Smart grid

A smart grid is an elect rical grid which includes a variet y of operat ion and energy measures
including:

Advanced met ering infrast ruct ure (of which smart met ers are a generic name for any ut ilit y
side device even if it is more capable eg a fiber opt ic rout er)

Smart dist ribut ion boards and circuit breakers int egrat ed wit h home cont rol and demand
response (behind the meter from ut ilit y perspect ive)
Load cont rol swit ches and smart appliances, oft en financed by efficiency gains on
municipal programs (e.g. PACE financing)

Renewable energy resources, including capacit y t o charge parked (elect ric vehicle) bat t eries
or larger arrays of bat t eries recycled from t hese, or ot her energy st orage. [1]
Characteristics of a traditional system (left) versus the smart grid (right)

Play media

Video about smart grids

Energy efficient resources

Sufficient ut ilit y grade fiber broadband t o connect and monit or t he above, wit h wireless as
backup. Sufficient spare if "dark" capacit y t o ensure failover, oft en leased for revenue. [2][3]

Elect ronic power condit ioning and cont rol of t he product ion and dist ribut ion of elect ricit y are
import ant aspect s of t he smart grid.[4][5]
Smart grid policy is organized in Europe as Smart Grid European Technology Plat form.[6] Policy in
t he Unit ed St at es is described in 42 U.S.C. ch. 152, subch. IX (ht t ps://www.law.cornell.edu/uscod
e/t ext /42/chapt er-152/subchapt er-IX) § 17381.

Roll-out of smart grid t echnology also implies a fundament al re-engineering of t he elect ricit y
services indust ry, alt hough t ypical usage of t he t erm is focused on t he t echnical infrast ruct ure.[7]

Background

Historical development of the electricity grid

…
The first alt ernat ing current power grid syst em was inst alled in 1886 in Great Barringt on,
Massachuset t s.[8] At t hat t ime, t he grid was a cent ralized unidirect ional syst em of elect ric
power t ransmission, elect ricit y dist ribut ion, and demand-driven cont rol.

In t he 20t h cent ury local grids grew over t ime, and were event ually int erconnect ed for economic
and reliabilit y reasons. By t he 1960s, t he elect ric grids of developed count ries had become very
large, mat ure and highly int erconnect ed, wit h t housands of 'cent ral' generat ion power st at ions
delivering power t o major load cent res via high capacit y power lines which were t hen branched
and divided t o provide power t o smaller indust rial and domest ic users over t he ent ire supply area.
The t opology of t he 1960s grid was a result of t he st rong economies of scale: large coal-, gas-
and oil-fired power st at ions in t he 1 GW (1000 MW) t o 3 GW scale are st ill found t o be cost -
effect ive, due t o efficiency-boost ing feat ures t hat can be cost effect ive only when t he st at ions
become very large.

Power st at ions were locat ed st rat egically t o be close t o fossil fuel reserves (eit her t he mines or
wells t hemselves, or else close t o rail, road or port supply lines). Sit ing of hydro-elect ric dams in
mount ain areas also st rongly influenced t he st ruct ure of t he emerging grid. Nuclear power plant s
were sit ed for availabilit y of cooling wat er. Finally, fossil fuel-fired power st at ions were init ially
very pollut ing and were sit ed as far as economically possible from populat ion cent res once
elect ricit y dist ribut ion net works permit t ed it . By t he lat e 1960s, t he elect ricit y grid reached t he
overwhelming majorit y of t he populat ion of developed count ries, wit h only out lying regional areas
remaining 'off-grid'.

Met ering of elect ricit y consumpt ion was necessary on a per-user basis in order t o allow
appropriat e billing according t o t he (highly variable) level of consumpt ion of different users.
Because of limit ed dat a collect ion and processing capabilit y during t he period of growt h of t he
grid, fixed-t ariff arrangement s were commonly put in place, as well as dual-t ariff arrangement s
where night -t ime power was charged at a lower rat e t han dayt ime power. The mot ivat ion for
dual-t ariff arrangement s was t he lower night -t ime demand. Dual t ariffs made possible t he use of
low-cost night -t ime elect rical power in applicat ions such as t he maint aining of 'heat banks' which
served t o 'smoot h out ' t he daily demand, and reduce t he number of t urbines t hat needed t o be
t urned off overnight , t hereby improving t he ut ilisat ion and profit abilit y of t he generat ion and
t ransmission facilit ies. The met ering capabilit ies of t he 1960s grid meant t echnological
limit at ions on t he degree t o which price signals could be propagat ed t hrough t he syst em.

From 1970s t o t he 1990s, growing demand led t o increasing numbers of power st at ions. In some
areas, supply of elect ricit y, especially at peak t imes, could not keep up wit h t his demand,
result ing in poor power qualit y including blackout s, power cut s, and brownout s. Increasingly,
elect ricit y was depended on for indust ry, heat ing, communicat ion, light ing, and ent ert ainment ,
and consumers demanded ever higher levels of reliabilit y.

Towards t he end of t he 20t h cent ury, elect ricit y demand pat t erns were est ablished: domest ic
heat ing and air-condit ioning led t o daily peaks in demand t hat were met by an array of 'peaking
power generat ors' t hat would only be t urned on for short periods each day. The relat ively low
ut ilisat ion of t hese peaking generat ors (commonly, gas t urbines were used due t o t heir relat ively
lower capit al cost and fast er st art -up t imes), t oget her wit h t he necessary redundancy in t he
elect ricit y grid, result ed in high cost s t o t he elect ricit y companies, which were passed on in t he
form of increased t ariffs.

In t he 21st cent ury, some developing count ries like China, India, and Brazil were seen as pioneers
of smart grid deployment .[9]

Modernization opportunities
…
Since t he early 21st cent ury, opport unit ies t o t ake advant age of improvement s in elect ronic
communicat ion t echnology t o resolve t he limit at ions and cost s of t he elect rical grid have
become apparent . Technological limit at ions on met ering no longer force peak power prices t o be
averaged out and passed on t o all consumers equally. In parallel, growing concerns over
environment al damage from fossil-fired power st at ions has led t o a desire t o use large amount s
of renewable energy. Dominant forms such as wind power and solar power are highly variable, and
so t he need for more sophist icat ed cont rol syst ems became apparent , t o facilit at e t he
connect ion of sources t o t he ot herwise highly cont rollable grid.[10] Power from phot ovolt aic
cells (and t o a lesser ext ent wind t urbines) has also, significant ly, called int o quest ion t he
imperat ive for large, cent ralised power st at ions. The rapidly falling cost s point t o a major change
from t he cent ralised grid t opology t o one t hat is highly dist ribut ed, wit h power being bot h
generat ed and consumed right at t he limit s of t he grid. Finally, growing concern over t errorist
at t ack in some count ries has led t o calls for a more robust energy grid t hat is less dependent on
cent ralised power st at ions t hat were perceived t o be pot ent ial at t ack t arget s.[11]

Definition of "smart grid"

…
The first official definit ion of Smart Grid was provided by t he Energy Independence and Securit y
Act of 2007 (EISA-2007), which was approved by t he US Congress in January 2007, and signed t o
law by President George W. Bush in December 2007. Tit le XIII of t his bill provides a descript ion,
wit h t en charact erist ics, t hat can be considered a definit ion for Smart Grid, as follows:

"It is the policy of the United States to support the modernization of the
Nation's electricity transmission and distribution system to maintain a
reliable and secure electricity infrastructure that can meet future
demand growth and to achieve each of the following, which together
characterize a Smart Grid: (1) Increased use of digital information and
controls technology to improve reliability, security, and efficiency of
the electric grid. (2) Dynamic optimization of grid operations and
resources, with full cyber-security. (3) Deployment and integration of
distributed resources and generation, including renewable resources.
(4) Development and incorporation of demand response, demand-side
resources, and energy-efficiency resources. (5) Deployment of 'smart'
technologies (real-time, automated, interactive technologies that
optimize the physical operation of appliances and consumer devices)
for metering, communications concerning grid operations and status,
and distribution automation. (6) Integration of 'smart' appliances and
consumer devices. (7) Deployment and integration of advanced
electricity storage and peak-shaving technologies, including plug-in
electric and hybrid electric vehicles, and thermal storage air
conditioning. (8) Provision to consumers of timely information and
control options. (9) Development of standards for communication and
interoperability of appliances and equipment connected to the electric
grid, including the infrastructure serving the grid. (10) Identification
 and lowering of unreasonable or unnecessary barriers to adoption of
smart grid technologies, practices, and services."

The European Union Commission Task Force for Smart Grids also provides smart grid definit ion[12]
as:

"A Smart Grid is an elect ricit y net work t hat can cost efficient ly int egrat e t he behaviour and
act ions of all users connect ed t o it – generat ors, consumers and t hose t hat do bot h – in order
t o ensure economically efficient , sust ainable power syst em wit h low losses and high levels of
qualit y and securit y of supply and safet y. A smart grid employs innovat ive product s and services
t oget her wit h int elligent monit oring, cont rol, communicat ion, and self-healing t echnologies in
order t o:

1. Bet t er facilit at e t he connect ion and operat ion of generat ors of all sizes and t echnologies.

2. Allow consumers t o play a part in opt imising t he operat ion of t he syst em.

3. Provide consumers wit h great er informat ion and opt ions for how t hey use t heir supply.

4. Significant ly reduce t he environment al impact of t he whole elect ricit y supply syst em.

5. Maint ain or even improve t he exist ing high levels of syst em reliabilit y, qualit y and securit y of
supply.

. Maint ain and improve t he exist ing services efficient ly."

A common element t o most definit ions is t he applicat ion of digit al processing and
communicat ions t o t he power grid, making dat a flow and informat ion management cent ral t o t he
smart grid. Various capabilit ies result from t he deeply int egrat ed use of digit al t echnology wit h
power grids. Int egrat ion of t he new grid informat ion is one of t he key issues in t he design of
smart grids. Elect ric ut ilit ies now find t hemselves making t hree classes of t ransformat ions:
improvement of infrast ruct ure, called t he strong grid in China; addit ion of t he digit al layer, which is
t he essence of t he smart grid; and business process t ransformat ion, necessary t o capit alize on
t he invest ment s in smart t echnology. Much of t he work t hat has been going on in elect ric grid
modernizat ion, especially subst at ion and dist ribut ion aut omat ion, is now included in t he general
concept of t he smart grid.

Early technological innovations

…
Smart grid t echnologies emerged from earlier at t empt s at using elect ronic cont rol, met ering,
and monit oring. In t he 1980s, aut omat ic met er reading was used for monit oring loads from large
cust omers, and evolved int o t he Advanced Met ering Infrast ruct ure of t he 1990s, whose met ers
could st ore how elect ricit y was used at different t imes of t he day.[13] Smart met ers add
cont inuous communicat ions so t hat monit oring can be done in real t ime, and can be used as a
gat eway t o demand response-aware devices and "smart socket s" in t he home. Early forms of
such demand side management t echnologies were dynamic demand aware devices t hat
passively sensed t he load on t he grid by monit oring changes in t he power supply frequency.
Devices such as indust rial and domest ic air condit ioners, refrigerat ors and heat ers adjust ed t heir
dut y cycle t o avoid act ivat ion during t imes t he grid was suffering a peak condit ion. Beginning in
2000, It aly's Telegest ore Project was t he first t o net work large numbers (27 million) of homes
using smart met ers connect ed via low bandwidt h power line communicat ion.[14] Some
experiment s used t he t erm broadband over power lines (BPL), while ot hers used wireless
t echnologies such as mesh net working promot ed for more reliable connect ions t o disparat e
devices in t he home as well as support ing met ering of ot her ut ilit ies such as gas and wat er.[10]

Monit oring and synchronizat ion of wide area net works were revolut ionized in t he early 1990s
when t he Bonneville Power Administ rat ion expanded it s smart grid research wit h prot ot ype
sensors t hat are capable of very rapid analysis of anomalies in elect ricit y qualit y over very large
geographic areas. The culminat ion of t his work was t he first operat ional Wide Area Measurement
Syst em (WAMS) in 2000.[15] Ot her count ries are rapidly int egrat ing t his t echnology — China
st art ed having a comprehensive nat ional WAMS when t he past 5-year economic plan complet ed
in 2012.[16]

The earliest deployment s of smart grids include t he It alian syst em Telegestore (2005), t he mesh
net work of Aust in, Texas (since 2003), and t he smart grid in Boulder, Colorado (2008). See
Deployment s and at t empt ed deployment s below.

Features of the smart grid

The smart grid represent s t he full suit e of current and proposed responses t o t he challenges of
elect ricit y supply. Because of t he diverse range of fact ors t here are numerous compet ing
t axonomies and no agreement on a universal definit ion. Nevert heless, one possible cat egorizat ion
is given here.

Reliability
…
The smart grid makes use of t echnologies such as st at e est imat ion,[17] t hat improve fault
det ect ion and allow self-healing of t he net work wit hout t he int ervent ion of t echnicians. This will
ensure more reliable supply of elect ricit y, and reduced vulnerabilit y t o nat ural disast ers or at t ack.

Alt hough mult iple rout es are t out ed as a feat ure of t he smart grid, t he old grid also feat ured
mult iple rout es. Init ial power lines in t he grid were built using a radial model, lat er connect ivit y
was guarant eed via mult iple rout es, referred t o as a net work st ruct ure. However, t his creat ed a
new problem: if t he current flow or relat ed effect s across t he net work exceed t he limit s of any
part icular net work element , it could fail, and t he current would be shunt ed t o ot her net work
element s, which event ually may fail also, causing a domino effect . See power out age. A
t echnique t o prevent t his is load shedding by rolling blackout or volt age reduct ion
(brownout ).[18][19]

Flexibility in network topology

…
Next -generat ion t ransmission and dist ribut ion infrast ruct ure will be bet t er able t o handle
possible bidirectional energy flows, allowing for dist ribut ed generat ion such as from
phot ovolt aic panels on building roofs, but also charging t o/from t he bat t eries of elect ric cars,
wind t urbines, pumped hydroelect ric power, t he use of fuel cells, and ot her sources.

Classic grids were designed for one-way flow of elect ricit y, but if a local sub-net work generat es
more power t han it is consuming, t he reverse flow can raise safet y and reliabilit y issues.[20] A
smart grid aims t o manage t hese sit uat ions.[10]

Efficiency …
Numerous cont ribut ions t o overall improvement of t he efficiency of energy infrast ruct ure are
ant icipat ed from t he deployment of smart grid t echnology, in part icular including demand-side
management, for example t urning off air condit ioners during short -t erm spikes in elect ricit y
price, reducing t he volt age when possible on dist ribut ion lines (ht t ps://www.smart grid.gov/sit es/
default /files/doc/files/VVO%20Report %20-%20Final.pdf) Archived (ht t ps://web.archive.org/w
eb/20130627053028/ht t p://www.smart grid.gov/sit es/default /files/doc/files/VVO%20Report %
20-%20Final.pdf) 2013-06-27 at t he Wayback Machine t hrough Volt age/VAR Opt imizat ion
(VVO), eliminat ing t ruck-rolls for met er reading, and reducing t ruck-rolls by improved out age
management using dat a from Advanced Met ering Infrast ruct ure syst ems. The overall effect is
less redundancy in t ransmission and dist ribut ion lines, and great er ut ilizat ion of generat ors,
leading t o lower power prices.

Load adjustment/Load balancing

…
The t ot al load connect ed t o t he power grid can vary significant ly over t ime. Alt hough t he t ot al
load is t he sum of many individual choices of t he client s, t he overall load is not necessarily st able
or slow varying. For example, if a popular t elevision program st art s, millions of t elevisions will
st art t o draw current inst ant ly. Tradit ionally, t o respond t o a rapid increase in power consumpt ion,
fast er t han t he st art -up t ime of a large generat or, some spare generat ors are put on a dissipat ive
st andby mode. A smart grid may warn all individual t elevision set s, or anot her larger cust omer, t o
reduce t he load t emporarily[21] (t o allow t ime t o st art up a larger generat or) or cont inuously (in
t he case of limit ed resources). Using mat hemat ical predict ion algorit hms it is possible t o predict
how many st andby generat ors need t o be used, t o reach a cert ain failure rat e. In t he t radit ional
grid, t he failure rat e can only be reduced at t he cost of more st andby generat ors. In a smart grid,
t he load reduct ion by even a small port ion of t he client s may eliminat e t he problem.

While t radit ionally load balancing st rat egies have been designed t o change consumers'
consumpt ion pat t erns t o make demand more uniform, development s in energy st orage and
individual renewable energy generat ion have provided opport unit ies t o devise balanced power
grids wit hout affect ing consumers' behavior. Typically, st oring energy during off-peak t imes
eases high demand supply during peak hours. Dynamic game-t heoret ic frameworks have proved
part icularly efficient at st orage scheduling by opt imizing energy cost using t heir Nash
equilibrium.[22][23]

Peak curtailment/leveling and time of use pricing

…

Peak load avoidance by smart charging of electric vehicles

To reduce demand during t he high cost peak usage periods, communicat ions and met ering
t echnologies inform smart devices in t he home and business when energy demand is high and
t rack how much elect ricit y is used and when it is used. It also gives ut ilit y companies t he abilit y
t o reduce consumpt ion by communicat ing t o devices direct ly in order t o prevent syst em
overloads. Examples would be a ut ilit y reducing t he usage of a group of elect ric vehicle charging
st at ions or shift ing t emperat ure set point s of air condit ioners in a cit y.[21] To mot ivat e t hem t o
cut back use and perform what is called peak curtailment or peak leveling, prices of elect ricit y
are increased during high demand periods, and decreased during low demand periods.[10] It is
t hought t hat consumers and businesses will t end t o consume less during high demand periods if
it is possible for consumers and consumer devices t o be aware of t he high price premium for
using elect ricit y at peak periods. This could mean making t rade-offs such as cycling on/off air
condit ioners or running dishwashers at 9 pm inst ead of 5 pm. When businesses and consumers
see a direct economic benefit of using energy at off-peak t imes, t he t heory is t hat t hey will
include energy cost of operat ion int o t heir consumer device and building const ruct ion decisions
and hence become more energy efficient .

Sustainability
…
The improved flexibilit y of t he smart grid permit s great er penet rat ion of highly variable
renewable energy sources such as solar power and wind power, even wit hout t he addit ion of
energy st orage. Current net work infrast ruct ure is not built t o allow for many dist ribut ed feed-in
point s, and t ypically even if some feed-in is allowed at t he local (dist ribut ion) level, t he
t ransmission-level infrast ruct ure cannot accommodat e it . Rapid fluct uat ions in dist ribut ed
generat ion, such as due t o cloudy or gust y weat her, present significant challenges t o power
engineers who need t o ensure st able power levels t hrough varying t he out put of t he more
cont rollable generat ors such as gas t urbines and hydroelect ric generat ors. Smart grid
t echnology is a necessary condit ion for very large amount s of renewable elect ricit y on t he grid
for t his reason. There is also support for vehicle-t o-grid.[24]

Market-enabling …
The smart grid allows for syst emat ic communicat ion bet ween suppliers (t heir energy price) and
consumers (t heir willingness-t o-pay), and permit s bot h t he suppliers and t he consumers t o be
more flexible and sophist icat ed in t heir operat ional st rat egies. Only t he crit ical loads will need t o
pay t he peak energy prices, and consumers will be able t o be more st rat egic in when t hey use
energy. Generat ors wit h great er flexibilit y will be able t o sell energy st rat egically for maximum
profit , whereas inflexible generat ors such as base-load st eam t urbines and wind t urbines will
receive a varying t ariff based on t he level of demand and t he st at us of t he ot her generat ors
current ly operat ing. The overall effect is a signal t hat awards energy efficiency, and energy
consumpt ion t hat is sensit ive t o t he t ime-varying limit at ions of t he supply. At t he domest ic level,
appliances wit h a degree of energy st orage or t hermal mass (such as refrigerat ors, heat banks,
and heat pumps) will be well placed t o 'play' t he market and seek t o minimise energy cost by
adapt ing demand t o t he lower-cost energy support periods. This is an ext ension of t he dual-
t ariff energy pricing ment ioned above.

Demand response support

…
Demand response support allows generat ors and loads t o int eract in an aut omat ed fashion in real
t ime, coordinat ing demand t o flat t en spikes. Eliminat ing t he fract ion of demand t hat occurs in
t hese spikes eliminat es t he cost of adding reserve generat ors, cut s wear and t ear and ext ends
t he life of equipment , and allows users t o cut t heir energy bills by t elling low priorit y devices t o
use energy only when it is cheapest .[25]

Current ly, power grid syst ems have varying degrees of communicat ion wit hin cont rol syst ems for
t heir high-value asset s, such as in generat ing plant s, t ransmission lines, subst at ions and major
energy users. In general informat ion flows one way, from t he users and t he loads t hey cont rol
back t o t he ut ilit ies. The ut ilit ies at t empt t o meet t he demand and succeed or fail t o varying
degrees (brownout s, rolling blackout , uncont rolled blackout ). The t ot al amount of power demand
by t he users can have a very wide probabilit y dist ribut ion which requires spare generat ing plant s
in st andby mode t o respond t o t he rapidly changing power usage. This one-way flow of
informat ion is expensive; t he last 10% of generat ing capacit y may be required as lit t le as 1% of
t he t ime, and brownout s and out ages can be cost ly t o consumers.

Demand response can be provided by commercial, resident ial loads, and indust rial loads.[26] For
example, Alcoa's Warrick Operat ion is part icipat ing in MISO as a qualified Demand Response
Resource,[27] and t he Trimet Aluminium uses it s smelt er as a short -t erm mega-bat t ery.[28]

Lat ency of t he dat a flow is a major concern, wit h some early smart met er archit ect ures allowing
act ually as long as 24 hours delay in receiving t he dat a, prevent ing any possible react ion by eit her
supplying or demanding devices.[29]

Platform for advanced services

…
As wit h ot her indust ries, use of robust t wo-way communicat ions, advanced sensors, and
dist ribut ed comput ing t echnology will improve t he efficiency, reliabilit y and safet y of power
delivery and use. It also opens up t he pot ent ial for ent irely new services or improvement s on
exist ing ones, such as fire monit oring and alarms t hat can shut off power, make phone calls t o
emergency services, et c.

Provision megabits, control power with kilobits, sell the rest

…
The amount of dat a required t o perform monit oring and swit ching one's appliances off
aut omat ically is very small compared wit h t hat already reaching even remot e homes t o support
voice, securit y, Int ernet and TV services. Many smart grid bandwidt h upgrades are paid for by
over-provisioning t o also support consumer services, and subsidizing t he communicat ions wit h
energy-relat ed services or subsidizing t he energy-relat ed services, such as higher rat es during
peak hours, wit h communicat ions. This is part icularly t rue where government s run bot h set s of
services as a public monopoly. Because power and communicat ions companies are generally
separat e commercial ent erprises in Nort h America and Europe, it has required considerable
government and large-vendor effort t o encourage various ent erprises t o cooperat e. Some, like
Cisco, see opport unit y in providing devices t o consumers very similar t o t hose t hey have long
been providing t o indust ry.[30] Ot hers, such as Silver Spring Net works[31] or Google,[32][33] are dat a
int egrat ors rat her t han vendors of equipment . While t he AC power cont rol st andards suggest
powerline net working would be t he primary means of communicat ion among smart grid and home
devices, t he bit s may not reach t he home via Broadband over Power Lines (BPL) init ially but by
fixed wireless.

Technology

The bulk of smart grid t echnologies are already used in ot her applicat ions such as manufact uring
and t elecommunicat ions and are being adapt ed for use in grid operat ions.[34]

Int egrat ed communicat ions: Areas for improvement include: subst at ion aut omat ion, demand
response, dist ribut ion aut omat ion, supervisory cont rol and dat a acquisit ion (SCADA), energy
management syst ems, wireless mesh net works and ot her t echnologies, power-line carrier
communicat ions, and fiber-opt ics.[10] Int egrat ed communicat ions will allow for real-t ime
cont rol, informat ion and dat a exchange t o opt imize syst em reliabilit y, asset ut ilizat ion, and
securit y.[35]

Sensing and measurement : core dut ies are evaluat ing congest ion and grid st abilit y, monit oring
equipment healt h, energy t heft prevent ion,[36] and cont rol st rat egies support . Technologies
include: advanced microprocessor met ers (smart met er) and met er reading equipment , wide-
area monit oring syst ems, (t ypically based on online readings by Dist ribut ed t emperat ure
sensing combined wit h Real t ime t hermal rat ing (RTTR) syst ems), elect romagnet ic signat ure
measurement /analysis, t ime-of-use and real-t ime pricing t ools, advanced swit ches and cables,
backscat t er radio t echnology, and Digit al prot ect ive relays.

Smart met ers.

Phasor measurement unit s. Many in t he power syst ems engineering communit y believe t hat
t he Nort heast blackout of 2003 could have been cont ained t o a much smaller area if a wide
area phasor measurement net work had been in place.[37]

Dist ribut ed power flow cont rol: power flow cont rol devices clamp ont o exist ing t ransmission
lines t o cont rol t he flow of power wit hin. Transmission lines enabled wit h such devices support
great er use of renewable energy by providing more consist ent , real-t ime cont rol over how t hat
energy is rout ed wit hin t he grid. This t echnology enables t he grid t o more effect ively st ore
int ermit t ent energy from renewables for lat er use.[38]

Smart power generat ion using advanced component s: smart power generat ion is a concept of
mat ching elect ricit y generat ion wit h demand using mult iple ident ical generat ors which can
st art , st op and operat e efficient ly at chosen load, independent ly of t he ot hers, making t hem
suit able for base load and peaking power generat ion.[39] Mat ching supply and demand, called
load balancing,[21] is essent ial for a st able and reliable supply of elect ricit y. Short -t erm
deviat ions in t he balance lead t o frequency variat ions and a prolonged mismat ch result s in
blackout s. Operat ors of power t ransmission syst ems are charged wit h t he balancing t ask,
mat ching t he power out put of all t he generat ors t o t he load of t heir elect rical grid. The load
balancing t ask has become much more challenging as increasingly int ermit t ent and variable
generat ors such as wind t urbines and solar cells are added t o t he grid, forcing ot her producers
t o adapt t heir out put much more frequent ly t han has been required in t he past . First t wo
dynamic grid st abilit y power plant s ut ilizing t he concept has been ordered by Elering and will
be built by Wärt silä in Kiisa, Est onia (Kiisa Power Plant ). Their purpose is t o "provide dynamic
generat ion capacit y t o meet sudden and unexpect ed drops in t he elect ricit y supply." They are
scheduled t o be ready during 2013 and 2014, and t heir t ot al out put will be 250 MW.[40]

Power syst em aut omat ion enables rapid diagnosis of and precise solut ions t o specific grid
disrupt ions or out ages. These t echnologies rely on and cont ribut e t o each of t he ot her four
key areas. Three t echnology cat egories for advanced cont rol met hods are: dist ribut ed
int elligent agent s (cont rol syst ems), analyt ical t ools (soft ware algorit hms and high-speed
comput ers), and operat ional applicat ions (SCADA, subst at ion aut omat ion, demand response,
et c.). Using art ificial int elligence programming t echniques, Fujian power grid in China creat ed a
wide area prot ect ion syst em t hat is rapidly able t o accurat ely calculat e a cont rol st rat egy and
execut e it .[41] The Volt age St abilit y Monit oring & Cont rol (VSMC) soft ware uses a sensit ivit y-
 based successive linear programming met hod t o reliably det ermine t he opt imal cont rol
solut ion.[42]

IT companies disrupting the energy market

…
Smart grid provides IT-based solut ions which t he t radit ional power grid is lacking. These new
solut ions pave t he way of new ent rant s t hat were t radit ionally not relat ed t o t he energy
grid.[43][44] Technology companies are disrupt ing t he t radit ional energy market players in several
ways. They develop complex dist ribut ion syst ems t o meet t he more decent ralized power
generat ion due t o microgrids. Addit ionally is t he increase in dat a collect ion bringing many new
possibilit ies for t echnology companies as deploying t ransmission grid sensors at a user level and
balancing syst em reserves.[45] The t echnology in microgrids makes energy consumpt ion cheaper
for households t han buying from ut ilit ies. Addit ionally, resident s can manage t heir energy
consumpt ion easier and more effect ively wit h t he connect ion t o smart met ers.[46] However, t he
performances and reliabilit y of microgrids st rongly depend on t he cont inuous int eract ion
bet ween power generat ion, st orage and load requirement s.[47] A hybrid offering combining
renewable energy sources wit h st oring energy sources as coal and gas is showing t he hybrid
offering of a microgrid serving alone.

Consequences
…
As a consequence of t he ent rance of t he t echnology companies in t he energy market , ut ilit ies
and DSO's need t o creat e new business models t o keep current cust omers and t o creat e new
cust omers.[48]

Focus on a customer engagement strategy

…
DSO's can focus on creat ing good cust omer engagement st rat egies t o creat e loyalt y and t rust
t owards t he cust omer.[49] To ret ain and at t ract cust omers who decide t o produce t heir own
energy t hrough microgrids, DSO's can offer purchase agreement s for t he sale of surplus energy
t hat t he consumer produces.[48] Indifference from t he IT companies, bot h DSO's and ut ilit ies can
use t heir market experience t o give consumers energy-use advice and efficiency upgrades t o
creat e excellent cust omer service.[50]

Create alliances with new entered technology companies

…
Inst ead of t rying t o compet e against IT companies in t heir expert ise, bot h ut ilit ies and DSO's
can t ry t o creat e alliances wit h IT companies t o creat e good solut ions t oget her. The French
ut ilit y company Engie did t his by buying t he service provider Ecova and OpTerra Energy
Services.[51]

Renewable energy sources

…
The generat ion of renewable energy can oft en be connect ed at t he dist ribut ion level, inst ead of
t he t ransmission grids,[52] which means t hat DSO's can manage t he flows and dist ribut e power
locally. This brings new opport unit y for DSO's t o expand t heir market by selling energy direct ly t o
t he consumer. Simult aneously, t his is challenging t he ut ilit ies producing fossil fuels who already
are t rapped by high cost s of aging asset s.[53] St rict er regulat ions for producing t radit ional energy
resources from t he government increases t he difficult y of st ay in business and increases t he
pressure on t radit ional energy companies t o make t he shift t o renewable energy sources.[54] An
example of a ut ilit y changing business model t o produce more renewable energy is t he
Norwegian-based company, Equinor, which was a st at e-owned oil company which now are heavily
invest ing in renewable energy.

Research

Major programs
…
IntelliGrid – Creat ed by t he Elect ric Power Research Inst it ut e (EPRI), Int elliGrid archit ect ure
provides met hodology, t ools, and recommendat ions for st andards and t echnologies for ut ilit y
use in planning, specifying, and procuring IT-based syst ems, such as advanced met ering,
dist ribut ion aut omat ion, and demand response. The archit ect ure also provides a living laborat ory
for assessing devices, syst ems, and t echnology. Several ut ilit ies have applied Int elliGrid
archit ect ure including Sout hern California Edison, Long Island Power Aut horit y, Salt River Project ,
and TXU Elect ric Delivery. The Int elliGrid Consort ium is a public/privat e part nership t hat
int egrat es and opt imizes global research effort s, funds t echnology R&D, works t o int egrat e
t echnologies, and disseminat es t echnical informat ion.[55]

Grid 2030 – Grid 2030 is a joint vision st at ement for t he U.S. elect rical syst em developed by t he
elect ric ut ilit y indust ry, equipment manufact urers, informat ion t echnology providers, federal and
st at e government agencies, int erest groups, universit ies, and nat ional laborat ories. It covers
generat ion, t ransmission, dist ribut ion, st orage, and end-use.[56] The Nat ional Elect ric Delivery
Technologies Roadmap is t he implement at ion document for t he Grid 2030 vision. The Roadmap
out lines t he key issues and challenges for modernizing t he grid and suggest s pat hs t hat
government and indust ry can t ake t o build America's fut ure elect ric delivery syst em.[57]
Modern Grid Initiative (MGI) is a collaborat ive effort bet ween t he U.S. Depart ment of Energy
(DOE), t he Nat ional Energy Technology Laborat ory (NETL), ut ilit ies, consumers, researchers, and
ot her grid st akeholders t o modernize and int egrat e t he U.S. elect rical grid. DOE's Office of
Elect ricit y Delivery and Energy Reliabilit y (OE) sponsors t he init iat ive, which builds upon Grid 2030
and t he Nat ional Elect ricit y Delivery Technologies Roadmap and is aligned wit h ot her programs
such as GridWise and GridWorks.[58]

GridWise – A DOE OE program focused on developing informat ion t echnology t o modernize t he

U.S. elect rical grid. Working wit h t he GridWise Alliance, t he program invest s in communicat ions
archit ect ure and st andards; simulat ion and analysis t ools; smart t echnologies; t est beds and
demonst rat ion project s; and new regulat ory, inst it ut ional, and market frameworks. The GridWise
Alliance is a consort ium of public and privat e elect ricit y sect or st akeholders, providing a forum
for idea exchanges, cooperat ive effort s, and meet ings wit h policy makers at federal and st at e
levels.[59]

GridWise Architecture Council (GWAC) was formed by t he U.S. Depart ment of Energy t o promot e
and enable int eroperabilit y among t he many ent it ies t hat int eract wit h t he nat ion's elect ric power
syst em. The GWAC members are a balanced and respect ed t eam represent ing t he many
const it uencies of t he elect ricit y supply chain and users. The GWAC provides indust ry guidance
and t ools t o art iculat e t he goal of int eroperabilit y across t he elect ric syst em, ident ify t he
concept s and archit ect ures needed t o make int eroperabilit y possible, and develop act ionable
st eps t o facilit at e t he int er operat ion of t he syst ems, devices, and inst it ut ions t hat encompass
t he nat ion's elect ric syst em. The GridWise Archit ect ure Council Int eroperabilit y Cont ext Set t ing
Framework, V 1.1 defines necessary guidelines and principles.[60]

GridWorks – A DOE OE program focused on improving t he reliabilit y of t he elect ric syst em

t hrough modernizing key grid component s such as cables and conduct ors, subst at ions and
prot ect ive syst ems, and power elect ronics. The program's focus includes coordinat ing effort s
on high t emperat ure superconduct ing syst ems, t ransmission reliabilit y t echnologies, elect ric
dist ribut ion t echnologies, energy st orage devices, and GridWise syst ems.[61]

Pacific Northwest Smart Grid Demonstration Project. - This project is a demonst rat ion across five
Pacific Nort hwest st at es-Idaho, Mont ana, Oregon, Washingt on, and Wyoming. It involves about
60,000 met ered cust omers, and cont ains many key funct ions of t he fut ure smart grid.[62]

Solar Cities - In Aust ralia, t he Solar Cit ies programme included close collaborat ion wit h energy
companies t o t rial smart met ers, peak and off-peak pricing, remot e swit ching and relat ed
effort s. It also provided some limit ed funding for grid upgrades.[63]
Smart Grid Energy Research Center (SMERC) - Locat ed at Universit y of California, Los Angeles
has dedicat ed it s effort s t o large-scale t est ing of it s smart EV charging net work t echnology -
WINSmart EV™. It creat ed anot her plat form for a Smart Grid archit ect ure enabling bidirect ional
flow of informat ion bet ween a ut ilit y and consumer end-devices - WINSmart Grid™. SMERC has
also developed a demand response (DR) t est bed t hat comprises a Cont rol Cent er, Demand
Response Aut omat ion Server (DRAS), Home-Area-Net work (HAN), Bat t ery Energy St orage
Syst em (BESS), and phot ovolt aic (PV) panels. These t echnologies are inst alled wit hin t he Los
Angeles Depart ment of Wat er and Power and Sout hern California Edison t errit ory as a net work
of EV chargers, bat t ery energy st orage syst ems, solar panels, DC fast charger, and Vehicle-t o-
Grid (V2G) unit s. These plat forms, communicat ions and cont rol net works enables UCLA-led
project s wit hin t he great er Los Angeles t o be researched, advanced and t est ed in part nership
wit h t he t wo key local ut ilit ies, SCE and LADWP.[64]

Smart Quart - In Germany, t he Smart Quart project develops t hree smart dist rict s t o develop,
t est and showcase t echnology t o operat e smart grids. The project is a collaborat ion of E.ON,
Viessmann, gridX and hydrogenious t oget her wit h t he RWTH Aachen Universit y. It is planned t hat
by t he end of 2024 all t hree dist rict s are supplied wit h locally generat ed energy and are largely
independent of fossil energy sources.[65]

Smart grid modelling

…
Many different concept s have been used t o model int elligent power grids. They are generally
st udied wit hin t he framework of complex syst ems. In a recent brainst orming session,[66] t he
power grid was considered wit hin t he cont ext of opt imal cont rol, ecology, human cognit ion,
glassy dynamics, informat ion t heory, microphysics of clouds, and many ot hers. Here is a select ion
of t he t ypes of analyses t hat have appeared in recent years.

Protection systems that verify and supervise themselves

Pelqim Spahiu and Ian R. Evans in t heir st udy int roduced t he concept of a subst at ion based
smart prot ect ion and hybrid Inspect ion Unit .[67][68]

Kuramoto oscillators

The Kuramot o model is a well-st udied syst em. The power grid has been described in t his
cont ext as well.[69][70] The goal is t o keep t he syst em in balance, or t o maint ain phase
synchronizat ion (also known as phase locking). Non-uniform oscillat ors also help t o model
different t echnologies, different t ypes of power generat ors, pat t erns of consumpt ion, and so on.
The model has also been used t o describe t he synchronizat ion pat t erns in t he blinking of
fireflies.[69]

Bio-systems

Power grids have been relat ed t o complex biological syst ems in many ot her cont ext s. In one
st udy, power grids were compared t o t he dolphin social net work.[71] These creat ures st reamline
or int ensify communicat ion in case of an unusual sit uat ion. The int ercommunicat ions t hat enable
t hem t o survive are highly complex.

Random fuse networks

In percolat ion t heory, random fuse net works have been st udied. The current densit y might be
t oo low in some areas, and t oo st rong in ot hers. The analysis can t herefore be used t o smoot h
out pot ent ial problems in t he net work. For inst ance, high-speed comput er analysis can predict
blown fuses and correct for t hem, or analyze pat t erns t hat might lead t o a power out age.[72] It is
difficult for humans t o predict t he long t erm pat t erns in complex net works, so fuse or diode
net works are used inst ead.

Smart Grid Communication Network

Net work Simulat ors are used t o simulat e/emulat e net work communicat ion effect s. This
t ypically involves set t ing up a lab wit h t he smart grid devices, applicat ions et c. wit h t he virt ual
net work being provided by t he net work simulat or.[73]

Neural networks

Neural net works have been considered for power grid management as well. Elect ric power
syst ems can be classified in mult iple different ways: non-linear, dynamic, discret e, or random.
Art ificial Neural Net works (ANNs) at t empt t o solve t he most difficult of t hese problems, t he
non-linear problems.

Demand Forecasting

One applicat ion of ANNs is in demand forecast ing. In order for grids t o operat e economically and
reliably, demand forecast ing is essent ial, because it is used t o predict t he amount of power t hat
will be consumed by t he load. This is dependent on weat her condit ions, t ype of day, random
event s, incident s, et c. For non-linear loads t hough, t he load profile isn't smoot h and as
predict able, result ing in higher uncert aint y and less accuracy using t he t radit ional Art ificial
Int elligence models. Some fact ors t hat ANNs consider when developing t hese sort of models:
classificat ion of load profiles of different cust omer classes based on t he consumpt ion of
elect ricit y, increased responsiveness of demand t o predict real t ime elect ricit y prices as
compared t o convent ional grids, t he need t o input past demand as different component s, such
as peak load, base load, valley load, average load, et c. inst ead of joining t hem int o a single input ,
and last ly, t he dependence of t he t ype on specific input variables. An example of t he last case
would be given t he t ype of day, whet her it s weekday or weekend, t hat wouldn't have much of an
effect on Hospit al grids, but it 'd be a big fact or in resident housing grids' load
profile.[74][75][76][77][78]

Markov processes

As wind power cont inues t o gain popularit y, it becomes a necessary ingredient in realist ic power
grid st udies. Off-line st orage, wind variabilit y, supply, demand, pricing, and ot her fact ors can be
modelled as a mat hemat ical game. Here t he goal is t o develop a winning st rat egy. Markov
processes have been used t o model and st udy t his t ype of syst em.[79]

Maximum entropy

All of t hese met hods are, in one way or anot her, maximum ent ropy met hods, which is an act ive
area of research.[80][81] This goes back t o t he ideas of Shannon, and many ot her researchers who
st udied communicat ion net works. Cont inuing along similar lines t oday, modern wireless net work
research oft en considers t he problem of net work congest ion,[82] and many algorit hms are being
proposed t o minimize it , including game t heory,[83] innovat ive combinat ions of FDMA, TDMA, and
ot hers.

Economics

Market outlook
…
In 2009, t he US smart grid indust ry was valued at about $21.4 billion – by 2014, it will exceed at
least $42.8 billion. Given t he success of t he smart grids in t he U.S., t he world market is expect ed
t o grow at a fast er rat e, surging from $69.3 billion in 2009 t o $171.4 billion by 2014. Wit h t he
segment s set t o benefit t he most will be smart met ering hardware sellers and makers of
soft ware used t o t ransmit and organize t he massive amount of dat a collect ed by met ers.[84]

The size of Smart Grid Market (ht t ps://www.gminsight s.com/indust ry-analysis/smart -grid-mark
et ) was valued at over US$30 billion in 2017 and is set t o expand over 11% CAGR t o hit US$70
Billion by 2024. Growing need t o digit alize t he power sect or driven by ageing elect rical grid
infrast ruct ure will st imulat e t he global market size. The indust ry is primarily driven by favorable
government regulat ions and mandat es along wit h rising share of renewables in t he global energy
mix. According t o t he Int ernat ional Energy Agency (IEA), global invest ment s in digit al elect ricit y
infrast ruct ure was over US$50 billion in 2017.

A 2011 st udy from t he Elect ric Power Research Inst it ut e concludes t hat invest ment in a U.S.
smart grid will cost up t o $476 billion over 20 years but will provide up t o $2 t rillion in cust omer
benefit s over t hat t ime.[85] In 2015, t he World Economic Forum report ed a t ransformat ional
invest ment of more t han $7.6 t rillion by members of t he OECD is needed over t he next 25 years
(or $300 billion per year) t o modernize, expand, and decent ralize t he elect ricit y infrast ruct ure
wit h t echnical innovat ion as key t o t he t ransformat ion.[86] A 2019 st udy from Int ernat ional Energy
Agency est imat es t hat t he current (depriciat ed) value of t he US elect ric grid is more t han USD 1
t rillion. The t ot al cost of replacing it wit h a smart grid is est imat ed t o be more t han USD 4 t rillion.
If smart grids are deployed fully across t he US, t he count ry expect s t o save USD 130 billion
annually.[87]

General economics developments

…
As cust omers can choose t heir elect ricit y suppliers, depending on t heir different t ariff met hods,
t he focus of t ransport at ion cost s will be increased. Reduct ion of maint enance and replacement s
cost s will st imulat e more advanced cont rol.

A smart grid precisely limit s elect rical power down t o t he resident ial level, net work small-scale
dist ribut ed energy generat ion and st orage devices, communicat e informat ion on operat ing st at us
and needs, collect informat ion on prices and grid condit ions, and move t he grid beyond cent ral
cont rol t o a collaborat ive net work.[88]

US and UK savings estimates and concerns

…
A 2003 Unit ed St at es Depart ment of Energy st udy calculat ed t hat int ernal modernizat ion of US
grids wit h smart grid capabilit ies would save bet ween 46 and 117 billion dollars over t he next 20
years if implement ed wit hin a few years of t he st udy.[89] As well as t hese indust rial modernizat ion
benefit s, smart grid feat ures could expand energy efficiency beyond t he grid int o t he home by
coordinat ing low priorit y home devices such as wat er heat ers so t hat t heir use of power t akes
advant age of t he most desirable energy sources. Smart grids can also coordinat e t he product ion
of power from large numbers of small power producers such as owners of rooft op solar panels —
an arrangement t hat would ot herwise prove problemat ic for power syst ems operat ors at local
ut ilit ies.
One import ant quest ion is whet her consumers will act in response t o market signals. The U.S.
Depart ment of Energy (DOE) as part of t he American Recovery and Reinvest ment Act Smart
Grid Invest ment Grant and Demonst rat ions Program (ht t ps://www.smart grid.gov/) funded
special consumer behavior st udies t o examine t he accept ance, ret ent ion, and response of
consumers subscribed t o t ime-based ut ilit y rat e programs (ht t ps://www.smart grid.gov/recovery
_ act /consumer_ behavior_ st udies) Archived (ht t ps://web.archive.org/web/20150318093434/h
t t ps://www.smart grid.gov/recovery_ act /consumer_ behavior_ st udies) 2015-03-18 at t he
Wayback Machine t hat involve advanced met ering infrast ruct ure and cust omer syst ems such as
in-home displays and programmable communicat ing t hermost at s.

Anot her concern is t hat t he cost of t elecommunicat ions t o fully support smart grids may be
prohibit ive. A less expensive communicat ion mechanism is proposed using a form of "dynamic
demand management " where devices shave peaks by shift ing t heir loads in react ion t o grid
frequency. Grid frequency could be used t o communicat e load informat ion wit hout t he need of
an addit ional t elecommunicat ion net work, but it would not support economic bargaining or
quant ificat ion of cont ribut ions.

Alt hough t here are specific and proven smart grid t echnologies in use, smart grid is an aggregat e
t erm for a set of relat ed t echnologies on which a specificat ion is generally agreed, rat her t han a
name for a specific t echnology. Some of t he benefit s of such a modernized elect ricit y net work
include t he abilit y t o reduce power consumpt ion at t he consumer side during peak hours, called
demand side management ; enabling grid connect ion of dist ribut ed generat ion power (wit h
phot ovolt aic arrays, small wind t urbines, micro hydro, or even combined heat power generat ors in
buildings); incorporat ing grid energy st orage for dist ribut ed generat ion load balancing; and
eliminat ing or cont aining failures such as widespread power grid cascading failures. The increased
efficiency and reliabilit y of t he smart grid is expect ed t o save consumers money and help reduce
CO2 emissions.[90]

Oppositions and concerns

Most opposit ion and concerns have cent ered on smart met ers and t he it ems (such as remot e
cont rol, remot e disconnect , and variable rat e pricing) enabled by t hem. Where opposit ion t o
smart met ers is encount ered, t hey are oft en market ed as "smart grid" which connect s smart grid
t o smart met ers in t he eyes of opponent s. Specific point s of opposit ion or concern include:

consumer concerns over privacy, e.g. use of usage dat a by law enforcement

social concerns over "fair" availabilit y of elect ricit y

 concern t hat complex rat e syst ems (e.g. variable rat es) remove clarit y and account abilit y,
allowing t he supplier t o t ake advant age of t he cust omer

concern over remot ely cont rollable "kill swit ch" incorporat ed int o most smart met ers

social concerns over Enron st yle abuses of informat ion leverage

concerns over giving t he government mechanisms t o cont rol t he use of all power using
act ivit ies

concerns over RF emissions from smart met ers

Security
…
While modernizat ion of elect rical grids int o smart grids allows for opt imizat ion of everyday
processes, a smart grid, being online, can be vulnerable t o cyberat t acks.[91][92] Transformers
which increase t he volt age of elect ricit y creat ed at power plant s for long-dist ance t ravel,
t ransmission lines t hemselves, and dist ribut ion lines which deliver t he elect ricit y t o it s
consumers are part icularly suscept ible.[93] These syst ems rely on sensors which gat her
informat ion from t he field and t hen deliver it t o cont rol cent ers, where algorit hms aut omat e
analysis and decision-making processes. These decisions are sent back t o t he field, where
exist ing equipment execut e t hem.[94] Hackers have t he pot ent ial t o disrupt t hese aut omat ed
cont rol syst ems, severing t he channels which allow generat ed elect ricit y t o be ut ilized.[93] This is
called a denial of service or DoS at t ack. They can also launch int egrit y at t acks which corrupt
informat ion being t ransmit t ed along t he syst em as well as desynchronizat ion at t acks which
affect when such informat ion is delivered t o t he appropriat e locat ion.[94] Addit ionally, int ruders
can again access via renewable energy generat ion syst ems and smart met ers connect ed t o t he
grid, t aking advant age of more specialized weaknesses or ones whose securit y has not been
priorit ized. Because a smart grid has a large number of access point s, like smart met ers,
defending all of it s weak point s can prove difficult .[91] There is also concern on t he securit y of
t he infrast ruct ure, primarily t hat involving communicat ions t echnology. Concerns chiefly cent er
around t he communicat ions t echnology at t he heart of t he smart grid. Designed t o allow real-
t ime cont act bet ween ut ilit ies and met ers in cust omers' homes and businesses, t here is a risk
t hat t hese capabilit ies could be exploit ed for criminal or even t errorist act ions.[10] One of t he key
capabilit ies of t his connect ivit y is t he abilit y t o remot ely swit ch off power supplies, enabling
ut ilit ies t o quickly and easily cease or modify supplies t o cust omers who default on payment .
This is undoubt edly a massive boon for energy providers, but also raises some significant securit y
issues.[95] Cybercriminals have infilt rat ed t he U.S. elect ric grid before on numerous occasions.[96]
Aside from comput er infilt rat ion, t here are also concerns t hat comput er malware like St uxnet ,
which t arget ed SCADA syst ems which are widely used in indust ry, could be used t o at t ack a
smart grid net work.[97]

Elect ricit y t heft is a concern in t he U.S. where t he smart met ers being deployed use RF
t echnology t o communicat e wit h t he elect ricit y t ransmission net work. People wit h knowledge
of elect ronics can devise int erference devices t o cause t he smart met er t o report lower t han
act ual usage. Similarly, t he same t echnology can be employed t o make it appear t hat t he energy
t he consumer is using is being used by anot her cust omer, increasing t heir bill.

The damage from a well-execut ed, sizable cyberat t ack could be ext ensive and long-last ing. One
incapacit at ed subst at ion could t ake from nine days t o over a year t o repair, depending on t he
nat ure of t he at t ack. It can also cause an hours-long out age in a small radius. It could have an
immediat e effect on t ransport at ion infrast ruct ure, as t raffic light s and ot her rout ing mechanisms
as well as vent ilat ion equipment for underground roadways is reliant on elect ricit y.[98] Addit ionally,
infrast ruct ure which relies on t he elect ric grid, including wast ewat er t reat ment facilit ies, t he
informat ion t echnology sect or, and communicat ions syst ems could be impact ed.[98]

The December 2015 Ukraine power grid cyberat t ack, t he first recorded of it s kind, disrupt ed
services t o nearly a quart er of a million people by bringing subst at ions offline.[99][100] The Council
on Foreign Relat ions has not ed t hat st at es are most likely t o be t he perpet rat ors of such an
at t ack as t hey have access t o t he resources t o carry one out despit e t he high level of difficult y
of doing so. Cyber int rusions can be used as port ions of a larger offensive, milit ary or
ot herwise.[100] Some securit y expert s warn t hat t his t ype of event is easily scalable t o grids
elsewhere.[101] Insurance company Lloyd's of London has already modeled t he out come of a
cyberat t ack on t he East ern Int erconnect ion, which has t he pot ent ial t o impact 15 st at es, put 93
million people in t he dark, and cost t he count ry's economy anywhere from $243 billion t o $1
t rillion in various damages.[102]

According t o t he U.S. House of Represent at ives Subcommit t ee on Economic Development ,

Public Buildings, and Emergency Management , t he elect ric grid has already seen a sizable number
of cyber int rusions, wit h t wo in every five aiming t o incapacit at e it .[93] As such, t he U.S.
Depart ment of Energy has priorit ized research and development t o decrease t he elect ric grid's
vulnerabilit y t o cyberat t acks, cit ing t hem as an "imminent danger" in it s 2017 Quadrennial Energy
Review.[103] The Depart ment of Energy has also ident ified bot h at t ack resist ance and self-
healing as major keys t o ensuring t hat t oday's smart grid is fut ure-proof.[94] While t here are
regulat ions already in place, namely t he Crit ical Infrast ruct ure Prot ect ion St andards int roduced
by t he Nort h America Elect ric Reliabilit y Council, a significant number of t hem are suggest ions
rat her t han mandat es.[100] Most elect ricit y generat ion, t ransmission, and dist ribut ion facilit ies and
equipment are owned by privat e st akeholders, furt her complicat ing t he t ask of assessing
adherence t o such st andards.[103] Addit ionally, even if ut ilit ies want t o fully comply, t hey may find
t hat it is t oo expensive t o do so.[100]

Some expert s argue t hat t he first st ep t o increasing t he cyber defenses of t he smart elect ric
grid is complet ing a comprehensive risk analysis of exist ing infrast ruct ure, including research of
soft ware, hardware, and communicat ion processes. Addit ionally, as int rusions t hemselves can
provide valuable informat ion, it could be useful t o analyze syst em logs and ot her records of t heir
nat ure and t iming. Common weaknesses already ident ified using such met hods by t he
Depart ment of Homeland Securit y include poor code qualit y, improper aut hent icat ion, and weak
firewall rules. Once t his st ep is complet ed, some suggest t hat it makes sense t o t hen complet e
an analysis of t he pot ent ial consequences of t he aforement ioned failures or short comings. This
includes bot h immediat e consequences as well as second- and t hird-order cascading effect s on
parallel syst ems. Finally, risk mit igat ion solut ions, which may include simple remediat ion of
infrast ruct ure inadequacies or novel st rat egies, can be deployed t o address t he sit uat ion. Some
such measures include recoding of cont rol syst em algorit hms t o make t hem more able t o resist
and recover from cyberat t acks or prevent ive t echniques t hat allow more efficient det ect ion of
unusual or unaut horized changes t o dat a. St rat egies t o account for human error which can
compromise syst ems include educat ing t hose who work in t he field t o be wary of st range USB
drives, which can int roduce malware if insert ed, even if just t o check t heir cont ent s.[94]

Ot her solut ions include ut ilizing t ransmission subst at ions, const rained SCADA net works, policy
based dat a sharing, and at t est at ion for const rained smart met ers.

Transmission subst at ions ut ilize one-t ime signat ure aut hent icat ion t echnologies and one-way
hash chain const ruct s. These const raint s have since been remedied wit h t he creat ion of a fast -
signing and verificat ion t echnology and buffering-free dat a processing.[104]

A similar solut ion has been const ruct ed for const rained SCADA net works. This involves applying
a Hash-Based Message Aut hent icat ion Code t o byt e st reams, convert ing t he random-error
det ect ion available on legacy syst ems t o a mechanism t hat guarant ees dat a aut hent icit y.[104]

Policy-based dat a sharing ut ilizes GPS-clock-synchronized-fine-grain power grid measurement s

t o provide increased grid st abilit y and reliabilit y. It does t his t hrough synchro-phasor requirement s
t hat are gat hered by PMUs.[104]

At t est at ion for const rained smart met ers faces a slight ly different challenge, however. One of
t he biggest issues wit h at t est at ion for const rained smart met ers is t hat in order t o prevent
energy t heft , and similar at t acks, cyber securit y providers have t o make sure t hat t he devices’
soft ware is aut hent ic. To combat t his problem, an archit ect ure for const rained smart net works
has been creat ed and implement ed at a low level in t he embedded syst em.[104]

Other challenges to adoption

Before a ut ilit y inst alls an advanced met ering syst em, or any t ype of smart syst em, it must make
a business case for t he invest ment . Some component s, like t he power syst em st abilizers (PSS)
inst alled on generat ors are very expensive, require complex int egrat ion in t he grid's cont rol
syst em, are needed only during emergencies, and are only effect ive if ot her suppliers on t he
net work have t hem. Wit hout any incent ive t o inst all t hem, power suppliers don't .[105] Most
ut ilit ies find it difficult t o just ify inst alling a communicat ions infrast ruct ure for a single applicat ion
(e.g. met er reading). Because of t his, a ut ilit y must t ypically ident ify several applicat ions t hat will
use t he same communicat ions infrast ruct ure – for example, reading a met er, monit oring power
qualit y, remot e connect ion and disconnect ion of cust omers, enabling demand response, et c.
Ideally, t he communicat ions infrast ruct ure will not only support near-t erm applicat ions, but
unant icipat ed applicat ions t hat will arise in t he fut ure. Regulat ory or legislat ive act ions can also
drive ut ilit ies t o implement pieces of a smart grid puzzle. Each ut ilit y has a unique set of
business, regulat ory, and legislat ive drivers t hat guide it s invest ment s. This means t hat each
ut ilit y will t ake a different pat h t o creat ing t heir smart grid and t hat different ut ilit ies will creat e
smart grids at different adopt ion rat es.

Some feat ures of smart grids draw opposit ion from indust ries t hat current ly are, or hope t o
provide similar services. An example is compet it ion wit h cable and DSL Int ernet providers from
broadband over powerline int ernet access. Providers of SCADA cont rol syst ems for grids have
int ent ionally designed propriet ary hardware, prot ocols and soft ware so t hat t hey cannot int er-
operat e wit h ot her syst ems in order t o t ie it s cust omers t o t he vendor.[106]

The incorporat ion of digit al communicat ions and comput er infrast ruct ure wit h t he grid's exist ing
physical infrast ruct ure poses challenges and inherent vulnerabilit ies. According t o IEEE Security
and Privacy Magazine, t he smart grid will require t hat people develop and use large comput er and
communicat ion infrast ruct ure t hat support s a great er degree of sit uat ional awareness and t hat
allows for more specific command and cont rol operat ions. This process is necessary t o support
major syst ems such as demand-response wide-area measurement and cont rol, st orage and
t ransport at ion of elect ricit y, and t he aut omat ion of elect ric dist ribut ion.[107]

Power Theft / Power Loss

…
Various "smart grid" syst ems have dual funct ions. This includes Advanced Met ering
Infrast ruct ure syst ems which, when used wit h various soft ware can be used t o det ect power
t heft and by process of eliminat ion, det ect where equipment failures have t aken place. These
are in addit ion t o t heir primary funct ions of eliminat ing t he need for human met er reading and
measuring t he t ime-of-use of elect ricit y.

The worldwide power loss including t heft is est imat ed at approximat ely t wo-hundred billion
dollars annually.[108]

Elect ricit y t heft also represent s a major challenge when providing reliable elect rical service in
developing count ries.[36]

Deployments and attempted deployments

Enel. The earliest , and one of t he largest , example of a smart grid is t he It alian syst em inst alled
by Enel S.p.A. of It aly. Complet ed in 2005, t he Telegest ore project was highly unusual in t he
ut ilit y world because t he company designed and manufact ured t heir own met ers, act ed as t heir
own syst em int egrat or, and developed t heir own syst em soft ware. The Telegest ore project is
widely regarded as t he first commercial scale use of smart grid t echnology t o t he home, and
delivers annual savings of 500 million euro at a project cost of 2.1 billion euro.[14]

US Dept. of Energy - ARRA Smart Grid Project (https://www.smartgrid.gov/) : One of t he

largest deployment programs in t he world t o-dat e is t he U.S. Dept . of Energy's Smart Grid
Program funded by t he American Recovery and Reinvest ment Act of 2009. This program required
mat ching funding from individual ut ilit ies. A t ot al of over $9 billion in Public/Privat e funds were
invest ed as part of t his program. Technologies included Advanced Met ering Infrast ruct ure,
including over 65 million Advanced "Smart " Met ers, Cust omer Int erface Syst ems, Dist ribut ion &
Subst at ion Aut omat ion, Volt /VAR Opt imizat ion Syst ems, over 1,000 Synchrophasors, Dynamic
Line Rat ing, Cyber Securit y Project s, Advanced Dist ribut ion Management Syst ems, Energy
St orage Syst ems, and Renewable Energy Int egrat ion Project s. This program consist ed of
Invest ment Grant s (mat ching), Demonst rat ion Project s, Consumer Accept ance St udies, and
Workforce Educat ion Programs. Report s from all individual ut ilit y programs as well as overall
impact report s will be complet ed by t he second quart er of 2015.

Austin, Texas. In t he US, t he cit y of Aust in, Texas has been working on building it s smart grid
since 2003, when it s ut ilit y first replaced 1/3 of it s manual met ers wit h smart met ers t hat
communicat e via a wireless mesh net work. It current ly manages 200,000 devices real-t ime
(smart met ers, smart t hermost at s, and sensors across it s service area), and expect s t o be
support ing 500,000 devices real-t ime in 2009 servicing 1 million consumers and 43,000
businesses.[109]

Boulder, Colorado complet ed t he first phase of it s smart grid project in August 2008. Bot h
syst ems use t he smart met er as a gat eway t o t he home aut omat ion net work (HAN) t hat
cont rols smart socket s and devices. Some HAN designers favor decoupling cont rol funct ions
from t he met er, out of concern of fut ure mismat ches wit h new st andards and t echnologies
available from t he fast moving business segment of home elect ronic devices.[110]

Hydro One, in Ont ario, Canada is in t he midst of a large-scale Smart Grid init iat ive, deploying a
st andards-compliant communicat ions infrast ruct ure from Trilliant . By t he end of 2010, t he
syst em will serve 1.3 million cust omers in t he province of Ont ario. The init iat ive won t he "Best
AMR Init iat ive in Nort h America" award from t he Ut ilit y Planning Net work.[111]

Île d'Yeu began a 2-year pilot program in Spring of 2020. Twent y-t hree houses in t he Ker Pissot
neighborhood and surrounding areas were int erconnect ed wit h a microgrid t hat was aut omat ed
as a smart grid wit h soft ware from Engie. Sixt y-four solar panels wit h a peak capacit y of 23.7 kW
were inst alled on five houses and a bat t ery wit h a st orage capacit y of 15 kWh was inst alled on
one house. Six houses st ore excess solar energy in t heir hot wat er heat ers. A dynamic syst em
apport ions t he energy provided by t he solar panels and st ored in t he bat t ery and hot wat er
heat ers t o t he syst em of 23 houses. The smart grid soft ware dynamically updat es energy supply
and demand in 5 minut e int ervals, deciding whet her t o pull energy from t he bat t ery or from t he
panels and when t o st ore it in t he hot wat er heat ers. This pilot program was t he first such
project in France.[112][113]

The Cit y of Mannheim in Germany is using realt ime Broadband Powerline (BPL) communicat ions
in it s Model Cit y Mannheim "MoMa" project .[114]

Adelaide in Aust ralia also plans t o implement a localised green Smart Grid elect ricit y net work in
t he Tonsley Park redevelopment .[115]

Sydney also in Aust ralia, in part nership wit h t he Aust ralian Government implement ed t he Smart
Grid, Smart Cit y program.[116][117]

Évora. InovGrid is an innovat ive project in Évora, Port ugal t hat aims t o equip t he elect ricit y grid
wit h informat ion and devices t o aut omat e grid management , improve service qualit y, reduce
operat ing cost s, promot e energy efficiency and environment al sust ainabilit y, and increase t he
penet rat ion of renewable energies and elect ric vehicles. It will be possible t o cont rol and
manage t he st at e of t he ent ire elect ricit y dist ribut ion grid at any given inst ant , allowing suppliers
and energy services companies t o use t his t echnological plat form t o offer consumers
informat ion and added-value energy product s and services. This project t o inst all an int elligent
energy grid places Port ugal and EDP at t he cut t ing edge of t echnological innovat ion and service
provision in Europe.[118][119]

E-Energy - In t he so-called E-Energy project s several German ut ilit ies are creat ing first
nucleolus in six independent model regions. A t echnology compet it ion ident ified t his model
regions t o carry out research and development act ivit ies wit h t he main object ive t o creat e an
"Int ernet of Energy."[120]

Massachusetts. One of t he first at t empt ed deployment s of "smart grid" t echnologies in t he

Unit ed St at es was reject ed in 2009 by elect ricit y regulat ors in t he Commonwealt h of
Massachuset t s, a US st at e.[121] According t o an art icle in t he Bost on Globe, Nort heast Ut ilit ies'
West ern Massachuset t s Elect ric Co. subsidiary act ually at t empt ed t o creat e a "smart grid"
program using public subsidies t hat would swit ch low income cust omers from post -pay t o pre-
pay billing (using "smart cards") in addit ion t o special hiked "premium" rat es for elect ricit y used
above a predet ermined amount .[121] This plan was reject ed by regulat ors as it "eroded import ant
prot ect ions for low-income cust omers against shut offs".[121] According t o t he Bost on Globe, t he
plan "unfairly t arget ed low-income cust omers and circumvent ed Massachuset t s laws meant t o
help st ruggling consumers keep t he light s on".[121] A spokesman for an environment al group
support ive of smart grid plans and West ern Massachuset t s' Elect ric's aforement ioned "smart
grid" plan, in part icular, st at ed "If used properly, smart grid t echnology has a lot of pot ent ial for
reducing peak demand, which would allow us t o shut down some of t he oldest , dirt iest power
plant s... It ’s a t ool."[121]

The eEnergy Vermont consort ium[122] is a US st at ewide init iat ive in Vermont , funded in part
t hrough t he American Recovery and Reinvest ment Act of 2009, in which all of t he elect ric
ut ilit ies in t he st at e have rapidly adopt ed a variet y of Smart Grid t echnologies, including about
90% Advanced Met ering Infrast ruct ure deployment , and are present ly evaluat ing a variet y of
dynamic rat e st ruct ures.

In t he Netherlands a large-scale project (>5000 connect ions, >20 part ners) was init iat ed t o
demonst rat e int egrat ed smart grids t echnologies, services and business cases.[123]

LIFE Factory Microgrid (http://www.factorymicrogrid.com/en/index.aspx) Archived (http

s://web.archive.org/web/20181022193525/http://www.factorymicrogrid.com/en/index.asp
x) 2018-10-22 at the Wayback Machine (LIFE13 ENV / ES / 000700) is a demonst rat ive
project t hat is part of t he LIFE+ 2013 program (European Commission), whose main object ive is
t o demonst rat e, t hrough t he implement at ion of a full-scale indust rial smart grid t hat microgrids
can become one of t he most suit able solut ions for energy generat ion and management in
fact ories t hat want t o minimize t heir environment al impact .

EPB in Chattanooga, TN is a municipally-owned elect ric ut ilit y t hat st art ed const ruct ion of a
smart grid in 2008, receiving a $111,567,606 grant from t he US DOE in 2009 t o expedit e
const ruct ion and implement at ion (for a t ot al budget of $232,219,350). Deployment of power-
line int errupt ers (1170 unit s) was complet ed in April 2012, and deployment of smart met ers
(172,079 unit s) was complet ed in 2013. The smart grid's backbone fiber-opt ic syst em was also
used t o provide t he first gigabit -speed int ernet connect ion t o resident ial cust omers in t he US
t hrough t he Fiber t o t he Home init iat ive, and now speeds of up t o 10 gigabit s per second are
available t o resident s. The smart grid is est imat ed t o have reduced power out ages by an average
of 60%, saving t he cit y about 60 million dollars annually. It has also reduced t he need for "t ruck
rolls" t o scout and t roubleshoot fault s, result ing in an est imat ed reduct ion of 630,000 t ruck
driving miles, and 4.7 million pounds of carbon emissions. In January 2016, EPB became t he first
major power dist ribut ion syst em t o earn Performance Excellence in Elect ricit y Renewal (PEER)
cert ificat ion.[124][125][126][127]

OpenADR Implementations
…
Cert ain deployment s ut ilize t he OpenADR st andard for load shedding and demand reduct ion
during higher demand periods.

China
…
The smart grid market in China is est imat ed t o be $22.3 billion wit h a project ed growt h t o $61.4
billion by 2015. Honeywell is developing a demand response pilot and feasibilit y st udy for China
wit h t he St at e Grid Corp. of China using t he OpenADR demand response st andard. The St at e Grid
Corp., t he Chinese Academy of Science, and General Elect ric int end t o work t oget her t o develop
st andards for China's smart grid rollout .[128][129][130]

United Kingdom
…
The OpenADR st andard was demonst rat ed in Bracknell, England, where peak use in commercial
buildings was reduced by 45 percent . As a result of t he pilot , t he Scot t ish and Sout hern Energy
(SSE) said it would connect up t o 30 commercial and indust rial buildings in Thames Valley, west
of London, t o a demand response program.[131]
United States
…
In 2009, t he US Depart ment of Energy awarded an $11 million grant t o Sout hern California Edison
and Honeywell for a demand response program t hat aut omat ically t urns down energy use during
peak hours for part icipat ing indust rial cust omers.[132][133] The Depart ment of Energy awarded an
$11.4 million grant t o Honeywell t o implement t he program using t he OpenADR st andard.[134]

Hawaiian Elect ric Co. (HECO) is implement ing a t wo-year pilot project t o t est t he abilit y of an
ADR program t o respond t o t he int ermit t ence of wind power. Hawaii has a goal t o obt ain 70
percent of it s power from renewable sources by 2030. HECO will give cust omers incent ives for
reducing power consumpt ion wit hin 10 minut es of a not ice.[135]

Guidelines, standards and user groups

Part of t he IEEE Smart Grid Init iat ive,[136] IEEE 2030.2 represent s an ext ension of t he work aimed
at ut ilit y st orage syst ems for t ransmission and dist ribut ion net works. The IEEE P2030 group
expect s t o deliver early 2011 an overarching set of guidelines on smart grid int erfaces. The new
guidelines will cover areas including bat t eries and supercapacit ors as well as flywheels. The
group has also spun out a 2030.1 effort draft ing guidelines for int egrat ing elect ric vehicles int o
t he smart grid.

IEC TC 57 has creat ed a family of int ernat ional st andards t hat can be used as part of t he smart
grid. These st andards include IEC 61850 which is an archit ect ure for subst at ion aut omat ion, and
IEC 61970/61968 – t he Common Informat ion Model (CIM). The CIM provides for common
semant ics t o be used for t urning dat a int o informat ion.

OpenADR is an open-source smart grid communicat ions st andard used for demand response
applicat ions.[137] It is t ypically used t o send informat ion and signals t o cause elect rical power-
using devices t o be t urned off during periods of higher demand.

Mult iSpeak has creat ed a specificat ion t hat support s dist ribut ion funct ionalit y of t he smart grid.
Mult iSpeak has a robust set of int egrat ion definit ions t hat support s nearly all of t he soft ware
int erfaces necessary for a dist ribut ion ut ilit y or for t he dist ribut ion port ion of a vert ically
int egrat ed ut ilit y. Mult iSpeak int egrat ion is defined using ext ensible markup language (XML) and
web services.

The IEEE has creat ed a st andard t o support synchrophasors – C37.118.[138]

The UCA Int ernat ional User Group discusses and support s real world experience of t he st andards
used in smart grids.

A ut ilit y t ask group wit hin LonMark Int ernat ional deals wit h smart grid relat ed issues.

There is a growing t rend t owards t he use of TCP/IP t echnology as a common communicat ion
plat form for smart met er applicat ions, so t hat ut ilit ies can deploy mult iple communicat ion
syst ems, while using IP t echnology as a common management plat form.[139][140]

IEEE P2030 is an IEEE project developing a "Draft Guide for Smart Grid Int eroperabilit y of Energy
Technology and Informat ion Technology Operat ion wit h t he Elect ric Power Syst em (EPS), and
End-Use Applicat ions and Loads".[141][142]

NIST has included ITU-T G.hn as one of t he "St andards Ident ified for Implement at ion" for t he
Smart Grid "for which it believed t here was st rong st akeholder consensus".[143] G.hn is st andard
for high-speed communicat ions over power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables.

OASIS EnergyInt erop' – An OASIS t echnical commit t ee developing XML st andards for energy
int eroperat ion. It s st art ing point is t he California OpenADR st andard.

Under t he Energy Independence and Securit y Act of 2007 (EISA), NIST is charged wit h
overseeing t he ident ificat ion and select ion of hundreds of st andards t hat will be required t o
implement t he Smart Grid in t he U.S. These st andards will be referred by NIST t o t he Federal
Energy Regulat ory Commission (FERC). This work has begun, and t he first st andards have already
been select ed for inclusion in NIST's Smart Grid cat alog.[144] However, some comment at ors have
suggest ed t hat t he benefit s t hat could be realized from Smart Grid st andardizat ion could be
t hreat ened by a growing number of pat ent s t hat cover Smart Grid archit ect ure and
t echnologies.[145] If pat ent s t hat cover st andardized Smart Grid element s are not revealed unt il
t echnology is broadly dist ribut ed t hroughout t he net work ("locked-in"), significant disrupt ion
could occur when pat ent holders seek t o collect unant icipat ed rent s from large segment s of
t he market .

GridWise Alliance rankings

In November 2017 t he non-profit GridWise Alliance along wit h Clean Edge Inc., a clean energy
group, released rankings for all 50 st at es in t heir effort s t o modernize t he elect ric grid. California
was ranked number one. The ot her t op st at es were Illinois, Texas, Maryland, Oregon, Arizona, t he
Dist rict of Columbia, New York, Nevada and Delaware. "The 30-plus page report from t he
GridWise Alliance, which represent s st akeholders t hat design, build and operat e t he elect ric grid,
t akes a deep dive int o grid modernizat ion effort s across t he count ry and ranks t hem by
st at e."[146]

See also

Charge cont rol

Elect ranet

Grid friendly

Grid energy st orage

Home energy st orage

Large-scale energy st orage

List of energy st orage project s

Microgrid

Net met ering

Open smart grid prot ocol

Smart grids by count ry

Smart villages in Asia

Super grid

Vehicle-t o-grid (V2G)

Virt ual power plant

Wide area synchronous grid

Smart cit y

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External links

Wikimedia Commons has media relat ed t o Smart grids.

Smart Grids (ht t p://ec.europa.eu/energy/gas_ elect ricit y/smart grids/smart grids_ en.ht m)
(European Commission)

The NIST Smart Grid Collaborat ion Sit e (ht t p://collaborat e.nist .gov/t wiki-sggrid/bin/view/Sma
rt Grid/WebHome) Archived (ht t ps://web.archive.org/web/20150224171513/ht t p://collabora
t e.nist .gov/t wiki-sggrid/bin/view/Smart Grid/WebHome) 2015-02-24 at t he Wayback
Machine NIST's public wiki for Smart Grid

Emerging Smart Mult i-Use Grids (ht t p://www.meshdynamics.com/document s/Smart _ Mult i_ Gri
d_ Wireless_ Archit ect ure.pdf) Mult iple use scalable wireless net work of net works

Video Lect ure: Comput er Syst em Securit y: Technical and Social Challenges in Creat ing a
Trust wort hy Power Grid (ht t p://cgs.illinois.edu/resources/webvideo/comput er-syst em-securit
 y-t echnical-and-social-challenges-creat ing-a-t rust wort hy-p) , Universit y of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign

Wiley: Smart Grid Applicat ions, Communicat ions, and Securit y (ht t p://eu.wiley.com/WileyCDA/
WileyTit le/product Cd-1118004396.ht ml)

Video Lect ure: Smart Grid: Key t o a Sust ainable Energy Infrast ruct ure (ht t p://cgs.illinois.edu/re
sources/webvideo/smart -grid-key-a-sust ainable-energy-infrast ruct ure) Archived (ht t ps://we
b.archive.org/web/20110914151338/ht t p://cgs.illinois.edu/resources/webvideo/smart -grid-ke
y-a-sust ainable-energy-infrast ruct ure) 2011-09-14 at t he Wayback Machine, Universit y of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Smart High Volt age Subst at ion Based on IEC 61850 Process Bus and IEEE 1588 Time
Synchronizat ion (ht t ps://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document /5622092)

Energy To Smart Grid (E2SG), one of t he major European Smart Grid research project s (ht t p://w
ww.e2sg-project .eu/)

Smart Grid: Communicat ion-Enabled Int elligence for t he Elect ric Power Grid (ht t p://www.wiley.
com/WileyCDA/WileyTit le/product Cd-1119975808.ht ml)

LIFE Fact ory Microgrid (ht t p://www.fact orymicrogrid.com/en/index.aspx) Archived (ht t ps://w
eb.archive.org/web/20181022193525/ht t p://www.fact orymicrogrid.com/en/index.aspx)
2018-10-22 at t he Wayback Machine: Smart Grid project funded by t he European Commission

Smart Hubs SLES (ht t ps://www.icax.co.uk/Smart _ Hubs.ht ml) : Smart Grid project part -
funded by UK Research and Innovat ion

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