Periodic table

 There are 8 vertical groups (columns) in the periodic table. The group number is equal
to the number of electrons in the outer shell of the atoms of the element in the group.
This why elements of the same group share the same chemical properties
 There are 7 horizontal periods (rows) in the periodic table. The period number is also
the number of occupied energy shells in the atoms of the elements in the period

Physical properties Metals Non- metals

State in room temperature Solid (Except mercury, Solid-Gas (Except Bromine-
liquid) Liquid)
Density Very dense (Except Group Low density
1)
Appearance Shiny, most are grey except Most are dull (except
copper and gold diamond)
Melting point High (except group 1 and 2) Low (except diamond –
graphite)
Boiling point High (except group 1 and 2) Low (except diamond –
graphite)
Malleability Hard and malleable Soft and brittle
Ductility Ductile Not ductile
Electrical conductivity Conductors Poor conductors (except –
graphite and silicon
Heat conductivity Good Very poor
Sonority Sonorous Non – sonorous

Malleability – if a metal is malleable it means it can be hammered into shapes without being
broken
Ductility – if a metal is ductile it means it can be pulled into wires
Sonority – if a metal is sonorous, it means it makes a pleasant sound when struck
Chemical properties
Metals Non-metals
- They have either 1,2, or 3 valence - They have either 4,5,6 or 7 valence
electrons electrons. Except helium which has
- They lose electrons forming positive 2
ions - They gain electrons forming
- They are reducing agents negative ions
- They form basic or amphoteric - They are oxidizing agents
compounds - They form neutral or acid
- Forms ionic and metallic compounds compounds
- Form either ionic or covalent
compounds
- They tend to be insulators

Transition metals
 They are located in the center of the periodic table, consisting of 3 rows and 10
columns
 They are harder and stronger than metals of group 1 and 2
 They have much higher densities than metals
 They have higher melting points except for mercury
  They are less reactive than metals of group 1 and 2
 Excellent conductors of heat and electricity
 They act as catalysts
 They react slowly with oxygen and water
 They form simple ions with several oxidation states and complicated ions with high
oxidation states

Alkali metals (Group 1)

 Lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, francium
 All are metals, and have 1 valence electron
 Form positive ions with a 1+ charge
 Vigorous reaction with water and halides
 Melting point decreases down the group
 Reactivity increases down the group
 Density increases down the group
 They can be cut with a knife

Li Na K Rb Cs
Appearance Grey solid Grey solid Grey solid Grey solid Grey solid
Flame test Crimson Yellow Lilac Red – violet Blue – violet

Reaction with water

 They react with cold water and hydrogen gas is produced
 A metal hydroxide is formed, which are white crystalline
 The hydroxides dissolves in water to give alkaline solutions

o They react with oxygen or air forming a metal oxide

4Li + O2  2Li2O

o Their oxides can dissolve in water forming an alkaline solution of metal hydroxide
Li2O + H2O  2LiOH

o They react with water vigorously forming metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas
2K + 2H2O  2KOH + H2

o They react with Halogens forming a metal halide

2Na + Cl2  2NaCl

Halogens (Group 7)
 Fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, astatine
 They are non – metals, and have seven valence electrons
 Form negative ions with a 1- charge
 Atomic structure and size increase down the group
 They form ionic compounds with metals
 Go from gas to solid down the group
 Reactivity F2 Gas Pale yellow Boiling point
increase down increases down
Cl2 Gas Green
the group the group more
Br2 Liquid Brown  red energy is
brown vapors required to
separate larger
I2 Solid Grey  purple molecules
vapors

 Halides are colorless

 The halogens themselves can react directly with metal to form metal halides (or salts)
2Fe + 3Cl2  2FeCl3

Noble gases / Inert gases (Group 8)

 Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon, Radon
 Colorless gases and non-metals
 All elements except helium have 8 valence electrons
 All of them exist as colorless gases in room temperature
 They have very stable electronic configuration, so they are non-reactive
Uses
o Helium is used to fill airships and balloons
o Neon is used in neon sign boards
o Argon is used in light bulb

 Isotopes - Isotopes are variants of a particular chemical element which differ in

neutron number, and consequently in nucleon number. All isotopes of a given element
have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons in each atom
 Ions - Ions are atoms with extra electrons or missing electrons. When you are missing
an electron or two, you have a positive charge. When you have an extra electron or
two, you have a negative charge.
 Atomic number = no. of protons
 Mass number (nucleon number) = no. of protons + no. of neutrons
Redox reactions

Oxygen
 Oxidation is gain of oxygen
 Reduction is loss of oxygen

Oxidising and reducing agents

An oxidising agent is substance which oxidises something else. In the above example, the
iron(III) oxide is the oxidising agent. A reducing agent reduces something else. In the
equation, the carbon monoxide is the redmucing agent.

 Oxidising agents give oxygen to another substance.

 Reducing agents remove oxygen from another substance.

Hydrogen
 Oxidation is loss of hydrogen
 Reduction is gain of hydrogen

 Oxidising agents give oxygen to another substance or remove hydrogen from it.
 Reducing agents remove oxygen from another substance or give hydrogen to it.

Electrons
 Oxidation is loss of electrons
 Reduction is gain of electrons
 o OIL – oxidation is loss
o RIG – reduction is gain
o OIL RIG will only be used for electrons and hydrogen

o An oxidising agent oxidises something else.

o That means that the oxidising agent must be being reduced.
o Reduction is gain of electrons (OIL RIG).
o An oxidising agent must gain electrons.

Dot and cross (Lewis structure)

Electronegativity
F>O>N>Cl

Oxidation number
o All elements alone are 0 in oxidation number
o 1st group = +1 (always)
o 2nd group = +2 (always)
o Halogens = -1
o Hydrogen (H) = +1 except metal hydrides where it is -1
o Oxygen (O) = -2 (generally -1 with peroxide H2O2)
Organic chemistry
Chemistry of hydrocarbons and their substances
Hydrocarbons – compound of carbon and hydrogen ONLY
- Saturated  c-c (Alkanes)
- Unsaturated  c=c (Alkenes) and cc (Alkynes)
Carbon is tetravalent
 Carbon has a unique property of catenation – self linking
 Each carbon atom can form four single covalent bonds
 Carbon atoms joined by strong carbon-carbon covalent bond can form chains and
number of different organic structures, because the chain may be straight (linear) or
branched and can have other atoms or groups of atoms (functional groups) substituted
(replaced) in them.

Straight chain

Branched chain compound

Close chain/ ring structure

Homologous series is a family of organic compound which contain the following

characteristics:
  They have same general formula
 They contain same functional group
 They show similar chemical properties
 They show trends/gradation in physical properties
 Boiling point increases down the homologous series as the number of carbon
increases
 Two successive numbers differ by -CH2 group
Alkanes (CnH2n+2) Alkene (CnH2n) Alkyl (CnH2n+1) Alcohol (CnH2n+1OH)

CH4 – Methane C2H4 - Ethene CH3 - Methyl CH3OH – methanol

C2H6 – Ethane C3H6 - Propene C2H5 - Ethyl C2H5OH – Ethanol
C3H8– Propane C4H8 - Butene C3H7 - Propyl C3H7OH – Propanol
C4H10 – Butane C5H10 -Pentene C4H9 - Butyl C4H9OH – Butanol

IUPAC nomenclature

Prefix + word root + primary suffix + secondary suffix

Word root – the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms

C  1 (meth)
C  2 (eth)
C  3 (prop)
C  4 (but)
C  5 (pent)
C  6 (hex)
C  7 (hept)
C  8 (oct)
C  9 (non)
C  10 (dec)

Primary suffix
C-C(ane)
C=C (ene)
CC (yne)

Prefix
Cl – chloro
Br – bromo
I – iodo
F – fluoro
CH3 – methyl
C2H5 – ethyl
 Name Symbol Suffix General formula
Alcohol R-OH ‘anol’ ROH
Carbonyl (aldehyde) ‘al’ RCOH

Ketone ‘one’ RCO

Carboxylic acid ‘oic acid’ R-COOH

Ester ‘oate’ RCOO

Organic compound representation

- Structural formula – show cases the bond between carbon and carbon and carbon and
hydrogen

(Propane)

- Molecular formula – it is simplified further and combined

C3H8 (Propane)

- Condensed formula
CH3CH2CH3 (Propane)

Alkanes
 Are saturated hydrocarbon which contain carbon-carbon single covalent bond
Physical properties
 The increasing number of carbon atoms, the molecular mass of the alkanes also
increases
 As the alkane molecules get bigger, the boiling point increases due to the greater
strength of intermolecular forces of attraction, so more heat energy is needed to
overcome the increasing attraction between the molecules
 The viscosity of alkanes increases as the molecules gets bigger, this is due to the
increasing carbon chain length
 The alkane molecules become less volatile and less flammable as we go down the
homologous series due to increase in the carbon chain length
 On burning of alkanes, they produce carbon dioxide and water vapor
Chemical properties
Combustion
Complete combustion
CH4 + O2  CO2 + 2H2O + Energy
1:2
Incomplete combustion
i. CH4 + 1.5O2  CO2 + 2H2O + Less energy
1:1.5
ii. CH4 + O2  C + 2H2O + Least energy
1:1 (carbon black)

Chlorination

Alkenes
 Contain double carbon=carbon double bond
 Insoluble in water, only in organic solution
 Alkenes are usually not burnt because they are more reactive than alkanes

(Ethene) (But-1-ene)

Combustion
C2H4 (g) + 3O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)

Uses of alkenes
 Form wide range of compounds for the chemical industry
 Ethene was historically put into leaded petrol as an anti-knocking agent, and to reduce
the buildup of lead residues by producing gaseous lead products
Addition reaction (test for unsaturation)
If you add Br2 water in an unsaturated hydrocarbon it makes it colorless or decolorized

Addition of hydrogen (hydrogenation)

The use is to make margarine or ghee, they convert unsaturated fat (veg oil)
Unsaturated fat  Saturated fat

Ni
Unsaturated fat/oil + H2 Saturated fat/oil (margarine)
Heat

Alcohols

(Ethanol)

Uses
 Chemical in industry

Oxidation of ethanol
Ethanol + oxygen  ethanoic acid + water
C2H5OH + 2 [O]  CH3COOH + H2O

Fermentation
yeast
Glucose ethanol + carbon dioxide

enzyme
C6H12O6 (aq) 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
Hydration
300c temp
Ethene + Steam ethanol
Phosphoric acid

C2H4 + H2O  C2H5OH

Esters

Esterification (making of esters)

Ethanoic acid + ethanol ⇌ ethyl ethanoate + water

Uses
- They are often used as food flavoring or perfume

Carboxylic acid
The effect of the carboxyl group is to give the end of the molecule polarity, and turns it into a
typical weak acid when dissolved in water

(Ethanoic acid)
Ethanoic acid is found in vinegar and is also known as acetic acid

Isomers
The molecular formula of 2 molecules is the same but their structural formula are different

C4H10

Butane – 2-methylpropane

Examples:
C4H8
C5H12
C5H10
C6H14
C3H8O

Polymers – they are giant organic molecules made up of many smaller subunits called
monomers, which maybe chemically identical or have identical functional groups
- Poly means many and mer means unit
- A single polymer may contain many monomers and consist of more than a hundred
thousand atoms
- E.g. Nucleic acids, proteins, starch, cellulose, latex, and the silk of spider webs
(Natural)
- Plastic, nylon, fibers, most of products are oil or petrochemical industry (synthetic)
- Condensation polymerization
- Addition polymerization

Addition polymerization
- They only contain one type of monomers
- Made from unsaturated monomers
- Monomers are linked together to form a large molecule without the loss of any atoms,
the monomers are joined together by an addition reaction
- Plastics are addition polymers formed using alkene molecules as monomers
- Any alkene or substituted hydrocarbons with a carbon-carbon double bond is able to
acts as a monomer for addition polymerization
- Due to that, plastics can be tailored for nearly every purpose
Bonding

Covalent bonding – the 2 non-metallic elements bond is formed by the sharing of a pair of
electrons between 2 atoms
- If atoms have similar electronegativities (the same affinity for electrons), covalent
bonds are most likely to occur. 

There are 2 types of covalent structure:

 Simple molecular structure
 They are simple and contain only a few atoms in one molecule

 These forces increase as the size of the molecules increase
 Giant molecular structure
 They are also known as macromolecular structure
 One molecule contains hundreds of thousands of atoms
 They have extremely strong intermolecular bonds between the atoms

Properties of covalent compounds

 Giant molecular structures have very high melting points because the whole structure
is held together with very high covalent bonds
 Simple molecular structures are usually gases or liquids sometimes solids with low
melting points; this is because of weak forces of attraction between the molecules
which can be broken easily
 Covalent compounds usually have low melting points. An exception to this include
molecules of silica and diamonds that have a high melting point.
 These compounds have low boiling points. This can be attributed to their weak force of
attraction between the various bonded atoms. Van Der Waals forces bind these atoms.
 These compounds are usually gases and liquids with low boiling and melting points.
 The solid covalent compounds have soft structures like graphite. This is because of the
presence of a cloud of electrons in between each layer of carbons atoms.
 These compounds are non-conductors of electrical charge. The absence of charged
ions is the main reason behind this. An exception to this is graphite, where we see a
cloud of electrons. These make graphite a good conductor.
 They are bad conductors of heat also. Their molecules lack free electrons and that
obstructs the flow of heat energy.
 Covalent compounds do not possess polar characteristics as a general property.
Therefore, these compounds are insoluble in water. Water molecules are not absolutely
neutral and have a slight negative charge on the oxygen atom and slight positive
charges on the hydrogen atoms and since covalent compounds are made up of neutral
molecules or molecules with slight charges and hence are not attracted to water
molecules strongly.
 These compounds are soluble in organic solvents like ether and benzene.

Ionic bonding – between one metal and one non-metal lose their outer electron to form
positive ions

Properties of ionic compounds

 Hard solids at room temperature
 Water soluble
 Ionic Compounds have high boiling and melting points as they’re very strong and
require a lot of energy to break.
 The electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions lead to the
formation of ions.
 Ionic compounds form crystals.
 These compounds are brittle and break into small pieces easily.
 Electrovalent compounds usually dissolve in water and are insoluble in solvents like
oil, petrol, kerosene, etc.
 Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity in a solid state but they do conduct
electricity in the molten state.
 In comparison to molecular compounds, ionic compounds have higher enthalpies of
fusion and vaporization.
Metallic structures – between metals
- The attraction of delocalized electrons for positively charged metal ions in metals and
alloys of metals
- Holds metal atoms together very strongly
- Metals are insoluble, although some will react with water to produce a soluble product

Alloys – is a mixture of metals and non-metals

- They are harder, more resistant to corrosion and have a more attractive appearance
than the metals they are formed of
- They are harder than metals because they have different sized atoms which prevent
the layers from sliding over each other
- They are made by heating metals or metals and non-metals together until they all
melt, and leaving them to cool mixed

Examples of alloys and their content

- Brass: copper – zinc
- Bronze: copper – tin
- Steel: iron – carbon
- Stainless steel: iron – carbon – chromium – nickel

Allotropes – when an element exists in several physical forms of the same state, it is said to
exhibit allotropy
Allotropes of carbon:
- Diamond – tetrahedral shape, and very strong bonds, and each carbon atom is
covalently bonded to four other carbon atoms
Physical properties of diamond
- Has a very high melting point (almost 4000 degree). Very strong carbon-carbon
covalent bonds have to be broken throughout the structure before melting occurs
 - Is very hard. This is again due to the need to break very strong covalent bonds
operating in 3-demisions
- Doesn’t conduct electricity. All the electrons are held tightly between the atoms, and
aren’t free to move
- Is insoluble in water and organic solvents, there are no possible attraction
Application of diamond
Due to its hardness, diamond is suitable to be used for cutting other hard substances.
- Diamonds can be embedded into drill bits and saws.
- Diamond is used to cut glass and metals.

 Graphite – each carbon atom is strongly bonded covalently to 3 other carbon atoms
forming layers of linked hexagons. Each layer acts as a molecule, the intermolecular
forces between the layers is weak allowing the layers to slide over each other, this
makes graphite a good lubricant
Physical properties of graphite
 Has a high melting point, similar to that of diamond. In order to melt graphite, it isn’t
enough to loosen one sheet from another. You have to break the covalent bonding
throughout the whole structure
 Has a often, slippery feel, and is used in pencils and as a dry lubricant for things like
locks. You can think of graphite rather like a pack of cards- each card is strong, but
the cards will slide over each other, or even fall off the pack altogether
 Has a lower density than diamond, because of relatively large amount of space that is
wasted between the sheets
 Insoluble in water and organic solvent, attraction between solvent molecules and
carbon atoms will never be strong enough to overcome the strong covalent bonds in
graphite
 Conducts electricity. Remember that there is one free electron available to each
carbon atom. The spare electrons are free to move (‘delocalised’), so they can flow
along the layers. Hence, graphite is able to conduct electricity
Application of graphite
 Graphite is soft and slippery. This makes it suitable for use as a lubricant, especially
for hot machines. This is because it does not decompose at high temperature. (unlike
oil)
 It is also used in pencil leads as the layers of atoms slide off the pencil onto the paper
 Graphite is also used for contacts in electrical motors.
 Graphite is unreactive and can withstand high temperature, so it is used as electrodes
in the extraction of metals by electrolysis.
Macromolecules

Silicon
o Silicon has a similar structure as diamond.
o All the silicon atoms are bonded together by strong covalent bonds in a tetrahedral
arrangement.
o Each silicon atom has four valence electrons which are used to form four covalent
bonds to four other silicon atoms.
o This will result in silicon having similar properties as diamond.
o Silicon is hard though not as hard as diamond.
o Pure silicon does not conduct electricity, but becomes a semi-conductor when
impurities are added to it.
 
Silica (Silicon Oxide)
o Silicon oxide has a similar structure as silicon and diamond
o Each silicon atom is covalently bonded to four other oxygen atom in a tetrahedral
arrangement.
o This will result in silicon oxide having similar properties as diamond and silicon.
o Silica is hard though not as hard as diamond.

Isobars – same atomic mass but different atomic number

14
C6 14C7

Rate of reaction

There are two ways to find the rate of a reaction:

 Measure the rate at which a reactant is used up,

 Measure the rate at which a product is formed.

Temperature – higher the temperature faster rate of reaction

o The reactant particles move more quickly
o More particles have the activation energy or greater
o The particles collide more often, and more of the collisions result in a reaction
o At low energy the reactions that generates the electric current proceeds more slowly
than at higher temperature
Surface area – higher the surface area faster rate of reaction
o Smaller pieces more surface area
o More particles are exposed to the other reactant
o There is a greater chance of the particles colliding
Concentration – higher the concentration faster the reaction
o The number per unit volume increases
o More collisions
o More particles in the same amount of space
Pressure – increased pressure faster reaction
o The space in which the gas particles are moving becomes smaller
o Less space so there are more chances of collision
Catalysts – substances that changes the rate of reaction without being used up in the reaction
 o They never produce more product just lower the activation energy

Matter
The kinetic theory of matter states:
 All matter is made up of tiny, microscopic moving particles. Each matter has a
different type of particles with different size and mass
 Particles are in continuous movement. All particles are moving all the time in random
directions (Brownian motion)
 The speed of movement depends on the mass of the particle, temperature and many
other factors
Solid Liquid Gas
Molecular structure

Particle arrangement Very closely packed, Closely packed, Very far apart, very
regularly arranged in irregular irregular
lattice arrangement arrangement
Intramolecular Almost none Minimal tiny spaces Very large
spaces negligible
Intermolecular Extreme strong Not weak but Very weak
forces weaker than in solids
Movement of Vibrating in a fixed Slowly slide over Fast movement in
particles position each other randomly random direction
Shape Definite shape No fixed shape No fixed shape
Volume Fixed Fixed Not fixed
Diffusion Cannot diffuse Diffuse slowly Diffuses quickly
Compressibility Can’t be compressed Can be hardly Very compressible
compressed

Physical changes
Heating curve

Diffusion – is the movement of particles from higher concentration to lower concentration

that allows to spread out and mix with other particles till the concentration is same

Rate depends on factors:

o Mass of substance
o Temperature
o Presence of other substance
o Intermolecular spaces

Pure substances
 Have a fixed boiling point
 A pure substance has no particles of any other substances mixed with it
 A pure substance has a definite, sharp, melting and boiling point
Impure substances
 The boiling point increase as there are more impurities which leads to higher the
temperature
 Its melting point falls and boiling point rises
 It melts and boils over a range of temperature and not sharply

 Elements – An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into any other
substance. Every element is made up of its own type of atom.
 Compounds - A compound is a molecule made of atoms from different elements.
All compounds are molecules, but not all molecules are compounds.
 Mixtures - a mixture is a material made up of two or more different substances which
are mixed. A mixture refers to the physical combination of two or more substances in
which the identities are retained and are mixed in the form of solutions, suspensions
and colloids
 Emulsions - An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that are normally
immiscible.
 Colloids - a homogeneous non-crystalline substance consisting of large molecules or
ultramicroscopic particles of one substance dispersed through a second substance.
 Colloids include gels, sols, and emulsions; the particles do not settle, and cannot be
separated out by ordinary filtering or centrifuging like those in a suspension.
 Suspensions - a suspension is a heterogeneous mixture that contains solid particles
sufficiently large for sedimentation

Lab skills and separating methods

 Miscible - Miscibility is the property of two substances to mix in all proportions (that
is, to fully dissolve in each other at any concentration), forming
a homogeneous solution. 
 Immiscible - Immiscibility is the property where two substances are not capable of
combining to form a homogeneous mixture.