Chap. 3 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) Motivation: Diodes are useful in electronic switching and waveshaping cireuits. However, they are not capable of amplifying currents or voltages. “Transistor”, a three-terminal device, can amplify current and voltage in conjunction with other circuit elements, ‘Two major types of transistors are BJT: switch, digital circuit, amplifying device FET: ? 3.1 Basic Bipolar Junction Transistor |... a=. i E a ee Enis, (UR Cotesr a ‘al si; re) ‘gion region ne ae ® ca) 8 ‘Two pn junctions in the BJT device, four possible bias combinations may be applied: 1. forward-active mode: E/B forward, B/C reverse => amplifying Vac 2. Inverse-active mode: E/B reverse, B/C forward => digital circuit active Saturation 3. Saturation mode: F/B and B/C are forward => transistor in saturation Fae 4. Cut-offmode: E/B and B/C are reverse-biased => transistor “OFF” cuore | Forward active 3.2 Operation of the npn BJT in the Forward-Active Mode Forward-biased per eeSince E/B junction is forward biased, electrons from the emitter are injected across the E/B junction into the base, creating an excess minority carrier in base. Since the B/C junction is reverse biased, the electron concentration at the edge of the B/C junction is approximately zero. (electrons are attracted across the B/C junction due to the reverse E-field) Hole nl ‘concentration \ EB Base CBI Collector (2) depletion oO) depletion (n) 5 region region E 1 z I Electron : I concentration Z i ry (ideal) z I 5 ' 8 1 Ly at: 7.0) mith Distance (2) Po recombination) Effective base width W Ideally, all the electrons injected from the emitter will be swept into the collector without recombining with holes in base=>electron concentration is a linear function of distance across the base. However, carrier recombination “does” occur in the base, the e° cone. will deviate from the linear curve. To minimize recombination effects, the width of the neutral base must be smaller than the minority carrier diffusion length, The Different Current Components of BJT. Forward-biased Reverse-biasedJag: Duc to the diffusion of minority carrier electrons in the base atx = 0, din Jp: The difference berween Je and Jyc. which is due lo the recombination of excess minority carrier electrons with majority carrier holes in the base. The Jap current is the flow of holes into the base to replace the holes lost by recombination, Jpn: Due to the diffusion of minority carrier holes in the emitter at x = 0. Fn: Due to the recombination of carriers in the forward-biased BUF junction Inch); Due to the diffusion of minority carrier holes in the collector at x” = 6. Jq: Due to the generation of carriers in the reverse-biased B-C junction, Due to the diffusion of minority carrier electrons in the base at x =. Eminer ae Figure 9.13 Current density componenis in on nan bipolar transistor operating in the forwardactive mode‘The currents Jey. Jpn’, and Jp are B-E junction currents only and do not contribute {othe collector current. The currents Jp,j) and J¢; are B-C junction currents only. These eament components do not contribute to the transistor action or the current gain, ‘The de common base current gain is defined as le ay [9.191 de Ifwe assume that the active cross sectional area is the same for the collector and emit- fo then we can write the current gain in terms of the current densities, or +i rdpeo (9.20) Je duet Int Ipe We are primarily interested in determining how the collector current will change ‘pith change in emitier current, The small-signal, or sinusoidal, common base current uin is defined as Jc — = 19.21] Ton + det dot, The teverse-bias B-C currents, J and Jj. af Not functions of the emitter current, We can rewrite Equation [9.21] in the form a Ink. due nt + JIpe ) (9.22a] (Geet pelle) Geer I+ tp: Ne p yor’ [9.2261 o @ TThe factors in Equation [9.22b] are detined as: Sue cel y={- —— = Emitter injection effi | P ( a | ie Iafanattn (9.2961 - (#) - Base irinspont factor 19.2361 2 19.23¢) Tusa Pa he & (9.2761 Dy \xe 1 1 aS er i comhia/Lp) 1+ 4 (p/La)? « 3000/1Table 9.2 Summary of limiting Factors \Lritior injection efficiency (a & La). ee Khe) Ne Dp ts Common-emitter current gain Collector Current -cted into the base, which is a The # of electrons reaching the collector per time x #. of function the B/E voltage and is indep. of B/C voltage. Tex dnidt a e¥8®*" => Collector current is controlled by the B/E voltage; Ic = [ye Base Current BIE is forward/biased, holes from the base flow across B/E junction into the emitter. The base current iay o the # of holes flowing into the emitter c ead"? A few electrons recombine with majority carrier hole in the base,. This “recombination current is ce #. of ¢ injected from the emitter c eae"? > total base current ip = isz+is2 x e”ae/"7, (Recall I, = Iye"*!"")=| = B, (100-200): Common-Emitter Current Gain, in ‘Br is affected by two factors: base width (JV) and the relative dopings of the base region and the emitter region (ng / nz) 1. Usually nz~ 10", nz ~ 10", nc~ 10°, «. the e* cone. in emitter >> the h” cone. in base = no, of e- injected into base >> no, of h' injected into the emitter. i >> ins 2. if the base width is small => ig2 W=> ip 77 Emitter Current Since the current enters a transistor should leave it, => iz = in + ic, Recall: i¢ =p is, => ig = is + ic = (Br +1) in = ae ic, ag: common base current gain= (S1,~1iffe>> Dor 8,yf 3.3 The pnp Transistor P * Fig. 4.7 Curent ow in a pop transistor bined to operate inthe ative mode 3.4 Cireuit Symbols and Conventions ic E Arrows: 1._ specify the emitter node, z 2, indicate the normal current flow direction of the emitter, ; E c non pmGireuit Symbol and Directions ‘of Current Flow Operation in the Active Mode for Amplifier Application) Conditions: 1 EBI Forward Biased Oe? Vata: Vac. Yen? Veaeai Vea =0.5.V “Typically, pe = 0.7 V Typically, vey = 0.7 ¥ 2. CBU Reversed Biased Mec S Vac Vecn #04 ¥ YewS Venmi Venn #04V = re203V = me203V ‘Current-Voltage Relationships mig = Tye" nt m= ic/B Ie = Bly M ipzicfa oF ic = aig p= oo aah Large-Signal Equivalent-Cieuit, “Model including the Eacly Effect) ie 210 "(14 88) re = Vyittge™ay Tage" 1 rea foe = Feel » Ophsg = Cale = ty 708V ‘Typically, y= 0.5-0.6V 3 tee Vere O.1-0.2¥ Few = Broce Bs Bos = Bes fy 8 oe [Meem ‘ia? Vea Vane 205 ¥ “Typically, yy =0.7-08V Yeu Vea Veen 204 V ‘Typically. vee = 015-006 ¥ 3 t= View = 01-02 ~ Overtrive ctor E Ve ov a u =O1v 8 9 Roane 1B W/E) Biowsa! Br Von For Bat = Br/2: Retna = 1/108 etnLV Characteristic of a npn BJT in common-emitter configuration Saturation [es rc ave i no ' | | » oe Early Effect: at a given value of vsr, increasing vcr increases the reverse-bias voltage on the C/B junction and thus increases the width of the depletion region in the base. This in tur results in a decrease in the effective hase width. Recalling J; : (1/Wx), AsvertT=> Lt ict ‘The nonzero slope of the ic — vce lines indicates that the output resistance r, is finite a&| | Weel} — te loving space wae ‘The change i the base width and the change ro 9.15 yodent es he BC space charge width inthe inorty shorges Bal Figure 9.16 The collector currn! versus eolactoremiter volloge show'ng fhe Faly fect and Eeviy vokage 10fa) (by Complete Static Characteristics and Second-Order Effects Common-Base Characteristics Saturation 1 pre in Beate a eects eaten |Common-Emitter Characteristics [Saturation T ‘egion | Incremental “Hee Active region Incremental [em Bis high Bislow o » Veo r=ns¢ ra -sc Tetuay ee ee a a a 0 Vows eR (may (10 ma) (100 mA) 23.5 Analysis of the BJT circuits at DC Example: 4.1 Consider the following circuit with fp =100 and a vag =0.7V. Find Is, Is, and Ic +10v = Ve (1) Vas =0.7V => Ve=-0.7V 02Ve=0V) > Ip = (2) assume this BJT in forward-active mode, ** Ii 0.91 mA, Ie at 52093 0 + + @> ° 1, =—£— = 0.0182mA = 18.2, Beal ™ a = 0.91 mA => Vo= 10-IcRe = 5.44.V Vo-Ve=6.14 V> Versay= 0.3 V (-10) Re = Te Is, le= Bele =0.93 mA “y (Right Assumption) Example 4.2 i Example 4.4 } +10V Ce “LY A Be = 100, Fauon=0.7 V, nena Versa) =0.3V r= 100, Varion=0.7 V, saKn + Vewieay = 0.3V Re~ 330 Assume in forward-active mode, “. Vaz = 0.7 V, = to proof Vee> Vesa (1) Var = 0.7 V = Ve= Ve -0.7=5.3V 3 1,2 = 1.606 mA 100 100+1 (2) =>V_. =10-1, -4.7K =2.45V -V, =-2.848V (><) Not in forward-active mode! In fact, this BJT is in saturation! =0.93x =16mA, SV (1): Ve=0V => BIE junction cannot conduct! => y= 0. (2) For B/C junction, reverse-biased => [e=0.A 3) => e= 0A -.BIT is cut-off! BExample 4.3 t Br = 100, Vaioay=0.7 V, 4 Kevan =0.3V Example 4.7 +5v +5v fe= By = 109A evil Bn = he ae sha Assume in forward-active mode, -. Vax = 0.7 V, = to proof Ver> Vexsu) (6) Ve=0V = Va= Var =0.7¥ 3-, => 1,=-—#=43 Too M4 = 1c =Bply =4.3mA, (1) 2V¥_ =10-1,-2K =1.4V =2V op Vo Vy =1AV > 03V Right assumption! v-v-he Ry + Re Assume in forward-active mode, :. Vee = 0. Ry = Ry Ryy =33.3KO,V gy = = to proof Vee> Versa) (3) Van =la-Rea + Vor tle Re (4) => 5 Iy-33.3+0.7 +101 Ia-3 Ty =12.78 WA, 1, =(Byp + 1g =1.29mA, 1, =1.28mA (3) = Veg = 1S —Te Re — Bp Ry =4.67V > 03V Right assumption! sis = 240 is =s0%0 nsw nna) t Mea tea vo. re ve 4Example 4.8 (1) Biasing circuit is the same as in Example 4.7 => Is; = 12.78 wA~ 0.012 mA, =V_, =451 (2) + Vay =4.57V >>0.7V, assume BIT1 is in forward-active mode = to prove Vor > Verjeay > Ter = (Be +Vlas = 1.29 mA, Ver Ter Re = 3.87 V => Ici = Br lar = 1.28 mA, => Ver = 22? determined by Q2 and Re: (3) For Q2, Ver = Vb2, Via = Vo2+0.7 (assume Q2 is ON & in forward-active mode) 1S—Vep _15—(Vey +0.) R, 2 => Tp) = 1S—Vey 5 => Vor = 8.74 V, Inc, = 1.252 mA, Ino = 0.0275 mA, [rp = 2.78 mA, Ic? = 2.75 mA => Ve2= 9.44 V, Vo2= 7.43 V, Va2 = 8.74 V, => Veco = 2.01 > 0.3 = Vian => Vori = 8.74-3.87 = 4.87 > 0.3 = Vora Qi & Qo in forw: Ca 10D 28m (4) For node C), Bz, KCL: In, + x2 = ler=>: active mode, right assumption! 3.8 Biasing circuit for BJT. © Using a single power supply Vee v Re The voltage divider network is the most commonly used for biasing a transistor amplifi single power supply is available.RyRy 7, +) If Vea >> Vox and Re >> Rai(Pr+1), then Je is insensitive to temperature, Vse, and fe. Using Thevenin equivalent circuit, we can obtain I, 1, However, there is a limit on how large Vaz can be: Vag => Ie? => IP => Vea = Veo—IcRe- Va~ Veo-IcRe- Vay = Ves = Veo~IcRe- Ve~ Veo TeRe = Van +Voe 4 Recall, we want Vox and Vcr to be large to provide a large signal swing before the BIT cutoff or saturation. Therefore, there is a compromise between high Vas and Ves! Ver. As a rule of V, thumb, one designs for Vaz =+Vec , Ves (or Vee) ‘ec Voc and IcRe 2. To let Je be insensitive to Ar, a smaller Ry is needed. A smaller Rs is achieved by using low values of Ry and R2, which means that a higher current drain from the power supply and results in a lowering of the input resistance of the amplifier (undesired), which is the trade-off involved in this part of the design problem. Smaller Ry and R> also mean that the base voltage is determined solely by the voltage divider and is indep. of Ar. Typically, one selects Ry and Re such that their current is about 0.1/ ~ Ie. 1. Re in the emitter provides a negative feedback action to stabilize the bias current. Consider that for some reason Ie?=> Ve = eRe 7, since Ve ~ constant=> Vaz b=> Ipb 16© Using Two power Supplies A simpler bias arrangement is possible if two power supplies are available. In this case, Vie Vag Ry + Ryl(Be +1) © Alternative Bias Arrangement Ve, Re Veo = [eRe +e To obtain an Ir insensitive to Br, we select Ra/(r+1)< @ Time i) 185.3.2 Amplifier Gain To operate the BT as a linear amplifier, it must be biased at a point in the active regio Figure 5.26(b) shows such a bias point, labeled Q (lor quiescent point), and characterize by a de base-emitter voltage Vaz and a de collector-emitter voltage Vey. If the collect current at this value of Vj, is denoted J, that is, Vast ¥ f, Ase 65 then from the eizeuit in Fig. $.26(a) we ean write Vee = Mees Role (5.5: Now, if the signal to be amplified, », is superimposed on Vay and kept suficiently small, ¢ indicated in Fig, 5.26(b), the instantaneous operating point will he constrained to a relativel short, almost-linear segment of the transfer curve around the bias point Q. The slope of th linear segment will be equal to the slope of the tangent to the transfer curve at Q. This slop is the voltage gain of the amplifier for small-input signals around Q. An expression for th small-signal gain A, can be found by differentiating the expression in Eq. (5.51) and evalt ating the derivative at point Q; that is, for 4 = Vaes A, = to Thus, Now, using Eq, ( A= tate et - Vy where Vgc is the de voltage drop across Ke, Vac = Vee—Vee 65.5) Observe that the CE amplifier is inverting; that is, the output signal is 180° out of phus relative to the input signal. The simple expression in Eq. (5.56) indicates that the voltay gain of the common-emitter amplifier is the ratio of the de voltage drop across Re-to the the mal voltage V; (= 25 mV at room temperature). It fellows that to maximize the voltage gain should use as large a voltage drop across Re as possible. For a given value of Veg, Ed. (5.5) indicates that to increase Vy we have to operate at a lower Voz. However, reference t Fig, 5.26(b) shows that a lower Ver means a bias point Q close to the end of the actin region segment, which might not leave sufficient room for the negative-output signal sin 19“ithout the amplifier entering the saturation region. If this happens, the negative peaks of ‘waveform of y, will be flattened. Indeed, it is the need to allow sufficient room for out- signal swing that determines the most effective placement af the bias point Q on the -region segment, YZ, of the transfer curve. Placing Q too high on this segment not in reduced gain (because Vac is lower) but could possibly limit the available G.59) Aman gh the gain can be increased by using a larger supply voltage, other considerations into play when determining an appropriate value for Vcc. In faet, the trend has been uid using lower and lower supply voltages, currently approaching 1 V of s0. At such low voltages, large gain values can be obtained by replacing the resistance Re with a nt-current source, as will be seen in Chapter 6. mine the value of the bias vollage Vpp, tequised to operate the transistor at Vor = 3.2 V the corresponding value of {¢? the positive increment in vgy (above Vig) that drives the transistor to the edge of satura- 3.