INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

UNIT 2

A Computer is an electronic computational device which can perform Arithmetic ,mathematical

and logical operation with incredible speed, and can store gigantic amount of information and
data .The information or data can be recall at whatever point the client demands or requests. As
the days are passing by different types of computer system are being utilized or used for
particular reason.

As the need of clients these days are changing the advancement of modern computer innovation
are heading off to a distinctive level envision the old PC which involved an entire building,
gigantic weight, and created enormous heat, the heat or warmth utilize by this computers was
fantastically high and the current modern day computer can fit to your palm simply like your
cell phone, imagine how smaller your tablet is ? your PC ..and so on

TYPES OF COMPUTERS
 Super Computer
 Mainframe
 Mini
 Micro
Super Computer
These are the speediest computers compared with all other computers, which have fast,
amazing capacity or storage limit, expensive and require gigantic space they are called as
"Super Computer". They are accommodated in large Air Conditioned room, some of them can
take an entire building for its installation.
A Desktop Microcomputer process information and guideline in a millionth of second and at
times in microseconds, though the Supercomputer can play out a speed of nanoseconds or even
in picoseconds, the speed of the super computer is million times quicker and faster than
desktop PC. There a speed is measured or counted in "FLOPS" (Floating Point Operation
per Second) it can perform a speed of over 1 billion per second.
They are generally used as a part of complex Scientific application, climate determining,
Monitoring tremor or earthquakes, they are expertized in particular undertaking, for example,
space investigation, space examine, atomic weapons, and genetic engineering .
Seymour Cray planned and designed the first Supercomputer "CDC 6600" in 1964. CDC 6600
is known as the first ever Super computer. Today, China's "Tianhe – 2" is the world's quickest
and fastest Super computer.

The Tianhe – 2 can perform 100 Petaflops, i.e quadrillions of floating point operations every
second China has built up the quickest super computer of all time .It has around 37 while USA
has 233.

Examples ::
 PARAM 10000 which was developed in India by C-DAC ,Pune
 IBM Deep Blue which was specially designed for playing chess
  Tianhe-2 which was developed in china

Mainframe Computer
They are gigantic in size, quick, extremely costly and expensive they are not as quick as the
supercomputer but still, they are exceptionally costly.They are planned and created to process
incredible amount of information and data they can execute million of guidelines or instruction
per second and can store billions of information or data .
They can store and process tremendous amount of information accordingly it is generally
utilized and used as a part of educational organizations, railway reservations, in a portion of the
administration segment where bulk information has to be saved, it is additionally used as a part
of Insurance Sector.
They support more than 1000 remote computers and can work as a “HOST” for different and
multiple operating systems.
Examples ::
 IBM Z890
 Hitachi’s Z800

Mini Computer
They are called as "Midrange Computers" and were produced in 1960's using transistor,
center memory technology and innovation. They are quite smaller in size, less expensive and
speedier yet not as quick as a mainframe or supercomputer, they are utilized or used as a part of
private company organizations, and in the production, department to monitor or screen
manufacturing process. 
They help multi-client Operations and have a very difficult operating system to deal with and
can function as a "HOST" in a system where 100 terminals can be supported. The effective
and powerful minicomputer is called as "Super-Minis".
Examples ::
 VAX
 Texas Instrument TI-990

Micro Computer
They are commonly called as “Personal Computer” [PC].They are the smallest and the
cheapest as compared with minicomputers, mainframe, and super computers. Despite this they
are widely used among people or end-user client, due to their low in cost they are so small that
they can be kept on a table (PC) or even carry out in a bag (Laptop) or even in a Palm (Mobile
Devices ).Their users are fastest growing users compared to other different types of computers.
They are designed primarily for single operation but still they can be used as
a “workstation” in computer networking.
The microcomputer are digital computer which consists of single or more CPU’s
(Microprocessor) they have input and output units as well as primary and secondary storage
units, Their processing speed is less as compared to different types of computers their speed is
measured in MHZ (Mega-Hertz) and GHZ (Gega-Hertz)
They have a input unit which encourages the users to give instruction or data to the control
unit, and a output unit which performs display information in desired or wanted form.

Examples of Micro-Computers ::
  Desktop Computers [PC]
 Laptop
 PDA | Palmtop
 Tablet PC

Desktop computers :: These are the single user computer which can be fit on a table .They are
small in size usually with single or only 1 “microprocessor” (CPU) they are designed for a
single location ,desktop computer s can be used for entertainment , graphics ,and user can
perform high level language .with a single user operating system but it can also be used a host
in computer networking.
Desktop computer are also called as “Personal Computer”. They can work faster and can
store a considerably amount of data or information ,they are cheaper and smaller in size ,but
compared to other different types of computer they are found wondering.
Famous manufacturer of desktop computer are ::
 DELL
 COMPAQ
 IBM

Laptop:: They can perform with AC or with Battery, these computers are usually used by the
persons who have to work from one location to other not as PC which sticks to one place as
they need AC power to operate. There are wide range of people who use these type of
computers daily may be engineer who has to give a presentation, student who needs to
demonstrate his project, a lawyer, a businessman, a teacher, a graphic designer, a salesperson
etc The biggest acid of laptops is their mobility.
Examples of Famous Laptop manufacturer are ::
 Dell
 Compaq
 Toshiba
 Lenova

Palmtop :: Palmtops are very small in size devices Which includes input and output function.
Users can attach mouse or keyboard They can perform each and every task or oepration as
Personal Computer or Laptop. They have a graphical screen where a client can do all the
functions, for example, sending emails ,office works ,and communication inside in a little
package.These are the Different computer types which are utilized or used as a part of
gigantic numbers around the world
Palmtops are essentially utilized by Business man ,Marketing Executes and so on 
Cases ::
 Apple
 Dell
 Toshiba

Tablet PC:: Tablet computers is additionally called as notebook.Which enables clients to

communicate utilizing computerized pen or a fingertip without utilizing a mouse or keyboard.
They can't satisfy the functionality of Personal Computer or Laptops.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS BASED ON OPERATING PRINCIPLES
Based on the operating principles, computers can be classified into one of the following types: -
 Digital Computers
 Analog Computers
 Hybrid Computers

Digital Computers: - Operate essentially by counting. All quantities are expressed as discrete or
numbers. Digital computers are useful for evaluating arithmetic expressions and manipulations
of data (such as preparation of bills, ledgers, solution of simultaneous equations etc)

Analog Computers:- An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the continuously

changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities
to model the problem being solved. In contrast, digital computers represent varying quantities
symbolically, as their numerical values change.

 Hybrid Computers:- are computers that exhibit features of analog

computers and digital computers. The digital component normally serves as the controller and
provides logical operations, while the analog component normally serves as a solver
of differential equations.

THE FIVE GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS

First Generation: Vacuum Tubes (1940-1956)

The first computer systems used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory,
and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. These computers were very expensive to
operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, the first computers generated a lot of
heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.
First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming language
understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a
time. It would take operators days or even weeks to set-up a new problem. Input was based on
punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.
The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The
UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census
Bureau in 1951.

Second Generation: Transistors (1956-1963)

The world would see transistors replace vacuum tubes in the second generation of computers.
The transistor was invented at Bell Labs in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers
until the late 1950s. 
The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller,
faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors.
Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage,
it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on
punched cards for input and printouts for output.
From Binary to Assembly
Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic,
or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level
programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions
of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in
their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.
The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

Third Generation: Integrated Circuits (1964-1971)

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.
Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which
drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers
through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the
device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the
memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were
smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

Fourth Generation:  Microprocessors (1971-Present)

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated
circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room
could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the
components of the computer—from the central processing unitand memory to input/output
controls—on a single chip.
In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the
Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many
areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form
networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers
also saw the development of GUIs, the mouseand handheld devices.

Fifth Generation: Artificial Intelligence (Present and Beyond)

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development,
though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use
of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.
Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of
computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that
respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.
NOTEBOOK COMPUTER OR LAPTOPS

A notebook computer is a battery- or AC-powered personal computer generally smaller than a

briefcase that can easily be transported and conveniently used in temporary spaces such as on
airplanes, in libraries, temporary offices, and at meetings. A notebook computer, sometimes
called a laptop computer, typically weighs less than 5 pounds and is 3 inches or less in thickness.
Among the best-known makers of notebook and laptop computers are IBM, Apple, Compaq,
Dell, Toshiba, and Hewlett-Packard.

Notebook computers generally cost more than desktop computers with the same capabilities
because they are more difficult to design and manufacture. A notebook can effectively be turned
into a desktop computer with a docking station, a hardware frame that supplies connections for
peripheral input/output devices such as a printer or larger monitor. The less capable port
replicatorallows you to connect a notebook to a number of peripherals through a single plug.

Notebooks usually come with displays that use thin-screen technology. The thin film transistor or
active matrix screen is brighter and views better at different angles than the STN or dual-scan
screen. Notebooks use several different approaches for integrating a mouse into the keyboard,
including the touch pad, the trackball, and the pointing stick. A serial port also allows a
regular mouse to be attached. The PC Card is insertable hardware for adding
a modem or network interface card to a notebook. CD-ROM and digital versatile disc drives may
be built-in or attachable.

DATA PROCESSING

Data processing is the conversion of data into usable and desired form. This conversion or
“processing” is carried out using a predefined sequence of operations either manually or
automatically. Most of the data processing is done by using computers and thus done
automatically. The output or “processed” data can be obtained in different forms like image,
graph, table, vector file, audio, charts or any other desired format depending on the software or
method of data processing used.
DATA PROCESSING METHODS
1. Manual Data Processing
In manual data processing, data is processed manually without using any machine or tool to get
required results. In manual data processing, all the calculations and logical operations are
performed manually on the data. Similarly, data is transferred manually from one place to
another. This method of data processing is very slow and errors may occur in the output. Mostly,
is processed manually in many small business firms as well as government offices & institutions.
In an educational institute, for example, marks sheets, fee receipts, and other financial
calculations (or transactions) are performed by hand. This method is avoided as far as possible
because of the very high probability of error, labor intensive and very time consuming. This type
of data processing forms the very primitive stage when technology was not available or it was
not affordable. With the advancement in technology the dependency on manual methods has
drastically decreased.

2. Mechanical Data Processing

In mechanical data processing method, data is processed by using different devices like
typewriters, mechanical printers or other mechanical devices. This method of data processing is
faster and more accurate than manual data processing. These are faster than the manual mode but
still forms the early stages of data processing. With invention and evolution of more complex
machines with better computing power this type of processing also started fading away.
Examination boards and printing press use mechanical data processing devices frequently.

3. Electronic Data Processing

Electronic data processing or EDP is the modern technique to process data. The data is
processed through computer; Data and set of instructions are given to the computer as input and
the computer automatically processes the data according to the given set of instructions. The
computer is also known as electronic data processing machine.

This method of processing data is very fast and accurate. For example, in a computerized
education environment results of students are prepared through computer; in banks, accounts of
customers are maintained (or processed) through computers etc.

a. Batch Processing

Batch Processing is a method where the information to be organized is sorted into groups to
allow for efficient and sequential processing. 

Online Processing is a method that utilizes Internet connections and equipment directly attached
to a computer. It is used mainly for information recording and research.

Real-Time Processing is a technique that has the ability to respond almost immediately to
various signals in order to acquire and process information.

Distributed Processing is commonly utilized by remote workstations connected to one big central
workstation or server. ATMs are good examples of this data processing method.
b. Online Processing

This is a method that utilizes Internet connections and equipment directly attached to a computer.
This allows for the data stored in one place and being used at altogether different place. Cloud
computing can be considered as a example which uses this type of processing. It is used mainly
for information recording and research.

c. Real-Time Processing

This technique has the ability to respond almost immediately to various signals in order to
acquire and process information. These involve high maintenance and upfront cost attributed to
very advanced technology and computing power. Time saved is maximum in this case as the
output is seen in real time. For example in banking transactions
d. Distributed Processing

This method is commonly utilized by remote workstations connected to one big central
workstation or server. ATMs are good examples of this data processing method. All the end
machines run on a fixed software located at a particular place and makes use of exactly same
information and sets of instruction.

Sr. No. Multiprocessing Multiprogramming

1 Multiprocessing refers to processing of
multiple processes at same time by multiple
CPUs.
2 It utilizes multiple CPUs.
3 It permits parallel processing.
4 Less time taken to process the jobs.
5 It facilitates much efficient utilization of Less efficient than multiprocessing.
devices of the computer system.
6 Usually more expensive.
Multiprogramming keeps several
programs in main memory at the
same time and execute them
concurrently utilizing single CPU.
It utilizes single CPU.
Context switching takes place.
More Time taken to process the jobs.
Such systems are less expensive.

NETWORK

 A network is a collection of computers, servers, mainframes, network devices, peripherals, or

other devices connected to one another to allow the sharing of data. An excellent example of a
network is the Internet, which connects millions of people all over the world. Below is an
example image of a home network with multiple computers and other network devices all
connected to each other and the Internet.
Network topologies and types of networks

The term network topology describes the relationship of connected devices in terms of a

geometric graph. Devices are represented as vertices, and their connections are represented as
edges on the graph. It describes how many connections each device has, in what order, and it
what sort of hierarchy.
Typical network configurations include the bus topology, mesh topology, ring topology, star
topology, tree topology and hybrid topology.

LOCAL AREA NETWORK AND WIDE AREA NETWORK

  LAN WAN
LAN is a computer network WAN is a network that covers
Definition that connects computers in a broad area using private or
small areas. public network transports.
LAN offers high data transfer WAN has lower data transfer
Data transfer rates
rates. rates due to congestion
Speed 80-90 mbps 10-20 mbps
WAN uses technologies such
LANs use technologies such
as MPLS, ATM, Frame Relay
Technology as Ethernet and Token Ring to
and X.25 for data connection
connect to other networks.
over greater distances.
High bandwidth is available Low bandwidth available for
Bandwidth
for transmission. transmission.
Connection One LAN can be connected to Computers connected to a

other LANs over any distance
via telephone lines and radio
waves.
Layer 2 devices like switches,
Components bridges. Layer 1 devices like
hubs, repeaters.
LANs tend to have fewer
Problems problems associated with
them.
LAN networks can be owned
Ownership up private companies or
people that set it up at homes.
Experiences fewer data
Data Transmission Error
transmission errors.
Set-up costs are low as the
Cost devices required to set up the
networks are cheap.
The network is spread to a
Spread
very small location.
Maintenance costs are low as
Maintenance costs
the area coverage is small.
Congestion Less congestion
wide-area network are often
connected through public
networks, such as the
telephone system. They can
also be connected through
leased lines or satellites.
Layers 3 devices Routers,
Multi-layer Switches and
Technology specific devices
like ATM or Frame-relay
Switches etc.
WANs have more problems 
due to the large amount of
system and data that is
present.
WAN are not owned up any
one organization but exist
under collective or distributed
ownership.
Experiences more data
transmission errors.
Set-up costs are high,
especially in remote locations
where set-up is not done.
However, WANs using public
networks are cheap.
The network can be spread
world-wide.
Maintenance costs are high as
the area coverage is world-
wide.
More congestion