05/08/2021  Conducting Research – use of scientific method

is called systematic process

Nutrition Introduction
Ex. Observation > Hypothesis > Conduct Research to
 Nutrition – study of foods, how we fuel our body Test Hypothesis > Results (2):
with food
Inconsistent with hypothesis > Revise Hypothesis
Nutrients:
Evidence supports hypothesis > Scientific Theory
o Carbohydrates 1g = 4kcal
o Protein = 1g = 4kcal o 2 Types of Research studies:
o Lipids 1g = 9kcal  Epidemiological *observing factors
o Vitamins  Cross-sectional studies – ex.
o Minerals comparison of 2 different populations
o Water  Case-control studies – ex. lump in neck,
compare medical records to find
Alcohol *not a nutrient 1g = 7kcal common factor = low level iodine can
cause goiter
 Organic – contains carbon  Cohort studies – ex. high level of
 Inorganic – doesn’t contain carbon cholesterol more likely to develop heart
disease = correlation (positive *not
ex. Minerals, & Water – h2o; made of only hydrogen necessary a desired outcome or
and oxygen negative)

 Experimental *test
 Laboratory-based animal studies
 Micronutrients – large; carbohydrates, protein,
 Laboratory-base in vitro studies
lipids, water (all provide energy, except water
 Clinical trials
*calories)
 Macronutrients – small; vitamins and minerals Publishing Research:
ex.  Findings are preliminary when
published – not meaningful until
CHO: 10g (10gx4g=40kcal)
replicated
CHON: 5g (5gx4g=20kcal)  Peer review – research has validity
 Gold standard – placebo *low/high
FAT: 2g (2gx9g=18kcal) expectations for the results =
psychological effects & double blind
Total Kcal=? *78kcal

Food Choices:
Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI):
o Personal preference – taste
o Habit
o Ethnic heritage or tradition
o Social interactions
o Availability, convenience, and economy
o Positive and negatives associations
o Emotions – boredom, depression, anxiety
o Values – religious belief, political beliefs,
environmental concerns
o Body weight and Image
o Nutrition and health benefits
o Estimated Average Requirements (EAR) –
average amount sufficient for half of
population. Ex. (a) 100mg – (b) 300mg =
200mg
o Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) –
to meet needs of most healthy people;
about 98% of population.
o Adequate Intakes (AI) – the same as RDA,
but insufficient scientific evidence. Expected
to exceed average requirements.
 o Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL) – to the
point where the nutrient is likely to be toxic.
Helps protect against overconsumption.
o Estimated Energy Requirements (EER) –
amount of calories needed for all daily
functions. Includes calories needed for both
vital functions of life and physical activity.
o Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution
Ranges (AMDR):
 Adequate energy and nutrients
 Reduce risk of chronic illness
 Range:
 45-65% kcal from CHO
 20-35% kcal from FAT
 10-35% kcal from CHON
Nutrition Assessment – Individual Level:
o Deficiency or excess over time leads to
malnutrition *undernutrition and over
nutrition
o Symptoms of malnutrition
o Creating a “total picture”
o Historical information: health status, drug
use, diet history..,
o Anthropometric measurements – height and
weight
o Physical examinations
o Laboratory tests
Nutrition Assessment – Population Level
o National nutrition surveys – monitoring
program
o National health goals
o National trends
Nutrition Information & Misinformation
o Validity – who is providing this information?
*Qualifications
o Internet – anyone can publish anything
*should be government and university
websites = more reliable
o Evaluate websites – Who, When Where,
Why, What, How recent is this information?
o News – often tell lopsided story
(testimonials, tight deadlines, limited
understanding, current and controversial)
o Identifying nutrition experts – Physicians
and other health-care professionals
*training in nutrition is limited. Registered
Dietitian (RD) has a degree and clinical
internship, maintain up-to-date knowledge.
Nutritionist is not a regulated title, no
required training or education.
“Natural” doesn’t mean it’s effective and good for
you. It can be toxic when taken in large quantities
like supplements.
HSP – is not a real thing.
05/09/21 (2) 2000kcal diet – divided not by food group, but by
nutrient content *beneficial for diabetic
Planning a Healthy Diet

Principles and Guidelines:

Diet-Planning Guidelines: Grocery Shopping
o Adequacy – making sure that you have enough
sufficient energy and nutrients o Grains
o Balance – do not have too little and do not have  Whole-grain products
too much  Fortified & enrichment
o Moderation – don’t eliminate food groups, o Vegetables
consume everything in moderation  Fresh vs. canned or frozen *avoid canned
o Variety – getting something from each food o Milk and milk products
groups, varying within food groups, not to o Fruits
always eat the same food item  Colors
 Fruit juices
o Protein foods
 Lean cuts
 kCalorie (energy) control – energy in = energy  Soy products
out  Portion sizes
 Nutrient density – the most nutrients for the  Cooking techniques
fewest calories. *packed with nutrients
A Wheat Plant:

o Husk – most outer part, too rough to eat,

Dietary Guidelines for Americans:
o Evidence-based (verbal) advice implemented by
USDA Food Patterns/Groups – attain and
maintain a healthy weight, reduce the risk of
chronic disease, promote overall health,
reviewed and revised every 5 years.
o Need tools and knowledge to plan an ideal diet
o USDA Food Patterns – five major food groups
will tell you how much you need in each food
groups.
o Serving equivalents:
 Fruits, vegetables, milk = cups
 Grains and protein foods = ounces
o Ethnic food choices
o Vegetarian food guide – can still use USDA
Food Patterns
o Mixture of foods
*comparison of recommended and actual
Intakes
o USDA Food Guide:
 MyPlate – educational tool, combines
USDA Food Patterns and Dietary
Guidelines, allows personal planning.
o Exchange list – help in achieving kcalorie
control and moderation, sorting of foods:
energy-nutrients content, & examples
must be removed
*If whole grain, all is edible other than husk is
included
o Bran – second layer, rich in nutrients and
fiber
o Endosperm – contains starch and protein
o Germ – the seed that grows into a wheat
plant, rich in vitamins and minerals.
Refined carbohydrate – less in nutrients content,
only includes endosperm. ex. white bread
Common types of flour:
o Refined flour – finely ground endosperm
that is enriched with nutrients and bleached
for whiteness.
o Wheat flour – flour made from endosperm
for the wheat kernel.
o Whole-wheat flour – any flour made from
the entire wheat kernel.
Food Labels:
o Serving size

Ex. (1) Swap milk with bread = same CHO exchange

o Percent daily values – ex. 10%dv sodium, how
close to meeting the recommendation for the
day *based off recommendation 2000kcal
o Nutrient claims – regulated by FDA.
ex. reduced sodium = 25% less *does not
mean low sodium
o Health claims
o Structure function claims – food can help
support a certain structure, certain function in
the body, but not condition specific. *not
approved by FDA
ex. supports immunity and digestive health
= does not mean it helps cure or reduced
certain health condition
05/10/21
Digestion, Absorption, and Transport
 Digestion – breaking down of food into nutrients
to prepare for absorption.
 Absorption – when the cells of the small
intestine take in nutrients to transport them.
 Food = before enters the mouth
 Bolus = mixture of food after enters mouth
 Chyme = after mixing with acid in the stomach
 Peristalsis & Segmentation – both are result of
contraction and the release of the muscle of the
digestive system.
o Peristalsis – when contraction and release
moves food along.
o Segmentation – breaks apart chyme into
smaller segments.
Digestive Organs:
Liver > Gallbladder
Mouth > Esophagus > Stomach > Small Intestine >
Large Intestine (Colon)
Pancreas
 Sphincters – little flap that closes and opens to
control the movement of food throughout the
digestive system.
o Upper Esophageal Sphincter – controls the
passage between mouth and top
esophagus.
o Lower Esophageal Sphincter – controls the
passage of food between the ends of
esophagus to stomach.
 Acid reflux / heartburn – acid back
splashing from stomach to esophagus.
Sign that Lower Esophageal Sphincter is
malfunctioning.
ex. from spicy food, chocolate, age, too full
o Pyloric Sphincter – prevents food from
going back from small intestine to stomach.
o Ileocecal Valve – controls the passageway
between small and large intestine.

o Mouth: (Enzyme) Salivary Amylase >
(Nutrient Digested) Carbohydrates
Digestion *amylase = always related to
carbs. | amylase = can’t function with acid
o Stomach: (Enzyme) HCL, Pepsin > (Nutrient
Digested) Protein Digestion *proteins need
to be denatured before digested
 Denatured – protein is uncoiled /
loosened up so enzyme can have better
contact with it.
Hydrochloric Acid (HCL) – prepares
protein for digestion by denaturing it
 Pepsin – enzyme that digest protein after
denatured
o Small intestine: (Nutrient Digested)
Carbohydrates, Protein, Lipids
- Lipids
 Liver = makes bile
 Gallbladder = stores bile
 Bile – is both hydrophobic and
hydrophilic
 Emulsification – process when
hydrophobic and hydrophilic come
together. *bile performs emulsification
on lipids so it can mix with digestive
juices
- Carbohydrates, Protein
 Pancreas: (Enzyme) Pancreatic enzymes
– finalize the digestion of different
nutrients. It will release bicarbonate.
 Bicarbonate – substance in the basic
end of the pH scale. *neutralize acid to
prevent damage in SI
How does the body know when to release the
digestive enzymes?
- Through the use of Hormones. Hormones
stimulate the release of the most digestive
substances.
- Salivary amylase is not stimulated by
hormones – once mouth recognized food it
automatically starts stimulating SA.
Hormone:
o Gastrin – hydrochloric acid secreted into the
stomach. *tells to release HCL
o Secretin – bicarbonate-rich juices secreted into
the small intestine. *tells pancreas to release
bicarbonate
o Cholecystokinin (CCK) – bile secreted into the
duodenum. *tells gallbladder to release bile
Anatomy of the Absorptive System:
 Small intestine – lots of surface area, first place
of absorption, majority of absorption, nutrients
stores in cells.
Absorption of nutrients:
o Simple Diffusion – they cross into intestinal
cells freely.
o Facilitated Diffusion – they need a specific
carrier to transport them from one side of the
cell membrane to the other.
o Active Transport – these nutrients move
against a concentration gradient, which
requires energy.
Transport Systems:
o Vascular
- Water-soluble nutrients and small fats
- Composed of blood (RBC)
- Detoxified by liver on first round
o Lymphatic system
- Larger fats and fat-soluble nutrients
- Composed of lymph (WBC)
- Bypass liver on first round
Note:
 Blood leaving heart = artery
 Blood entering heart = vein
 Hepatic = liver
 Pulmonary = lungs
Lungs > Heart > Liver > Small Intestines
 Pulmonary artery – heart pumps blood from
right side into lungs *lungs = pulmonary, leaving
heart = artery
 Pulmonary vein – transfer oxygenated blood
from the lungs to the heart *lungs = pulmonary,
entering heart = vein
 Aorta – carries oxygen-filled blood from the
heart to different organs in the body.
o If it goes to the liver, it will be detoxified then
goes back to the heart, called Hepatic Vein.
o If it goes to the small intestine, it pick-up
nutrients that were absorbed, then sent to
liver, called Hepatic Portal Vein.
For the nutrients that couldn’t be directly pick-up by
the bloodstream, it will be filtered into Lymph.
 Subclavian vein – responsible for draining blood
from the upper extremities, allowing this blood
to return to the heart.
05/11/21
The Carbohydrates: Sugar, Starches, and Fibers
 Carbohydrates – made of building blocks called
monosaccharides.
Carbohydrate Family:
o Monosaccharides – same numbers and kinds of
atoms, but differ in sweetness
 Glucose – known as blood sugar, part of
every disaccharide
 Fructose – known as fruit sugar, sweetest
of the sugars
 Galactose – not commonly found in foods
o Disaccharides – pairs of three monosaccharides
 Maltose – two glucose units
 Sucrose – known as table sugar, glucose
and fructose
 Lactose – known as milk sugar, galactose
and glucose
 Condensation – links two monosaccharides
together.
 Hydrolysis – breaks a disaccharide in two.
Atoms and Their Bonds – each atom has a
characteristic number of bonds it can form with
other atoms.
o Polysaccharides – more than 10 units of
monosaccharides link together
 Glycogen – storage of energy in the body,
long string of glucose units
 Starch – storage form of energy in plants,
glucose units
 Fiber – has vertical bonds that hold
glucose units together. *we don’t have
the enzymes to digest it fully
Differ from starches:
- Soluble fibers – absorbs the water
around, benefits ex. mix flour and
water
- Insoluble fibers – sits around in the
water, benefits ex. rocks in water
- Functional fibers
- Resistant starches
- Phytic acid
  Insulin – glucose from blood into cells,
decrease your blood sugar *tells the body
that it has too much glucose
 Glucagon – brings glucose out from storage,
In the large intestine (colon), bile that has been
increase your blood sugar *tells the body
In the gallbladder, bile is stored
trapped
In In
the
theby soluble
liver,
small
bile is fiber
madeisbile
intestine, excreted
from iin feces.
emulsifies
cholesterol.
fats. that it is running low in glucose
o Glucose for energy – preferred fuel for most of
the body. It requires fueling for parts of the
brain and red blood cells.
o Gluconeogenesis – make glucose from protein,
muscle protein *if the body doesn’t have
enough glucose, it takes protein from muscle is
Carbohydrate Digestion:
used to make glucose
o Salivary amylase: carbohydrates > breaking o Ketones – alternate fuel when glucose is low,
down into smaller polysaccharides primarily made from fat. Acidic nature can cause
o Pancreatic amylase (enzyme): polysaccharides > shift in blood pH = ketoacidosis – blood shifts
break down even further to disaccharides and become too acid for the body to function
o Specific disaccharide enzymes (on microvilli):
disaccharides-specific enzymes >
monosaccharides (maltase, sucrose, lactase) The Constancy of Blood Glucose:
Lactose Intolerance – when people have trouble o Type 1 diabetes – insulin deficiency, genetic
digesting and processing dairy products; deficient in condition: autoimmune disease *less than 10%
enzyme lactase. o Type 2 diabetes – insulin resistance, enough
insulin but the body is resistant to it *assoc. with
o Lactase activity: highest immediately after birth,
bad diet, overweight / obese
declines with age
o Symptoms of intolerance
o Causes of intolerance beyond age
o Prevalence, genetically determined Health Effects of Sugars:

o Dental carries – bacteria ferment sugars

producing acid, food factors associates with
Carbohydrate Metabolism: tooth decay
 Time of food in mouth
o Glucose is key player
 Sticky foods
o Storing glucose as glycogen o Artificial sweeteners
 Liver storage:  Non-nutritive sweeteners
- Condensation into glycogen  Large doses and adverse effects
- Hydrolysis for release of glucose when o Sugar alcohols ex. sugar-free gums
needed
 Provide kcalories
 Muscle storage – selfishly hoards glycogen
 Benefits and side effects

The constancy of blood glucose:

o Steady supply in blood stream

 Intestine – food
 Liver – glycogen
o Blood glucose homeostasis (hormones)

05/13/21
The Lipids: Triglycerides, Phospholipids, and Sterols
Fatty acids structure:
o Omega end (methyl group)
o Carbon
o Alpha end (carboxyl group)
Length of the carbon chain:
o Long chain (12-24) meats and oil *most common
o Medium chain (6-10) dairy
o Short chain (<6) dairy
Based on hydrogen:
o Saturated: full of hydrogens, solid, more stable
against spoilage – fully saturated with hydrogen
*carbon always has 4 bonds
o Unsaturated: missing hydrogens, liquid, less
stable (spoils quickly) *double-bond will occur
which causes the structure to bend | because of
the gaps more oxygen exposure=spoilage of fat
 Mono-unsaturated
 Poly-unsaturated
How to name fatty acids:
1. Locate the methyl (omega) end *left
2. Find the first carbon that is attached to a double
bound *(C=C)
3. Add the word “omega” before this number ex.
omega-3
 Hydrogenation = Trans Fatty Acids – will fill in
some of the bond requirement, can also causes
hydrogen to shift places *balances hydrogen
even with double-bond present
Lipid Categories:
o Triglycerides – main dietary fat
 (1) Glycerol backbone
 (3) Three fatty acids
o Phospholipids – emulsifies fats, transports fats
in LS, part of cell membranes
 (1) Glycerol backbone
 (2) Two fatty acids
 (1) Phosphate group *hydrophilic
o Sterols – ring structure, body compounds made
from cholesterol, food sources:
 Cholesterol ex. bile
 Plant sterols (phyto)
Lipids Digestion:
o Fats are hydrophobic, digestive enzymes are
hydrophilic
o Bile: part hydrophobic and part hydrophilic, can
emulsify fat for digestion
o Pancreatic lipase (enzyme)
Absorption and Transport:
o Absorption: Micelles form to move fats into
intestinal cells
o Transport: small fats > direct into bloodstream,
vascular system | large fats > lymphatic system
 Micelles – fat inside with hydrophilic layer
outside, required for absorption into the cells
 Chylomicrons – fat in the center and a
hydrophilic layer (made of phospholipids) on the
outside, required for transport
 Lipoproteins – fat carriers/transporters:
o Chylomicrons – fat can enter the body in
chylomicron form, deliver fats into the cells,
and the remaining will go into the liver
o Very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) –
lipoprotein made by the liver, delivering fats
into the cells
o Low-density lipoproteins (LDL) – remnants of
VLDL content, delivering the remaining into
the cells
o High-density lipoproteins (HDL) – brand new
lipoprotein made by the liver, picks up extra
cholesterol that’s not being used back into
the liver *cleaning and removing excess fats
and cholesterol
HDL = removes fat, refers to as “good cholesterol”
LDL = deposit fat, has the most cholesterol, refers to
as “bad cholesterol”
VLDL = deposit fat

Chylomicrons = deposit fat, carries the most

triglycerides, refers to as “main triglycerides carriers”

Health Effects of Saturated Fats, Trans Fats, and

Cholesterol: 05/13/21

o Current American diet Protein: Amino Acids

o Heart disease
 Elevated blood cholesterol
 Dietary cholesterol
 High level of saturated fats in diet = increase
LDL, leave HDL alone
 Trans fats = increase LDL, lower HDL *worst
fat | need to completely eliminate in diet
Recommended Intakes of Saturated Fat, Trans Fat,
and Cholesterol:
Atom: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen
(20) Amino acids: Carbon, Hydrogen, Amino group,
Acid group, side group or side chain *differentiate by
side chain
o Essential amino acids – required to get from the
diet, cannot make by the body
o Nonessential amino acids – the body can make it
on its own

o Blood lipid profile

 Total cholesterol < 200 mg/dL
 Triglycerides < 150 mg/dL
 LDL < 100 mg/dL
 HDL < 60 mg/dL
Guidelines:
o Minimize processed foods
o Plenty of fruits, vegetables, and whole-grains
o Watch the fat from animal sources, choose lean
meat, choose low-fat or non-fat milk
 Dipeptide – link two amino acids together
 Condensation – join two things together
through the condensation process
 Peptide bond – holding two amino acids
together
 Polypeptide – when you link a bunch of peptides
together, if it is large enough it is called protein
Protein structures:
o Primary structure – chemical bonds, is
simply the sequence of amino acids in a
polypeptide chain.
o Secondary structure – electrical attractions,
refers to the twisting of a polypeptide chain
that gives the protein its 3-D shape.
o Tertiary structure – hydrophilic and
hydrophobic, refers to the comprehensive
3-D structure of the polypeptide chain of a
protein.
o Quaternary structure – two or more
polypeptides, refers to the structure of a
protein macromolecule formed by
interactions between multiple polypeptide
chains.

Protein Digestion:

o Uncoil or untangle up the protein by using

acid or heat that will deactivate and
 denature the protein for it to be accessible o Making fat – energy and protein exceed needs
for the enzymes *no storage for protein = protein will be
o Denaturation – disruption of stability, uncoil converted to fat
and lose shape, stomach acid o Deaminating amino acids – stripped of nitrogen-
o Mouth > Stomach - hydrochloric acid containing amino group: *deamination
denatures proteins  Ammonia
o Pepsin (enzyme) – responsible for breaking  Keto acid
down protein while it is in the stomach o Make proteins and nonessential amino acids –
(Pepsinogen *< not active = needs to be breakdown of proteins , keto-acids, liver cells
activated by HCL > Pepsin) and nonessential amino acids
o Small intestine: hydrolysis reactions, o Converting ammonia *< toxic to *less toxic >
peptidase enzymes – break down peptide urea – liver: ammonia and carbon dioxide,
bonds dietary protein
o Excreting urea:
Protein absorption:  Liver releases urea into blood – kidneys filter
urea out of blood
o Transport into intestinal cells – uses of amino  Liver disease
acids by intestinal cells  Kidney disease
o Priority: formation of protein structures  Protein intake and urea production – water
o Unused amino acids will be transported to consumption
liver = amino acid pool
Protein Quality:
Protein Synthesis:
o Digestibility:
o DNA template to make mRNA – transcription  Animal protein – easily digestible and
o mRNA carrier code to ribosome – ribosomes contain essential amino acids *higher
are protein factors quality
o mRNA specifies sequence of amino acids –  Plant protein – contains fiber = not
translation, tRNA easily digestible
o sequencing errors – genetic error in DNA o Amino acid composition
 Complete protein
*DNA = contains information how to make different  Incomplete protein
protein structure  Complimentary protein
mRNA (messenger RNA) = copy of DNA, process of
making a copy is called transcription
Recommended Intakes of Protein:
Ribosome = mRNA will take the information to the
protein making factories (Ribosomes), this process is o Need for dietary protein – 10-35% daily
called translation energy intake
o RDA – adults = 0.8g/kg of body weight/day
tRNA (transfer RNA) = will help to deposit amino
o Groups with higher recommended intake
acids, each tRNA is responsible for specific amino
(athlete)
acids
*protein supplements are not necessary
Amino acid pool – mixture of amino acids available in
the cell Health Effects of Protein:
Protein Metabolism: o Protein deficiency:
 Marasmus – lacking protein and
o Make glucose – carbohydrate intake insufficient
calories
*gluconeogenesis
 Kwashiorkor – enough calories but not
enough protein *edema
 o Nitrogen balance – Nitrogen Balance = - Glucose to pyruvate
Nitrogen intake - Nitrogen loss - Always first step
 Positive balance: input > output – - Anaerobic
periods of extra need - Cytoplasm
 Negative balance: input < output –
periods of protein breakdown Breakdown = release hydrogen and electrons, then
coenzymes collect to electron transport chain
*aerobic pathway

05/17/21 Pyruvate’s options:

Energy Metabolism - Quick energy needs – anaerobic, pyruvate

to lactate:
 Metabolism – different chemical reactions in the  Pyruvate accepts hydrogens
body to obtain and use the energy from food  Converts pyruvate to lactate
 Occurs to a limited extent at rest
 Cori cycle = anaerobic cycle
- Slower energy needs – aerobic, pyruvate to
Anabolic and Catabolic Reactions Comparison:
acetyl CoA:
 Anabolic – building different structures ex.  Pyruvate enters mitochondria of cell
protein = when you put individual amino acids it  Carbon removed – become carbon
makes a large protein structure *build = requires dioxide
energy  2-carbon compound joins with CoA
 Catabolic – breaking down smaller pieces becoming acetyl CoA – irreversible
*releases energy  Acetyl CoA pathway – TCA cycle
*acetyl CoA = not reversible
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) – where energy is
stored, ATP is body’s energy currency

ATP ATP
breakdown synthesis

APPP = APP+P

Energy release = energy stored

 Anaerobic metabolism – produces less ATP,

involved in high-intensity, short-duration
activities, in cytoplasm *doesn’t require oxygen
 Aerobic metabolism – produces more ATP,
involved in low-intensity, long-duration
activities, in mitochondria *requires oxygen

Glycolysis: