THE SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

References: Weil, R.R and Brady, N.C. (2017). The Nature and Properties of Soil,
15th ed., Pearson Education Limited, Harlow, England

White, R. E. 2006. Principles and Practice of Soil Science : The soil as

a natural resource, 4th ed., Blackwell Publishing Co, MA USA

The Importance of knowing the Soil Physical Properties

These physical properties found in soils will …

➢ Influence how soils function in an ecosystem and how they can best be managed
➢ Determine the occurrence and growth of many plant species
➢ Affect the movement of water over and through the soils, consequently the movement of dissolved
nutrients and chemical pollutants.
➢ Influence agricultural practices, an example is when land surface is manipulated by tillage, an
agricultural preparation by mechanically agitating the soil by digging, stirring, overturning etc.
➢ Determine the success or failures of engineering projects, such as how soils behave when used for
highways and building foundations for example.
➢ Dictate the suitability of the soils to various types of land uses.
➢ In terms of hazards and soil management, will greatly help with regards to the problem of soil erosion
since those properties do have considerable control over the soil’s susceptibility to erosion.

The Soil Physical Properties

1. Texture
2. Structure
3. Pores
4. Bulk Density
5. Organic Matter
6. Color
7. Soil Depth
8. Soil Temperature
9. Drainage
10. Odor
11. Permeability and Infiltration
SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. TEXTURE (Size Distribution of Soil Particles)

Texture refers to the size distribution of soil particles.

Knowledge of the proportions of different-sized particles in a soil (i.e., the soil texture) is critical for
understanding soil behavior and management.
When investigating soils on a site, the texture of various soil horizons is often the first and most important
property to determine, for a soil scientist can draw many conclusions from this information. Furthermore,
the texture of a soil in the field is not readily subject to change, so it is considered a basic permanent
property of a soil.

What is meant by texture when referring to soil?

Non-technical definition: How the soil feels to the touch
Technical definition: The proportions of sand, silt, and clay in the soil

a) Nature of Soil separates (mineral part of soil)

Figure 1. Classification of soil particles according to their size based on the different standards. For this lecture, we will
use the International Society of Soil Science classification. The drawing found on the right side of the diagram illustrates
the sizes of soil separates. Take note of the scale – 0.5mm. This will give you an idea of how the relative sizes from
coarse sand to clay size.. (Diagram courtesy of Ray R. Weil)

i. Sand particles:
Sands are the largest in the soil, ranging in size from 0.05 to 2.00 mm (Fig 1).
Soil with high sand content feels gritty and doesn’t hold well in a ball. Sand feels gritty between the
fingers.
The particles are generally visible to the naked eye and may be rounded or angular (Fig 2),
depending on the degree of weathering and abrasion that particle had undergone.
Coarse sand particles may be rock fragments containing several minerals, but most sand grains
consist of a single mineral, usually quartz (SiO2) or other primary silicate minerals (Fig 3 & 4).
 Because of the dominance of quartz, the sand separate generally contains few plant nutrients. The
large particle size means that whatever nutrients are present will not likely be released for plant
uptake.

What is the implication of having a dominantly sandy soil?

Sand particles are relatively large, so, too, the pores between them are relatively large.
➢ The large pores in sandy soils cannot hold water against the pull of gravity and so drain
rapidly and promote entry of air into the soil.

Why can’t sands hold water? Due to its specific surface area.
The relationship between particle size and specific surface area (the surface area for a given
mass of particles) is illustrated in Figure 5. The large particles of sand have low specific
surface areas. Therefore, sand particles possess little capacity to hold water or nutrients and
do not stick together into a coherent mass. Owing to the just described properties, most
sandy soils are well aerated and loose, but also infertile and prone to drought.

Figure 2. Sediment’s shape is describe in terms of its 1) angularity (degree to which the clast’s edges and
corners are rounded) and 2) sphericity (how close the shape of the clast is to a sphere).

ii. Silt particles

Particles smaller than 0.05 mm but larger than 0.002 mm in diameter are classified as
Silt(Fig 1). Although similar to sand in shape and mineral composition, individual silt particles are so
small as to be invisible to the unaided eye (Fig 1)

Implications of having a silt dominant soil:

➢ Soils high in silt feel floury when dry and greasy when wet. Rather than feeling gritty when
rubbed between the fingers, silt feels smooth or silky, like flour.
➢ Where silt is composed of weatherable minerals, the relatively small size (and large surface
area) of the particles allows weathering rapid enough to release significant amounts of plant
nutrients.
➢ The pores between particles in silty material are much smaller (and much more numerous)
than those in sand, so silt retains water and lets less drain through. However, even when wet,
silt itself does not exhibit much stickiness or plasticity (malleability). What little plasticity,
cohesion, and adsorptive capacity some silt fractions exhibit is largely due to a film of adhering
clay. Because of their low stickiness and plasticity, soils high in silt and fine sand can be highly
susceptible to erosion by both wind and water. Silty soil is easily washed away by flowing
water in a process called piping.
 Figure 3 (Left) A thin section of a loamy soil as seen through a microscope using polarized light (empty pores appear black). The
sand and silt particles shown are irregular in size and shape, the silt being only smaller. Although quartz dominates the sand and
silt fractions in this soil, several other silicate minerals can be seen (plagioclase, feldspar). Clay films coat the walls of the large
pores (arrows). Scanning electron micrographs of sand grains show quartz sand (bottom right) and a feldspar grain (upper right)
magnified about 40 times. (Left photo courtesy of Martin Rabenhorst,University of Maryland; right photos courtesy of J. Reed Glasmann, Union Oil Research)

Figures 3 & 4 will change how you look at soil. All the soils found with particle sizes from coarse sand to
clay sizes are mineral particles, dominantly quartz minerals.

Figure 4. General relationship between particle size and kinds of minerals present. Quartz dominates the sand and coarse
silt fractions. Primary silicates such as the feldspars, hornblende, and micas are present in the sands and, in decreasing
amounts, in the silt fraction. Secondary silicates dominate the fine clay. Other secondary minerals, such as the oxides of
iron and aluminum, are prominent in the fine silt and coarse clay fractions. (Diagram courtesy of N. Brady)
iii. Clay particles
Clays are the smallest in the soil, with sizes less than 0.02 mm (Fig. 1).
They therefore have very large specific surface areas, giving them a tremendous capacity to adsorb
water and other substances. A spoonful of clay may have a surface area the size of a football field.

• Morphology: Most clay minerals consist of microscopic layers. These are called phyllosilicate
minerals. (Phyllo- is from Greek for leaf, as in phyllo dough used to make baklava.) Different types of
clay have different kinds of layers and different properties.

• Properties of clays:
➢ Sticky (adhesion—sticks to other things.

➢ Plastic (cohesion—sticks to itself

When wet, clay is sticky and can be easily molded

➢ Shrink-swell behavior

➢ Large surface area, due to layers and size (Fig 5).

➢ This large adsorptive surface due to its Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
Its large adsorptive surface area causes clay particles to cohere in a hard mass after
drying.
Clay particles have a net negative charge, and so can attract positive ions (cations), hold
them, and then release them to the soil water when its cations have been lost through
leaching or plant uptake. Cations such as potassium (K+), calcium (Ca+2), magnesium
(Mg+2), iron (Fe+2 and Fe+3), and zinc (Zn+2) are essential plant nutrients, so the ability
of soil to hold and release these ions later is important for plant growth and
reproduction.

➢ Clay can also hold a lot of water

The pores between clay particles are very small and convoluted, so movement of both
water and air is very slow. In clayey soil, the pores between particles are tiny in size, but
huge in number, allowing the soil to hold a great deal of water; however, much of it may
be unavailable to plants.

It is very important to take note that each unique clay mineral imparts different properties to the
soils in which it is prominent. Therefore, soil properties such as shrink–swell behavior, plasticity,
water-holding capacity, soil strength, and chemical adsorption depend on the kind of clay present as
well as the amount.

Fine clay–sized particles are so small that they behave as colloids—if suspended in water they do
not readily settle out. When you see a murky or brown colored still water in lakes or quiet rivers,
most likely the sediments suspended are clays.
Figure 5. Surface area and particle size. Consider a 1.3 g cube 8 mm on a side (a). The cube has six faces with a total of 384 mm2
surface area (6 faces • 64 mm2 per face) or a specific surface of 295 mm2/g (384/1.3). If this cube were cut into smaller cubes of
only 2 mm on each side (b), the same mass would now be present as 64 (4 • 4 • 4) cubes, each with 24 mm2 of surface area (6
faces • 4 mm2 per face) for a total surface area of 1536 mm2 (24 mm2 per cube • 64 cubes), or a specific surface of 1182
mm2/g (1536/1.3). This is four times as much surface area as the single large cube. The curve (c) explains why nearly all of the
adsorbing power, swelling, plasticity, heat of wetting, and other surface area–related properties are associated with the clay
fraction in mineral soils. (Diagram courtesy of Ray R. Weil)

Influence of Surface Area on Other Soil Properties

When particle size decreases, specific surface area and related properties increase greatly, as shown graphically in
Figure 5. Fine colloidal clay has about 10,000 times as much surface area as the same weight of medium-sized
sand.

Soil texture influences many other soil properties in far-reaching ways (see Table 1) because of five fundamental
surface phenomena:
1. In addition to the tiny pools of water held in the smaller soil pores, water is also retained in soils as thin
films on the surfaces of soil particles. The greater the surface area, the greater the soil’s capacity for holding
water films.
2. Both gases and dissolved chemicals are attracted to and adsorbed by mineral particle surfaces. The greater
the surface area, the greater the soil’s capacity to retain nutrients and other chemicals.
3. Weathering takes place at the surface of mineral particles, releasing constituent elements into the soil
solution. The greater the surface area, the greater the rate of release of plant nutrients from weatherable
minerals.
4. The surfaces of mineral particles often carry both negative and some positive electromagnetic charges so
that particle surfaces and the water films between them tend to attract each other. The greater the surface
area, the greater the propensity for soil particles to stick together in a coherent mass, or as discrete
aggregates.
5. Microorganisms tend to grow on and colonize particle surfaces. For this and other reasons, microbial
reactions in soils are greatly affected by the specific surface area.
Table 1.

Soil Textural Classes

Within the three broad groups of sandy soils, clayey soils, and loamy soils, specific textural class names convey a
more precise idea of the size distribution of particles and the general nature of soil physical properties.

The 14 textural classes named in Table 2 form a graduated sequence from the sands, which are coarse in texture to
the clays, which are fine. Sands and loamy sands are dominated by the properties of sand, for the sand separate
comprises at least 70% of the material by weight and less than 15% of the material is clay (see boundaries on
Figure 6). Clays, sandy clays, and silty clays are dominated by characteristics of clay. Likewise, silts are dominated
by the properties of silt. However, most soils are some type of loam.

Table 2.
Most soil scientists use the diagram below. The relationship between textural class names and proportions of sand,
silt, and clay is shown diagrammatically as a triangular graph (Figure 6). It is worthwhile to study Figure 6 carefully
and learn how to use the textural triangle by following the examples given in the caption.

Figure 6. The Soil textural triangular

The soil textural classes are defined by percentages (g/100 g mineral soil) of sand, silt, and clay according to the
heavy boundary lines on the textural triangle.

To use the graph -- identify the textural class of the soil with the ff composition: 15% sand, 15% clay, and 70% silt.
a. First, find the appropriate clay percentage along the left side of the triangle, then draw a line inward parallel
to the base of the triangle.
b. Next find the sand percentage along the base of the triangle and draw a line inward parallel to the right side
of the triangle.

The small arrows indicate the direction to draw the lines. The name of the compartment in which these two
lines intersect indicates the textural class of the soil sample. If all three percentages are used, the three lines
will all intersect at the same point. Because the percentages for sand, silt, and clay add up to 100%, the third
percentage can easily be calculated if the other two are known. For example, a soil that contains 15% sand,
15% clay, and 70% silt is a “Silt loam“ (blue dashed lines).
Alteration of Soil Textural Class

Can existing soil textural class change? Yes, both naturally and man-made.
➢ Natural alteration of soil textural class.
• Over long periods of time, pedologic processes (refer to handout on formation of soils) such as
illuviation and mineral weathering can alter the textures of certain soil horizons.
• Erosion and subsequent deposition downslope can selectively remove or deposit particles of certain
sizes.

➢ Man-made alteration of soil textural class.

Take note: Management practices generally do not alter the textural class of a soil on a field scale.
• Changing the texture of a given soil would require mixing it with another soil material of a different
textural class. For example, the incorporation of large quantities of sand to change the physical
properties of a clayey soil for use in greenhouse pots or for turf grass would be considered to change
the soil texture.

Adding peat or compost to a soil while mixing a potting medium does not constitute a change in
texture, since the property of texture refers only to the mineral particles. In fact, the term soil texture
is not relevant to artificial media that contain mainly perlite, peat, styrofoam, or other nonsoil
materials.

Great care must be exercised in attempting to ameliorate physical properties of fine-textured soils by adding sand.
Where specifications (as for a landscape design) call for soil materials of a certain textural class, it is generally
advisable to find a naturally occurring soil that meets the specification, rather than attempt to alter the textural
class by mixing in sand or clay. If the sand is not of the proper size and not added in sufficient amounts, it may
make matters worse, rather than better. While adjacent coarse sand grains form large pores between them, sand
grains embedded in a silty or clayey matrix do not. Mixing in moderate amounts of fine sand or sand ranging
widely in size may yield a product more akin to concrete than to a sandy soil. For some applications (such as golf
putting greens and athletic fields), the need for rapid drainage and resistance to compaction even when wet may
justify the construction of an artificial soil from carefully selected uniform sands. Similarly, where a smooth, hard
surface is required, such as for a tennis court, an artificial clay soil may be needed.

Determination of Textural Class by the “Feel” Method

Textural class determination is one of the first field skills a soil scientist should develop.

Determining the textural class of a soil by its feel is of great practical value in soil survey, land classification, and
any investigation in which soil texture may play a role. Accuracy depends largely on experience, so practice
whenever you can, beginning with soils of known texture to “calibrate” your fingers.

The textural triangle (see Figure 6) should be kept in mind when determining the textural class by the feel method
as explained below (Figure 8).

Always take note:

1. Soils are assigned to textural classes solely based on the mineral particles of sand size and smaller;
therefore, the percentages of sand, silt, and clay always add up to 100%.
2. The amounts of stone and gravel are rated separately. Technically, particles greater than coarse sands are
not part of the soil texture, thus not part of the soil.
3. Organic matter is not considered. Although it is a component of soil, but it is not considered in determining
soil texture.
A Method for Determining Texture by Feel

Steps:
1. The first, and most critical, step in the texture-by-feel
method is to knead a walnut-sized or cashew seed -size
sample of moist soil into a uniform puttylike consistency,
slowly adding water if necessary.
This step may take a few minutes, but a premature
determination is likely to be in error as hard clumps of clay
and silt may feel like sand grains.
The soil should be moist, but not quite glistening. Try to
do this with only one hand so as to keep your other hand
clean for writing in a field notebook.

2. While squeezing and kneading the sample, note its

malleability, stickiness, and stiffness, all properties
associated with the clay content.
• A high silt content makes a sample feel smooth and
silky, with little stickiness or resistance to deformation.
• A soil with a significant content of sand feels rough
and gritty, and makes a grinding noise when rubbed near
one’s ear.

3. Get a feel for the amount of clay by attempting to

squeeze a ball of properly moistened soil between your
thumb and the side of your forefinger, making a ribbon of
soil.
Squeeze out the ribbon little by little, making it as long
as possible until it breaks from its own weight (see Figure at
left). Interpret your observations as indicated in flow chart
below (Figure 7).

A more precise estimate of sand content (and hence more

accurate placement in the horizontal dimension of the
textural class triangle) can be made by wetting a pea-sized
clump of soil in the palm of your hand and smearing it
around with your finger until your palm becomes coated
with a souplike suspension of soil.

The sand grains will stand out visibly and their volume as
compared to the original “pea“ can be estimated, as can
their relative size (fine, medium,coarse, etc.).

The “feel“ method for determining soil textural class. A moist soil sample is rubbed between the thumb and
forefingers and squeezed out to make a “ribbon.“ (Top) The gritty, noncohesive appearance and short ribbon of a
sandy loam containing about 15% clay. (Middle) The smooth, dull appearanceand crumbly ribbon characteristic of
a silt loam. (Bottom) The smooth, shinyappearance and long, flexible ribbon of a clay. (Photos courtesy of Ray R.
Weil)
Figure 7. Flow chart for determining textural class by feel. To use the chart, to determine the texture of a soil,
begin at the top left corner. [Diagram Weil (2009)]