Pearson Chemistry 11 New South Wales

Chapter 1 Working scientifically

1.1 Questioning and predicting

1.1 KEY QUESTIONS
1 A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested. This involves making a prediction based on previous knowledge and
evidence or observations.
2 A. ‘How are chemicals in solutions measured?’ is an inquiry question.
3 a electrical conductivity
b concentration of lead
c electrical conductivity
d pH
4 qualitative observation
5 C. A calibrated pH meter at a particular temperature provides the most accurate, quantitative data. Litmus paper and
universal indicator provide a qualitative indication of pH. A conductivity meter measures conductivity, not pH.
6 C. A hypothesis should test only one independent variable, and it should predict the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables. Hypothesis A tests two independent variables. Hypothesis B does not predict
the type of relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

1.2 Planning investigations

1.2 KEY QUESTIONS
1 B
2 a In a controlled experiment, two groups of subjects are tested; the groups, or the tests performed on them, are
identical except for a single factor (the independent variable).
b The dependent variable is the variable that is measured to determine the effect of changes in the independent
variable. The independent (experimental) variable is the variable that is changed in an experiment. For example,
in an experiment testing the effect of soil pH on flower colour, the independent variable would be soil pH and the
dependent variable would be flower colour.
3 a type of soft drink
b pH
c temperature of solutions, type of equipment used, storage and preparation of solutions.
4 a Litmus paper and universal indicator give qualitative information about pH (e.g. acidic, basic, or neutral)
through colour, and therefore is not an accurate method for determining pH.
b A calibrated pH meter will give quantitative information and is more accurate than using litmus paper or
universal indicator.
5 a valid
b reliable
c accurate

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 Pearson Chemistry 11 New South Wales

1.3 Conducting investigations

1.3 KEY QUESTIONS
1 Data set A: mistake, because there is one unexpected value (1.5) in the data.
Data set B: systematic error, because the error is not obvious and may be due to a consistent equipment or operator error.
2 a systematic errors
b random errors
3 17.34 mL, 17.38 mL and 17.44 mL
4 a systematic
b mistake
c random
5 There could be many reasons why the same experimental results cannot be obtained. The experimental design may
be poor because of a lack of objectivity, clear and simple instructions and appropriate equipment, or a failure to
control variables.
Other problems not specifically related to the experiment could be a poor hypothesis that could not be tested
objectively, conclusions that do not agree with the results and interpretations that are subjective.

1.4 Processing data and information

Worked example: Try yourself 1.4.1
CALCULATING UNCERTAINTY

The temperature of the water in the Murrumbidgee River at Wagga Wagga was measured in February 2017. The
temperatures (in ºC) recorded were:
23, 22, 24, 21, 26, 24 and 23
Find the uncertainty for these values.

Thinking Working

Calculate the average temperature. average = 23 + 22 + 24 + 21 + 26 + 24 + 23

= 23°C
7

Calculate the maximum variance from the mean. 26 is 3 above the average, so the uncertainty is 3.

Write the average temperature and include the Average temperature is 23 ± 3°C
uncertainty.

1.4 KEY QUESTIONS

21 + 28 + 19 + 19 + 25 + 24
1 a mean = = 23
6
b mode = 19
c median = 23
2 Add a trend line or line of best fit.

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 Pearson Chemistry 11 New South Wales
3 a Calibration curve: absorbance of standard phosphate concentration

0.25

0.2
Absorbance

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Phosphate concentration (mg L–1)

b Data point 4 (0.36, 0.159) is an outlier.

c An outlier is a point in the data that does not fit the trend and may be the result of error.
21 + 28 + 19 + 19 + 25 + 24
4 The mean is 23 with an uncertainty of 5. The mean is = 23. The uncertainty is the maximum
6
variance from the mean, 28 − 23 = 5.

1.5 Analysing data and information

1.5 KEY QUESTIONS
1 A sloping linear graph shows a directly proportional relationship between two variables.
2 inversely proportional relationship
3 directly proportional
4 time restraints and limited resources
5 An increase in the amount of limescale on the heating element of the kettle from 10% to 20% produced a 14%
decrease in the efficiency of the kettle.

1.6 Problem solving

1.6 KEY QUESTIONS
1 B. A scientific article should always be written using objective language. A concluding paragraph must summarise
the information presented in the article and connect it with the title. It should also include limitations, possible
applications of the research and potential future research.
2 Implications. Generalisations apply facts to a broader context that they have not been specifically tested for.
Implications use facts and accepted knowledge to logically make a connection between two things, such as the results
of a chemical experiment and a possible commercial use of that chemical.
3 The statement ‘Many repeats of the procedure were conducted’ is unquantified. ‘Thirty repeats of the procedure were
conducted’ is better because the number of trials is quantified.
4 A. A hypothesis can never be proved to be correct; it can be supported or refuted by the results of the investigation.
Options B and C are vague. A strong conclusion will concisely summarise the results of the investigation and
specifically link them to the hypothesis, including relevant chemistry where appropriate.

1.7 Communicating
1.7 KEY QUESTIONS
1 B. Scientific writing should not use biased or absolute language.
2 D. First-person narrative uses the pronoun ‘I’.
3 a g mol−1
b J g −1 K−1
c mol L−1
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 Pearson Chemistry 11 New South Wales
4 Divide the value in g by 1000.
5 This might need to be done to reflect how we use quantities of varying units of measurement in the laboratory or to
make the numbers easier to comprehend.

CHAPTER 1 REVIEW
1 a concentration of lead—dependent variable
b analytical technique, temperature of water sample, type of sampling container—controlled variables
c source and location of water—independent variable
2 a reflect
b create
c analyse
d investigate
e apply
f identify
g describe
3 independent variable: source of the water; dependent variable: phosphate concentration; controlled variables:
temperature, time of testing, method of testing
4 a bar graph
b line graph
c scatter graph (with line of best fit)
d pie chart
5 a It can cause severe burns, and dissolve or eat away at substances, including tissues such as your skin or lungs.
b It is poisonous if inhaled or ingested.
c It is a highly combustible liquid that could catch fire.
6 Accuracy refers to the ability of the method to allow the measurement to be close to a true or accepted value.
Validity refers to whether an experiment or investigation enables testing of the set hypothesis and achievement of
the purpose.
7 The uncertainty of a set of data is the maximum variance from the mean of the data. In this example, the mean is
6.63. The maximum variance is 7.20 – 6.63 = 0.57 = the uncertainty.
8 Mean. The mode is the most common value in a set of data. The median is the middle value. The mean is the average
of the values in a data set. The inclusion of an outlier will have the most effect on the mean value; therefore, outliers
are excluded from calculating the mean value.
9 a mistake
b random error
c systematic error
10 a non-linear relationship, e.g. exponential, inverse
11 a reliability
b validity
c accuracy
d precision
12 Evaluate the method; identify issues that could affect validity, accuracy, precision and reliability of data; state
systematic sources of error and uncertainty; and recommend improvements to the investigation if it is to be repeated.
13 A trend is a pattern or relationship that can be seen between the dependent and independent variables. It may
be linear, in which case the variables change in direct proportion to each other to produce a straight trend line. The
relationship may be in indirect proportion to each other and non-linear, giving a curved trend line. The relationship
may also be inverse, when one variable decreases in response to the other variable increasing. This relationship can
also be linear or non-linear.
14 Limitations are issues that could have affected the validity, accuracy, precision or reliability of the data, plus any
sources of error or uncertainty.
15 Bias is a form of systematic error resulting from a researcher’s personal preferences or motivations.
16 The purpose of referencing and acknowledgements is to ensure creators and sources are properly credited for their work,
and to demonstrate that prior research has been undertaken to support the validity of the hypothesis.

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 Pearson Chemistry 11 New South Wales
17 C. An interactive periodic table, an article published in a science magazine, a science documentary and this Year 11
textbook contain summaries of information published elsewhere, for example, in scientific journals. A practical
report written by a Year 11 student and an article published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal contain primary
sources of data.
18 A. In APA style, the in-text citation should list the first author’s last name and the year of publication.
19 0.030 00 L or 3.000 × 10−2 L
20 a Purpose: to determine the effect of increasing water temperature on the electrical conductivity of water.
b independent variable: water temperature; dependent variable: electrical conductivity of water; controlled variables:
pH, water source, type of sampling container
c The data collected would be electrical conductivity, measured using a probe, and therefore it would be quantitative.
d Raw data is data collected in the field and recorded as measurements are taken. Processed data is tabulated in
a form in which the reader can clearly see the temperature of the water and the conductivity at each separate
temperature value. This can then be processed and graphed with the independent variable on the x-axis
(temperature) and dependent variable on the y-axis (conductivity). If the hypothesis is correct, the graph for this
experiment could look like this:

Water temperature and

electrical conductivity
Conductivity (mS m−1)

Temperature (ºC)

A non-linear increase could also fit the hypothesis, because a directly proportional relationship between conductivity
and temperature has not been specified.

Copyright © Pearson Australia 2018 (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) ISBN 978 1 4886 1927 4