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August 1999
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Fluid Flow

Understand centrifugal compressor, equipment interaction

Operating scenarios provide insights into predicting behavior during changes

K. Majumdar, Abu Dhabi National Oil Co., Abu Dhabi, U.A.E.

Comments? Write:
editorial@HydrocarbonProcessing.com

Many compressor operators often find difficulty in comprehending compressor behavior with
respect to system changes, particularly when coupled with other operational changes. An example
is how to predict possible flow increase when there is still some room for a speed increase. Where
will the new operating point be if a change is made - will it shift along the constant pressure line to
the right, along the system curve or along the compressor curve itself? How are power
consumption and efficiency predicted in such cases? For the benefit of operators, compressor
behavior with respect to the connected systems and related problems are presented for common
operating scenarios.

Fig. 1 shows a typical arrangement of a compressor operating in a process system. The

compressor is taking suction from a source, point A at pressure P1 , and discharging at pressure
P2 at point B into a process system consisting of pipelines, valves and equipment. The gas is
transported through this system to be delivered to point C at pressure P3. The line pressure drop,
(P2 -P 3 ), is usually denoted as ∆ P (delta P) of the system.

Fig. 1. Typical process compressor arrangement.

System curve. The plot of pressure drop versus flow gives the system curve (Fig. 2a). The total
pressure drop has two components, the superincumbent pressure or static pressure difference
between points B and C, and the dynamic pressure drop, i.e., the drop due to friction, velocity
change, etc. The static pressure drop of any system is constant and is independent of the flow
through the system, whereas dynamic pressure drop varies directly as the square of the velocity
or flowrate.

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Fig. 2a. Total pressure drop has two components.

The system curve is independent of the gas supply source or the equipment that is delivering gas
into the system. The curve remains unchanged unless any component of the system is changed,
like opening a manual or a control valve, pipe size change, etc. As a valve in the system is
opened, flow increases, i.e., the pressure drop decreases, shifting the system curve to the right
(curve b in Fig. 2a). When the valve is throttled, the system curve moves to the left (curve c).

Compressor curve basics. The flow, Q, head (or differential pressure, P) and speed, N,
relationship of a centrifugal compressor is very similar to that of a centrifugal pump (Fig. 2b). The
major difference is that a pump handles liquid, which is a noncompressible fluid. Hence, density
and volumetric flow remain unchanged throughout the flow process. A compressor handles only
gas, which is compressible. As the pressure of a gas stream changes during compression or flow,
density or specific volume changes correspondingly.

Fig. 2b. Compressor operating limits are between surge

and stonewall.

As shown in Fig. 2b, centrifugal compressors have continuously falling pressure-flow

characteristics. A family of parallel curves represents compressor operation at different speeds.
For a compressor operating at a constant speed, the pressure increases as the flow decreases
and vice versa. If reduction in flow continues, at one point compressor operation becomes

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unstable and a momentary flow reversal takes place. This leads to a very rapid pulsating flow
backward and forward through the compressor internals, resulting in severe vibration and
consequent damage. This phenomenon is known as surge and the flow at which surge occurs is
the surge point for that particular speed. The surge point shifts to the right as speed increases
(Fig. 2b). The line joining the surge points of curves at different speeds is the compressor surge
line. To avoid surge, compressors are always operated at flows greater than surge point, i.e., at a
reasonable distance to the right of the surge line.

As flow increases, a point is reached at the right-hand extreme of the compressor curve after
which the flow can not increase no matter what changes are made on the outlet side. This point is
known as stonewall for the compressor for that particular speed. Like the surge point, the
stonewall point also shifts to the right as speed increases (Fig. 2b). However, unlike surge, no
adverse effect occurs to the compressor at the stonewall point. Therefore, the operating regime of
a compressor is confined between these two limits, i.e., surge and stonewall. The set of curves
including the limit lines is also known as the compressor operating map.

Relationship between compressor and system curves. When a compressor is connected to a

system, the operating point can be obtained by superimposing the system curve (Fig. 2a) on the
compressor curve (Fig. 2b), resulting in Fig. 2c. The point at which the compressor curve for a
particular speed meets the system curve represents the compressor operating point for that
speed. That means the compressor would deliver flow and pressure corresponding to the
intersection point in Fig. 2c. Under no circumstances can the compressor deliver any other flow or
pressure (at that speed), unless a change is made in the system. Only when some change is
made in the connected system (say, change in valve opening, pipe size, length, etc.), does the
operating point shift along the compressor curve. Otherwise, the compressor will continue to
operate at that fixed flow and pressure.

Fig. 2c. The operating point is obtained by superimposing

the system and compressor curves.

So, it can be noted that although a system is quite independent of its upstream source equipment,
in this case the compressor, compressor operation is very much dependent on its downstream
connected system.

Compressor behavior in common applications. The figures shown later are only schematics of
the most common compressor configurations. They are neither complete in all details, nor do they
represent all possible configurations. Several variations and different control system arrangements
are also possible, although not shown here.

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1. Single-speed compressor drive with suction / discharge pressure control. Fig. 3 shows
the typical arrangement of a single-speed (motor-driven) compressor. In this configuration, a
compressor operates similarly to a motor-driven pump. The compressor takes suction from the
suction drum and discharge into the piping system.

Fig. 3. In this configuration, a compressor operates

similarly to a motor-driven pump.

The main objective of any compressor control is to maintain a balance between discharge and
incoming flows. This is done by tracking pressure in the suction drum by means of a pressure
controller, which regulates a control valve mounted either on the suction or discharge line. In
some installations, a pressure controller is also installed on the compressor discharge line, which
works in conjunction with the suction side pressure controller through a signal selector or a
microprocessor-based control module. In case of low pressure gas, it is more common to provide
the control valve on the discharge line.

Scenario 1.1: Incoming flow to compressor decreases. Consider that at a particular instance
flow coming into the drum drops. Outgoing flow being higher than incoming flow, suction drum
pressure falls momentarily. The pressure instrument mounted on the suction drum senses this
drop. The pressure controller takes action by closing the control valve on the discharge line (or
suction line) to reduce the flow. As the control valve closes, the system curve shifts to the left (Fig.
4a).

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Fig. 4a. As the control valve closes, the system curve

shifts to the left.

Consequently, the operating point (a) also shifts to the left along the compressor curve to the point
of intersection (b) with the modified system curve, where the compressor flow equals the reduced
incoming flow. So, in this type of arrangement, compressor capacity control is achieved by shifting
the system curve along the compressor curve backward and forward, as shown by arrows in Fig.
4a.

Scenario 1.2: Incoming flow drops below surge control point. As incoming flow drops, the
compressor will try to find the operating point in the way described in scenario 1.1. If, however,
flow drops below the surge control point, the compressor surge control system sends a signal to
the recycle valve (also called antisurge valve (ASV), a quick-acting control valve) to open. Part of
the outlet flow is then returned back to the suction side via the ASV. Thus, the inlet flow (incoming
+ recycle) is never allowed to fall below the surge control point to avoid surge (Fig. 4b).

Fig. 4b. Inlet flow is never allowed to fall below the surge
control point.

In this case both the ASV and pressure control valves mounted on the compressor discharge line
take action simultaneously, i.e., the former opens and the latter closes.

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Scenario 1.3: Gas demand decreases at the consumer end. In most of these cases, the online
valve at the consumer end is throttled, either manually or through the process control system, to
achieve the desired flow reduction. For example, in case of gas supply to a boiler, heater or gas
turbine, the control valve at the inlet of the equipment is throttled matching the equipment load.
The valve may even close if the equipment trips. This event in effect changes the system curve,
shifting the operating point to the left until the desired lower flow is achieved (similar to scenarios
1.1 and 1.2). The control valve on the compressor outlet line will, however, open instead of
closing, in contrast with scenarios 1.1 and 1.2. The reverse phenomenon follows when gas
demand increases. The same control sequence would also follow when gas is to be delivered to a
consumer at a constant pressure.

In summary, for all single-speed compressors, variation in flow is achieved only by varying the
system curve position backward and forward. The operating point shifts along the compressor
curve, as shown in Figs. 4a to c.

Fig. 4c. The online valve at the consumer end is throttled

to achieve the desired flow reduction.

2. Variable-speed compressor drive with speed controller. Fig. 5 shows a general

arrangement of a compressor driven by a gas turbine driver. The compressor control module
varies gas turbine speed through the speed control module, matching the process requirement.

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Fig. 5. The compressor control module varies gas turbine

speed.

As explained earlier, the system curve is independent of the compressor curve and the points at
which the system curve cuts the set of compressor curves are the corresponding operating points
at different speeds. The speed is changed by a variable-speed driver to achieve varying flow-
pressure requirements. The driver is often a gas or steam turbine, although variable-speed electric
motors are also used in certain cases. In this type of arrangement, a pressure controller mounted
on the suction line controls the speed of the variable-speed driver. In some installations, pressure
controllers mounted on both suction and discharge lines control the driver speed through a signal
selector. Microprocessor-based advanced compressor control systems are also used instead of a
simple PID controller.

Scenario 2.1: Incoming flow to compressor decreases. As in the case of a single-speed

compressor, here also compressor suction and discharge controllers are used through a low-
signal selector or a compressor control module to modulate the driver speed. As the incoming flow
to the suction drum decreases, compressor suction pressure decreases. The pressure controller
on the suction side detects this pressure drop and sends a signal to the driver (turbine) to slow
down until a new operating point is reached where the discharge flow equals the reduced
incoming flow (point a to b in Fig. 6a).

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Fig. 6a. The pressure controller sends a signal to the

driver to slow down.

In this case the system curve remains unchanged. Only the operating point shifts down along the
system curve, unlike in the similar scenario using a single-speed drive (1.1) where the operating
point moves along the compressor curve (note the difference).

Scenario 2.2: Incoming flow drops below surge control point. In case of a variable speed
compressor, if the incoming flow decreases below the surge control point, the compressor first
slows down similarly to scenario 2.1. The operating point starts to shift down along the system
curve until the minimum sustainable speed is reached (Fig. 6b). If the corresponding flowrate is
still not reached, the surge control valve begins to open along the minimum speed curve. The
surge control valve continues to open until the sum of forward and recycle flow is equal to the flow
corresponding to the intersection point of the system and compressor curves (at the minimum
operating speed).

Fig. 6b. The operating point starts to shift down along the
system curve.

It should be noted that under certain circumstances like this, the ASV might open even when the
discharge flow is higher than the surge flow at the minimum speed. However, this sequence of

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control takes place only if the speed controller and the driver are fast enough to respond and
rectify the changing condition. If the flow change is very rapid, the fast-acting antisurge control
system acts through the ASV ahead of the speed controller to save the compressor from surging.

Scenario 2.3: Gas demand decreases at the consumer end. As in the case of a single-speed
compressor, the system curve also moves to the left due to throttling of the consumer valve(s) to
achieve flow reduction. The suction pressure controller now starts sending a signal for the driver
to slow down. The operating point moves horizontally from point a to be along the fixed-pressure
line until it meets the compressor curve at a speed that corresponds to the reduced flowrate (Fig.
6c). If the flow increases the reverse phenomenon takes place.

Fig. 6c. The operating point moves horizontally from point

a to point b.

Scenario 2.4: Compressor delivers at a fixed pressure to consumer; set pressure changed.
When the compressor is connected to a piping system to deliver gas at a constant pressure to a
consumer, the static pressure difference (P2 -P 3 ) in Figs. 1, 2a and 2c remains constant. In fact, in
all the scenarios described, this difference is assumed to be constant. Now, if the pressure setting
at the consumer end is lowered, the static pressure curve in Fig. 2a moves down (Fig. 6d).
Correspondingly, the system curve also shifts down to the right, although its slope remains
unchanged. The shifted system curve now meets the compressor curve at a new location on the
right-hand side of the original point. This means flow increases as discharge pressure decreases.
However, if the flow coming to the compressor suction drum is not increased at the same rate
(say, due to nonavailability of excess gas), suction pressure would drop. The lower suction
pressure triggers the pressure controller to take effect through the compressor control system to
slow down the compressor. Thus, the operating point shifts along the new system curve to meet
the new speed curve at a point where the flow equals the incoming flow. The reverse happens
when the pressure is increased.

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Fig. 6d. If the compressor setting at the consumer end is

lowered, the static pressure curve moves down.

In summary, when a compressor is driven by a variable-speed drive (gas turbine, steam turbine,
etc.), the operating point may shift either along the compressor curve, the system curve, the fixed
pressure line, or a combination of them depending on the nature of change as discussed. This is
quite different from a compressor driven by a single-speed drive (electric motor) described earlier.

3. Gas molecular weight changes.

Scenario 3.1: MW decreases. Change in hydrocarbon gas composition, hence in molecular

weight (MW), is quite common. Lower MW leads to a lower discharge pressure from the same
compressor at the same speed. The compressor curve shifts down as shown in Fig. 7. The
compressor in this case will speed up automatically, through the suction / discharge pressure
controller, to develop the same pressure (point b back to a). If the compressor is already at its
maximum sustainable speed (say, at 105% of rated speed as per API), the compressor flow drops
to a value corresponding to the intersection point of the system and the new compressor curves
(point b).

Fig. 7. Lower MW leads to a lower discharge pressure.

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This flow reduction may eventually increase the suction pressure, as the compressor cannot cope
with all the incoming gas. The excess gas may then start to escape to the vent or flare, even
though all operating conditions may appear unchanged. This phenomenon of gas escaping to
flare is often experienced in process plants. If gas from a compressor suction drum is suddenly
found going to flare when the compressor is running normally at its full speed, MW reduction is
often the first suspect.

This problem is also faced when a compressor rated to handle heavy saturated gas is operated in
recycle mode for a long period through an aftercooler. The gas continues to become leaner due to
cyclic compression and cooling, resulting in lower discharge pressure. At this point, if the
compressor has to feed forward, it fails to develop the required discharge pressure. The recycle
valve still remains partly open, returning some gas to suction side. The incoming gas starts to
escape to flare from the suction drum, unless the vicious cycle is interrupted manually. Sometimes
while a compressor is running in recycle mode, light seal gas leaks through worn out seals into the
compressor casing, which may result in a similar problem.

Scenario 3.2: MW increases. Conversely, an increase in MW results in a higher discharge

pressure. The compressor curve shifts up for the same speed. The net result is an increase in
compressor flow, of course, if additional gas is available. If not, the compressor is slowed down by
the suction / discharge pressure controller. In case of a single-speed compressor, flow is directly
reduced by throttling the control valve on the discharge (or suction) line.

Impact of MW variation on compressor stability. Note that unlike the effects of suction pressure
and temperature variations, MW change has a much greater effect on performance and, hence,
compressor stability. This effect is more visible on multistage compressors. When MW increases,
the initial stage(s) may be operating at the rated (or increased) flow, but subsequent stages may
be operating at progressively lower flow due to higher pressure from the preceding stage. The
flow in some of these stages may drop below the surge point even when the inlet flow to the
compressor is much higher than the surge point. Incidentally, reducing MW does not have the
reverse effect, i.e., it does not enhance compressor stability.

Going to extremes, change in MW may decrease compressor stability to such an extent that when
some stages are at surge, others in the same compressor may be at stonewall. Conventional
compressor control and surge protection systems fail to detect such instability. The compressor
map provided in the control system no longer holds good as the flow -pressure-speed relationship
is altered by the change in MW.

This, however, should not give an impression that compressors can operate only at a fixed (rated)
MW. Compressor design normally allows operation over a certain MW range without running into
surge in any stage (usually, there is enough distance between the surge and normal operating
points). In case of a substantial change in MW, compressor performance and stability should be
reassessed, preferably with the assistance of the compressor vendor.

4. Compressor flow increases beyond rating. If the driver (motor, steam or gas turbine) is
sufficiently large and sufficient inlet gas is available, it may often be possible to derive somewhat
higher throughput from a compressor without being unduly overloaded. The throughput is
increased automatically by the control system for reasons described earlier. MW change is one
main reason; the other being actual system pressure drop lower than estimated in design. Lower
destination pressure or higher suction pressure may also cause a flow increase, often to the
operators' benefit. In all these cases, the system curve shifts to the right to meet the compressor
curve at a higher flowrate. This is true for both single- and variable -speed compressors.

If all other compressor and driver operating parameters are within acceptable limits (below alarm
and trip points) and MW variation is within the specified design range, such operation at increased
flowrate is not expected to cause any instability or mechanical problem in the compressor. The
operating point in this case is well within the compressor design operating regime.

Barring the question of efficiency, a centrifugal compressor - like a centrifugal pump - can be

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operated anywhere on its curve between surge point (or surge control line, SCL) and stonewall by
shifting the system curve, provided the driver is adequately sized. However, if the increase is due
to a change in MW where the compressor curve itself shifts, this should be limited to the specified
MW variation range. In fact, during a factory acceptance test (FAT), compressors are actually
operated at varying flowrates within the compressor map range to verify the developed pressure
and other parameters.

Besides the above many other scenarios are possible. It is not possible to identify and discuss
them all separately. However, some of the common scenarios and problems presented will help to
understand and interpret the behavior of many others not described here. HP

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Compressor Handbook for the Hydrocarbon Processing Industries, Gulf Publishing

Co., Book Division.

Lapina, Ronald P., Estimating Centrifugal Compressor Performance, Volume-1.

Pichot, Pierre, Compressor Application Engineering, Volume-1.

Kumares Majumdar is technical services manager at Abu Dhabi National Oil

Company (ADNOC). He has over 30 years of experience in the oil and gas
industry in the fields of process engineering design, commissioning and
operation. Mr. Majumdar has worked in many countries with internationally
reputed engineering and operating companies on oil, gas and pipeline projects.
He joined ADNOC in 1987 in its Gas Processing & Pipelines Division, which
operates one of the largest gas processing plants in the world and an extensive
pipeline network. Mr. Majumdar specializes in process and systems engineering
related to gas processing, utility plants and pipeline transportation. He holds a BE
degree in chemical engineering from Jadavpur University, India, and has had
several technical papers published in leading journals and presented at
symposiums.

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