ERROR

 SOURCES  IN  SATELLITE  

POSITIONING  SYSTEMS

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ERRORS
•  Two  categories  of  error:  
–  Systematic  errors  (biases)  -­‐  can  usually  be  modelled  
mathematically  or  eliminated  
–  Random  errors  (noise)  –unavoidable  

•  Three  sources  of  error:  

–  Satellite  
–  Propagation  medium  (atmosphere)  
–  Receiver
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ERROR SOURCES

• Satellite errors • Atmosphere

– Orbit uncertainty – Ionospheric Delay
– Satellite Clock Model – Tropospheric Delay

• Receiver errors • Station errors

– Receiver Clock – Station Coordinates
– Receiver Noise

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ERROR SOURCES
AN  APPROXIMATE  ERROR  BUDGET  
 

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 Metres

0
100
200
300
400

Satellite Clock

Recvr Noise

Multipath

Tropospheric
ERROR SOURCES

Ephemeris

Ionospheric

Recvr Clock
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ERROR SOURCES
•  combined  effect  of  orbit,  propagation  
and  clock  errors  and  receiver  noise,  projected  
onto  a  line  between  receiver  and  satellite  is  
called  the  User  Equivalent  Range  Error  (UERE)  

•  The  product  of  a  DOP  value  and  the  UERE  

gives  the  expected  accuracy  of  positioning:  

      Accuracy  =DOP  x    UERE  (m)

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ERROR SOURCES
SATELLITE  BASED  ERRORS  
a. Orbit  Errors  :  
• difference  between  the  predicted  and  actual  position  of  a  satellite  
• major  impact  on  single  receiver  positioning  
• significantly  reduced  for  differential  positioning  


 db  =  dr
 b              ρ where:

  db = error in baseline length

b = baseline length
dr = orbit error
ρ = range to satellite
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ERROR SOURCES
SATELLITE  BASED  ERRORS  
a. Orbit  Errors  :

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ERROR SOURCES
SATELLITE  BASED  ERRORS  
b. Clock  Errors:  
   
• Satellite  clocks  run  fast  by  38.5x10-­‐6  sec/day  to  account  for  99.6%  of  
the  relativistic  effects  

• Physical  synchronization  of  satellite  clocks  to  GPS  time  is  maintained  
to  better  than  1x10-­‐3  sec  

• A  mathematical  satellite  clock  correction  is  supplied  to  users  as  

parameters  for  a  second-­‐order  polynomial
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ERROR SOURCES
SATELLITE  BASED  ERRORS  
b. Clock  Errors:  

The  correction  to  the  satellite  clock  is  :  

δ  S(t)  =  ao  +  a1(t—t0)  +  a2  (t—t0)2  .  .  .  

where:  
  ao,a1,a2     are  the  supplied  parameters  
  t0                         is  the  reference  epoch  
  t                         is  the  measurement  epoch 10
ERROR SOURCES
ATMOSPHERIC  EFFECTS  
Recall:  
In  a  vacuum,  signal  propagation  velocity  is  at  the  speed  of  light  
(2.99792458x108  m/sec)  :  

    c  =  f  *  λ vac      =  λ vac  /  P    

where:  
  f     =  frequency  (Hz)  
λ = wavelength  (m)  
  P     =  period  (sec) 11
ERROR SOURCES
ATMOSPHERIC  EFFECTS  
Recall:  
In  other  media,  propagation  velocity  is  characterized  by  the  
index  of  refraction:  

    N  =  c/v  =  λ vac  /  λ    

Both  the  speed  and  direction  (velocity)  of  the  

propagated  wave  are  affected  by  atmospheric  refraction
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ERROR SOURCES
ATMOSPHERIC  EFFECTS  
Recall:    Refraction  
   
  If  propagation  velocity  depends  on  frequency,  the  medium  
is  dispersive  

  Dispersion   is   due   to   electromagnetic   interaction   between  

the   electrically   charged   field   of   the   medium   and   the  
external  field  of  the  wave

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ERROR SOURCES
ATMOSPHERIC  EFFECTS  
Recall:    Refraction  
     
  Phase  velocity  (vp)  is  the  propagation  velocity  of  the  phase  
of  a  wave  with  uniform  wavelength  (e.g.  GPS  carriers)  

  Group   velocity   (vg)   is   the   propagation   velocity   of   a   wave  

group,   generated   by   the   superposition   of   different   waves   of  
different  frequencies  (e.g.  GPS  codes)

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ERROR SOURCES
ATMOSPHERIC  EFFECTS  
Recall:      

The  relationship  between  group  velocity  and  phase  velocity  is  :  

      vg  =  vp  –  λ  dvp  /  dλ

The  impact  on  the  phase  velocity  is  of  equal  magnitude  but  
opposite  sign  to  the  impact  on  the  group  velocity.  
 
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ERROR SOURCES
ATMOSPHERIC  EFFECTS  
Recall:      

The  carriers  (L1  and  L2),  being  pure  sinusoids,  are  affected  by  
phase  velocity.  

The  phase  velocity  (vP)  in  a  dispersive  medium  can  exceed  the  
vacuum  velocity  (faster  than  the  speed  of  light!).  

The  group  velocity  cannot  exceed  the  vacuum  velocity.  

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ERROR SOURCES
ATMOSPHERIC  EFFECTS  
Recall:      

In  a  non-­‐dispersive  medium  vp  =  vg  

In  a  dispersive  medium  vp  >  vg.  

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ERROR SOURCES
ATMOSPHERIC  EFFECTS  
a. The  Ionosphere:  
   
A  layer  of  the  atmosphere  from  50  km  to  1000  km  above  the  
earth  (approx.).  

The   ionosphere   is   a   shell   of   negative   electrons   and   positively  

charged  atoms  and  molecules.  
 

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ERROR SOURCES
ATMOSPHERIC  EFFECTS  
a. The  Ionosphere:  

• The  charged  particles  exist  due  to  the  impact  of  ultra-­‐violet  radiation  
from  the  sun.  
• The   free   electrons   interact   with   the   GPS   signals   to   affect   signal  
propagation.  
• The   number   of   free   electrons   is   termed   the   Total   Electron   Content  
(TEC).    
• The   ionosphere   is   dispersive   (propagation   velocity   is   dependent   on  
frequency).
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ERROR SOURCES
ATMOSPHERIC  EFFECTS  
a. The  Ionosphere:  

In  practical  terms,  there  is  a  group  delay  which  retards  the  GPS  codes  (C/
A  and  P)  and  a  phase  advance  which  accelerates  the  GPS  carriers  (L1  
and  L2).  

As  a  consequence:  
a.  code  pseudo-­‐ranges  are  measured  too  long  and  
b.  phase  pseudo-­‐ranges  are  measured  too  short  
(The  phase  advance  and  the  group  delay  are  equal  in  magnitude  but  opposite  in  sign)

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ERROR SOURCES
ATMOSPHERIC  EFFECTS  
The  Ionospheric  Effect  in  General:  

• The  ionosphere  is  the  largest  GPS  error  source.  

• The   range   error   caused   by   the   ionosphere   is   about   three  

times  greater  at  the  horizon  than  at  the  zenith.

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ERROR SOURCES
ATMOSPHERIC  EFFECTS  
The  Ionospheric  Effect  in  General:  
The  effect  of  the  ionosphere  on  the  C/A-  code  can  vary  from  1  
m  to  100  m  depending  on:  
• time  of  day  
• season  
• receiver  location  
• viewing  direction  
• solar  activity  
• state  of  the  earth's  magnetic  field
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ERROR SOURCES
ATMOSPHERIC  EFFECTS  
The  Ionospheric  Effect  in  General:  

• Ionospheric  effects  are  a  major  problem  for  single  

frequency  GPS  users.  

• Range  errors  cause  a  consequent  position  error.  

• The  position  error  will  in  general  be  less  than  the  range  
errors.
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ERROR SOURCES
ATMOSPHERIC  EFFECTS  
The  Ionospheric  Effect  in  General:  

• The  average  range  error  is  indistinguishable  from  the  receiver  clock  
offset  and  will  therefore  be  mostly  eliminated  

• Residual  horizontal  range  errors  will  tend  to  cancel  if  satellites  are  well  
distributed  in  azimuth  

• In  the  vertical  sense  the  errors  do  not  tend  to  cancel  because  all  
satellites  are  above  the  receiver
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ERROR SOURCES
ATMOSPHERIC  EFFECTS  
Accounting  for  the  Ionosphere:  
Option  1  -­‐  Ignore  it  and  suffer  the  consequences  

Option  2  -­‐  Do  differential  positioning  (code  or  carrier  based)  to  
eliminate  common  ionospheric  errors.  This  only  works  for  
"short"  distances  (<50  km  approx.),  

Option  3  -­‐  Use  dual  frequency  data  to  fully  account  for  the  
ionospheric  effect.  This  is  possible  because  of  the  dispersive  
nature  of  the  ionosphere  (i.e.  refraction  is  frequency  dependent)
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ERROR SOURCES
ATMOSPHERIC  EFFECTS  
b. The  Troposphere:  

• Extends  from  the  earth's  surface  to  a  height  of  about  40  km    

• Otherwise  known  as  the  neutral  atmosphere  because  it  is  non-­‐
dispersive  (for  radio  waves  with  frequencies  up  to  15  GHz)  

• Thus  tropospheric  refraction  is  independent  of  frequency  (non-­‐

dispersive)

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ERROR SOURCES
ATMOSPHERIC  EFFECTS  
b. The  Troposphere:  

• Elimination  by  dual  frequency  methods  is  therefore  not  possible    

• Must  be  accounted  for  by  mathematical  modelling  or  differential  

techniques  

• The  tropospheric  delay  has  a  wet  (variable)  (10%)  and  a  dry  (stable)  
(90%)  component

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ERROR SOURCES
ATMOSPHERIC  EFFECTS  
b. The  Troposphere:  

• Many  mathematical  models  exist  to  (partially)  compensate  for  tropospheric  

delay  

• They  all  have  limitations  and  are  the  subject  of  on-­‐going  research  

• The  main  difficulty  in  accounting  for  the  influence  of  the  troposphere  lies  in  
obtaining  accurate  and  representative  meteorological  data  along  the  signal  
path  (not  just  at  the  receiver)  

• Tropospheric  errors  mainly  influence  the  determination  of  height. 28

ERROR SOURCES
RECEIVER  ERRORS  
a. Phase  Centre  Offset  and  Variation:  
Non-­‐coincidence  between  an  antenna's  geometric  centre  and  its  
phase  (or  electrical)  centre

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ERROR SOURCES
RECEIVER  ERRORS  
a. Phase  Centre  Offset  and  Variation:  
Must  differentiate  between  phase  centre  offset  and  phase  centre  
variation  
Offset  is  easily  established,  variation  is  more  complex  and  variable

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ERROR SOURCES
RECEIVER  ERRORS  
a. Phase  Centre  Offset  and  Variation:  

• Phase   centre   variation   can   be   largely   eliminated   by   parallel  

antenna  orientation  (if  antennae  are  of  identical  design)  

• Variation  is  a  function  of  satellite  geometry  and  signal  strength  

• Different   phase   centers   for   L1   and   L2   in   a   dual   frequency  

antenna
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ERROR SOURCES
RECEIVER  ERRORS  
b. Multipath:  

Multipath  errors  occur  when  a  satellite  signal  arrives  at  a  receiver  

via  more  than  one  path  (interference)  

Generally  caused  by  reflection  of  

 the  satellite  signal  on  surfaces  
 close  to  the  receiver

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ERROR SOURCES
RECEIVER  ERRORS  
b. Multipath:  

The   direct   and   indirect   (reflected)   signals   have   relative   phase  

offsets  because  of  the  different  path  lengths  

The   multipath   error   is   frequency   dependent,   affecting   code  

measurements  more  than  carrier  phase  measurements  

  C/A-­‐code   pseudoranges   can   be   in   error   by   10-­‐20   m   (and   up   to   100  

m)  due  to  multipath  errors
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ERROR SOURCES
RECEIVER  ERRORS  
b. Multipath:  

The  maximum  error  in  a  carrier  phase  measurement  occurs  when  

the   reflected   signal   is   shifted   900     relative   to   the   direct   signal.  
This  introduces  a  range  error  of  about  5  cm.  

In   extreme   cases   multipath   can   cause   a   receiver   to   lose   satellite  

lock.

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ERROR SOURCES
RECEIVER  ERRORS  
b. Multipath:  

Careful  site  selection  is  the  best  way  to  minimize  multipath  errors.  

Avoid  sites  near  buildings,  cyclone  fences,  water,  cars  etc...  

The  use  of  ground  planes  on  choke  ring  antennae  can  physically  
prevent    the  reception  of  reflected  signals.

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ERROR SOURCES
RECEIVER  ERRORS  
b. Multipath:  

Digital   filtering   of   the   observations   can   sometimes   succeed   in  

detecting  and  rejecting  reflected  signals  

Signals   from   low   elevation   satellites   are   more   susceptible   to  

multipath  than  those  from  high  satellites    

Multipath   errors   are   repeatable   from   day   to   day   and   can   be  

reduced  by  increasing  observation  time
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THANK YOU FOR YOUR
ATTENTION! ☺

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