General Physics III

Part A: Electricity

Gauss’ Law

1
 Gaussian Surface
• The Gaussian surface can have any shape, but the shape
that minimizes our calculations of the electric field is one
that mimics the symmetry of the charge distribution.
• For example, if the charge is spread uniformly over a
sphere, we enclose the sphere with a spherical Gaussian
surface

• Gauss’ law relates the electric fields at points on a (closed)

Gaussian surface to the net charge enclosed by that
surface.
2
 Gaussian Surface
• If we know the electric field on a Gaussian
surface, we can find the net charge enclosed
by the surface.

• Gauss’ law immediately tells us that the spherical

surface must enclose a net positive charge that is
either a particle or distributed spherically.
• How much electric field is intercepted by the Gaussian
surface ??
– This measure of intercepted field is called FLUX

3
 Electric Flux

We have used electric field lines to visualize electric fields and

indicate their strength.

We are now going to count* the

number of electric field lines passing E
through a surface, and use this
count to determine the electric field.
 Electric Flux

The electric flux passing through a surface is the

number of electric field lines that pass through it. A
E
Because electric field lines are drawn arbitrarily,
we quantify electric flux like this: E=EA,

…except that…

If the surface is tilted, fewer lines cut E

the surface. 

Later we’ll learn about magnetic flux, which is

The green lines miss!
why I will use the subscript E on electric flux.
 Electric Flux

We define A to be a vector having a

magnitude equal to the area of the
A
surface, in a direction normal to the 
surface.
E

The “amount of surface” perpendicular
to the electric field is A cos .

Therefore, the amount of surface area effectively “cut through”

by the electric field is A cos .

AEffective = A cos  so E = EAEffective = EA cos .

Remember the dot product ? E = E  A

 Electric Flux
If the electric field is not uniform, or the surface is not flat…
divide the surface into
infinitesimal surface
elements and add the
flux through each…

 E = lim
Ai →0
 E  A
i
i i

A
dA
 E =  E  dA

a surface integral,
therefore a double integral 

Remember, the direction of dA

is normal to the surface.
 Electric Flux

If the surface is closed (completely encloses a volume)…

…we count* lines going

out as positive and lines
going in as negative…
E
E =  E  dA
dA
a surface integral, therefore a
double integral 


For a closed surface, dA is normal to the surface
and always points away from the inside. What is this thing?
Question: you gave me five different equations for electric flux.
Which one do I need to use?
Answer: use the simplest (easiest!) one that works.
E = EA Flat surface, E  A, E constant over surface. Easy!

E = EA cos  Flat surface, E not  A, E constant over surface.

E = E  A Flat surface, E not  A, E constant over surface.

 E =  E  dA Surface not flat, E not uniform. Avoid, if possible.

This is the definition of electric flux, so it is on your equation sheet.

E =  E  dA Closed surface.
The circle on the integral just reminds you to integrate over a closed surface.

If the surface is closed, you may be able to “break it up” into

simple segments and still use E=E·A for each segment.
 A note on terminology…

For our purposes, a vector is constant if its magnitude and direction

do not change with position or time.

The electric field is a vector field, so a constant electric field is one

that does not change with position or time.

Because the electric field can extend throughout space, we use the
term “uniform electric field” to describe an electric field that is
constant everywhere in space and time.

You can use the terms “constant electric field” and “uniform electric
field” interchangeably.
 Electric Flux

Electric Flux Example: Calculate the electric flux through a

cylinder with its axis parallel to the electric field direction.

E
 Electric Flux

+
- E

If there were a + charge inside the cylinder, there would be

more lines going out than in.

If there were a - charge inside the cylinder, there would be

more lines going in than out…

21
Gauss’ Law

Mathematically, we express the idea of the last two slides as

q enclosed
 E =  E  dA = Gauss’ Law
o

We will find that Gauss’ law gives a simple way to calculate

electric fields for charge distributions that exhibit a high degree
of symmetry…
…and we will save more complex charge distributions for
advanced classes.
Gauss’ Law

1. Gauss’ Law is a fundamental law of nature relating

electric charge to electric flux
2. According to Gauss’ Law, the total electric flux through
any closed (“Gaussian”) surface is equal to the enclosed
charge (Qenclosed) divided by the permittivity of free space
(o):
qenclosed
E= E  A =
i
i i
o
or,
qenclosed
E=  E  dA = o
(Gauss’ Law)
Gauss’ Law
qenclosed
E=  E  dA = o
The electric flux Φ through a Gaussian surface is
proportional to the net number of electric field
lines passing through that surface.

3. Gauss’ Law can be used to determine the

electric field (E) for many physical
orientations (distributions) of charge

4. Many consequences of Gauss’ Law provide

insights that are not necessarily obvious
when applying Coulomb’s Law
 Gauss’ Law

• Sample problem: Flux through a closed cylinder, uniform field

Find the flux Φ through

the Gaussian surface by
integrating the scalar
product over that surface.

 E=  E  dA =  E  dA +  E  dA +  E  dA
a b c

Note: make sure that surface (a) (b) and (c) do not overlap
and their sum is the surface to be calculated
25
 Gauss’ Law for a Point Charge

Consider a positive point charge, q

q

Gaussian sphere

1. An appropriate “gaussian” surface for a point charge is a

sphere, radius r, centered on the charge, since all E fields
will be ∟ to the surface

2. The electric flux is:

 E=  E  d A= E  d A= E ( AreaOfSphere ) = E 4 (r 2
)
 Gauss’ Law for a Point Charge

Consider a positive point charge, q

q

Gaussian sphere
3. Applying Gauss’ Law yields E:

qenclosed q
(
 E= E 4 r 2
) =
o
 E =
4 or2
 Spherical Symmetry: Charged Sphere

1. Spherical symmetry can be exploited for any spherical shape

2. Consider a hollow conducting sphere, radius R & charge q:

q Gaussian
sphere
R

3. The flux through a “gaussian” sphere is: E= E  A = E 4 r2 ( )

qenclosed qenclosed
4. Applying Gauss’ Law: (
E= E 4 r = 2
) o
 E=
4 or2
Spherical Symmetry: Charged Sphere

q Gaussian sphere

4. For r > R: qenclosed

E =
4 or2

qenclosed
5. For r < R: E= = 0 qenclosed= 0C
4 or 2

Inside a hollow conductor, E = 0

Spherical Symmetry: Charged Sphere (2)

r
R

r
Gaussian sphere

Consider a solid non-conducting sphere with radius R & uniform

charge density, r:

qenclosed qenclosed
1. Applying Gauss’ Law: (
E= E 4 r = 2
) o
 E=
4 or2
Spherical Symmetry: Charged Sphere (3)

Consider a solid non-conducting sphere with radius R & uniform

charge density, r (C/m3):
r
R

r
Gaussian sphere

1. For r > R: E =
qenclosed
=
ρ ( 4
3  R3 )
=
ρR 3
4 or 2
4 or2 3 or2
qenclosed ρ ( 34  r3 ) ρr
2. For r < R: E = = =
4 or 2
4 or2 3 o

Inside a uniformly charged insulator, E ≠ 0

Spherical Symmetry: Charged Sphere (3)

Consider 2 concentric hollow conducting spheres with radii R1 &

R1 and charges q1 & q2: Gaussian sphere
q1
R1
r
R2 q2

qenclosed qenclosed
1. Applying Gauss’ Law:
(
E= E 4 r = 2
) o
 E=
4 or2
2. For r < R1: qenclosed
E = =0
4 or 2
 Spherical Symmetry: Charged Sphere (3)

Consider 2 concentric hollow conducting spheres with radii R1 &

R1 and charges q1 & q2:
Gaussian sphere
q1
R1
r
R2 q2

qenclosed q1
3. For R2 > r > R1: E = =
4 or 2
4 or2

4. For r > R2: E =

qenclosed
=
( q1+q2 )
4 or 2
4 or2
{opposite charge subtracts}
 Application: Line of Charge

1. Cylindrical symmetry is useful for evaluating a “line of

charge” as well as charged cylindrical shapes
2. Consider an infinitely long line of charge, charge density l:

l
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
r

h
 Application: Line of Charge

1. The flux through each of the 3 surfaces is:

E=1+2+3=3 since 1= 2 = 0

qenclosed lh
E= E3 (2 r ) h= =
o o

2. Applying Gauss’ Law:

l
E=
2 or
Planar Symmetry: A Charged Sheet

1. A Gaussian “pill-box” is an appropriate Gaussian

surface for evaluating a charged flat sheet
2. Consider a uniformly charged flat sheet with a
surface charge density, s:

Gaussian
“pill-box”
 Planar Symmetry: A Charged Sheet

3. The flux through the pill-box surface is:

E= side + face1+ face2=2 face
 face
= face1= face2 

4. The electric field:

qenclosed
E=2 E  r = ( 2
) o
qenclosed s r2 s
 E= = =
2 or 2
2 or 2 o
2
 Application: 2 Parallel Charged Plates

1. Two oppositely charged conducting

plates, with charge density s: +q

2. Surface charges draw toward each

other on the inner face of each plate

3. To determine the electric field within Gaussian

-q
“pill-box”
the plates, apply a Gaussian “pill-box”
to one of the plates
Application: 2 Parallel Charged Plates

+q

4. The flux through the pill-box surface is: -q

Gaussian
E= side +inner face + outer face=inner face “pill-box”

where  outer face = side =0

5. The electric field is:

qenclosed qenclosed s r2 s
(
 E= E  r 2 = ) o
 E=
 or 2
= =
 or  o
2
Example: calculate the electric field for 0<r< for an insulating
spherical shell of inner radius a, outer radius b, and with a
uniform volume charge density r spread throughout shell.

Note: if a conductor is in electrostatic equilibrium, any excess

charge must lie on its surface (we will study this in more detail
next time), so for the charge to be uniformly distributed
throughout the volume, the object must be an insulator.
 Consequences of Gauss’ Law

1. Electric flux is a conserved quantity for an enclosed electric

charge

2. The electric field inside a charged solid conductor is zero

3. The electric field inside a charged hollow conductor is zero

4. Geometrical symmetries can make the calculation of an

electric field less cumbersome even for complicated charge
distributions
Summary

51
 Homework
• 13, 14, 17, 21, 22, 24, 36, 39, 43, 44, 51, 52
(page 622-626)

52