dk . 42S 4sinx= fe mrtg tins SO1.20 w Control Systems Engineering The above equation represents a a) Linear system g b) Non-linear system c) Time varying system d) Discrete system 3. Which of the following equations represent a linear time invariant system and linear time varying system respectively? dx dy , ax de. a) Gr tas tbe=s0) b) Gita th =f) d ak a’: ak ‘ 9) Feta S +aor= £0 &) Fra shsine= sO Ans: lc 2b 3.a&e Give long answers 1. For thé system shown in Fig. 1.14 find the battery voltage V,, to have the output terminal voltage V,= 250 volts if the load resistance XR; = 20 ohm. Find the terminal voltage y, when the load is thrown off. Draw the block diagram, If the load current is 20 ampere what should be the battery voltage to maintain V, = 250 volts? WW WWW Re R “ot | 1G) " Fig. 1.14 Voltage Control Using Feedback Given: R, = 200 ohm, R, = 100 ohm, R, = | ohm, volts volts G,=s00—°S_ ag, =200. fieldamp > fieldamp (Ans: 302.5 volts, 252.1 volts, 364 volts) 2. Describe any two types of open loop system and explain how they could be converted into closed loop system. 3. Describe with a neat diagram a position control system. * Describe with a neat diagram a regulator system. 5. Describe with a neat diagram a P.C. based level control system. -GHAPTER Mathematical Modeling of Physical Systems CHAPTER OBJECTIVES 1. Toidentify the system variables and write down the dynamic equations incorporating all these variables. 2. To identify the input and output variable of each component and determine its Transfer Function (TF). The T.F. which represents the functional relationship is put inside the block. 3. Todetermine the overall T-F. of the given system which is interconnected by morethan one component. ™@ 2.1 INTRODUCTION ‘System model represents certain property ofa system in graphical, pictorial, analytical or mathematical form. Photograph of a person is his pictorial model. Block diagram and signal flow graph are the graphical models. In example (1.1) and example (1.2) systems were represented under steady state, in mathematical form, ignoring dynamic aspect of the system. The effect of energy storing elements such as inductor and capacitor in electricl systems, mass and spring in mechanical system etc. are considered when one is interested in the bsehaviour of the system with respect to time. The mathematical model ofa dynamic system plays a vital role in the analysis and design of physical systems, Mathematical model of a system represents the dynamics of the system by a set of differential equations. The accuracy of system modeling depends on the individual’s ingenuity and itis to be noted that for a particular system, the model is not unique and could have many mathematical models. @ 21.1 Mathematical Modeling —Transfer Function Model ‘The mathematical description of the dynamic characteristics of a physical system is called mathematical modeling. The two most commonly used models are: 1. Transfer function model (Classical model) 2. State space model (Modern approach) In deriving the transfer function model, the following assumptions are made: 1. The system has Single Input and Single Output (SISO). 2. The environment does not affect the system parameters. 3. The system is linear and tisme invariant. 4. The system has zero initial conditions.2.2 m Control Systems Engineering Consider a linear second order system which is described by the following linear differential equation. ax a Set 20, Za; = 02 (0) Q1) Here, x = System output variable, AO. = System input variable; ¢ and @, = System parameters. Taking Laplace transform on both sides of (2.1), the following equation is obtained. X(s) o =G(s)=——_“__ FG) 9) [F + 20,0403] In equation (2.2), G(s) is called transfer function. The transfer function is defined as the ratioof Laplace transform of the output variable to the Laplace transform of the input variable with all initial conditions being assumed to be zero. 2.2) It is to be noted here that the transfer 'function depends on the system parameters and it is independent of the input. Further it is noted that transfer function is not defined for non-linear and time varying systems. In equations (2.1) and (2.2), the time function x(t) and f(¢) are denoted by small letters and the corresponding Laplace transformed functions are denoted by capital letters as X(s) and F(s) respectively. This notation is strictly followed everywhere as a convention. Equation (2.2) is represented as a block diagram in Fig, 2.1. Fis) h Xis) (9? + 2Gons + oh) Fig. 2.1 Second Order System Representation Note Equation (2.2) represents a standard second order system where ¢ is called the damping factor and «, is called the natural frequency of oscillation of the system. We derive below the transfer function model for mechanical, electrical and electro-mechanical systems, The analysis part would be discussed later. @ 2.2 MECHANICAL SYSTEMS Mechanical systems are of two kinds: 1. Translational system which consists of mass, spring, dash-pot and lever arrangement. 2. Rotational system which consists of inertia, torsional spring, dash-pot and gear arrangement. The following symbols are used for these systems.Mathematical Modeling of Physical Systems m 2.3 @ 2.2.1 Mechanical Translational Systems 1. ft) = Applied force (input), (N). 20M = Mass, (Kg). 3B = Viscous friction coefficient of dash-pot, (N/m/sec) 4K = Spring stiffness constant, (N/m). “5.x = Displacement, (m), a 4 A 6 "a Linear velocity, (m/sec). e 1. a=£> = Linear acceleration, (m/sec’) B 2.2.2 Rotational System 1 7] = Applied torque (input), (N.m). 2 od = Moment of inertia, (Kg.m’). 3B = Rotational friction coefficient of dash-pot, (N.m)/(rad/sec). 4K = Spring stiffness constant, (N.m / rad). 5-6 = Angular displacement, (rad). ao 6. = = Angularvelocity, (rad/sec). do &O _ . % 77 Ge ~ Angular acceleration, (rad/sec*). @ 223 Dynamic Equations of Mechanical Translational System In mechanical translational system, mass is the element which stores kinetic energy, linear spring stores potential energy and dash-pot dissipates energy and provides damping to the system. When a force f(t) is applied to a mass M, it stores kinetic energy and develops an opposing force = uit i which acts in the direction opposite to the applied force as shown in Fig. 2.2(a). According to Newton’s law of motion, the sum of the applied forces is equal to the sum of the reaction forces which act opposite to that of the applied forces. The free body diagram for mass M is also shown in Fig. 2.2(b) which represents applied force and reaction force. The dash-pot and spring are represented in Fig. 2.2(c) and Fig. 2.2 (c) respectively. Their free body diagrams are shown in Fig. 2.2(d) and Fig. 2.2(f) respectively. From the free body diagrams, the following equations are easily obtained. * a) H wee 4 [8 BaD @ (b)