Fibonacci’s Liber Abaci Leonardo Pisano’s eet ay mOcl al aretey JASON ee:Sources and Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences K. Andersen Brook Taylor’s Work on Linear Perspective HJM. Bos Redefining Geometrical Exactness: Descartes’ Transformation of the Early Modern Concept of Construction J, Cannon/S, Dostrovsky The Evolution of Dynamics: Vibration Theory from 1687 to 1742 B. Chandler/W. Magnus ‘The History of Combinatorial Group Theory AL Dale A History of Inverse Probability: From Thomas Bayes to Karl Pearson, ‘Second Edition AL Dale Most Honourable Remembrance: The Life and Work of Thomas Bayes AL Dale Pierre-Simon Laplace, Philosophical Essay on Probabilities, Translated from the fifth French edition of 1825, with Notes by the Translator PJ. Federico Descartes on Polyhedra: A Study of the De Solidorum Elementis B.R. Goldstein ‘The Astronomy of Levi ben Gerson (1288-1344) HLH. Goldstine A History of Numerical Analysis from the 16th Through the 19th Century HLH. Goldstine A History of the Calculus of Variations from the 17th Through the 19th Century G. Grathoft ‘The History of Ptolemy's Star Catalogue A.W. Grootendorst Jan de Witt's Elementa Curvarum Linearum, Liber Primus T. Hawkins Emergence of the Theory of Lie Groups: An Essay in the History of Mathematics 1869-1926 A. Hermann/K. von Meyenr/V.F. Weisskopf (Eds.) Wolfgang Pauli: Scientific Correspondence I: 1919-1929 Continued after indexFibonacci’s Liber Abaci A Translation into Modern English of Leonardo Pisano’s Book of Calculation & Springer2800 South Ocean Boulevard, 21F ‘Boca Raton, FL 33432 USA Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Fibonacci, Leonardo, ca. 1170-ca. 1240 {Liber abact. English) Fibonacei’s Liber abaci : a translation into modern English of Leonardo Pisana’s Book ‘of calculation /[transtated by] Laurence Sigler Pp. cm—(Source and studies in the history of mathematics and physical sciences) Inches Wbllograbien ferns 1, Mathematics, Medieval. 2. Mathematies—Early Works to 1800. I. Sigler, L.E. U1. Title IHL. Sources and studies in the history of mathematics and physical sciences QA32 F4713 2002 $10—de2! 2001087722 ISBN 0-387-40737-5 Printed on acid-free paper. First softcover printing, 2003 © 2002 Springer-Verlag New York. Ine All rights reserved. This work may not be in whole or in part without the written of the (Springer-Verlag New York, In¢., 175 Fifth Avenuc, New York, NY 10010, cept for ‘excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any lesereion morgt ad resid, acca agceie, Compr Aa, 6 by similar or dissirnilar methodology now known or hereafter ‘he oe fa tie pubehcon of wade nance, wadcwas sevice ark and sila terms, ‘even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to Proprietary rights. Printed in the United States of America, 987654321 ‘SPIN 10953310 ‘Typesetting: Pages created by the author using a Springer TX macro package. wew springer-ny.com Springer-Vi New York Berlin Heidel A member of riclonamnSringer SChoncet Bustness Netia CoitContents Lintroduction 0 I Lit baci 3 1_ Here Begins the First Chapter 17 2_On the Multiplication of Whole Numbers 23 sOnth tion of Whole Ni 4 On the Subtraction of Lesser Numbers from Greater Numbers 45 5_On the Divisions of Integral Numbers 49 6 On the Multiplication of Integral Numbers with Fractions 7 Tonth s 4 Division OF a Single Part 99 8 On Finding The Value of Merchandise by the Principal Method _127 9 On the Barter of Merchandise and Similar Things 179 10_On Companies and Their Members 213 11_On the Alloying of Monies 27viii Contents 12 Here Begins Chapter Twelve 259 13 On the Method Elchataym and How with It Nearly All Problems of Mathematics Are Solved J __4a7_ 14 On Finding Square and Cubic Roots, and on the Multiplication. Divisi Sub rT si On the Tes of Binomials and Apotomes and their Roots 489 15_On Pertinent Geometric Rules And on Problems of Algebra’ 17 Bibliography 635Part I IntroductionLae sick Weis ot da wae pera Pode a dae ae Middle Ages. Its effect was enormous in disseminating the Hindu number sys- tem and the methods of algebra throughout Europe. This is the first translation of the Latin manuscript of Liber abaci into a modern language. It is hoped that its availability to historians, mathematicians, and the public in general will make a contribution to their knowledge of this part of our cultural heritage. Mathematics and science are, after all, as much a part of our culture as litera- ture, art, and music. It is as important for a person to know about the classies of mathematics and science as it is to know about the classics of literature and art. Leonardo Pisano, known today to mathematicians and scientists over the world by the name Fibonacci, was a citizen of the maritime city-state of Pisa from 1170 until after 1240. This was the time of the Crusades, of strong political conflicts between the Emperor Frederick II of the Holy Roman Empire and the Papacy; it was also the time of the religious fervor of St. Francis of Assisi. ‘The Italian maritime states of Pisa, Genoa, Venice and Amalfi were locked in intense trade rivalry throughout the Mediterranean world, including Byzantium and the Muslim countries. Leonardo was instructed in mathematics as a youth in Bugia, a trading enclave established by the city of Pisa and located on the Barbary Coast of Africa in the Western Muslim Empire. He continued to develop as a mathe- matician by traveling on business and studying in such places as Egypt, Syria, Provence, and Byzantiuin. He developed contacts with scientists throughout the Mediterranean world. He became proficient in Euclid's Elements, and the Greek mathematical method of definition, theorem, and proof. He learned from the Arabic scientists the Hindu numbers and their place system, and the al- gorithms for the arithmetic operations. He also learned the method of algebra principally found in the work of al-Khwarizmi (K]. Through his study and travel and learned disputations with world scientists, he became a very superior cre- ative mathematician. He participated in the academic court of Frederick II who sought out and recognized great scholars of the thirteenth century. Leonardo with his scientific knowledge saw clearly the advantages of the useful mathe- matics known to the Muslim scientists, principally their Hindy numerals and decimal place system, their calculating algorithms, and their algebra. Knowl- edge of the Hindu numerals began to each Europe in the second half of the tenth century through the Arabs by way of Spain, however their usage was still not a general practice at Leonardo's time. Leonardo resolved to write his en- cyclopedic work, Liber abaci, to bring to the Italian people the world’s best mathematics in a usable form. Calculation has been an activity of mankind since ancient times, It was facilitated by various mechanical devices that by Greek and Roman times had developed into the abacus. The best known form consists of a wooden frame strung with wires on which are mounted beads for counters. The efficiency of this abacus is attested to by its survival and use in some parts of the world even today. There were also early forms of the abacus consisting of tables of wood4 L Introduction or marble on which were engraved lines. On the lines were manipulated small counters of stone, Another form used dust or powder on the table on which marks were made with the finger. During the seventeenth century both Blaise Pascal and Gottfried Leibniz designed mechanical calculating machines. Today we have electronic calculators and elaborate computers to assist us with our calculations. The inexpensive electronic hand calculator is the abacus of today. ‘The Hindus and Arabs utilized written numbers with a place system and methods for the basic operations that did not require the abacus. Roman nu- merals and other similar systems of writing numbers did not facilitate calcula- tion. The calculations were done with the abacus and the answers were written down in Roman numerals. The Hindu numerals with the place system are ac- tually used both to make the calculation and to write down the result. These are the procedures that children are taught in school when they learn to do addition, multiplication, subtraction, and division with pencil and paper. In the Middle Ages in Europe these new written. procedures were called algorithms to differentiate them from calculating with the abacus. Leonardo teaches these procedures in this book Liber abaci. These written procedures of calculation, algebra, and practical mathematics in general were known in Italy in the Middle Ages as abaco. Liber abaci, or the Book of Calculation, appeared first in 1202, and then again in a second version in 1228. Leonardo's stated intention was to introduce the Hindu number system and its operations to the Italian people. However, Liber abaci is much more than merely an introduction to the Hindu number system and the algorithms for working with it. Liber abaci is an encyclope- dic work treating much of the known mathematics of the thirteenth century on arithmetic, algebra, and problem solving, It is, moreover, a theoretical as well 48 practical work; the methods employed in Liber abaci Leonardo firmily estab- lishes with Euclidean geometric proofs. One must not be misled by the lack of modern mathematical symbolism into thinking that this work is not excellent or rigorous mathematics. One does not judge the quality of mathematics by the symbolism with which it is written. Liber abaci was good mathematics when it was written and it is good mathematics today. Liber abaci is a se- rious mathematical work written on arithmetic and applied mathematics by a superior creative mathematician. One should here again make the point, that while derived from the word aba- cus the word abaci refers in the thirteenth century paradoxically to calculation without the abacus. Thus Lider abaci should not be translated as The Book of the Abacus. A maestro d’abbaco was a person who calculated directly with Hindu numerals without using the abacus, and abaco is the discipline of doing this. It was Leonardo's purpose to replace Roman numerals with the Hindu numerals not only among scientists, but in commerce and among the common people. He achieved this goal perhaps more than he ever dreamed. Italian mer- chants carried the new mathematics and its methods wherever they went in the Mediterranean world. The new mathematics also spread into Germany where it was propagated by the cossists (a corruption of the Italian cosa, or thing, the unknown of algebra).