2019 16th IEEE Annual Consumer Communications & Networking Conference (CCNC)
LOCOMOBIS: a low-cost acoustic-based sensing
system to monitor and classify mosquitoes
Dinarte Vasconcelos Nuno Nunes Miguel Ribeiro
Madeira-ITI / LARSYS Madeira-ITI / LARSYS Madeira-ITI / LARSYS Madeira-ITI / LARSYS University of Oxford
Tecnico - U. of Lisbon Tecnico - U. of Lisbon Tecnico - U. of Lisbon University of Bologna alex.rogers@cs.ox.ac.uk
dinarte gv@hotmail.com njn@m-iti.org miguelsribeiro@gmail.com catia.prandi@m-iti.org
Abstract—Mosquitoes are considered one of the more severe
worldwide health hazards. Their populations vary heteroge-
neously in urban and rural landscapes, and fluctuate with
seasonal or climatic trends and human activities. Thus, frequent
widespread high-resolution surveillance of mosquitoes is essential
for both understanding their complex ecology and behavior, and
also predicting disease risk and formulating effective control
strategies against mosquito-borne diseases such as malaria,
dengue and Zika. To this end, in this paper, we present LOCO-
MOBIS, a LOw-COst MOsquito BIoacoustic Sensor where the
wingbeat sounds produced by mosquitoes in flapping-wing flight
are used to identify different species automatically. The sensor
has been deployed and tested in a real field deployment and our
results demonstrate the practical feasibility of this low-cost non-
intrusive approach for monitoring mosquitoes in places requiring
vector monitoring aimed at mosquito control or eradication.
Moreover, to make the system more ubiquitous and easy to
interact with, we implemented a web-based application where it
is possible to check the collected data and the automatic species
and gender classification.
Index Terms—Biodiversity monitoring, Acoustic sensing, En-
tomology
I. I NTRODUCTION
Mosquitoes are considered to be a severe worldwide health
hazard [1]. In 2016, 91 countries reported a total of 216
million cases of malaria, an increase of 5 million cases over the
previous year, resulting in 445,000 global deaths [1]. Mosquito
populations vary heterogeneously in urban and rural land-
scapes, fluctuating not only with seasonal and climatic trends,
but also with human activity [2], [3]. Frequent, widespread,
and high-resolution surveillance of mosquitoes is essential
for understanding their complex ecology and behaviour [4].
This is fundamental for predicting disease risk caused by
the presence of mosquitoes and formulating effective control
strategies against mosquito-borne diseases such as malaria,
dengue and Zika [5].
The paucity of ecological data continues to remain a signif-
icant bottleneck in mosquito vector-borne disease control ef-
forts, particularly in resource-poor areas, since current surveil-
lance techniques are time consuming, requiring specialists to
place traps and to assess the species of mosquitoes caught
in them. One promising candidate to address this issue is
acoustic monitoring, where the wingbeat sounds produced
by mosquitoes in flapping-wing flight are used to identify
different species (and gender) in the field automatically (see
978-1-5386-5553-5/19/$31.00 ©2019 IEEE
Catia Prandi Alex Rogers
as example, [6], [7]). However, the challenges of using expen-
sive microphones to acquire low amplitude mosquito sounds,
against potentially high background noise levels, poses a
barrier to the widespread adoption of acoustic surveillance as
a practical field technique.
This paper presents LOCOMOBIS (LOw-COst MOsquito
BIoacoustic Sensor), a system emerged from the opportunity to
develop a low cost acoustic device using sensitive microphones
to record specific wing sounds from mosquitoes in Madeira
Islands, Portugal. The presence of Aedes aegypti mosquito,
the main vector of dengue, and Zika, was detected for the
first time in Madeira Islands in 2005 [8]. The presence of
the vector was then recorded along the southern coast of the
island, at low altitudes and in urban settings that provided an
ecological niche for the establishment of this invasive species
of mosquito [8], [9]. The Islands saw the first outbreak of
dengue since 1928 in 2012-2013. Since then the disease has
been eradicated through the after concerted control measures
of the local authorities [8], [10].
The main goal of LOCOMOBIS is to provide evidence of
the practical application of low-cost acoustic sensing technol-
ogy for detecting and monitoring mosquitoes. In summary, the
key contributions of this paper are:
i) the development of a low-cost acoustic sensor, integrating
a microphone and environmental sensors, that can be used
to classify a variety of species and gender of mosquitoes
and also applied to other taxa;
ii) reporting on the field deployment of the sensors to collect
data and classify mosquitoes next to existing manual
traps, validating the system in real-word conditions,
considering the different variables involved in a non-
controlled environment;
iii) the design and implementation of an easy-to-use web-
based application that allows users to validate the
recorded audio detections and to visualize the spectro-
grams, enabling the mosquitoes classification results to
be visualised (in particular species and gender).
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. The next
section presents relevant related work. Then, we present the
LOCOMOBIS acoustic sensor, detailing its architecture and
components. We then show how our infrastructure was de-
ployed in a real field study, discussing the system validation
 2019 16th IEEE Annual Consumer Communications & Networking Conference (CCNC)
and results. Finally, we conclude the paper with final remarks
and future work.
II. R ELATED WORK
A. Mosquitoes detection and monitoring
In recent years, a number of different strategies have been
investigated in order to detect mosquitoes. A few researchers
have studied the concept of detecting mosquitoes without
additional sensors, using Twitter as a social sensing tool
for active surveillance of dengue fever [11]. In addition, the
authors of [12] describe their strategy to use images acquired
by drones to identify certain mosquito breeding sites.
Due to the huge diffusion of smartphones, a few recent
works investigated the possibility to take advantage of these
smart devices for vector control, exploring camera [13] and/or
audio [14]. In addition, smartphones have been also exploited
by authors of [15] who investigate the use of acoustic data
acquired by low cost smartphones on species-specific mosquito
wingbeat sounds, and spatio-temporal metadata (time and
location of the recording) to enable rapid, non-invasive species
identification.
In the literature, it is possible to find different works that
exploit optical sensors to detect mosquitoes ( [16]–[18]). The
authors of [16], besides creating an infrastructure to detect
mosquitoes using an optical sensor and a digital high-speed
video camera model, also enabled the system to apply a lethal
dose of energy into those insects whose identification profile
is within a database. The system focused on Diaphorina citri
and Anopheles stephensi species of mosquito. The authors
of [17] and of [18], used a similar approach, exploiting an
optical sensor to detect mosquitoes. In [18], the output of the
electronic board feeds into a digital sound when an insect flies
across the laser beam, partially occlude the light, causing small
light fluctuations. The study investigated in [19] describes
the use of surface acoustic wave technology to detect the
frequency of female and male Aedes aegypti mosquito.
After analysing the pros and cons of the main techniques
to detect mosquitoes investigated in the previous studies, in
particular the optical sensor approach, we decided to use an
acoustic sensor with a sensitive microphone to record specific
wing sounds from mosquitoes for the following key reasons:
(i) using a microphone, we can detect the mosquitoes over a
greater range compared with an optical sensor which the insect
must pass through it; (ii) with a microphone it is possible to
measure the power of the captured signal; (iii) with the sound
recorded through the microphone we are able to calculate the
spectrogram and extract some valuable information, such as
the flight pattern of each mosquito species (an optical sensor
is more used as a trigger to activate some mechanisms).
B. Wing-beat frequency classifications
Classification of mosquitoes is fundamental to vector con-
trol. In 1945, researchers at the Cornell University Medical
College investigated the concept of recording a mosquito
wing-beat frequency using a microphone in order to classify
the different species [6]. Since then, a number of studies
have investigated this critical topic, exploiting the recorded
sound of record mosquitoes wing-beat frequency, using both
microphones and optical sensors.
The authors of [7] use a probabilistic model of a mixture of
complex Gaussians to create a collection of power spectral
densities that can capture the characteristics of the wing-
flap sound that a flying insect produces, providing efficient
representations of the species’ audio fingerprint.
In [20], the authors implement an artificial neural network
classifier to recognize five species of mosquitoes, recording
the wingbeat frequencies with a photosensor and a transient
waveform recorder program. They obtain an accuracy of
72.7% (on average) with peaks of 89%.
Different machine learning methods are studied in [21]. The
statistical analysis of the results suggest that the expectation
maximization algorithm for Gaussian mixture model (EM-
GMM) method provides a higher accuracy of classifying the
mosquitoes species and gender than other algorithms such
as artificial neuron network model (ANN) and the nearest
neighbour model.
A recent work [22] describes a prototype software exploiting
a Mel-frequency cepstral coefficients (MFCC), to process the
recorded data, obtain the sound features, and support vector
machine (SVM) classifier, targeting female Culex and Aedes
aegypti mosquitoes. The authors show that with SVM using
radial basis function (RBF) kernel, they obtained an accuracy
of 75.55% (applying 11 filters).
Authors of [23] address the problem of insect classification
using a one-class classifier (where the learning is performed
only with positive examples - target class), obtaining an
accuracy of 0.87 in identifying the Aedes aegypti species.
Another interesting work investigates the use of ma-
chine learning techniques together with hardware-software
co-optimization of the classification algorithm on low-power
embedded hardware [24]. They tested the classification using
benchmark samples representing three species of mosquitoes,
delivering 80% classification accuracy considering the specific
species.
All the presented studies provided interesting results. How-
ever, the different approaches were evaluated in scenarios
with a controlled environment, without providing results from
a real-world test, where data will also include wind noise
and ambient sounds. In this paper, we present a strategy to
deal with different variables occurring in a real-word field
deployment as detailed in the next sections.
III. T HE LOCOMOBIS ACOUSTIC SENSOR
A. Architecture
Figure 1 shows an overview of the monitoring system
architecture. The LOCOMOBIS acoustic sensor is composed
of a layer of sensors (microphone, temperature, and relative
humidity) and the open source hardware Particle Photon1 mi-
crocontroller, that combines a powerful STM32 ARM Cortex
M3 microcontroller and a Cypress Wi-Fi chip. It connects
1 https://www.particle.io/products/hardware/photon-wifi-dev-kit
 2019 16th IEEE Annual Consumer Communications & Networking Conference (CCNC)
Audio
Capture
Data
Authenticator
Sensor Particle Cloud
TCP
Readings
HTTP POST
Server +
Database
X X
Microphone + Sensors
Fig. 1. LOCOMOBIS architecture.
all the sensors, and it is responsible for collecting the re-
sulting data (i.e., sensor readings and audio captures). The
data processing is performed by the microcontroller, so we
optimize the code (arrays, variables, functions) according to
the available memory space for the dynamic allocations. All
data is recorded locally to a microSD card as backup, including
the captured frequencies that do not trigger the recording,
to allow analysis of the predominant frequencies present in
each location. Then, data (in JSON format) is sent using a
POST request, authenticated with JSON Web Token (JWT) for
security, together with the meta-data that describes the sample,
including: the timestamp; the location ID; the device ID; the
digital filter used; the detected frequency; the set frequency
and bandwidth; the number of bits used per sample; and the
sampling rate.
To manage the acoustic sensor remotely, we used Particle
Cloud2 , a full-stack Internet of Things (IoT) device platform
that allows a secure and reliable connection of devices to
the web. It provides an auto-scaling and redundant cloud
infrastructure, real-time event streams, and a REST API to
interact with the devices (i.e., sending commands, checking
the device state) and to publish data. All messages between
the devices and the Particle Cloud are protected by strong
encryption and anomaly detection (frequent identity checks
and fast-rotating session keys help mitigate man-in-the-middle
attacks). Traffic to Particle’s API is intelligently load balanced
to mitigate brute-force attacks, and every Particle server is
behind a strictly firewalled private network with intrusion
detection to avoid unauthorized access.
The main loop that controls the device, depending on the
current state of the system, is composed by the following steps:
1) capture a small sample of data and check the magnitude
threshold;
2) apply fast Fourier transform (FFT) and quadratic in-
terpolation to find the predominant frequency in the
2 https://www.particle.io/
Fig. 2. Overview of the LOCOMOBIS sensor, including the main modules.
recorded sample, and check if it falls within the fre-
quencies defined in the configuration (a maximum of 5
species);
3) record the sensor data to the microSD card, including
the WAV file with 8 seconds of audio recording and all
the frequencies that have been detected over time;
4) if an Internet connection is present, send the recorded file
and temperature/humidity data every x minutes (with x
defined in the configuration file) to the server otherwise
store locally;
5) update date and time once a day if an Internet connection
is available, otherwise continue with the internal clock
of the RTC (Real Time Clock) module.
Figure 2 presents an overview of the different modules
composing the LOCOMOBIS sensor. This prototype has a
sleep mode energy consumption of approximately 1 mA,
during which no data processing is performed. During normal
operation, it consumes around 60 mA and when recording on
the microSD card, it reaches 80 mA. The interaction with
the server when data is sent reaches a maximum energy
consumption of 130 mA. Using a lithium-ion polymer battery,
the lifetime of the sensor ranges from 20 hours (full processing
mode) to 1600 hours (sleep mode). It is difficult to make an
estimate of the average consumption as it is dependent on the
number of detections, how many times it accesses the microSD
card and the server.
B. Sound Detection, Recording and Storage
In this work we used the uncompressed audio that captured
the real sound waves and converted to digital format without
any further processing, this means that recordings are exact
copies of the original source audio.
Our acoustic sensor uses a low-noise omni-directional mi-
crophone capsule because of the very good low noise speci-
 2019 16th IEEE Annual Consumer Communications & Networking Conference (CCNC)

fication. The Primo EM1723 provides a good low frequency

extension and includes a case mounted field effect transistor
(FET). The output signal is AC coupled (current variation)
and is fed to the amplifier through a large-value DC blocking
capacitor. The pull-up resistor is determined (4.7 µF) such
that the output impedance of the device is set to bias the
voltage on the FET buffer to a safe region. The time-varying
capacitance is used to modulate the gate voltage on a built-in
FET which buffers and amplifies the signal. The microphone
is a transducer that converts sound into electrical signals with
a SNR (signal-to-noise ratio) of 80 dB with a self-noise of 14
dBA and the residual noise of -108 dB.
The Photon’s microcontroller includes the capability for
measuring signals and converting them with the analogue-
to-digital converters (ADC). We use a programmable gain Fig. 3. Web visualization of recorded audio detections, together with the
amplifier as a rail-to-rail output device to increase the gain spectrogram.
and improve sound input. Because of the in the wild nature
of our deployments it is necessary to use a microphone with
an amplifier. To avoid over-exposure or clipping we used a
differentiator filter that works as an active bandpass filter with
an offset. A capacitor feedback and a input resistor is added to
have a better attenuation at higher frequencies and achieve a
closed-loop stability, respectively. So with this improvements
the filter acts like a differentiator amplifier at low frequencies
and an amplifier at high frequencies giving much better noise
rejection. In the second stage a second order Sallen key high
pass filter is used due to its simplicity and efficiency, besides
having unit gain and low signal lag, implemented with the
purpose of increasing the cut frequency for the low frequencies
through a slope of 40 dB/dec.

C. Data Aggregation and Visualization

The server side component of the project runs on Node.js
and provides APIs for retrieving and visualizing the recorded
data. The Goertzel algorithm is run on the server for the
purpose of drawing the spectrogram and detecting the peaks
at which the detected frequency occurs. The API enables the
development of different client applications for visualizing
information regarding the detected mosquitoes. Figure 3 shows
one example of a visualization, where the users can search,
check and download the collected recordings and visualize
the spectrogram with the classified species and gender. The
API and the web-based application makes our platform and
the collected data, more ubiquitous, accessible and easy to
interact with.
IV. S YSTEM VALIDATION AND R ESULTS
A. Laboratory Tests
We conducted a laboratory study in the facilities provided by
the Natural History Museum of Funchal (Mosquito Lab) where
three species of mosquitoes were recorded for testing to find
out their dominant frequencies. The species used for this study
were Aedes aegypti, Culex and Culiseta which came from a
Fig. 4. Classification of each species based on frequency.
lab colony established from captures collected in Funchal in
2017. The mosquitoes were kept in an environmental room
simulating natural conditions, with 77±10 % relative humidity
and the floating temperature of 22-30 °C. The mosquitoes
of each species were placed in individual traps where mesh
caps were placed and offered a 20 % sucrose solution to feed
them. All mosquitoes used in these experiments were 7-25
days old. For the three species, we put the sensors inside the
traps and the tests carried out consisting of 12 specimens for
Aedes aegypti, 7 specimens for Culex and 4 specimens for
Culiseta. In this first phase, we used the Audacity4 software
to obtain the spectrogram of the collected sound files and
analyze the frequency in addition to the data collected by
the microcontroller. In order to compare the accuracy of the
results, we collected data from our acoustic sensor and an
iPhone, using the application SignalScope5 , obtaining a good
match.
Figure 4 shows the classification for each mosquito species

3 http://micbooster.com/primo-microphone-capsules/8-primo-em-172- 4 https://www.audacityteam.org/

z1.html 5 https://www.faberacoustical.com/apps/mac/signalscope/
 2019 16th IEEE Annual Consumer Communications & Networking Conference (CCNC)

based on the fundamental frequencies, using FFT (and a post- 

detection user’s defined bandwidth of 50Hz). 

(TGSWGPE[
M*\

These frequencies were detected with a temperature of 26 
°C and 88 % humidity, in order to reproduce, in the laboratory 
tests, the average season conditions of the island. This is 

important to take into account since previous studies have 
demonstrated that the frequency can be (slightly) influenced 
        
by the temperature [25]. a) 6KOG
U

B. Real-World Deployment 

(TGSWGPE[
M*\

In order to test the LOCOMOBIS system, we deployed 
the acoustic sensors in a real-world scenario in the Madeira 
archipelago, located at around 1,000 km from the mainland 

and around 500 km from the northern African coast. The

climate is temperate Mediterranean, with little temperature 
        
variation throughout the year. b) 6KOG
U
Aedes aegypti was first identified on Madeira in 2005, in
Santa Luzia parish of the capital Funchal [8]. Since then, a Fig. 5. Observation of the noise in the different types of environments:
a) laboratory detection (noise doesn’t influence the measurement of the
mosquito surveillance system based on ovitraps (traps that frequency); b) outdoor environment (noise is present at low frequencies
collect eggs by mimicking breeding sites) was established to making mosquito detection difficult).
monitor the presence and the abundance of the vector on the
island [8]. In September 2011, cross-sectional entomological
surveys were carried out using a total of 273 ovitraps dispersed
throughout Madeira (253 ovitraps) and Porto Santo islands
(20 ovitraps). Results showed that the mosquito population
had expanded to the west and east of Funchal city. After
the onset of the outbreak in October 2012, the surveillance
network was reinforced and, currently, mosquito activity is
monitored by 141 ovitraps. These traps are distributed mainly
along the south coast of the island and in selected areas
such as harbors, the airport, healthcare facilities and potential
transmission zones.
In this context, our sensors deployment was done during the
month of August 2017, in conjunction with the Natural History
museum of the capital city of Funchal and the local supervision
of the regional health authorities (IASaude) both involved
in log-term surveying efforts. The selection of places where
install our system was done through IASaude that provided
Fig. 6. Probability of encountering mosquitoes in different parts of the city
the entomological bulletins of the Aedes aegypti mosquito. of Funchal
The sensors were deployed alongside the ovitraps in open and
public environments, such as the residence of the University of
Madeira, the parish of Santa Luzia which saw the first outburst C. Initial Results
of Dengue in 2013.
Applying the results of the tests carried out in the laboratory Figure 6 shows the probability of encountering mosquitoes
(indoor location) to the outdoor locations, it raised the need in different parts of the city of Funchal based on the total
to implement criteria to adjust the sought frequency of each number of detections, where the acoustic sensor was placed
species, with the main objective of detecting the presence near the traps over 7 to 25 days. In particular: 26.5% in
of mosquitoes according to the time of the day and to the Rua de Comboio; 8.6% in Santa Luzia; 11.8% in Rua da
climatic conditions. The new frequency values are subject to a Mouraria; 53.1% in Rua de Santa Maria. The probabilities
certain user-defined bandwidth (default of 50Hz) to encompass were calculated taking into account the total number of detec-
a larger frequency range for each species. Figure 5 shows the tions. Moreover, correlating the environmental data collected
comparison between a laboratory sample and one obtained in by our sensors together with the sensed data, it possible to
the outside environment where it is possible to observe a much assess that the greater number of detections of mosquitoes
more significant presence of noises. To mitigate this issue, we occurs when the humidity is between 50 - 60% and the
applied a noise reduction technique with smoothing functions temperature 26 − 30◦ C, and that mosquitoes are more active
in a scrolling window to improve the classification. in the afternoon.
 2019 16th IEEE Annual Consumer Communications & Networking Conference (CCNC)
V. C ONCLUSION
In this paper, we reported on the design, implementation and
real-world deployment of LOCOMOBIS, a low-cost acoustic
sensor for detecting mosquitoes in real-world conditions. The
sensor captures audio data from mosquito wing-flap sounds,
along with temperature and humidity. This data was suc-
cessfully used to classify different species and gender of
mosquitoes, presenting the results on an interactive website.
We provide a strategy to monitor mosquitoes (and to control
the diffusion of the dangerous species) by showing their
locations, in relation with the detected environmental data,
processing the results using an efficient algorithm exploiting
frequency and magnitude of the sound. The data collected,
and the results generated, show that this system allows to
effectively monitor and to provide information about certain
characteristics of the mosquitoes (e.g., the species). Such
acoustic and spatio-temporal information can be shared to
generate large datasets that map the distribution of mosquitoes’
species, which is a relevant initiative for monitoring the spread
of infections and diseases caused by mosquitoes bites.
Future work includes a larger deployment of LOCOMOBIS
in close collaboration with the health authorities in Madeira
Islands. A larger deployment in collaboration with colleagues
in Thailand is also planned, combining the use of deep learning
techniques to automatically identify breeding sites in street
view and drone images, and using the sound strength to detect
the population density. This would enable to evaluate the
extent to which breeding site data from super view images,
aerial drone images, acoustic sensors, and larval index data
are complementary in terms of predicting vector counts and
vector-borne disease incidence. In addition, we are also ex-
ploring gamification and citizen science approaches to deploy
acoustic sensors in potential breeding sites turning the system
into a crowdsourcing platform.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We thank the Natural History Museum of the Funchal City
hall, and IASaude, the regional health authority of Madeira
Islands. This research was supported by: LARSyS (Projeto Es-
trategico LA 9 - UID/EEA/50009/2013), MITIExcell (M1420-
01-0145-FEDER-000002).
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