1. Science Education: An Introduction 4. Introduction What should we teach in Science? Why should we teach what we teach in Science? How should we teach Science? Why should we teach the way we teach Science? How should we find out that students have understood what we taught them. These are some portant points (0 be considered by those who are concemed with science education. They may be science teachers, educators, researchers and curriculum developers. ‘This is what is usually taught in Science Method Courses (Appendix F) 4.2 What Should We Teach in Science? fow the question arises, ‘what i science’? ig some aspects of the world around us. ing, them to develop concepts and appreciate the structure ; so extensive and powerful are these networks of never to put pupils in the position of scientists ance provides no opportunity for the expression lion and for creative work. They feel that there knowledge is embodied in the natural wvered, must b> 2-cepted with jons and deduces generalisations from2 Teaching of Science , ‘Science Education: An Introduction 3 n the allotted time, we should develop some techniques so that students 3. Using numbers 4. Measuring part of content on their own outside the classroom. ' 5. Using space-time relationships 6. Communicating of Content 7. Predicting 8. Inferring 9. Defining operationally 10. Formulating hypotheses U1, Interpreting 12. Controlling variables, and 13, Experimenting. (io) Nature of Science Science is a broad based human enterprise that can be defined differently from The ‘ght define science as a body of scientific few it as a method by which hypotheses are tested, a philosopher might regard science ‘of questioning the truthfulness we know. All these views are valid, but each presents only a partial mn of science, y to define the comprehensive he textbook should be presented in such a way that ‘Sometimes the content given in the syllabus is compatible to presented in the textbook in such a way that to follow it. Therefore they do not like to read such, to Professor Jack Carter of University of Colorado, USA and andava boygf i ject (AISTA Silver Jubilee Conference, New Delhi, December fe cclence sasie anted in our science textbooks is just like a scientific paper 10se who are experts in science, rather than for those who are understand pl that motivate them to answer questions and solve problems. Se by enormous curiosity, imagination, and reasoning in their explain natural phenomena. Their work, as viewd by many philosophers of science and cognitive psychologists, is a ci ty whereby ideas and explanations fare constructed in mind. Therefore, the titnking and reasoning of scientists as they out their work offer important clues regarding the nature of sciewce Belief. The dency for scientists to find out seems to be motivated by their b v5 of nature can be constructed from observation and explained by thought and. ition departments or education boards are wathors go to different depths for the s -m will be on the same track, and will not go astr 1ools emphasise the proc way invest ‘ence has many methods ns to problems. Some : " science and inquiry as ers’, measuring’, using4 Teaching of Science unique contribution to theories, and madels form the content of specific meaning, which cannot be understo ‘ny that produced them. The facts of science serve as the foundation for concepts, principles, and theories. According to ‘The Co cyelopac systeniatized learning, in general uses rest phenomena, The progress of science is marked not only by an accumulation of facts, but by the emergence of scientific method and of the scientific attituds From the above definition three basic principles of the nature of science can be ‘identified (1) an accumulated and systematized body of knowledge, (2) the scientific method of investigation, and (8) the scientific attitudes or ways of thinking. The first point indicates the PRODUCT of science, while second and the third points i the PROCESS of science. In other words, Science is both a prod Thus Science has a dual nature. 1. Content of science. e is an accuraulated and 2. Process of science (App 4.3 Why Should We Teach What We Teach in Science? Tecan be discussed into two parts: @_ Why should we tench science? (i) Why should we teach what we teach in science ata particular lass level? (i) Why Should We Teach Science? xy unfortunate that we as science educators never ‘The principal goal of science education is to create men mply of repeating what other generations hay who are creative, inventive and discoverers. If that is why we how far our science education is compatible to achieve this goal w key to national prosperity les in the effective combination of th raw materials and capi t, make up a deficiency in nat -an only grow out Science Education: An Introduction elementary skills. Every citizen needs to live a healthy life with proper and clean surroundings. The knowledge and skills required by a householder in dealing with electrical, plumbing, and hum aid as some justification for teaching science to all children in school, 3. We depend upon scientific knowledge and understanding for eco material advancement, Science has provided so many aids f fertilisers to plant growth harmones, in the large-scale apy orunental damag 4. Science cannot be used in society without a body of men and boon sp vocati opens ly ‘Thus science could be aimed as a society. 6. Professor Yashpal (1Teaching of Science VIM, IX-X, XI-XII)? Perhaps those who never by the children. It will be advisable that syllabus framers should also mncemed science teachers when they frame science syllabus for various ‘Science Education: An Introduction 7 “Thear and I forget, I see and I remember, I do and [ understand”, must be a familiar phrase for you, bat this phrase shows the intent of constructivism. Cofstructivism is not entirely new. Contemporary researchers from vario countries have update: theories and methods and synthesised several dominant perspectives on learning. This perspective is evolved from. the research and theories of Piaget, Vygotsky, Bruner and philosophy of John Dewey. There is a consensus among many philosophers of science, psychologists, science educators, scientists and people concemed with the children’s leaming that learners must construct and reconstruct their own meaning of ideas about how the world works, Joseph Novak (1986) defines constructivism as the notion that humans construct or build meaning into understand or make sense of them. According to Duckworth (1989), all people have their own understanding, one cannot make them believe anything unless they construct itby themselves. ing, Therefore students can be for themselves, so that the leamer ns. The understanding or 4.5 Why Should We Teach the Way We Teach Science? is methods of teaching science (Chapter 8). “When a patticular very important. ze are some concepts and some skill. “Temperature” is a concept, and “scientific temp Method” or “Problem 1.6 How Taw ould We Find Out that Students have Understood What We jom, (0, Evaluate Learning?Teaching of Science ‘The answers of these qué ins give us some idea, whether the students “Continuous and Comprehensive Appendix K. we find mostly knowledge questions are asked to comprehension, apy y ? Explain with the tion is examination-oriented. Though we identify of science of science Science Education: An Introduction 9 ‘One of the recommendations of the jon Commission under chairmanship of Prof. DS. Kothari (1964-66) was that science should be made a compulsory subject in school education. The recommendation was accepted and science was made compulsory upto class X in several states and Union Territories. i ance courses at 10+2 stage were yy try-out. When framing deletions were made. Sometimes diagrams were deleted while content related-to those diagrams remained In the old 3-years Higher Secondary Scheme (X-X1) about one-third of students every student be ‘no aptitude or a special science course be ey are also attracted toward learning science. addressing the members of the ten-year school at New Delhi stated, ‘The students are burdened by how mat science almost doubles every decade. We are to keep pace with development. Then the problem is how much knowledge in science should be so that he is not burdened. ‘The goals and expectations of the science education change with time and with m the curricukim. Updating, revising, reorganising, or adopting science curricula are not sufficient to reduce the present state of fragmentation and hairowness, what is necessary is the design of science programmes for the-non- list, the common man, 1s of education and specially science education have recently portance and urgency. The long-term social problems of: (1) tations on available energy, and curriculum emphasis and modes of as adults they will be wiser in ince these social imperatives do not conform to the patterns must be generated, developed, tested, and. veness. Relevant research is needed not only in the10 Teaching of Science d be the place of science in the curriculurn. They owe ure generations. The time seems to be ripe for a ture of science edu taking into a serious view of its past and. that we should Ewe are able to tule and scientific temper among our students. This remains ing science. How far we are able to achiove this objective? ide? What is scientific temper? Is there any relation between method help us to develop scientific attitude and || outlook towards people, objects, are not inborn. Attitudes iren. They are the result of Tt means a nd procedures for resolving issues, attitude as a mental cengage in responsible acti the possible e options, using rational arguments based on evicience. nt, appraisal of different id appreciation of the natural and ly, cooperation and toler with society need to be unde Science Education: An Introduction " 3. critical thinking. 4. not believing what other people say unless convinced what is being said is correct. . 5, desire for accurate knowledge. 6. confidence in procedures in seeking knowledge. come through the use of method (problem, hypotheses, experiment, conchision) it IIL. Recognising a Person having Scien {following episode in which there are fou of complaints against her.” The Sci his remark teaching waves by thod. She was demonstrating longitudinal and transver 1 nodes and antinoxk wner interaction in the class. Questions between ing. Homework copies and practical notebooks when checked were up to date. The physics lab was well set for the ipal was shocked to listen to these comments. She ypoke to the Science Consultant, “Are you sure, these are your comments?” “Yes, these are my comments. She is an outstanding teacher. How did you know she does not do anything. Who was complaining against her,” the science hore wore telling, the Frincipal replied. “Do not following questions: mper~ Principal or Science Consultant. Justify your answer92. Teaching of Science ives of education from the previous years, it ssary to pay attention to the academic subjects as well as to the knowledge skill required for doing socially productive work. These two years are crucial point of view of the development of the personality. While from the onset there are problems of adjustment which the young, itis a this stage that these become acute and the additional paration for a transition from the life of a school stuclent to that of a productive society has to be undertaken, Therefore it is necessary to give the child sychological insight into his problems and the knowledge that may help understand his own behaviour as well as that of others around him. general objectives of science education at this stage may be stated as ‘The student should develop the competence to apply his knowledge to the n of the problems around him. a should have an understanding of cooperation, team s sty and sircerity Aims and Objectives of Scfonce Teaching 33 5. To develop in them the competency to apply scientific knowledge to the solution of the problems around them. ibute. meaningfully to the conservation of environment, the reduction of pollution, the development of nutrition, health and hygiene con: in the community. 7. To enable them to help in the development of proper habits and attitucles in child care and in the improvement of the home. 8. To enable them to reduce all sorts of prejudices based on sex, caste, religion, language or region. 9, To sharpen their senses to enable them to observe their environment and to enrich their experience, rather than to stuf their minds with facts and information. 10. To make them aware of these aspects of science that are environment and life centred. 11. To train them in the use and maintenance of science equipment: 12, To make them creative. 13, To develop in them the mental faculty of open-mindedness, making understand that there are many models of experimentation that are possible. 14. To prepare them for change and create in them confidence for facing problems of the future. 15, To enable them to formulate and test hypotheses. 16, To enable them to investigate the scientific phenomenon rather than just 1g known conclusions. Je them to investigate the scientific laws, principles and facts etc, -an do by laboratory experiments. enable them to bel covered by others and train them in science processes in order to discover some of the science , principles, and facts proper base for professional and higher science courses. ‘Taxonomy of Educational Objectives decides to teach his students, he plans several a es a relevant methodology to achieve the identified ‘Student's performance. fied and written in various different forms. Some teachers 5 should “really understand” others desire that their ientific laws, facts and principles. Some desire that knowledge,” and still others want that theirTeaching of Science ral accuracy, better organisation and interrelation of 0 in chemistry you will be familiar with classification of ye examiners in Boston, nication among examiners. The theoretical through a, system of classifying the goals of initial meeting at Boston in 1948, a series of mi we hy th group of eolege and universyeraminen, when sears ed I objectives was developed: Cognitive, afectioe it most of the objectives stated by (remembering) ; (fecting) in @oing) ted some objectives of Nutrition Education in the three Aims and Objectives of Science Teaching 35 nding out what kinds of food are available in the locality. ced of avoiding waste of food at all levels. Psychomotor Objective (Skill) Childrens 1 select and eat proper combination of food. 2. do not eat at washing hands, but wash hands before and after eating imilar hygienic food practices. 3. participate in food producti 4. explain the kinds of food a\ ein the locality. 3.7 Cognitive Domain Cognitive objectives were further classi ‘comprehension, application, analysis, synth co. 1. Knowledge. Knowledge is defined as the remembering of previously learned jal. This may involve the recall of a wide range of material, from specific facts omplete theories, but all that is required is the bringing to mind of the )priate information. Knowledge represents lowest level of learning outcomes cognitive domain, into six categories— knowledge, and evaluation (also see Appendix Knows common terms, knows specific facts, knows methods and procedures, basic concepts, knows principles, theories and structure, mprehension is defined as the ability to grasp the meaning may be shown by translating material from one form to er (words to numbers), by interpreting material (explaining or summarising) fblishing outcomes go one step beyond the simple remembering of represent the lowest level of understanding. \lerstands facts and principles, interprets verbal material interprets charts and inslates verbal material to mathematical formula, estimates. future iences implied in date, justifies procedures anc methods. plication. Application refers to the ability to use learned material in new and tions. This may include the application of such things as mules, cepls, principles; laws and theories. Leaming outcomes in this area rt level of understanding than those under comprehension. applies laws and theories to problems, constructs charts and graphs,36 Teaching of Scienco lerstandiing of both the content and the structural form of the material ses logical fallacies in reasoning, ates th y anal Dee pierre cae . Synthesis. Synthesis refers to the ability to put parts together to form a new This may involve the production of a unique communication (theme or plan of operation (research proposal), of a set of abstract relations (scherne {ying information). Learning outcomes inthis area stress creative behaviour, tajor emphasis on the formulation of new pattem or structures. : Writes a well organised theme, gives a well organised speech, writes a creative (or poem or music) proposes a plan for experiment, integrates learning. areas into a plan for solving a problem, formulates a new scheme for objects (or events or ies). Evaluation is concemed with the ability to judge the value of ement, novel, poem, research report) for a given purpose. The we to be based on definite criteria. These may be internal criteria or extemal ctteria (relevance to the purpose) and the student may judges the adequacy dat, ecg the value of work (art, msc a, ju value of work (art, music, wi dards of excellence. ete aes 3.8 Affective Domain A Aims and Objectives of Science Teaching a7 receive and then he is attentive when something is given to him. mples ‘The students are aware of scientific act ii) They attend activities arranged by science club Responding level comes after the learner has given his attention. Judes behaviours like compliance and willingness to respond and Students respond to the questions asked by the teacher. ‘udents raise hands to answer questions every time a question is asked by cher Students feel happy after answering the questions correctly. ) Students take pleasure in explaining scientific phenomenon to others. ing. The abstract concept is an important element of behaviour. At this vidual is not motivated by the desire to comply or obey ed because of his own valuing or assessment and commit fing value. The value system has slowly accepted and has come to be used ftudent at his own criteria of worth. rganisation. When the leaner develops certain values, he encounters ons for which more than one value is relevant, In such cases he is able to the values intoa system. c ts develop a plan for doing some scientific activities and school work at isation by a Value or Value Complex. The individual acts constantly cance with the values he has developed. \ship Between the Cognitive and Affective Domains lise human behaviours clearly in terms of cognitionmn more in details in the next Chapter 4. REFERENCES ichard C. “Aims and Objectives,” The Art of the Science McGraw-Hill Book Company (UK) Limited, London, 1974. “The Curriculum for the Ten-Year School — A Framework,” 1975, » et.al. “Taxonomy of Educational Objectives Handbook ive Domain”, David Mckay Company, Inc. New York, 1968, jamin S,, et. al. “Taxonomy of Educational Objectives Handbook Domain,” David Mckay Company, Inc., New York, 1968, “Objectives of Science “Teaching,” CENBOSEC, Vol. 17, No. 3, eNovember 1983. i, DS. “Role of Science in Promoting Soci rishna Memorial Lecture, LL., New Delhi ford T. “Teaching of Science in Today's India (Private) Ltd, New Delhi, 1964, id Broder, LJ. “Problem-Solving Processes of College sity of Chicago Press, 1950. M. “The Psychology of Thought and Judgement,” New 56. ” Cambricge, Mass. “spec ° T5)87 ce education at primary level. Can they also secondary and senior secondary levels? cence education at middle stage. Can they also econdary level, (c) senior secondary level. fea danaina ‘of educational objectives? Give at least three for each. a the six categories of educational objectives in the Cognitive Domain. rach category with examples. : ; five eau of eclucational objectives in the Affective Domain. in each category with examples.108 Teaching 9. What do you mean by: (a) task analysis wo mentee ith examples. lysis, and (b) entry behaviours? 19. Tdentify a topic pic in your field. Using i all the steps of system a va, Aiton a programmed nin hs opc wing Uni ‘Structure of Atom A e. ir ,ach. There is not a method or the methods of teaching ‘all the situations. All teachers are different. No two em fy fo Systematics (Appendi down the strength and weaknesses of each. ie cathers dlffer in personality. Children diffe ey wo locality ~-even in respect oftheir mental and payee mn Lay ts method is largely governed by these three factors — Faeroe fore a series of methods are being laid down, fom them according to theis need. tase chould be based on an understanding of the pupils in ‘Guan understanding of children we have read about oie should be one which we thoroughly understand and, “siti the pupils in our classroom and not merely one realisati means “I should be based on the we juco’ whi