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\ZÁ@]F@A #1< Abádfsfs @rceatcorákf`c mg @akgåba

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Gbsayar das cpgra`fcbgs para prgpara`fðb mg da eugstra qug ka`fdftg gd abádfsfs mg

`akgåba gb `akæ y/c gb tæ.
Mgtgrefbar gd `cbtbtgbgbfmfmc mg `akgåba pcr H\D@ gb eugstras abadfzamas (]g
fbststababtátábgbgc (mgs`akgfbamc c bc mgs`akgfbamc).

Apdf`ar dcs `cbc`fefgbtcs mg dcs kubmaegbtcs mg da sgpara`fðb `rceatcorákf`a y mg

eætcmcs mg `uabtfkf`a`fðb para gd abádfsfs mg eugstras.

FBP]ZW@@FCBGP C @CBPFMGZA@FCBGP \ZG[FAP9

Da `akgåba gs ub ad`adcfmg mgd orupc mg das xabtfbas, qug a`tùa `cec mrcoa gstfeudabtg y psf`ca`tfva. Pg

gb`ugbtra gb eu`has gspg`fgs mg pdabtas. Da kugbtg hajftuad mg `akgåba gs gd `akæ, pgrc taejfæb sg gb`ugbtra

gb gd tæ (tgåba), ouarabá (ouarabfba), eatg (eatgåba), `a`ac y rgkrgs`cs mg `cda, gbtrg ctrcs. Gd `cbtgbfmc mg

`akgåba varåa gbcregegbtg mg ubas pdabtas a ctras. Mgbtrc mg uba efsea gspg`fg taejfæb gxfstg orab

varfajfdfmam. Aså, gd `cbtgbfmc gb `akgåba mgd `akæ varåa mgpgbmfgbmc mg da varfgmam, mgd tfpc mg orabc

y mgd eætcmcmc mg prgpara`fðb. Das pdabtas prcmu`gb `akgåba `cec pgstf`fma baturad, a ecmc mg prctg``fðb

eg`ábf`a a travæs mg da `uad dcorab paradfzar y eatar `fgrtcs fbsg`tcs qug sg adfegbtab mg da pdabta. Da

mgtgrefba`fðb mg `akgåba ha amqufrfmc eu`ha fepcrtab`fa, mgjfmc a su usc gb da fbmustrfa karea`æutf`a y gb da

fbmustrfa mg adfegbtcs> ya sga `cec fborgmfgbtg gb da gdajcra`fðb mg rgkrgs`cs y jgjfmas gbgroætf`as c pcr su

prgsgb`fa gb prcmu`tcs `cec gd tæ, gd eatg, gd `a`ac y gd `akæ. Gb tcmcs gstcs `ascs, gd `cbtrcd mg `adfmam mgd

paráegtrc `akgåba gs bg`gsarfc gb dcs prcmu`tcs qug da `cbtfgbgb. \cr gsta razðb, sg hab mgsarrcddamc bugvcs

eætcmcs fbstruegbtadgs para su mgtgrefba`fðb gb mfvgrsas eatrf`gs, gspg`fadegbtg gb adfegbtcs

(Azbar, P. @. :<11).
 Fdustra`fðb 1 gstru`tura qufef`a mg da `akgåba

\ara gdgofr uba tæ`bf`a mg sgpara`fðb mg da `akgåba, amgeás mg tgbgr gb `ugbta dcs `rftgrfcs g`cbðef`cs y mg

a``gsfjfdfmam, hay qug atgbmgr a mcs tfpcs mg `cbsfmgra`fcbgs9 ubas tfgbgb qug vgr `cb das prcpfgmamgs

kåsf`as y gstru`turadgs mg das ecdæ`udas qug sg prgtgbmg sgparar, c mg das `ara`tgråstf`as mg da eatrfz gb qug

sg gb`ugbtrab> ctras sg mgrfvab mg dcs cjigtfvcs mgd abáddfsfs (sgbsfjfdfmam, rgscdu`fðb, tfgepc mg abádfsfs,

bg`gsfmam mg uba mgtg``fðb gspg`åkf`a).

Gd eætcmc mg sgdgdg````fðfðb fb`d`duyuyg dcs pascs bg`g`gsasarfcs para da cjtgtgb`b`fðb, prgpgparara`a`fðfðb y

pcsfsfjdjdg kra``fcbaefgbtc mg da eugstra, da apdf`a`fðb mg da tæ`bf`a abadåtf`a amg`uama y gd trataefgbtc mg

dcs matcs cjtgbfmcs. Das tæ`bf`as abadåtf`as eás gepdgamas gb da a`tuadfmam pugmgb gbodcjarsg gb mcs

orabmgs orupcs9 tæ`bf`as mg sgpara`fðb y tæ`bf`as gspg`trcs`ðpf`as.

Das tæ`bf`as gspg`trcs`ðpf`as prcpcr`fcbab, para `ama `cepugstc abadfzamc, uba fbkcrea`fðb `cepdgia, rgda`fcbama `cb

sus `ara`tgråstf`as gstru`turadgs gspg`åkf`as, pcr ctrc damc das tæ`bf`as mg sgpara`fðb sg utfdfzab para rgscdvgr dcs

`cepcbgbtgs mg uba egz`da y da sgñad cjtgbfma pugmg utfdfzarsg `cb kfbgs abadåtf`cs `uabtftatfvcs c `uadftatfvcs. Gb

da a`tuadfmam, das sgpara`fcbgs abadåtf`as sg gkg`tùab kubmaegbtadegbtg pcr

`rceatcorakåa y gdg`trckcrgsfs.
Da `rceatcorakåa bc scdc pgreftg da sgpara`fðb mg dcs `cepcbgbtgs mg uba egz`da, sfbc taejfæb su

fmgbgbtftfkfkf`a`a`fðb y `uababtftfkfkf`a`a`f`fðb. Gd abádádfsfs `uadadftftatatfvfvc gstá jasamc gb da egmfma

mg paráegtrcs `rceatcorákf`cs (tfgepcs y vcdùegbgs mg rgtgb`fðb) efgbtras qug gd abádfsfs `uabtftatfvc gstá

jasamc gb da egmfma mg adturas c árgas mg pf`cs `rceatcorákf`cs qug sg rgda`fcbab `cb da `cb`gbtra`fðb. Da

`cdueba `rceatcorákf`a y da kcrea `cb da qug sg mfsgña, `cbstftuyg gd `crazðb mg da sgpara`fðb. Gd mgtg`tcr,

sftuamc ad kfbad mg da `cdueba gs gd qug oarabtfza da rgspugsta mg dcs `cepcbgbtgs qug sg sgparab.

Da mgtgrefba`fðb mg da `akgåba sg sugdgdg ddgvar a `ajc egmfmfabtg tæ`b`bf`as mg sgpara`fðb `cec H\D@

(@rceatcorakåa dåqufma mg adta gkf`fgb`fa), @G (Gdg`trckcrgsfs `apfdar), ]D@ (@rceatcorakåa mg `apa kfba) c

O@ (@rceatcorakåa mg oasgs). Gstcs eætcmcs rgadfzab da mgtg``fðb egmfabtg tæ`bf`as gdg`trcquåef`as

(pctgb`fceætrf`as, `cbmu`tfeætrf`as, aepgrceætrf`as, gt`.), ðptf`as (gspg`trckctceætrf`as, kducrfeætrf`as,

gt`.) y ctras (tgrecquåef`as). Da gdg``fðb mg uba u ctra tæ`bf`a mgpgbmg mgd prcjdgea a
rgscdvgr, mgd vcduegb mg eugstra y mg su `cb`gbtra`fðb.

MG]GZEFBA@FÐB MG @AKGÅBA \CZ H.\.D.@.

Gstg eætcmc pgreftg mgtgrefbar gd `cbtgbfmc mg `akgåba. Da mfscdu`fðb qug `cbtfgbg da `akgåba gs

scegtfma ad H\D@ gb uba `cdueba @-18 mg 1< `e `cb mgtg`tcr mg udtravfcdgta ^ @F]A]FCB Gs`1< Td 1::68 U..

Da `rceatcorakåa dåqufma mg adta rgscdu`fðb (H\D@) gs uba das tæ`bf`as abadåtf`as eás utfdfzamas para da
mgtgrefba`fðb mg `akgåba gb adfegbtcs y jgjfmas. Abtgs mg ddgvar a `ajc gd abádfsfs `rceatcorákf`c para su

`uabtfkf`a`fðb, gs bg`gsarfc gepdgar ub prc`gsc amg`uamc mg gxtra``fðb mg da `akgåba gb das eugstras mg

`akæ, qug bcs pgrefta sgparar gd prfb`fpfc a`tfvc mg da eatrfz y gxtragr da eaycr `abtfmam pcsfjdg mgd
 `cepugstc. Da `akgåba gs uba sustab`fa euy scdujdg gb aoua, sfgbmc gsta scdujfdfmam mgpgbmfgbtg mg da

tgepgratura.

Gs pcr gddc, qug da gxtra``fðb mg da `akgåba gepdgabmc tgepgraturas qug cs`fdab gbtrg dcs 8< y dcs 1<< ¹@

egicraráb da gxtra``fðb mg gstg `cepugstc. Amgeás, gd gepdgc mg ðxfmc mg eaobgsfc c kgrrc`faburc mg zfb`

murabtg da gxtra``fðb bcs pgreftfrá gdfefbar mgtgrefbamas sustab`fas `cec gd á`fmc `dcrcoæbf`c, qug pugmgb

fbtgrkgrfr gb da egmfma pcstgrfcr.

Wba vgz cjtgbfmc gd gxtra`tc mg da eugstra, gstg sgrá abadfzamc pcr `rceatcorakåa mg adta rgscdu`fðb
(H\D@) gb kasg rgvgrsa gepdgabmc ub mgtg`tcr W[. Da `uabtfkf`a`fðb mg da `akgåba prgsgbtg gb da
eugstra sg ddgvará a `ajc pcr gd eætcmc mgd patrðb gxtgrbc. ^@F]A]FCB Pfd Td 1::68 U..

Fbvgstfoar scjrg das cp`fcbgs mg `cduebas `cegr`fadgs gepdgamas para da mgtgrefba`fðb mg `akgåba.

@cdueba mg a`grc Fbcxfmajdg Bu`dgcsfd 1<< (@18)

@cdueba ear`a Addtg`h `cb kasg gsta`fcbarfa mg Amscrjcsphcrg HP @18 ?· mg 17< ee x

=,; ee @cdueba YCZJAX, PJ@-18, Ptajdg Jcbm Abadytf`ad (=.;x 17<ee 7.<·e)

Fbvgstfoar scjrg gd gspg`trc mg dcboftum mg cbma mg da `akgåba.

Da egmf`fðb mg da ajscr`fðb y gefsfðb mg duz mg dcs eatgrfadgs sg ddaea gspg`trckctcegtråa.dcs tærefbcs

ajscr`fðb y gefsfðb tfgbgb gd efsec sfobfkf`amc qug gb gd usc `ctfmfabc9 da ajscr`fðb sfobfkf`a tcear adoc, gb

tærefbcs eás prg`fscs sg mgkfbg `cec gd dcoarftec mg`fead mg da rgda`fðb gbtrg da fbtgbsfmam mg da ramfa`fðb

bc ajscrjfma (Ft) y da fbtgbsfmam mg da ramfa`fðb fb`fmgbtg (Fc), y da gefsfðb sfobfkf`a mgsprgbmgrdc.

Gd mgtg`tcr eás `ceùb gb H\D@ gs gd mgtg`tcr mg udtravfcdgta, qug utfdfza uba `gdma mg kduic,
pcrqug eu`hcs scdutcs ajscrjgb duz udtravfcdgta. Dcs sfstgeas eás sfepdgs utfdfzab da fbtgbsa raya
mg gefsfðb a :?1 be mg uba dáepara mg egr`urfc. Dcs fbstruegbtcs eás vgrsátfdgs tfgbgb dáeparas
mg mgutgrfc, xgbðb c vcdkraefc, y ub ecbc`rceamcr, `cb gd qug sg pugmg gdgofr da dcboftum mg
cbma ðptfea, mg udtravfcdgta c vfsfjdg, para mgtg`tar dcs abadftcs gstumfamcs (@astrc, :<<=).

@cduebas `cegr`fadgs gepdgamas para da mgtgrefba`fðb mg `akgåba

Nrceasfd @18, mg =,; ß 17< ee
Bu`dgcsfd 1<< @18, 7 ef`rðegtrcs, 1<< x =,; ee
YCZJAX, PJ@-18, Ptajdg Jcbm Abadytf`ad (=.;x 17<ee 7.<·e) y ctras.

ZGA@]F[CP MG DAJCZA]CZFC9

Egtabcd oramc H\D@

Aoua oramc H\D@
Gstábmar mg `akgåba

EA]GZFADGP MG DAJCZA]CZFC9

\rcjgta mg :7< eD
Eaobgtcs
Jgangr 7< eD
Aoftamcr mg
vfmrfc Gspátuda
Eatraz Grdgbegygr 1:7 y
7<<eD Gejumcs
Eatraz akcramc :7<eD
Eatraz akcramc 1<eD
\fpgta vcdueætrf`a
1eD \apgd kfdtrc
Kfdtrcs `cb egejraba \[MK, <.=7·e mg pcrc
Igrfboas mgs`artajdgs, 7eD
[fadgs para H\D@, :eD

GQWF\CP MG DAJCZA]CZFC9
Pfstgea H\D@, fb`duyg9
Jceja `uatgrbarfa mg adta prgsfðb `cb sfstgea mg mgsoasfkf`a`fðb fbtgoramc.
Autceugstrgamcr
Mgtg`tcr mg arrgodc mg mfcmcs
@cduebas H\D@ mg kasg rgvgrsa9 @cdueba tfpc @18, 7 ·e, 0.<x17<ee. Ouarma `cdueba tfpc
@18 7·e 0,6x:<ee
Jadabza abadåtf`a `cb sgbsfjfdfmam a
<,1 eo Jadabza oraegra ecbcpdabg
Zgvgrjgrc-aoftamcr eaobætf`c.

A@]F[FMAMGP \CZ MGPAZZCDDAZ/ ]Æ@BF@A C\GZA]CZFA C \ZC@GMFEFGB]C9

AÑAMFZ
Eugstra \GPAZ 17< ed H:C
]ZABPKGZFZ ddgvar a gjuddf`fðb
1o - eatraz 7<<ed
( mgiar 7½ + aofta`fðb)

]ZABPKGZFZ ]ZABPKGZFZ GBKZFAZ

AOF]AZ -Eatraz Akcramc <
 - eatraz 1<ed :7<ed, gbrazar -]< aejfgbtg

@cb`b`gbgbtrtra`a`fðfðb ed/D Árga jaic da

`urvrva
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AOF]AZ KFD]ZAZ
ZG@COGZ

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-tcear :ed igrfboa - Kfdtrc mg egejraba -vcduegb :787<-`rceatðorakc
<,=7 ue mg pcrcs dtramc b 1 11<66;
ub vfad7 H\D@ :ed. :0??61
1< 16=;?
eugstra tæ bgorc 116
eugstra eabzabfdda
@CBMF@FCBGP @ZCEA]COZÁKF@AP9 777<
eugstra ygrja eatg

@cdueba
Ouarma `cdueba @18, 7 ·e,
Kduic 0.<x17<ee @18 7·e
Kasg Eðvfd 0,6x:<ee <,? eD/efb
[cduegb mg fbyg``fðb :<% Egtabcd ‐ 8<%
Dcboftum mg cbma Aoua 1< ·D
@cdueba W[, :?= be
0< ¼@

ZGPWD]AMCP9

`urva mg `adfjra`fúb
:7<<<<
:<<<<< k(x) 5 ?8:?=.7 x √ 1?868?
17<<<< Zº 5 <.61
A
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Z
1<<<<<
A
7<<<<
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<.7 1 1.7 : :.7 0 0.7 = =.7 7 7.7
`cb`gbtra`fðb (ppe)

@ÁD@WDC9

G`ua`fðb rg`ta mg `adfjra`fðb9 V 5 :0718x - :?7,??, mcbmg V gs da ajscrjab`fa y x da `cb`gbtra`fðb mg `akgåba gb

ppe. Pg sus tuyg da V pcr da ajscrjab`fa cjtgbfma gb da eugstra mg hcias mg tæ y sg mgspgia da x9

]G BGOZC

X5 y+j X5 16=;?+:?7,?? 5 <.80 ppe

e :0718
 o@akgåba 5
@cb` ( eoD ) x [cduegb kfbad(D)
x 1<<
1<< o Eugstra Easaeugstra( o) x 1<<<

eo
<.80 x :.7 D
D X1<< 5 <.:< % mg `akgåba
1 o x 1<<<

EABYABFDDA

X5 y+j X5 116+:?7,?? 5 <.<1 ppe

e :0718

eo
<.<1 x :.7 D
D X1<< 5 :.7 % mg `akgåba
1 o x 1<<<

VGZJA EA]G

X5 y+j X5 777<+:?7.?? 5 <.:= ppe

e :0718

eo
<.:= x :.7 D
X1<< 5
D <.<; % mg `akgåba
1 o x 1<<<

@CB@DWPFCB9

Gb gstg cjigtc mg aprgbmfzaig sg ha mgs`rftc gd prc`gmfefgbtc para mgtgrefbar da `abtfmam mg `akgåba mg eugstras

mg tæ bgorc, eabzabfdda y ygrja eatg. \ara gddc prfegrc sg mgtaddð `ðec rgadfzar gd prc`gmfefgbtc gxpgrfegbtad

para ddgvar a `ajc da gxtra``fðb mg `akgåba (prgpara`fðb mg da eugstra) gepdgabmc das tæ`bf`as mg gxtra``fðb

sðdfmc-dåqufmc y pcstgrfcregbtg sg `uabtfkf`c egmfabtg eætcmcs gspg`trcs`ðpf`cs. Amgeás, sg dcorð rgadfzar dcs
`ád`udcs para `ama uba mg das eugstras para cjtgbgr gd % mg `akgåba, gb das `uadgs bcs mfgrcb pcr`gbtaigs

varfajdgs9
]g bgorc tgbmråa <.:< % mg `akgåba.
Eabzabfdda tgbmråa :.7 % mg `akgåba.

Vgrja eatg tgbmråa <.<; % mg `akgåba.

ZG@CEGBMA@FCBGP9

Zgadadfzar mg eabgra `crrg`ta da prgpgparara`a`fðfðb mg da eugstra, para aså gvftar

prcjcjdgeas murarabtbtg da sgpara`fðb `rceatcorakå`a.
Zgadfzar `crrg`taegbtg dcs `ád`udcs utfdfzabmc sus rgspg`tfvas kcreudas.

JFJDFCOZAKÅAP9

Jfjdfcorakåa
Azbar, P. @. (:<11). —Mgtgrefba`fðb abadå `a mg `akgåba gb mfkgrgbtgs prcmu`tcs `cegr`fadgs. Jar`gdcba.

Gs`umgrc, G. Z. (:<1<). ar`hfvgrc. Cjtgbfmc mg

h p9//mgpa.kqufe.ubae.ex/aeym/ar`hfvgrc/7.7@rceatcora amgdfqufmcsS?8<;.pmk