THE

ENVIRONMENT DICTIONARY

‘Clearly written, comprehensive, balanced and up-to-date.’

Chris Park, Lancaster University

‘The dictionary is excellent and will be a valuable reference work. The

balance of entries is good and the quality of the definitions under each entry
is extremely high.’
Martin Kent, University of Plymouth

‘Well written and exciting. It is an impressive summary of key environ-

mental terms and ideas which will assuredly serve as an essential source
book for all subjects on the environmental theme.’
Richard Huggett, University of Manchester

‘A comprehensive volume that will be a useful resource to undergraduate

students.’
David Higgett, University of D u r h a m

‘Well
written:
the
entries
reflect
thelarge
and
diversified
field
of
environment and they have a standard that should be easy for students and
others to adopt, understand and use.’
Tormod Klemsdal, University of Oslo

‘The Environment Dictionaryis an interesting and informative source book

pitched at an accessible level for its intended audience.’
John McClatchey, Nene Collegeof Higher Education
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
 THE
ENVIRONMENT
DICTIONARY

DAVID D. KEMP

London and New York

 First published 1998
by Routledge
11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001
0 1998 David D. Kemp
The right of David D. Kemp to be identified as the Author of this Work
has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
Typeset in Sabon by Solidus (Bristol) Ltd
Printed and bound in Great Britain by
T.J. International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall
All rights reserved. N o part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data
Kemp, David D.
The environment dictionary / David D. Kemp.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Environmental sciences - Dictionaries.
2. Pollution - Dictionaries. I. Title.
GElO.K45 1998
363.7’003 - dc21 97-38997
ISBN 0-415-12752-1 (hbk)
ISBN 0-415-12753-X (pbk)
IN MEMORY OF DAVID KEMP
(191 1-1996)
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
 CONTENTS

Preface IX

Acknowledgements Xi

List of acronyms xiii

THE ENVIRONMENT DICTIONARY 1

Name index 44 1

Subject index 452

This Page Intentionally Left Blank
This volume is designed to accommodate a broad interpretation of the term environmental
studies,
and to do so incorporates material
from
wide
a range of disciplines. The
interdisciplinarynature of environmental issuesnecessitatestheinclusion of topicsfrom
physicalsciences suchas chemistry,physics, geologyand biology alongsideentriesfrom
atmospheric, engineering, earth and soil sciences. Since current environmental issues include a
strong human element, entries from geography, demography, politics and economics also have
their place. Within these broad groupings, the dictionary includes both technical and simple
descriptive topics along with a number of boxed entries which provide an examination of
selected current issues in greater depth. Along with a range of references from introductory
texts through popular magazines to academic journals, this variety is designed to encourage the
widestpossiblereadership. As withanydictionary of thistype,however,thenature,
disciplinary distribution and depth of the entries will reflect, to a greater or lesser extent, the
individual interests and interpretations of the author, which may or may not match exactly
those of potential users. Nevertheless,themultifacetedapproach,theabundance of cross-
references and the reading lists provided will allow readers to develop particular interests and
pursue specific topics, both within and outside the dictionary, to the level of complexity they
require, or with which they are comfortable.
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The completion of this dictionary would not havebeen possible without the direct and indirect
efforts of a great number of individuals. At Routledge, Sarah Lloyd provided a nice mixture of
editorial encouragement and advice, and faced the delays thatbedevilled the production of the
manuscript with remarkable patience and tolerance. Casey Mein, also at Routledge, managed
the ebb and flow of drafts, reviews and enquiries with great efficiency, providing appropriate
guidanceatallstages of theproduction. In theDepartment of Geography atLakehead
University, Cathy Chapin provided her cartographic skills, often at short notice, to draw and
redraw many of the maps and diagramsin the dictionary. The help of these three individuals is
very much appreciated. The reviewers who commented on the choice and content of my topics,
and my colleagues and students whosuggested entries havemy thanks also. The final choicewas of
course mine, and any errors, omissions or apparently superfluousentries are my responsibility.
I am grateful to my wife,Pat, for her patience and understanding during this volume’s
unexpectedly long gestation and to my daughters, Susan and Heather, for their contributionto
the research process.
Inthepreparation of thisvolume,anumber of otherdictionarieswereconsulted. For
technicalandscientificterms, The PenguinDictionary of Science wasinvaluable. The
EncyclopedicDictionary of PhysicalGeography provideddirectiononavariety of topics
through the many references it contains. The Dictionary of Global Climate Change, compiled
by J.W. Maunder as a contribution from the Stockholm Environmental Institute to the Second
WorldClimateConferencewas an excellentpoint of entryforinformationonthemany
government organizations involved in environmental issues. Most government agencies also
have a presence on the World Wide Web, as d o a wide range of environmental organizations.
Since web addresses are subject to unannounced change, they are not included in the dictionary,
but organizations can be easily accessed using one of the many available search engines.
My thanks are also dueto the following for allowing meto reproduce copyright material:

Figure A-16 WithpermissionfromKaufman,D.G.andFranz, C. (1993) Biosphere 2000:

Protecting OUT Global Environment, New York: HarperCollins.
Figure A-1 7 Reprinted from Barrie, L.A. (1986) ‘Arctic air pollution: an overview of current
knowledge’, Atmospheric Environment 20: 643-63, with kind permission fromElsevier Science
Ltd, The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington OX5 lGB, UK.
Figures B-4, G-7 and R-3 WithpermissionfromPark, C.C. (1992) TropicalRainforests,
Londonmew York: Routledge.
Figures C-5, 1-2, M - 7 and 0 - 3 With permission from Moore, P.D., Chaloner, B. and Stott, P.
(1996) Global Environmental Change, Oxford: Blackwell Science.
Figures C-9, F-7 and S-10 With permission of the McGraw-Hill Companies from Enger, E.D.
andSmith, B.F. (1995) Environmental Science: A Study of Interrelationships (5th edition),
Dubuque, IA: Wm C. Brown.
Figures C - l 1 and H-3 With permission from Turco, R.P. (1997) Earth under Siege, Oxford/
New York: Oxford University Press.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xii
Figure D-5 With permission from Faughn, J.E., Turk, J. and Turk, A. (1991) Physical Science,
Philadelphia: Saunders.
Figures E - l , 0 - 1 2 , P-4, P-10, V-2and W-l WithpermissionfromGoudie, A. (1989) The
Nature of the Environment (2nd edition) Oxford:Blackwell.
Figure E-6 With permission from Nkenderim, L.C. and Budikova, D. (1996) ‘The El Niiio-
Southern Oscillation has a truly global impact’, IG U Bulletin46: 30.
Figures E-10 and 0 - 8 With permission from Miller, G.T. (1994) Living in the Environment
(8th edition),Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Figure G-4 With permission from Jones, M.D.H. and Henderson-Sellers, A. (1990) ‘Historyof
the greenhouse effect’, Progress in Physical Geography 14: 1-18. Copyright Edward Arnold
(1990).
Figures H-2 and P-l2 With permission from Oke,T. (1978) Boundary Layer Climates, London:
Methuen.
Figure K - l With permission of the Royal Meteorological Society from Jenkins, G.J., Johnson,
D.W., McKenna, D.S. and Saunders, R.W. (1992) ‘Aircraft measurements of the Gulf smoke
plume’, Weather 47 (6):212-9.
Figure L-6 With permission from Meadows, D.H., Meadows, D.L., Randers, J. and Behrens,
W.W. (1974) The Limits to Growth,London: Pan Books.
Figure L-7 With permission from IPCC (1990) Climate Change: The IPCC Scientific Assess-
ment, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Figure M-3 WithpermissionfromMackie, R., Hunter, J.A.A., Aitchison, T.C., Hole, D.,
McLaren, K., Rankin, R., Blessing K., Evans, A.T., Hutcheon, A.W., Jones, D.H., Soutar, D.S.,
Watson, A.C.H., Cornbleet,M.A.andSmith J.F. (1992)‘Cutaneousmalignantmelanoma,
Scotland 1979-89’, The Lancet 339: 971-5. Copyright The Lancet Ltd (1992).
Figures M-8 and R-6 With permission from Park, C.C. (1997) The Environment:Principles and
Applications, London: Routledge.
Figure N-3 with permission of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada,
1998, from Environment Canada (1983) Stress on Land in Canada,Ottawa: Ministry of Supply
and Services.
Figure 0 - 5 WithpermissionfromCutter, S.L., Renwick,H.L.andRenwick, W.H. (1991)
Exploitation, Conservation, Preservation: A GeographicalPerspective on Natural Resource
Use, New York: Wiley.
Figures D-4, G-3,1-3, L-2, M-2 and P-1 Despite considerable effort, it has not been possible to
contact the copyright holders of these figures prior to publication. The author and publishers
apologize for the resulting omissions. If notified, the publisher will attempt to correct these at
the earliest opportunity. The source of each of these figures is indicated where it appears in the
text.

References
Goudie, A., Atkinson, B.W., Gregory, K.J., Simmons, I.G., Stoddart, D.R. and Sugden, D. (eds) (1994)The
Encyclopedic Dtcttonary of Physical Geography (2nd edition), OxfordlCambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Maunder, J.W. (1992) Dtctronary of GIobal Climate Change,L o n d o d N e w York: Chapman and Hall.
Uvarov, E.B. and Isaacs, A. (1993) The Penguin Dtcttonary ofSctence (7th edition), London: Penguin.
 ACRONYMS

ACMAD African Centre for Meteorological Applications for Development

ADP adenosine diphosphate
AEAB Australian Environment Assessment Branch
AEC Atomic Energy Commission
AGGG Advisory Group on GreenhouseGases
ANCA Australian Nature ConservationAgency
AONB Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty
AOSIS Alliance of Small Island States
ATP adenosine triphosphate
ATV all-terrain vehicles
BAHC Biological Aspects of the Hydrologic Cycle
BAPMoN Background Air Pollution Monitoring Network
BNFL British Nuclear Fuels Limited
BOD biochemical oxygen demand
CANDU Canadian Deuterium-Uranium
CCDP Climate Change Detection Project
CEGB Central Electricity Generating Board
CERCLA Comprehensive Environment Response Compensation and Liability Act
CFCs chlorofluorocarbons
CIAP Climate Impact Assessment Program
CITES Convention on International Tradein Endangered Species
CLIMAP Climate Long-range Investigation Mapping and Predictions Project
COD chemical oxygen demand
CRU Climate Research Unit
cscs Comprehensive Soil Classification System
CSERGE Centre for Social and Economic Research on the Global Environment
DALR dry adiabatic lapse rate
DDT dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
DMS dimethyl sulphide
DNA deoxyribonucleic acid
DOE Department of Energy (United States)
DU Dobson unit
DV1 dust veil index
EASOE European Arctic Stratospheric Zone Experiment
ECRC Environmental Change Research Centre
EIA environmental impact assessment
ELR environmental lapse rate
ENUWAR Environmental Consequences of Nuclear War
ACRONYMS xiv

ENS0 El Nifio-Southern Oscillation

EPA Environmental Protection Agency
EPA (UK) Environmental Protection Act
ERTS Earth Resources Technology Satellites
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FBC fluidized bed combustion
FCCC Framework Convention on Climate Change
FEWS Famine Early Warning System
FGD flue gas desulphurization
FOE Friends of the Earth
GAW Global Atmosphere Watch
GCM general circulation model
GCOS Global Climate Observing System
GEMS Global Environment Monitoring System
GEWEX Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment
GFDL Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
GIS geographic information systems
GISS Goddard Institute for Space Studies
GNP gross national product
G0,OS Global Ozone ObservingSystem
GVI glaciological volcanic index
HCFCs hydrochlorofluorocarbons
HDP Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Program
HFCs hydrofluorocarbons
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency
IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
ICRP International Commission on Radiological Protection
ICSU International Council of Scientific Unions
IDA International Development Association
IGACP International Global Atmospheric Chemistry Project
IGBP International Geosphere-Biosphere Program
IGCP International Geological Correlation Program
IGU International Geographical Union
IHP International Hydrological Program
IIASA International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis
IJC International Joint Commission
IMF International Monetary Fund
IMO International Meteorological Organization
INCO International Nickle Company
IOC Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IPM integrated pest management
ITCZ intertropical convergence zone
IUCN World Conservation Union
JGOFS Joint Global Ocean Flux Study
LIMB lime injection multi-stage burning
LISA low-input sustainable agriculture
LNG liquefied natural gas
xv ACRONYMS

LPG liquefied petroleum gas

LRTAP long-range transportation of air pollution
LULU locally unwanted land use
MAB Man and Bisophere Program
MAC/MPC maximum allowable/permissible concentration
MCS multiple chemical sensitivity
MECCA Model Evaluation Consortium for Climate Assessment
MHD magnetohydrodynamic generator
MRCFE Man’s Role in Changing the Face of the Earth
MSA methane sulphonic acid
MUSYA Multiple Use Sustained Yield Act (United States Forest Service)
MVP minimum viable population
NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards
NAPAP National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program
NAS National Academy of Sciences
NAWAPA North American Water and Power Alliance
NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research
NCC Nature Conservancy Council
NEF noise exposure forecast
NEPA National Environment Policy Act
NGOs non-governmental organizations
NIMBY not in my backyard
NNI noise and number index
NPP net primary productivity
NRDC Natural Resources Defence Council
ODP ozone depletion potential
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
PAN peroxyacetyl nitrate
PCBs polychlorinated biphenyls
PDSI Palmer Drought Severity Index
PE potential evapotranspiration
PH potential hydrogen
PVC polyvinyl chloride

QBO quasi-biennial oscillation

RAN Rainforest Action Network
RAINS Regional Acidification Information and Simulation
RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
rem Roentgen equivalent man
SALR saturated adiabatic lapse rate
SCEP Study of Critical Environmental Problems
SCOPE Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment
SDWA Safe Drinking-Water Act
SMD soil moisture deficit
SMIC Study of Man’s Impact on Climate
SOE State of the Environment Reporting
SSSI sites of special scientific interest
SSTs sea-surface temperatures
ACRONYMS xvi

SSTs supersonic transports

TNC The Nature Conservancy
TOGA Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere Project
TTAPS Turco, Toon, Ackerman, Pollack, Sagan (nuclear winter scenario)
TVA Tennessee Valley Authority
UKAEA UK Atomic Energy Authority
UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
UNCHE United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
UNCOD United Nations Conference on Desertification
UNDP United Nations Development Program
UNEP United Nations Environment Program
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
USAID United States Agency for International Development
VEI volcanic exposivity index
WCASP World Climate Applications and Services Program
WCP World Climate Program
WCRP World Climate Research Program
WHO World Health Organization
WMO World Meteorological Organization
WWF Worldwide Fund for Nature
www World Weather Watch
ZPG zero population growth

Non-living. Ecosystems consist of abiotic or
non-livingcomponentsandbiotic or living
components. Abiotic
components include
physical factors such as soil, water and climate.
The mix of these elements will influence the
nature and number of living organisms in a
particular environment. Human activities have
altered abiotic componentsin many ecological
systems; positively through soil improvement
and irrigation in agriculture, for example, or
negatively through pollution and other forms
of environmental degradation.
Further reading
Chiras, D.D. (1994) Envwonmental Scrence: Action
for a Sustatnable Future (4th edition), Redwood
City, CA: BenjaminlCummings.
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY
A measure of the amount of water vapour in
the atmosphere. It is usually expressed as the
mass of water vapourper unit volume of air -
grams per cubic metre. Since it is based on
volume, which responds to temperature and
pressurechanges,absolutehumidityvalues
(in a moving air mass,for example) will change,
even when no water vapour is added or lost.
Toovercome this, meteorologistsoften use
mixing ratio or specific humidity values as
indicators of the amount of water vapour in
the air. Since both involve mass rather than
volume,theyarenotaffected by changing
temperature or pressure. Absolute humidity
valuesarenot easily determinedthrough
direct sampling, but can be calculated through
wet-bulb temperature readings.
See also
Humidity, Relative humidity, Vapour pressure.
Further reading
Linacre, E. (1992) Climate Data and Resources,
London: Routledge.
ABSOLUTEZERO
The lowest value on the Kelvin or absolute
scale of temperature. It is a theoretical value
representingthelowesttemperatureattain-
able, and one atwhich all molecular motion is
presumed to cease. Absolute zero is equivalent
to -273.16"C.
See also
Kelvin.
ABSORPTION
The assimilationof one substanceby another.
Gases may be taken up by liquids or solids,
for example, and liquids by solids. The pro-
cess is essential to the working of the earth/
atmosphere system. The absorption of atmos-
pheric gases by plants and animals provides
for the survival of life and the absorption of
precipitation by soil gives plants easy access t o
the moisture they require. Absorption is also
part of the energy flow in the system. The
absorption of solarenergy a t theearth's
surface,followed by theabsorption of ter-
restrial energy by the greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere, isbasic to the working of the
earth'senergybudget. At the localscale,
absorptionhasamajorroleinpollution
control. The removal of noxious gases from
flue gas emissions is commonly accomplished
through absorption, and absorbent materials
ABSORPTION
such as peat are frequently used to soak up
liquid spills.
See also
Flue gas desulphurization.
Further reading
Turco, R.P. (1997) EarthUnder Siege: From Air
Pollutron toGlobalChange, O x f o r d m e w York:
Oxford University Press.
ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT
A measure of the degree to which a substance
is capable of absorbingradiation,usually
expressed as the ratio of the energy absorbed
by the substance to the amount falling on it.
Aperfectabsorber,suchasablackbody,
would have an absorptioncoefficient of 1.
ABYSSAL ZONE
The deepest part of theoceans lying more
than 2000 m beneath the surface. The main
physicalfeature of thiszone is theabyssal
plain, a region of low relief beyond the con-
tinentalmargins.Itssurface is brokenin
places by volcanic hills or seamounts rising
out of theplain,and,particularlyinthe
Pacific Ocean, by linear trenches that reach
depths in excess of 12,000 m beneath the sea
surface.Sedimentsdepositedintheupper
levels of theoceansultimatelyreachthe
abyssal zone, but little light penetrates, energy
levels arelowandplant or animal life is
sparse. The water in the abyssal zone is con-
sidered to be in long-termstorage,andits
participation in the hydrological cycle has a
time-scale of centuries.
See also
Oceans.
Further reading
Pickard, G.L. and Emery, W.J. (1990) Descriptive
Physical Oceanography, Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Strahler, A.H. and Strahler, A.N. (1992) Modern
Physrcal Geography (4thedition),NewYork:
Wiley.
ACETATE PLASTICS
-~
Plasticsmadefromcelluloseacetate(etha-
2
noate), produced through the action of acetic
acid(ethanoateacidCH,COOH)onwood
pulp cellulose. Cellulose acetate is also the raw
material for the production of rayon, the so-
called artificial silk. Acetate plastics are thermo-
plastics - they can be heated and reformed and
are therefore suitable forrecycling.
Further reading
Elias, H.-G. (1993) A n Introduction to Plastics,
New York: Weinheim.
ACID
A compound containing hydrogen(H),which
on solution in water, produces an excess of
hydrogen ions. An acid reacts with a base or
alkali to form a salt and water.
ACID LOADING
The additionof acid to waterbodies by way of
deposition from the atmosphere. Waterbodies
differ in their sensitivity to acid loading, but
onceacritical p H level has been surpassed,
the cumulative effect is the gradual destruction
of the aquatic ecosystem. Harmfuleffects will
begin to be felt by mostwaterbodieswhen
their p H falls to 5.3, although damage to the
ecosystem will occurin some lakes before that
level is reached, and some authorities consider
p H 6.0 to be a more appropriate value.
Further reading
Park, C.C. (1987) Acrd Rain: R b e t o r ~and Reality,
London: Methuen.
ACID MINE DRAINAGE
The seepage of sulphuric acid (H,SO,) from
mining operations into adjacent waterways. It
is most common in coal-mining areas, but is
also associated with nickel (Ni) and copper
(Cu) mining where the ores contain sulphur
(S) compounds. The most common source of
sulphur is ironsulphide(pyrites),whichon
exposure to oxygen (0)and water, and with
thehelp of bacteriasuchas Thiobaccillus
thioxidans, is converted into sulphuric acid.
In the process ferric hydroxideis precipitated,
givingacidmine drainageitscharacteristic
yellow-browncolour.Theprecipitatealso
3 ACID R A I N
builds up as a brown coating on rocks and sedi-
ments in stream beds. Acid mine drainage is
highly acidic and corrosive, and contains toxic
metals such as aluminum (AI), copper (Cu),
zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn)andberyllium
(Be)leachedfromthelocalbedrock by the
acid. This combination of acid and minerals
completelydisruptstheaquaticecosystem,
and may render the water unsuitable for muni-
cipal,industrialorrecreational use. Inthe
United States, 2.7 million tonnes of acids are
estimated to drain every year from existing and
abandonedmineworkings,pollutingsome
12,000 km of streams. Methods developed to
reducetheacidity of minedrainageinclude
theaddition of analkalinebuffersuchas
limestone to the backfill whenstrip-mining
areas are being rehabilitated and the storage of
water from working mines in holding ponds,
where it can be neutralized before release. Such
methods can be incorporated relatively easily
into current operations, but to apply them to
hcid rain is normally considered to be a by-
product of modern atmospheric pollution.
Even ina pure,uncontaminatedworld,
however, it is likely that the rainfall would
be acidic. Carbonic acid (H,CO,) is formed
when carbon dioxide (CO,) is absorbed by
atmosphericwater.Nitricacid(HNO,) is
created during thunderstorms and sulphuric
acid(H,SO,) is formedfromthesulphur
dioxide (SO,) released during volcanic
eruptionsandforest fires or fromthe
sulphur (S) emitted by phytoplankton during
their seasonal bloom period.All of these are
natural processes which contribute to make
normal rain acid.
Currentconcernoveracidrain is not
withthenaturallyproduced variety, but
rather with that which results from modern
industrialactivityandtheacid gases it
produces. Considerable amounts of sulphur
dioxide are released into the atmosphere as
a by-product of metal smelting, particularly
whennon-ferrousoresareinvolved.The
burning of coal and oilto provide energyfor
space heating or to fuel thermal electric power
stations also produces sulphur dioxide. The
abandonedmineworkings,whichmakea
major contribution to acid mine drainage (in
the Appalachian region of the United States,
forexample),wouldtakemanyyearsand
would be costly.
Further reading
Chiras, D.D. (1994) Environmental Scrence:
Action for a Sustarnable Future, Redwood City,
CA: BenjaminlCummings.
Griggs, G.B. and Gilchrist, J.A. (1983) Geologrc
Hazards, Resources and Environmental Plannrng,
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
ACID PRECIPITATION
The wet or dry depositionof acidic substances
of anthropogenic origin on the earth’s surface.
Although natural precipitation is commonly
acidic, the term acid precipitationis normally
retainedforprecipitationatleasttentimes
more acid than normal. Commonly called acid
rain, it also includes acid snow and acidfog.
continuinggrowth of transportationsys-
tems using the internal combustion engine
contributes to acid rain through the release
of oxides of nitrogen (NOx)into the atmos-
phere.
Acid precipitationproduced by human
activities differs from natural acid precipita-
tion not only in its origins, but also in its
quality.Anthropogenicallyproducedacid
rain tendsto be many times more acidic than
the
natural variety. The difference is
commonly of the order of 1.0 to 1.5 points
on the pH scale used to measure acidity. In
North America, for example, naturally acid
rain has a pH of about 5.6, whereas measure-
ments of rain falling in southern Ontario,
Canadafrequentlyprovide values in the
range of 4.5to 4.0 (Ontario: Ministryof the
Environment 1980). To put these values in
perspective,vinegar has a p H of 2.7and
milk a p H of 6.6. Similar values for back-
ground levels of acidic rain are indicated by
studies in Europe with the average annual
p H of rain over Britain between 1978 and
1980 being within the range of 4.5 to 4.2
(Mason1990).Remarkably high levels of
ACID R A I N 4

Figure A - l Schematic representation of the formation, distribution and impact of acid rain

PREVAILING WINDS

jource: After Kernp, D.D. (1994) Global Environmental Issues: A Climatological Approach, London1
\Jew York: Routledge

acidity have been recorded on a number of presence of ammoniaandtheintensityof

occasions on both sides of the Atlantic. In sunlight. The metals and ammonia appear
April 1974, for example, rain falling at Pit- to act as catalysts, while the sunlight pro-
lochry, Scotland had a pH measured at 2.4 videstheenergy required by thechemical
(Last and Nicholson 1982), and an extreme reactions.
value of p H 1.5, some 11,000 times more Acid rain remained
mainly a local
acidthannormal,wasrecordedforrain problem in the past. The introductionof the
falling in West Virginia in 1979 (LaBastille tallstackspolicy in an attempt to reduce
1981). local
pollution,
however,
increased
its
The quality of the rain is determined by geographical extent. Therelease of pollutants
a series of chemical processes set in motion a t thegreateraltitudespossiblewiththe
when acidic materials are released into the taller smokestacks placed them outside the
atmosphere.Some of thesulphurdioxide boundarylayercirculationandintothe
and oxides of nitrogen emitted will return larger scale atmospheric circulation system
to the surface quite quickly, and close to with its potential for much greater dispersal
their source, as dry deposition. The remain- throughthemechanisms involvedinthe
der will be carried up into the atmosphere, Long Range Transportationof Air Pollution
to be convertedintosulphuricandnitric (LRTAP). Local problems were mitigated at
acid, which will eventually return to earth the expense of the larger environment.
asacidrain.The processesinvolved are The main sources of acid rain are to be
fundamentally simple. Oxidation converts found in theindustrializedareas of the
the gases into acids, in either a gasor liquid northern hemisphere. North-eastern North
phase reaction, at arate which depends upon America, Britain and Western Europe have
such variables as the concentrationof heavy received most attention,
although their
metals in airborneparticulatematter,the output of sulphur dioxide hasbeen declining
5 ACID R A I N

Figure A-2 The geography of acid rain in major industrial nations, but concern has
North America and Europe been expressed over growing levels of air
pollution, often
associated withurban
automobileexhaustemissions,whichmay
already have provided a base for acid rain
in
some ThirdWorld countries(Park
1987).
Once the acid gaseshavebeenreleased
into the atmosphere, they are at themercy of
theprevailingcirculationpatterns. With
almost all of the areas currently producing
large amounts of acidicpollutionlocated
within the mid-latitude westerly wind belt,
emissions are normally carried eastwards, or
perhapsnorth-eastwards,oftenfor several
0 lo00
U hundred kilometres before being redeposit-
Km ed. In this way, pollutants originating in the
US Midwestcauseacidrain in Ontario,
Quebec and
the
NewEnglandstates.
Emissions fromthe smelters andpower
stations of the English Midlandsandthe
Ruhr contribute to the acidity of precipita-
tion in Scandinavia, and acidity in the Arctic
originatesasfaras 8000 km away to the
south in North America and Eurasia (Park
1987). Thusthe
problem of acidrain
transcends national boundaries, introducing
political
overtones to the problem and
creatingthe need for international
co-
v
operation if a solution is to be found.
The impact of acid rain on the environ-
XIROPE mentdependsnotonlyonthe level of
acidity in the rain, but alsoon the natureof
A Major acid emission centres the environment itself. Areasunderlain by
aAreas sensitive to acid rain acidic rocks such as granitic or quartzitic
M Prevailing winds bedrock, for example, are particularly sus-
05.0 pH values ceptible to damage, lacking as they do the
ability to ‘buffer’ o r neutralizeadditional
Source: After Kemp (1994) acidity from the precipitation. Acid levels
therefore rise, the environmental balance is
sincethemid-1970s. Levels of oxides of disturbed and serious ecological damage is
nitrogen have not yet experienced significant theinevitableresult.Incontrast,areas
decline and continue to rise in some areas. which are geologically basic - underlain by
The emission of acidgasesfromEastern limestone or chalk, for example - are much
Europeandtherepublics of theformer less sensitive, andmayevenbenefitfrom
USSR - Russia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan - the additional acidity. The highly alkaline
remains high. In Asia, Japanese industries soils and water of areas underlain by chalk
emitlargequantities of sulphurdioxide or limestone ensure that the acid added to
(Park 1987), while the industrial areas of the
environment by the rain is very
Chinaarealsomajorcontributors. Acid effectively neutralized. The areas at greatest
emissionsremainlimitedoutside of the risk from acid
rain
the
in
northern
ACID R A I N 6

Figure A-3 Emissions of SO, and NO, in Canada and the United States:
1970-1989
(in ’000 metric tonnes)
3m T

25000 t I1
20000 CANADA:NO,

0CANADAS02
15000
m USANO,
10000

5ooo

0
1980 1975 1970 1989 1985

Source: After Kemp (1994)

hemisphere are the Precambrian Shield areasthe spring flush, ensured that the older fish
ofCanadaandScandinavia,wherethe were not replaced as they died. As a result,
acidity of the rocks is reflected in highly fish populations in many rivers and lakesin
acidic soils and water. The folded mountaineasternNorthAmerica,BritainandScan-
structures of eastern Canada and the United dinavia have declined noticeably in the last
States, Scotland, Germany and Norway are two to three decades and hundreds of lakes
also vulnerable. are now completely devoid of fish (Harvey
The impact of acid rain on the environ- 1989). Although the impact on the fish is
ment was first recognized in the lakes and mostobvious,allaquaticorganismswill
rivers of theseareas.Reduced p H values decline
in
numberand variety
during
whichindicatedtherisingaciditywere progressiveacidification.Waterbodiesthat
accompanied by low levels of calcium (Ca) have lost or are in the process of losing their
andmagnesium(Mg),elevatedsulphate flora and fauna are often described as ‘dead’
concentrations and
an increase inthe or ‘dying’. This is not strictly correct,
amounts of potentially toxic metals such as however, for someorganismsareremark-
aluminum (Al) (Brakke et al. 1988). When ably acid-tolerant, and even the most acid
aquaticcommunitieswereexamined in lakeshavesomelifeinthem.Species of
areas as far apart as New York State, Nova protozoans are found at pH levels as low as
Scotia, Norway and Sweden there was clear 2.0, for example (Hendrey1985).
evidence that increased surface
water There is growingevidencethatthose
acidity had adverse effects on fish (Baker areas in which the waterbodies have already
andSchofield 1985). Insomecasesthe succumbed to acidification must also face
aciditywassufficientlyhighthatmature the effects of increasing acid stress on their
fish
died,
but,
morecommonly, fish forests andsoils. The threatis not universally
populations began t o decline because of the recognized,however,andthereremainsa
effects of the increasing acidity on repro- great dealof controversy over the amount of
duction.
Damagethe
to eggs during damagedirectlyattributabletoacidrain.
spawning and the inability of the youngfry to Reductionin
forestgrowthin
Sweden
survive the higheracidity, particularly during (LaBastille 1981), physical damage to trees
7 ACID R A I N
in West Germany (Pearce 1982b), and the
death of sugar maplesin
Quebecand
Vermont(Norton1985)haveallbeen
blamedontheincreasedacidity of the
precipitation in these areas. Many of the
impacts,suchasthethinning of annual
growthrings,reductioninbiomassand
damagetofinerootsystems,areonly
apparentafterdetailedexamination,but
others are more directly obvious and have
been described as dieback. This involvesthe
gradual wasting of the tree inwards from
theoutermosttips of itsbranches.The
process is cumulativeoverseveralyears
until the tree dies. The symptoms of dieback
Figure A-4 A statue damagedby acid rain - a common sight on the historic buildings
of Europe
I Photograph: The author
have been recognized in the maple groves
andredspruceforests of north-eastern
North America, and across fifteen countries
and some 70,000 km2 of forest in Europe
(Park 1991).In Germany, where it was first
linkedwithacidrain,dieback, or Wald-
sterben, was particularly extensive and in
the 1980s was seen as a major threat to the
survival of theGermanforests(Ulrich
1983). More recent research has indicated
thatforestdeclineinEuropeisamulti-
faceted process in which acid precipitation
may be only one of a series of contributors
along
with
tree
harvesting
practices,
droughtandfungalattacks,althoughits
ACID R A I N
xact role remains controversial (Blank et
d. 1988; Hauhs and Ulrich 1989).
Present concern over acid rain is concen-
rated mainly on its effect on the natural
:nvironment, but acid rain also contributes
o deterioration in the built environment: it
Lttacks limestone and marble used as building
,tone, for example. Thefaceless statues and
:rumbling cornices of the world’s famous
)alates, castles, abbeys and cathedrals, from
.he Parthenon in Greece to the Taj Mahal in of acid reduction required, the type and age
ndia, attest to its power. By attacking the
’abric of these buildings it not only causes
)hysical and economic damage, but threatens
.he world’s cultural heritage.
Acid rain in the formof aerosols or attached
:o smoke particles cancauserespiratory
xoblems in humans, as was the case with the
nfamous London Smogof 1952. There is no
xidencethatwetdeposition is
directly
damaging to human health, although in its
lbility to mobilize metals, from lead (Pb) or
:opper (Cu) pipes, for example, it may have
Important indirect effects (Park 1987).
Solutions to the problemof acid rain are
deceptively simple. In theory, a reduction in
the emission rate of acid forminggases is all
that is required to slow down and event-
ually stop the damage being caused by the
acidification of the environment. Translating
that concept into reality has proved diffi- be met in large part by the installation of
cult, however. One of the first approaches
involved adaptation, such as the additionof
lime tolandor lakes tocounteractthe
increased acidity, and to allow therecovery
mechanisms to work more effectively. problem facing the northern hemisphere. It
Experiments involving the liming of lakes in
CanadaandSweden,for example,have
provided encouraging results (Porcella et al.
1 9 9 0 ) . Artificial buffering of lakes in this
way is only a temporary measure which may
be likened to the use of antacid to reduce
acid indigestion. The neutralizing effects of
the lime may last longer than those of the
antacid, but they do wear off in three to five
years and re-liming is necessary as long as
acidloadingcontinues(Ontario:Ministry
oftheEnvironment 1 9 8 0 ) . Most of the
current proposals for dealing with acid rain
tackle the problemat its source. Theyattempt
to prevent, or at least reduce, emissions of
8
acid gases intotheatmosphere,andsince
sulphur dioxide makes the greatest contri-
bution to acid rain in North America and
Europe, it has received most attention in the
development of abatement procedures. Sul-
phur dioxide is formed when coal and oil
are burned to release energy, and the tech-
nology to control it may be applied before,
during or after combustion. The exacttiming
will depend upon such factors as the amount
of the system and the cost-effectiveness of
the particular process (Elliset al. 1 9 9 0 ) .
Flue gasdesulphurization(FGD) is the
most common approach to sulphur dioxide
reduction. It uses scrubbers to neutralize the
acidity of the fluegases beforetheyare
released into the atmosphere. With sulphur
dioxide removal ratesof between 80 and 95
per cent, FGDis more effective than methods
such as fuel switching or fuel desulphuriza-
tion applied prior to combustion and it is
technically simpler than fluidized bed com-
bustion (FBC) and lime injection multi-stage
burning(LIMB)incorporatedinthecom-
bustion process itself. Although FGDsystems
d o little t o reduceemissions of oxides of
nitrogen they are the preferred method of
dealing with acid rain, and future require-
ments to reduce sulphur dioxide levels will
FGD equipment (Park 1 9 9 1 ) .
Thestudy of acidrainhasdeclined
remarkablysincethe 1980s, when it was
viewed by many as the major environmental
is one environmental issue in which abate-
mentprogrammeshavemetwithsome
success. Sulphur dioxide levels continue to
decline, the rain in many areas is consider-
ably less acid than it was a decade ago, and
the transboundary disputes which absorbed
large amounts of time, energy and moneyin
the 1980s have beenresolved. There are
indications thatlakes and forests areshowing
some signs of recovery in the most vulner-
able areas of North America and Europe.
although this is still a matter of dispute.
Developments such as these have createc
the perception that the acid rain problemi:
beingsolved. It would be moreaccurate
9 ACTIVATED
however, to say that it has changed in nature
and in geographical extent. In the developed
nations,oxides of nitrogenaregradually
making a larger contribution to acidity as
levels of sulphurdioxide decline.Inless
developedareas,fromEasternEuropeto
China, the full impact of acid rain may still
be in the future, and the research activities
currently winding down in Western Europe
and North America may have to be revived
to deal with it.
References and further reading
Baker, J.P. and Schofield, C.L. (1985) ‘Acidifica-
tionimpactsonfishpopulatlons:a review’,in
D.D. A d a m and W.P. Page (eds) Acid Depositron:
Environmental, Economrc and Political Issues,
New York: Plenum Press.
Blank, L.W., Roberts, T.M. and Skeffington,R.A.
(1988) ‘Newperspectivesonforestdecline’,
Nature 336: 27-30.
Brakke, D.F., Landers,D.H.andEilers,J.M.
(1988) ‘Chemical and physical characteristics of
lakes in the northeastern United States’, Environ-
mental Science and Technology 22: 155-63.
Ellis,E.C.,Erbes, R.E. andGrott,J.K. (1990)
‘Abatement of atmosphericemissions in North
America:progress to date and promise for the
future’,inS.E.Lindberg,A.L.Page andS.A.
Norton(eds) AcidicPrecipitation, Volume 3,
Sources, DeposrtronandCanopyInteractrons,
New York: Springer-Verlag.
Harvey, H.H. (1989)‘Effects of acid precipitation
on lake ecosystems’, in D.C. Adriano and A.H.
Johnson(eds) AcidicPrecipitation,Volume
Biological and Ecologrcal Effects, NewYork:
Springer-Verlag.
ACTINIDES
A group of radioactive elements with atomic
numbers from 89 to 103. A few, such as thor-
ium (Th) and uranium (U), occurnaturally,
but
most,
such
as
plutonium ( h ) and
neptunium (Np), are the products of nuclear
reactor
operations.
Actinidesare
created
when a uranium atom absorbs a neutron, but
no fission takes place. Themostcommon
actinide is plutonium (239Pu), afissile element
and therefore a potentialfuel source. It is also
highly radioactive, with a half-life of 24,000
years. Neptunium (237Np), formed in the same
way, has an even longer half-life - 2.1 million
years. Thus nuclear waste containing actinides
continues torelease radiation for many years,
Hauhs,M.andUlrich, B. (1989) ‘Decline of
European forests’, Nature 339: 265.
Hendrey,G.R. (1985) ‘Acid deposition: a
national problem’, in D.D. Adams and W.P. Page
(eds) Acid Deposrtron: Environmental, Economic
and Politrcal Issues, New York: Plenum Press.
Kemp,D.D. (1994) Global Envrronmental
Issues: A Climatological Approach(2nd edition),
LondonMew York: Routledge.
LaBastille, A. (1981) ‘Acidrain - how great a
menace?’, National Geographrc 160: 652-81.
Last, ET. and Nicholson, LA. (1982) ‘Acid rain’,
Biologrst 29: 250-2.
Mason, B.J. (1990) ‘Acid rain - cause and con-
sequence’, Weather 45: 70-9.
Norton, P.W (1985) ‘Decline and fall’,
Harrowsmith 9: 24-43.
Ontario:Ministry of theEnvironment (1980)
The Case Against the Rain, Toronto: Ministry of
the Environment.
Park,C.C. (1987) Acrd Rain:Rhetoricand
Reality, London: Methuen.
Park, C.C. (1991) ‘Trans-frontier air pollution:
somegeographical issues’, Geography 76:21-
35.
Pearce, F. (1982) ‘Science and politics don’t mix
a t acid rain debate’, New Scientist 95 (1313):80.
Porcella, D.B., Schofield,C.L.,Depinto, J.V.,
Driscoll, C.T., Bukaveckas, P.A., Gloss, S.P. and
Young, T.C. (1990) ‘Mitigation of acidic con-
ditions in lakes and streams’,in S.A. Norton, S.E.
Lindbergand A.L. Page(eds) Acrdic Precrpi-
tation,Volume 4, Soils,Aquatic Processes and
Lake Acidification, New York: Springer-Verlag.
Ulrich, B. (1983) ‘A concept of forest ecosystem
stability and of acid deposition as driving force for
destabilization’, in B. Ulrich and J. Pankrath (eds)
2, Effects o f Accumulation of AirPollutants in
Forest Ecosystems, Dordrecht, Netherlands:
Reidel.
creatingstorageanddisposalproblemsfor
the nuclear industry.
See also
Periodic table.
Further reading
Friedman,A.M.
(ed.) (1976) Actinides in the
Envrronment, Washington, DC: American Chemical
Society.
ACTIVATED CARBON
Carbon (C), usually in the form of charcoal,
which
has been treatedto
augment its
capacity for adsorption. The process involves
heat-treatment at high temperatures to remove
the hydrocarbons and increase the porosityof
ACTIVATED SLUDGE 10

the carbon. The consequent increase in sur- availablewhenone of thethreephosphate

face area allows the carbon to adsorb large
quantities of gases, vapoursand colloidal
solids. Activated carbonis used extensively in
water and air filters for improving taste and
controlling odours. It is also very effective in
other forms of pollution control such as the
reduction of acidprecipitationthroughthe
removal of sulphur dioxide (SO,) from flue
gas emissions.
Further reading
Bansal, R.C., Donnet, J.-B. and Stoeckli, F. (1988)
Actrue Carbon, New York: M. Dekker.
ACTIVATED SEWAGE SLUDGE
A by-product and active ingredient of second-
ary sewage treatment processes. It is solid
organic material produced by thebiological
degradation of sewage through a combination
of aeration andbacterial activity. The abundant
oxygen (0)introduced during aeration is used
by themicro-organisms as they feed on the
organic matter in the sewageand convertit into
sludgewhichsettles out of the waste water.
Since the sludge contains active bacteria and
other micro-organisms, some of it is recycled to
seed the raw sewage in the aeration tanks, and
to speed up the treatment process.
ACTUARIAL (WEATHER)
FORECAST
An estimation of theprobabilitythata
particular
weathercondition will
occur,
based upon past Occurrences in the meteoro-
logical record. In the past, actuarial forecasts
wereoften used in attemptsatdrought
prediction. They have generally been super-
seded by forecasting methods involving some
form of computer modelling.
ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE
(ATP)
An organicphosphate (C,,H,,N,O,H,P,O,)
present in all
living organisms. It is an
important source of chemical energy for cell
growth, cell reproduction, muscle contrac-
tion and the synthesis of organic compounds
in plantsandanimals.Theenergy is made
groups held by ATP is released. Having lost
one phosphate, the ATP becomes adenosine
diphosphate
(ADP), but
the
process is
reversible, and when energy is available the
ADP may be built up again into ATP.
ATP ++ADP + P + energy
ATP, formed from ADP and phosphate using
light energy absorbed by the chlorophyll in
greenplants,has an integralroleinphoto-
synthesis. The energy stored in ATP is utilized
in the reduction of carbon dioxide (CO,) to
carbohydrates and oxygen is released.
Further reading
Mauseth, J.D. (1995) Botany: An Introductlorr to
Plant Biology, Philadelphia, PA: Saunders.
ADIABATIC PROCESS
A process that involves thermodynamic change
in a system with no transfer of heat or mass
between the system and its surroundings. It
applies in the operation of such devices as air
compressors, internalcombustion engines
andaerosolspraycans,buttheimpact of
adiabatic change is particularly prominent as
air masses travel through the atmosphere. In
the absence of heat exchange, the temperature
of an air mass is governed by changing atmos-
phericpressure.When an airmass rises it
moves into an area of reduced pressure, and
thereforeexpands.Thatexpansion in turn
leads to fall
a in temperature which is
proportional to the pressure
change. A
descending air masswill be compressed as the
atmospheric pressure increases, and its temp-
erature will rise. If the air mass is dry, the rate
of change will be constant at the dry adia-
baticlapserate(DALR). If the air mass is
saturated or becomes saturated, it will cool
(or warm up) at the saturated adiabatic lapse
rate(SALR),which is notconstant.The
relationship between the adiabatic lapse rates
and the environmental lapse rate (ELR) deter-
mines the stability of the atmosphere, which
hasimplicationsfortheaccumulation or
dispersal of air pollutants.
See also
Atmospheric stability.
11
Figure A-5 Orographic uplift and the role of adiabatic processes in the formationof clouds
and precipitation
DALR - dry a d i a b a t i c lapse tate
SALR - saturabd adiabatic lapse rate
Further reading
Ahrens, C.D. (1993) Essentrals of Meteorology, St
Paul, M N : West Publishing.
ADSORPTION
Theattachment of solid,liquid or gaseous
molecules to thesurface of asolid - the
adsorbent - by physical or chemical bonds.
Because of theirability to captureawide
range of impurities, adsorbents are frequently
usedinpollutioncontrolprogrammes.The
adsorbing qualities of activated carbon, for
example, are exceptional, and account for its
extensive use in water purification and gaseous
emissioncontrol systems. As thesurface of
the adsorbent is increasingly covered by the
captured impurities, its abilityto act as afilter
Figure A-6 Backwashing or reversalof flow
in a filter to remove impurities adsorbed
during the filtering process
finered waterout 6
rawwater in dE#E FF -
C rawwater in
lmpurltles out
BACKWCSH
CYCLE CYCLE
AEROBIC
is reduced.However,since the impurities are
not
incorporatedintothe
adsorbentbut
remain on the surface (compare with absorp-
tion), they can be removed relatively easily -
by backwashing, for example - after which
the filteringability of the adsorbentis restored.
Further reading
Ruthven, D.M. (1984) Princrples of Adsorptron
and Adsorptron Processes, New York: Wiley.
ADVECTION
The horizontal transferof energy or matter in
a fluid. It refers particularly to the movement
of air in the atmosphere which results in the
redistribution of such elements as warm or
cold air, moistureorpollutants.Although
advection may also be used to describe vertical
movement, the
term
convection is more
common.
ADVISORY GROUP ON
GREENHOUSE GASES (AGGG)
A group established as a result of the Villach
Conference (1985) to ensure continued aca-
demicand publicinterest in theimpact of
rising levels of greenhouse gases on climate,
the environment and human activities.
AEROBIC
Living or active only in the presence of free
oxygen (0).Organisms which obtain oxygen
AEROSOLS
from the atmosphere during respiration are
aerobic organisms.
See also
Anaeroblc.
AEROSOLS
Finely dividedsolid or liquidparticlesdis-
persed in the atmosphere. They include dust,
soot, salt crystals, pollen grains, spores, bac-
teria, viruses, and a variety of other micro-
scopic particles. Most aerosols are produced
Figure A - 7 A comparison of the size range of
common aerosols with radiation wavelength
J 0 . lpm
12
naturally by volcanic activity, forest and grass
fires, evaporation, local atmospheric turbu-
lence and biologicalprocesses,but human
agricultural
and
industrial activities,
plus
increased energy consumption, have enhanced
the anthropogenic contribution to the aerosol
content of the atmosphere. Within the atmos-
phere, aerosols are redistributed by wind and
pressurepatterns,remaining in suspension
forperiodsrangingfromseveralhours to
severalyears,dependinguponparticle size
andaltitudeattained.Aerosolsarerespon-
sible for atmospheric turbidity, and as a result
disrupttheinwardandoutwardflow of
energy through the atmosphere. Some studies
suggest that high aerosol levels contribute to
globalcoolingthroughtheattenuation of
solar radiation, but thereis also evidence that
they may actually produce a slight warming
through their ability to absorb and re-radiate
outgoing terrestrial radiation. Resolution of
this apparent contradiction will only be pos-
sible through systematicobservation
and
monitoring of atmospheric aerosol levels and
temperatures.
See also
Arctic Haze, Pollution.
Further reading
Shaw, R.W. (1987) ‘Air pollutlon by particles’,
Scientific Antertcan 257: 96-103.
Thompson, K.D. (1995) ‘TheImpact of atmos-
pheric aerosols on global climate: a review’,
Progress In Physical Geography 19: 336-50.
AESTHETIC DEGRADATION
The deterioration of the visual quality of the
environment. Since individual tastes determine
what is or is not aestheticallypleasing, any
definition of aesthetic degradation must remain
broad. Pollutants such as smoke and soot par-
ticles emitted into the atmosphere and sewage
released into rivers and lakes have an obvious
impact on the visual quality of the environ-
ment,butdegradationcan also be brought
about by planned changesto the built environ-
ment,such as thereplacement of historic
buildings by modern apartment blocks, or the
introduction of industryinto previously
a
undevelopedgreen site. It canincludethe
deterioration
associated
with
mining and
13
Figure A-8 Proliferation of street signs in
Hong Kong - essential advertising for some,
aesthetic degradation for others
Photograph: The author
heavy industry or the introduction of power
lines or modem wind generators intowilder- a
ness area.Floraandfaunamustalso
considered. In parts of North America,for
example,theforestindustry is required to
leave a buffer zone of trees around lakes and
other recreation areas, so that people using
theseareasarenotdirectlyexposedtothe
aestheticdegradationthatclearcuttingcan
produce.Formanypeople,viewingwild
animals in their natural habitat is a pleasing
activity, andanyactionthatcompelsthe
animals to leave anareamight be seen as
causing aesthetic degradation.
AFRICAN CENTRE OF
METEOROLOGICAL
APPLICATIONS FOR
DEVELOPMENT (ACMAD)
An organization set up to promote applied
meteorology and climatology in Africa. Cen-
tred inNiger, it began operations in 1990, but Nations Program of Action From Rio, New York:
AGENDA 2 1
had its roots in the response to the droughts
that hit sub-Saharan Africa in the 1970s. Its
activitiesincludethedevelopment of agro-
meteorology,hydrometeorology,
weather
analysis and prediction with the of aim
assist-
ing
African
nations
improve
to food
production, water-resource management and
energy use.
AGENDA 21
A blueprint for sustainable development into
the twenty-first century producedat the United
NationsConferenceonEnvironmentand
Development (UNCED) at Rio de Janeiro in
1992.Itattemptstoembracetheentire
environment and development agenda, through
four sections - social and economic dimen-
sions,
conservation and
management of
resources for development, strengthening the
role of major groups, means of implement-
ation - and forty chapters covering all aspects
of the environment, including such issues as
climate change, ozone depletion, transboun-
dary air pollution, drought and desertifica-
tion. It stresses the importance of improved
international co-operation in observation and
research,the
need to
developanearly
warning system for change and the necessity
to promote a stronger partnership between
environmentalanddevelopmentalagencies.
be Comprehensive asit is, Agenda 21 is far from
ideal. Being the result of compromise among
a large numberof nations, the language tends
to be weak and the recommmendations are
not binding on the nations that adopted it.
Problems remain in the areas of financing the
transition to sustainable development, partic-
ularly in the developing nations, and in areas
such as energy and forestry, vested interests
prevented the agreements from being as com-
prehensive as they might have been.
Further reading
Parson, E.A., H a s , P.M. and Levy, M.A. (1992) ‘A
summary of the major documents signed at the
earth summit and global forum’, Envrronment 34:
12-15 and 34-6.
Spurgeon, D. (1993) Agenda 21: Green Paths to
the Future, Ottawa:InternationalDevelopment
Research Centre.
United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (1993) Agenda 21: The United
AGENT ORANGE 14
United Nations Department of Public Information. (c.5000-1000 BC). (In Central America, the
development of the Mayan civilization
AGENT ORANGE coincides with the later stages of that time
period.)Theyarecreditedwiththefirst
A mixture of the herbicides 2, 4, 5-trichloro- serious domestication of plants and animals,
phenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T) and
2,4- whichpermittedsedentaryagricultureand
dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) used ultimatelythedevelopment of permanent
between 1963 and 1971 by the US military settlementsand local urbanization. All of
during the Vietnam War and named after the thesecivilizationswerelocated on riverine
orange-stripedbarrels in which it was plains in areasthatexperienceddrycon-
delivered.
Both
2,4,5-T and 2,4-D were ditions for partof the year. Natural irrigation
developed in the1940stocontrolbroad- provided by seasonal overbank flooding and
leaved weedsin crops and toremove unwanted artificial irrigation using small dams, cisterns
plants from rangeland, forests and other non- and ditches to redistribute the water, allowed
croplands. In Vietnam,Agent Orangewas year-round cropping and the accumulationof
sprayed on thejungles from low-flying aircraft afoodsurplus.This in turnpermitteda
to defoliate the treesand deny cover to the Viet greater division of labour and the develop-
Cong. It wasalsosprayedoncroplandto ment of social, cultural
and
economic
reduce the food available to them. During the activities notpossibleinamigratorycom-
1970s,concern grewoverpotential health munity or onedependentuponsubsistence
hazards associated with these herbicides, and agriculture.
Accompanying this
was
an
use of 2,4,5-T was
prohibited in many increase in the level of human intervention in
countries from the early 1980s. The presence the environment associated with accelerated
of the dioxin TCDD - the most toxic of the population growth. Natural vegetation was
dioxin family - in 2,4,5-T raised the concern replaced by cultivatedcrops,theaquatic
further since TCDD was
a suspected environment was altered, and the beginnings
carcinogen. Exposure to Agent Orangewas of soil degradation in the form of siltation
identified as a possible reason forperceived andsalinization became apparent in some
increases in health problems such as chloracne areas.
(skindisease),cancer of the immune system
and birth defects among ruralVietnamese, and See also
US, Australian and New Zealand servicemen. Fertile Crescent, Harappan civilization.
Controlled medical studies producedcon-
Further reading
flicting evidence, but the US government now Lamberg-Karlovsky, CC. and Sabloff, J.A. (1979)
paysdisability pensions to Vietnam War AncientCivilizations: The Near Eastand Meso-
veteranssuffering from chloracne, cancer of america, Menlo Park, CA: BenjaminlCummings.
the immune system, certain soft tissue cancers
and nerve disease.
Figure A-9 Location of the original agrarian
See also
civilizations
Organochlorides.

further reading
Van Strum, C. (1983) A Bitter Fog: Herbicrdes and
Human Rights, San Franclsco: Sierra Club.

AGRARIAN CIVILIZATIONS

Generally
refers
to
the
civilizations
that
developed in Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Indus
Valley and the Yellow River Basin (Hwang-
He) in Chinabetween 7000 and 3000 BP
Ir;
AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION
A period of rapidchangeinagricultural
activities in Britain between about 1750 and
1850. New land management and cultivation
techniques hadbeen introduced as early as the
sixteenth century in some areas, but the pace
of change increased sharply after the middle
of the eighteenth century. Improvements were
introduced in all aspects of farming, leading
to greater efficiency andallowingasub-
stantial increase in food production. Greater
attention
was
paid
maintaining
to and
increasing the quality of the soil, by adding
lime and manure. Land that was previously
too wet to be used was brought into production
by improving drainage, and soils in areas too
dry or light were treated with marl, clay rich
incalciumcarbonate(CaCO,),toimprove
theirtexture.Newcropssuchasturnips,
potatoesand
clover
were
grownmore
frequently and crop rotation was introduced.
Experiments with livestock breeding increased
the quality and quantity of meat and wool.
New mechanized or semi-mechanized imple-
ments were developed to deal with all aspects
of cultivation,fromploughing - better
designed steel ploughs - and planting - horse-
drawn seeddrill - to harvesting - horse-
drawn reaper. Theseinnovationsparalleled
similarly innovative changes taking placein
industry and contributedto them by providing
a food surplus for the growing workforce in
the new industrial towns. By the mid-nineteenth
century, even the increased production from
domestic agriculture could not keep up with
the demand from arapidly growing population,
andBritainhad to importfoodstuffs.The
AgriculturalRevolutionchangedtheland-
scape of Britain, replacing natural vegetation
with crops, and open fields with enclosures
surrounded by hedges. In places, it also
contributed to environmental degradation in
the formof soil erosion, where the enthusiasm
for improvement brought land unsuitable for
arable agriculture into production.
Further reading
Hoskins, W.G. (1955) The Making of the English
Landscape, London: Hodder & Stoughton.
Mannion, A.M. (1991) Global Environmental
Change: A NaturalandCulturalEnvwonmental
History, London: Longman.
AGROMETEOROLOGY
Simmons,I.G.(1996) Changingthe Face of the
Earth (2nd edition), Oxford: Blackwell.
AGROCLIMATOLOCY
The studyof the role of climate in all forms of
agriculture,commonlyincludinghydrological
as well as climatological factors. Agricultural
climatology is very muchanapplieddis-
cipline in which the general aim is to use the
knowledge obtained in the studies to improve
the quality and quantity of agricultural output.
See also
Agrometeorology.
Further reading
Monteith,J.L.(ed.)(1975) Vegetationandthe
Atmosphere, London/New York: Academic Press.
AGROFORESTRY
The treatment of trees as an agricultural crop
to provide for the planned production of fuel-
wood, timber, animal fodder and food. Agro-
forestry may also involve the integration of tree
cultivation into existing or planned agri-
culturalactivities. Wheninterplantedwith
farm crops, trees help to regulate temperature
extremes and moisture availability. Leaf litter
adds organic matter and nutrients to the soil,
and leguminoustreeshelp to improvesoil
fertility through theirability to fix nitrogen(N)
fromthe air.Insemi-aridregions andareas
subject to desertification, agroforestry tech-
niques have been used to prevent soil erosion,
reduce water loss and restore soil fertility.
Further reading
Ong, C.A. and Huxley, P.A. (eds) (1996)Tree-Crop
Interactions: A Physiologrcal Approach, Wallingford:
CAB International/ Internatlonal Centre for Research
In Agroforestry.
Pegorie, J. (1990) ‘On-farm agroforestry research:
casestudyfromKenya’ssemi-arldzone’, Agro-
forestry Today 2: 4-7.
AGROMETEOROLOGY
Similar to agroclimatology, in that it involves
the study of the relationships between atmos-
pheric processes and agricultural activity. The
main difference is in scale. Agrometeorologists
tend to emphasize the impact of shorter term
 AGRONOMY 16

weather phenomena (e.g. daily conditions) in uniform,butinternalvariationsaremuch

theirstudies, whereas agroclimatologists are
more involved with longerterm planningusing
mean data sets as their sources. Traditionally,
agrometeorologists have also been more con-
cerned with micro-scaleprocesses,including
conditions in the soil environment. However,
the distinction between the two disciplines is
not always clear, and the terms can often be
used interchangeably without confusion.
AGRONOMY
Thestudy of landmanagementandrural
economy.
The common name for the combination of
gases that make up the earth’s atmosphere.
Air itself is not a gas, but rather a mixtureof
individual gases, each of whichretains its
own particular properties.
AIR MASS
A large body of air in which there is little or no
horizontal variation in temperature, humidity
or atmosphericstability. Since anairmass
can cover an area of more than 1000 km2,
conditionswithin it cannot be completely
less than the differences across the air mass
boundaries. The
air mass approach to
climatology, which links the climateof an area
with the nature, timing and frequency of the
air masses it experiences, was first introduced
in 1928 by the Norwegian meteorologist, Tor
Bergeron.
The classification of air masses is based on
the characteristics they display in their source
regions. Temperatures are linked to latitude
(i.e. tropical, polar, ArctidAntarctic), humidity is
aproduct of surfaceconditions (i.e. land,
water, ice) and stability is a reflection of the
way in which the other two elements com-
bine. Seasonal variations alter the character-
istics of someair masses,particularlythose
originating in higher latitudes in the northern
hemisphere.
As an air massmoves away from its source
region,itcarriesthecharacteristics of that
region with it. For example, cold air masses
originatingintheCanadiannorthmove
south every winter to bring low temperatures
and snow as far south asFlorida. Ultimately,
thermal and dynamic factors, such as heating
andcooling or upliftandsubsidence, will
modify the original propertiesof the air mass.
Cold continental polar (cP) air moving west-
wardsfromScandinaviaandRussia,for
example, will be heated as it passes over the
relatively warm North Sea. When it reaches

Table A - l Air mass characteristics and sources

AIR MASS CHARACTERISTICS

REGION
SOURCE

Maritimetropical(mT)Warm, very moist,

potentially
Tropical
andsub-tropical
oceans unstable
Continental tropical (cT) Hot, dry, variable
stability
Sub-tropical
deserts

Maritime polar (mP) Cool,moist,variablestabilityMid- to high-latitudeoceans

Continental polar (cP) Cold, dry, very stable in winter Central North America and
Cool, less dry, potentially Siberia in winter. Sub-arctic
unstable in summer regions in summer
MaritimeArcticorAntarcticCold,moist,potentiallyArcticandAntarcticOceans
(mAunstable
or mAA)
Continental
Arctic or Cold, dry,
very stable
Antarctica,
frozen
Arctic
(CA Antarctic or cAA) GreenlandOcean,
 17 AIR QUALITY

the United Kingdom, it is forced to rise as it the form of snow. Thus a cold, dry, stable air
crosses the coast, and the moisture picked up mass has been rendered warmer, moister and
as it crosses the sea is precipitated, usually in less stableinitsmovementawayfromthe
source region.

Figure A-20 An air mass climatologyof See also

Canada Polar front.

Further reading
Barry, R.G. and Chorley, R.J. (1992) Atmosphere,
Weather and Climate (6th edition), L o n d o d e w
York: Routledge.

AIR
- POLLUTION
See environmental pollution.

AIR QUALITY

A measure of the degree to which air is pol-

luted - airquality is lowwhenpollution
levels are high and vice versa. Quality may be
Source: After Kemp, D.D. (1994) ‘Global judged
subjectively
through
the
colour,
Warming and the Provincial Norths’ m M.E.
Johnston (ed.) Geogruphrc Perspectives on the clarity or smell of the air, but it can also be
Provincral Norths, Thunder Bay, O n Lakehead related to invisible pollutants such ascarbon
University Centre for Northern StudieslCopp monoxide(CO) or sulphurdioxide (SO,).
Clark Longman Low or decliningairquality levels have

Table A-2 Changing ambient air quality in selected cities

~~~~~~~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~

CITY, COUNTRY*SULPHURDIOXIDE (SO,) SUSPENDEDPARTICULATE

AVERAGE
ANNUAL
MAlTER
AVERAGE
GROWTH RATE ANNUAL
GROWTH RATE
1979-1990 1979-1990
(Yo) (YO)
Beijing, China 3.5 (8) -2.7 (8)
JapanTokyo, -8.9 (17) -4.9 (13)
Kong Hong 14.9 (4)
12.0
India
Delhi,
New (6) -0.3 (7)
Sydney, Australia -10.9 (11) 2.2 (11)
Brazil
Paulo,
Sao -7.5 (12) -9.1 (6)
New York City, UnitedStates -5.8 ( 9 ) -2.2 (11)
Frankfurt,
Germany -7.2 (17) 0.5 (17)
Portugal
Lisbon, -3.0 (10) 0.4 (9)
* All values refer to city centre locations
The figure in parentheses is the total of years in average.

Source: World Bank (1992) Development and Envrronment, New York: Oxford University Press
AIR
adverse effects on people, animals, vegetation
andmaterials,
and
standardshave
been
established to help maintain air quality at a
level which is not detrimental to public health
or welfare.
See also
Air quality standards.
Further reading
Godish, T. (1991) Air Quaky (2nd edition),
Chelsea, MI: Lewis.
AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
Maximumallowableconcentrations of air
pollutants in ambientoutdoorair.Primary
standardsapply to human beings andare
designed toprotectpublichealth,whereas
secondary standards are established to limit
damagetoplantsandmaterials.Themain
pollutants involved are sulphur dioxide (SO,),
oxides of nitrogen (NOx),carbon monoxide
(CO), ground-level ozone (0,)and airborne
particles. In addition, there are as many as
150 to 160 othertoxicchemicals,such as
volatile hydrocarbons, or metals suchas lead
(Pb), which maybe present from timeto time.
The
concentration
values
derived
are
empirically. They vary from pollutant to pol-
lutantand specificvaluesmaydiffer from
jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but they are usually
expressed as an average over a specific time
period.The WHO guidelinesfor NOx, for
example, are a mean of 400 pg/m’ for a one-
hour period and a mean of 150 p g h 3 over a
24-hourperiod.TheEuropeanCommunity
(EC) standards
for NOx are expressed
somewhat differently, requiring that 98 per
cent of the mean hourly values over one year
do not exceed 200 &m’. Standards are also
expressed in parts per million (ppm) or parts
perbillion (ppb). In Ontario,Canada,for
example,airquality is considered poor if
ground-levelozonevaluesexceed 80 pph.
Since the standards are driven by the effects
of the pollutants on people andother
elements in theenvironment, they undergo
regular revision as knowledge of their impact
increases. Once thc standards are established,
it is important to take the necessary steps to
monitor and reduce pollution levels so that
they can be maintained.
18
Further reading
Smith,Z.A. (1995) The Ewrro?tmental Policy
Paradox, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
AIRSHED
A concept developed by analogy with ‘water-
shed’ to representthecatchmentareafor
pollutants around known emission sources.
By comparing the output of pollutants with
theexpectedairmovementandrates of
chemical change, it is possible to arrive at a
crude estimation of the likely pollution con-
centrations within the boundaries of the air
shed.
ALBEDO
A measure of the reflectivity of a bodyor
surface. It is the total radiation reflectedby a
body divided by the total incident radiation,
expressed as a fraction or a percentage. The
average albedo of the earth measured at the
outer edge of the atmosphere - the planetary
albedo - is about 30 percent,butthe
presence or absence of clouds (someof which
have an albedo of 90 percent) will cause
significant differences in that value. Surface
values also varyconsiderably.Newlyfallen
snow reflects most of thesolarradiation
falling on it and has a high albedo - between
75 and 95 per cent - whereas a black asphalt
roadsurface,whichreadilyabsorbsradi-
ation, has a low albedo - less than 10 per
cent. The albedoof vegetation varies between
10 and 25 per cent depending upon the nature
of the vegetation and the season of the year.
Changes in the earth’s reflectivity, brought
about by variations in such elements as cloud,
snowcoverandthedistribution of veget-
ation, may contribute to climatevariability
through their disruption of the earth’s energy
budget.
See also
Atmospheric turbldity.
ALCOHOLS
A group of organic compounds derived from
hydrocarbons through the replacemcnt of a
hydrogen atom in the hydrocarbon molecule
19
by a hydroxyl group. For example, methane
(CH,)becomesmethanol or methylalcohol
(CH,OH).
H anol and ethanol, which are converted into
l I
H - CH- -HC -OH
I I
H H
methanol
methane or
methyl alcohol
Methanol is the simplest of the alcohols and is
sometimes called ‘wood alcohol’ since it can be
produced through the heating and anaerobic
decomposition of wood.One of themost
common alcohols is ethanol or ethyl alcohol
(C,H,OH), produced by the fermentation of
naturalsugars ingrainandfruit,and is the
base for many
alcoholic
beverages.
Both
methanol and ethanol are chemically relatively
simplealcohols.Greatercomplexity is pro-
vided in other examples through the extension
and branching of the basic carbon (C) chain
and the addition of hydroxyl groups.
Alcohols are widely used as solvents in the
foodand beverage, pharmaceutical,printing
and chemicalindustries. Both methanoland
ethanol also have some potential as fuels. Com-
bined with gasoline to form gasohol (10 to 20
percentalcohol by volume),theyhelp to
improve fuel economy and reduce automobile
exhaust emissions. In the 1970s, ambitious
schemes to reduce petroleum imports by pro-
ducing alcohol from grain were set up in the
United States. A similar system using sugar cane
met with some success inBrazil, but as long as
gasoline remains relatively cheap and plentiful,
gasohol is unlikely to become a major fuel.
Since alcohol can be obtained from a wide
range of products, including urban and agri-
cultural waste, its large-scale production also
has the potential to contribute to the solution
of waste disposal problems.
See also
Hydrogen oxides.
Further reading
Zumdahl, S.S. (1993) Chernzstry (3rdedition),
Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath.
A L G A L BLOOM
ALDEHYDES
Organiccompounds formed
throughthe
oxidation of primary alcohols such as meth-
formaldehyde and acetaldehyde respectively.
Further oxidation converts them into acids.
oxidation
oxidation
methanol 4 formaldehyde -+ formicacid
oxidation
oxidation
ethanol 4 acetaldehyde + aceticacid
Aldehydes are used in the productionof resins,
dyes and pharmaceuticals. As by-products of
combustion, they can also be air pollutants,
giving off unpleasantodoursandirritating
eyes and noses.
ALGAE
A group of simple plants which inhabit moist
environments. Most are aquatic, but they are
also found in damp locations on land - they
give damp wallstheircharacteristicgreen
coloration, for example. Sincethey contain
chlorophyll they are capable
of photosynthesis.
See also
Algal bloom, Eutrophmtion.
ALGAL BLOOM
The rapid growth in the number of algae in
an environmentin which nutrient enrichment
or eutrophication hastakenplace.Eutro-
phicationsuppliestheabundantchemical
energynecessary
for
rapidreproduction.
Algal blooms occur naturally in spring and
early summer, when the rate of reproduction
of the algae outstrips thatof their consumers.
However, the most serious algal blooms are
associated with human activities. Phosphates
and
nitrates,
carried
into
waterways in
sewage, agricultural fertilizers and detergents,
providethenutrientsthatcauseexplosive
growth in the algae population. In 1993/94,
for example, more than1000 km of the River
Darling in Australia were affected. The algae
discolour the water in which they are living,
but the biggest problems arise when they die.
Masses of dead and putrifying algae - more
ALKALI 20

than a million tonnes a year are dredged from physical forms, but with the same chemical
the lagoon atVenice in Italy - pollute beaches, properties. Graphite and diamond, for example,
release obnoxious odours, poison the water are allotropic formsof carbon (C),and ozone
and create such a biochemical oxygen demand (0,)is an allotrope of oxygen.
(BOD) that other aquatic organisms die.
ALLOY
See also
Red tides. A combination of two or more metals,usually
to obtain properties not present in the indivi-
Further reading
Pearce, F. (1995) ‘Dead in the water’, New Sclentlst dualconstituents. For example,bronze, an
145 (1963): 26-31. alloy of copper (Cu) and tin (Sn), and oneof
the first alloys to be produced, was used for
ALKALI tools and weaponsbecause it was hard enough
to carry an edge,apropertynotavailable
fromtin or copper.Alloysarecommonly
A compound, usually a soluble hydroxide of
grouped into those containing iron (Fe) as
a metal, such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH),
the elemental metal (ferrous alloys) or those
whichonsolutionwithwaterproducesan
containingametalotherthaniron(non-
excess of hydroxyl ions (OH-). Alkalis
ferrous alloys). The term alloy is also used
neutralize acids to form salts andrelease water
for combinations of metals and non-metals.
formedwhenhydrogen (H+)andhydroxyl
Steel, forexample,maybeconsideredan
ions (OH-) combine. Acidified lakes may be
alloy of iron and carbon (C).Modern industry
neutralized, for example, by the addition of
is highly dependent upon alloys, particularly
calcium hydroxide (Ca( OH),).
thosewhichincludesteel.Theaddition of
suchelementsaschromium(Cr),tungsten
H,SO, + Ca(OH), + CaSO, + 2H,O (W) and nickel (Ni) to carbon steelhas
sulphuric calcium
water improved a variety of its qualities including
acid hydroxide
sulphate corrosion resistance, hardness and flexibility.

See also ALLUVIUM

Acid rain, Base.
Sediment deposited by flowing water in
ALLIANCE OF SMALL ISLAND stream and river beds, or on adjacent land
STATES (AOSIS) whenriversoverflowtheirbanks. Alluvial
sediments are commonly considered to include
A group of states, occupyinglow-lying fine-grained clay, silt and sand, but grainsize
islandsmainly in theSouthPacificand can vary. Forexample,alluvialfansoften
IndianOceansand in theCaribbean,that include coarse gravel and cobbles, as a result
consider themselves most likely to suffer the of the sudden changein velocityof the stream
consequences of therisingsea-leveland andtheconsequentrapiddepositionwhen
increased storminess expectedto accompany the stream emerges from a mountain valley
global warming. Islands such as the Maldives on to the adjacent plain. Fine-grained alluvium
in the Indian Ocean, with a maximum ele- is common in thelowerreaches of rivers,
vation of 6 m and the Marshall Islands in the which,togetherwiththenutrientsincor-
west central Pacific, with an average altitude porated from the entire drainage basin, pro-
of only 3 m abovesea-level, would face serious duces easily worked,fertileandproductive
problems of flooding and coastal erosion, and soils. Although alluvium is a natural product
might well become uninhabitable. of the erosion/transporatation/deposition
cycle in the environment, human activity may
ALLOTROPY
_ _ _ _ ~ provideadditionalmaterialorincreasethe
rate at which it becomes available. Deforest-
The existence of elements in several different ation or the mismanagement of agricultural
21 AMINO ACIDS

Figure A-1 1 An alluvial fan formed where a flowing stream deposits sediments into the
standing waters of a lake

Photograph: The author

land, for example, can lead to accelerated soilcorrosion resistant, aluminum and its alloys
erosion,whichincreasestheavailability of are used in aircraft construction and for other
alluvium
and
disrupts
the
environment uses wherea high strengthlweightratio is
through such processes as siltation, flooding desirable. It is alsogood
a conductor of
and the alteration of aquatic ecosystems. electricity, replacing copper (Cu)for some
purposes in the electricalindustry. Inareas
Further reading suffering fromthe effects of acidrain,high
Miall, A.D. (1996) The Geology of Fluvtal aluminum levels in lakes contribute to fish kills.
Deposits: Sedimentary Facies, Basin Analysrs and
PetroleumGeology, BerlidNew York: Springer-
Verlag. Further reading
Ritter, D.F.,Kochel, R.C. and Miller, J.R. (1995) Cronan, C.S. and Schofield, C.L. (1979) ‘Aluminum
Process Geomorphology (3rd edition), Dubuque, leaching response to acld precipltation: effects on
IA: Wm C. Brown. high elevation watersheds in the north-east’,
Sctence 204: 304-6.
Hatch, J.A. (ed.) (1984)Alummum: Properties and
ALUMINUM/ALUMINIUM (AL): Physical Metallurgy, Metals Park, OH: American
Society for Metals.
A light grey or white metal which is the third
most abundant element in the earth’s crust. AMINO ACIDS
Itsmainoreisbauxite,fromwhichitis
extracted by electrolysis. The process is Organic compounds which combine together
extremely energy intensive and requires tight in chains to form proteins, the basic building
pollutioncontrols. Being light, strongand blocks of livingmatter. Structurally,amino
ANABOLISM 22

acids include a carboxyl group (-COOH) and absence of oxygen (0).Brought about by
an amino group (-NH,). The linking of the anaerobicbacteria,theprocesscommonly
carboxyl group of one acid with the amino causes the production of methane (CH,), a
group of another allows the buildup of the greenhouse gas. Oxides of nitrogen (NOx)
long chains characteristic of proteins. There and ammonium may be released during the
are some twenty common amino acids which anaerobic decay of material containing nitrates,
are consideredessential for humanlife. Twelve and hydrogen sulphide(H,S) may be released
of these can be synthesized by thehuman from materials containing sulphates. Anaerobic
body, but the remaining eight - the so-called processes are usedin the processingof sewage
essential aminoacids - must be obtained effluent,withthemethaneproducedbeing
through the
consumption of plants
and used as a fuel.
animals in the environment. There are a few
complete proteins, such as humanmilk, which See also
contain all the essential amino acids, buta Synfuels.
varied diet is usually necessary to supply the
amino acids required for normalbodily health ANALOGUE
and
development.During
digestion,
the
proteins are broken down into their constituent A system or situation with properties equiv-
amino acids, of whichsomeare used to alent to or closely resembling the properties
synthesizenewproteins, someare used to of some other systemor situation. In environ-
supply energy and some are excreted unused. mentalstudies,analoguemodelsareoften
developed to simulate the workings of earth/
Further reading atmosphere systems, allowing predictions of
Expert
Advisory
Committee on Amino
Acids environmental changeto
be
made
more
(Canada) (1990) Report of the Expert
Advrsory rapidly and without the limitations imposed
Commtttee on Amrno Actds, Ottawa: Health and
Welfare Canada. by the natural environment. The impact of
pollution on a water body, for example, can
be studied using an analogue model without
ANABOLISM
subjecting the water body to real pollution.
Thatpart of metabolismthat involves the
buildup of complex substances from simpler ANALOGUE CLIMATE MODELS
materials, often produced during catabolism.
Through anabolism, animals are ableto grow, Models developed to predict future changes
reproduce,repairdamagedtissue andstore in an existing situation using analogues from
energy. the historical record. The documented develop-
ment of the historical situation is taken as an
See also indication of possible changes in the existing
Ammo acids, Proteins. situation. Prior to the development of com-
puterizedprediction,theanaloguemethod
ANAEROBIC was commonly used in weather forecasting.
The accuracyof such forecastingis limited by
Living or active only in the absence of free theimpossibility of finding anexactcom-
oxygen (0). Organisms which do not require parison of the present with the past.
access to oxygen to produce energyduring
respiration are anaerobic organisms. Further reading
Critchfield, H.J. (1983) Gerteral Climatology (4th
See also editlon), Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Aerobic, Anaerobic decay.
ANHYDRIDE
ANAEROBIC DECAY
A compound formed throught the dehydration
Thebreakdown of organicmaterial in the of an acid or a base. A basic anhydride is the
 23 ANTARCTIC OZONE HOLE

oxide of a metal - calcium oxide (CaO)is the Figure A-12 The enlargementof the ozone
anhydride of calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH),) - hole over the Antarctic between 1979 and
whereas an acid anhydride is the oxide of a 1992
non-metal - sulphurtrioxide (SO,) is the
anhydride of sulphuricacid (H,SO,). The 1979 1982
addition of water to the anhydride reverses
the process as follows:

basic anhydride
CaO + H,O C) Ca(OH),
calcium
water
calcium
oxide

acid anhydride
SO, + H,O C) H,SO,
sulphuric
watersodium
trioxide

ANIMAL COMMUNITY

Agroup of animalsoccupyingacommon
environment. They vary in number and type
according to theparticularelements in the
environment - a tropical animal community will
differ from one in thehigh Arctic, forexample - Source: Environment Canada (1993)A Prrmer on
butthevariousmembers of thecommunity
interact with each other, as well as with the
plants and micro-organisms that are present in
the environment, and as such the animal com-
munity is an integral partof any ecosystem.
ANION
A negatively charged ion. During electrolysis,
anions are attracted to the positively charged
anode.
ANODE
A positive electrode or pole. Being positively
charged,itattractsnegativeions or anions
during electrolysis.In a primary cell or battery,
it 1s theelectrodethatcarriesthepositive
charge.
See also
Cathode.
ANTARCTIC OZONE HOLE
Despite the name, not a true
‘hole’, but rather
1986 1992
Ozone Depletron, Ottawa: Environment Canada
an intense thinning of the stratospheric ozone
(0,)layer above Antarctica. Seasonal thinning
of the ozone above the Antarctic during the
southern spring was long considered part of
the normal variability of the atmosphere in
high southern latitudes. The marked increase
intheintensity of thethinningwasfirst
reported in the early 1980s by scientists of the
British Antarctic Survey at Halley Bay. The
hole commonly became evident in late August
andintensifiedintomid-andlateOctober,
before beginningto fill again in November.By
themid-1980s,however,thinningwasper-
sisting into December. Record levels of ozone
destruction
above
Antarctic
the were
recorded in the firsthalf of the 1990s and the
geographicalextent of theholeincreased,
allowingthethinningtoreachthemore
southerlyparts of Australia, NewZealand
and South America. Bans on the production
and use of CFCs and other ozone-destroying
chemicals should help the Antarctic stratos-
phere to recover, but sincetheirrate of
removalfromtheatmosphere is low, the
ANTARCTIC TREATY 24

Figure A-13 A diagrammatic representationof the sources and typesof anthropogenic

aerosols
H20
.STRATOSPHERE
............................................ "lVates ....._.." +
TROPOSPHERE hydrocarbons aviation

.. .: . ...
,$,::soot . .
._.:.:... ... ...
dust .::l..
_..::.:..
.. ... '.
..._:x v..

quarrying urban and agriculture

industrial
activities

annual enlargement of the Antarctic ozone ANTHROPOGENIC AEROSOL

hole is likelyto persist, at least in the short term. SOURCES
See also Sources of aerosols released into the atmos-
Arctic ozonehole, Heterogeneous chemical reactions, phere by human activities, suchas mining and
Montreal Protocol, Ozone depletion, Ozone Pro-
tection Act.
quarrying,agricultureandindustrialpro-
cesses.
Further reading
Farman,J.C.,Gardiner, B.G. andShanklin,J.D. ANTIBIOTICS
(1985) 'Largelosses of total ozone in Antarctica
reveal
seasonal CIOX/NOyinteraction', Nature
315: 207-10. Chemicals produced by living micro-organisms
such as bacteria and moulds, which are able
Gribbin, J. (1993) The Hole i?z the Sky, New York:
Bantam. to destroy or inhibitthegrowth of other
Johnson, B.J., Deshler, T. andZhao, R. (1995) micro-organisms. Their development allowed
'Ozone profiles at McMurdo Station, Antarctica, the first effective control of diseases caused
duringthespring of 1993:recordlowozone
season', Geophysxal Research Letters 22: 183-6. by bacteria and fungi. Although mouldy sub-
stanceshave beenused for
centuries in
traditionalmedicine to treatinfection,the
ANTARCTIC TREATY
modern development of antibiotics began with
the discovery of penicillin in 1928. Since then,
A treaty that came intoeffect in 1961, signed numerousantibioticshave beendeveloped.
by the sixteen nations involved in Antarctic Many continue to be derivedfrommoulds
research at that time. It confirmed the use of andbacteria,butsomearenowproduced
Antarcticaforpeacefulpurposes only, and synthetically, and others combine both forms
contained provision for the protection of the of production.Antibioticsare used exten-
flora and fauna in the Antarctic environment. sively to combatinfection in humans, animals
The Treaty was subsequently reinforced by and plants, but such large-scale use has also
agreements on the conservation of seals and allowed the development of resistant bacteria,
other marine organisms in the area. no longer sensitive to the antibiotics. New or
improved antibiotic
strains
are
regularly
Further reading required to overcome such resistance.
Herr, R.A., Hall, H.R. andHaward, M.E. (eds)
(1990) Afztarctrca's Future: Corztrwrty or Change,
Hobart, Tasmania: Tasmanian Government Prmt- Further reading
ingOffice/AustralianInstitute o f International Coghlan, A. (1996) 'Animalantibioticsthreaten
Affairs. hospital epidemlcs', N e w Screntrst 151 (2040): 4.
25 ANTICYCLONE

ANTIBODY from higher levels in the atmosphere (warm

anticyclone).Coldanticyclonesareshallow
A proteinproduced by ananimalinauto- domes of cold, dense air caused by radiative
matic response to the presence of a foreign cooling. They are a common feature of the
substance (antigen) in thebody. The presence atmospheric circulation over North America
of bacteria or a virus in the blood, for example, and Asia during the winter when radiative
will promote the production of specific anti- cooling over the snow-covered landscape is
bodies which kill or neutralize such antigens, strong. Warm anticyclones are semi-permanent
by combining with them to formless harmful features of sub-tropical regions where the air
substances which are eventually expelled from from the tropical HadleyCells sinks towards
the body. Theprocessprovideslong-term thesurface.Adiabaticwarmingcausesthe
immunity to specific antigens since the cells temperature of the subsiding air to rise and its
that produce the antibodies remain active in relative humidity to decrease. The combination
the bloodstream. This is the basis of disease of a steady flowof air from the upper atmos-
control by inoculation, in
which
limited phere, warming and drying as it descends,
numbers of antigens are injected into the body inhibits precipitation, and the world’s major
to stimulate the production of antibodies and sub-tropical deserts are located beneath warm
provideprotectionagainstfutureinfection. anticyclones. The surface circulationof air in
Although antibodies are primarily beneficial, an anticyclone is clockwise in the northern
some may lead to secondary allergic reactionshemisphereandcounter-clockwiseinthe
such as those associated with hay fever or southern hemisphere, but winds are generally
asthma. Thereis evidence that the incidence of light and variable towards the centre. As a
such allergic reactionsis increasing along with result, mixing in the lower atmosphere tends
the rising level of environmental pollution. to be poor and pollutants readily accumulate.
Warm anticyclonic conditions contribute to
smog in Los Angeles, for example, whereas a
ANTICYCLONE persistent cold anticyclone had a major role
in the London Smog of 1952.
A zone of high atmospheric pressure created
by the cooling of air close to the earth’s sur- See also
face (cold anticyclone) or the sinking of air Adiabatic process.

Figure A-14 The formationof warm and cold anticyclones

Plan view: northern hemisphere circulation

10000
c
+m

warm anticyclone
cold anticyclone warm and deep
cold and shallow e.g. Subtropical high
e.g. Siberian high
APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY 26
Further reading areharmed by suchpollution,andtheir
Ahrens, C.D. (1993)Essentfals of Meteorology, St numbers are further threatenedby overfishing
Paul, MN: West Publishing.
and excessive hunting.

APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY See also

Atmospheric envlronment, Terrestrial environment.
Technology designed to meet the needs of a
group of people at a specific time in their AQUIFER
developmentwithoutimposingunmanage-
able stress on resources and the environment. A layer of rock beneath the earth's surface
The concept applies particularly to develop- sufficientlyporousandpermeable to store
ing nations, where environmentally compatible significant quantities of water.Aquifers
devices - hand tools, methane (CH,) digesters, provide water for human settlement in those
wind and water-powered machinery - using areaswhere
surfacewater is absentor
locallyavailableresourcesareencouraged. inadequate. Any water loss from an aquifer is
The term has also beenused indeveloped made up through precipitation, but in most of
nationsdescribe
to technologythat is the world's major aquifers, such as those in
relatively simple, locally adaptable, resource- the Ogallala formation in the United States
efficient
and
environmentallyfriendly. and the Great Artesian Basin of Australia, the
Modern recycling technology would fit that groundwater supply is decliningbecause
category, for example. society is ableto remove the water faster than
it can be replenished.Inparts of Kansas,
Further reading Oklahoma, New Mexico and Texas, served
Barbour, I.G. (1993) Ethrw In an Age of Tech- by the Ogallalaaquifer,
water is being
nology, San Francisco, CA: Harper. withdrawn at a rate twenty times faster than
Getis. J. (1991) You Can Make a Difference: Hefp
Protect the Earth, Dubuque, 1A: Wm C . Brown. it is being replenished, and water levels have
declined by as much as 30-60 m since the
1940s. The removal of groundwater without
AQUATIC BIOTA recharge can also lead to land subsidence, as
in MexicoCity,wheredepletion of the
Organismslivinginthehydrosphere - the underlying aquifers has allowed the land to
water-based component of the biosphere. sink,
and
caused
structural
damageto
buildings and roads.
AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT
See also
That partof the environment that includes the Artesian well, Permeability, Porosity, Recharge.
water resting on or flowing over the earth's
Further reading
surface and the plants and animals thatlive in Owen, O.S. and Chlras, D.D. (1995) Natural
it. The quality of the aquatic environment is ResourceConservation:Management for a SUS-
being threatened by pollutants originating in tatnableFuture, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-
human and industrial waste. The aquatic biotaHall.

Figure A-25 The characteristics of a simple aquifer

water ?able well spring,line

27 A R C T I CH A Z E

ARAL SEA rehabilitationschemesincludereduction of

Oncethefourthlargestinlandlake in the
world, covering 64,000 sq km, but now much
depleted,theAral Sea occupiesadrainage
basin in arid Central Asia, on the border of
KazakhstanandUzbekistan. In the 1960s,
when the area wasstill part of the Soviet Union,
major irrigation schemes were developed to
increasecottonproduction.Thisinvolved
diverting most of the water entering the sea
through the Amu Dar’ya and Syr Dar’ya river
systems. Over the thirty years since then, the
declining amount of water entering the Aral
Sea has caused it to shrink by 30 per cent and
created what is considered by many environ-
mentalists to be one of the world’s greatest
environmental disasters. A fishery that once
providedlargecatches of carp,perchand
sturgeonhasendedbecausethewatersare
now too salty and shallow. Salts, along with
toxic herbicides and pesticides, blow off the
exposed sea bed to contaminate the surround-
ing land, and cause respiratory and other health
problemsforthe local inhabitants.Proposed
the amount of water being diverted from the
rivers flowing into the basin or diversion of
water from rivers such as the Irtysh that flow
north to the Arctic.Given theeconomic
climate in thestates of theformerSoviet
Union, neither approach seems likely to be
implemented in the near future.
Further reading
Brown, L.R. (1991) ‘The Aral Sea: going, going . . .’,
World- Watch4 ( 1 ): 20-7.
ARCTIC HAZE
Thepollution of theArcticatmosphere,
mainlyinwinter, by aerosols such as dust,
soot and sulphate particles originating Eur- in
asia. The haze is most pronounced between
DecemberandMarchforseveralreasons,
including the increased emissionof pollutants
at that season, the more rapid and efficient
poleward transport in winter and the longer
residence time of haze particles in the highly
stable Arctic airat that time of year. Arctic air

Figure A-16 The shrinking Aral Sea

I987 0
1 2ooo? Aralsk.

Caspian

h
ARCTIC OZONE HOLE 28

Figure A-l 7 An estimate of the mean vertical
profile of the concentration of
anthropogenic aerosol mass in the high
Arctic during March and April. (C(H)/C(O)
is the concentration at specific
a altitude
divided by the concentration at the surface.)
less ready to form, and ozone destruction is
less efficient. The less developed Arctic circum-
polar vortex also allows the loss of ozone at
the pole to be offset to some extent by the
influx of ozone from more southerly latitudes.
Thus, it seemed unlikely that a distinct hole
would develop over the Arctic. Into the mid-
1990s, however, the Arctic circumpolar vor-
tex has become stronger and more persistent,
and stratospheric ozone concentrations over
the Arctic and adjacenthigh latitudes in Europe
and North America have been as much as 20-
40% below the 1979-1986 springaverages.

Further reading
Pyle, J. (1991) ‘Closing m on Arctic ozone’, New
Screntist 132 (1794):49-52.
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
AREA OF OUTSTANDING
C(H)Km
NATURAL BEAUTY (AONB)
Source: After Barrie, L.A. (1986) ‘Arctic air
pollution: an overview of current knowledge’, An area in England and Wales which has been
Atmospheric Environment 20: 643-63 recognized by the Countryside Commission
asworthy of preservationbecause of its
pollution has increased since the mid-1950s natural
beauty.
Such
areas
are
outside
in parallel with increased aerosol emissions innational parks, and the AONB designation
Europe, and the net result has been a measur- allows
local
authoritiesto
pass
specific
able reduction in visibility and perturbation of legislation to protect them.
the regional radiation budget.
ARIDITY
Further read@
Barrie, L.A. (1986) ‘Arctic air pollution: an over-
view of current knowledge’, Atmospheric Envrron- Figure A-l 8 Distribution of arid lands by
ment 20: 643-63. continent
Shaw, G.E. (1980) ‘Arctic Haze’,Weatherwise 33:

I 1 1
219-21. Africa
Australia
North
World

I
America
ARCTIC OZONE HOLE A Y Eu;ope South
% America
l00
Following the discovery of the major thinning
of the ozone layer over the Antarctic, scien- 80
tistsbegan to examinethepossibilty of a
similardevelopmentovertheArctic.The 60
European Arctic Stratospheric Ozone Experi-
ment(EASOE)
was
established
the
in 40
northern winter of 1991-1992 to establish 20
the nature and extent of ozone depletion over
the Arctic. Preliminary results indicated the 0
absence of a distinct hole over the Arctic, but hyper-arid semi-arid
decreases of 10-20 per cent in Arctic ozone
weredetected. Because theArcticstratos- arid drysub-humid
phere is generally warmer than its Antarctic
counterpart,polarstratosphericcloudsare Source: UN Web Page
29 ASBESTOS

Permanent dryness caused by low average rain- a component of someherbicides.Arsenic

fall, often (but not always)in combination with
high temperatures. The deserts of the world are
permanently arid, with rainfall amounts of less
than 100 mm per year, and evapotranspiration
rates well in excess of that amount.
See also
Drought.
Further reading
Beaumont, P. (1993) Drylands:
Environmental
Management and Development,London: Routledge.
accumulates in the environment so that small
doses,relativelyharmless individually, may
eventually kill organisms. This has been the
basis of fictional andnon-fictionalmurder
plots, but consumption of water containing
as little as 50 pg per litre of arsenic will cause
sickness and perhaps death for some organ-
isms. Accumulation of arsenic in soil can also
poison plants and soil organisms.
See also
Allotropy.

ARRHENIUS, S.
A Swedish chemist usually credited with being
the first to recognize that an increase in atmos-
phericcarbondioxide(CO,)wouldlead
global warming. He published his findings in
the
late
nineteenthand
early
twentieth
centuries a t a time when the environmental
implications of the Industrial Revolution were
just beginning to be appreciated. Little atten-
tionwaspaid to thepotentialimpact
increased levels of carbon dioxide on climate
forsometimeafterthat,andthecarbon
dioxide-inducedtemperatureincreasesesti-
mated by Arrhenius in 1903 were not bettered
until the early 1960s.
Further reading
Bolin, B. (1972) ‘Atmospheric chemistry
and
environmentalpollution’,in D.P. McIntyre(ed.)
MeteorologicalChallenges: A History, Ottawa:
Information Canada.
ARSENIC
A highly toxic element which exists in three
allotropicforms - grey, black and yellow
arsenic.Itoccursnaturallyintheenviron-
ment,being released fromarsenic-bearing
rocks through weathering. Human activities
such as coalburningandtherefining
sulphide-richmineralsaddarsenic to the
atmosphere. Arsenic is used in the production releaseasbestosfibresintotheatmosphere,
of alloys and pigments and in semi-conductors.
Its toxicity has allowed it to be used against
infection
in
medicine and as a pesticide
against a variety of organisms from insects to
rats. Modern synthetic chemicals have replaced
arsenic for many pesticideuses, but it remains
ASBESTOS
The name given to a group of fibrous silicate
minerals which are resistant to heat, fire and
to
chemicals, and which provide electrical and
thermal insulation. Chrysolite, a fibrous form
of serpentine mined mainly in Quebec,Canada
is the most common type of asbestos. Proces-
sedintotextiles or combinedwithother
materials, asbestos has been used in a great
of
variety of products,includingautomobile
brakepads,
roofing
and
flooring tiles,
protective clothing for fire-fighters, pipe and
boilerinsulation.Despite its manyadvan-
tages, the use of asbestos is now banned or
strictly regulated in many countries, because
it is considered to be a major health hazard.
The inhalation of asbestos fibres can lead to
asbestosis - chronic lung damage characterized
by breathlessness, coughing and chest pains-
as well as cancer of the lung and chestcavity.
Health hazards associated with exposure to
asbestos have been recognized since at least
the 1930s, but it is only since the 1960s and
1970s that its production and use have been
strictlycontrolled.Thousands of products
containing asbestos remain in use, and many
buildingsretain
sound-proofing and fire-
proofing asbestos in their walls and ceilings.
of Uncontrolleddisposal of asbestosproducts
and the demolition of buildings continues to
sometimes in large quantities. An exceptional
situationfollowedtheKobeearthquake in
Japan in 1995,whendemolition of unsafe
buildingsandtheclean-up of debris led to
short-term atmospheric asbestos levels some
twenty-five times the national average.
ATMOSPHERE 30
Further reading Selikoff, 1. J. and Lee, D.H.K. (1978)Asbestos and
Baarschers, W.H. (1996) Eco-facts and EGO- Disease, New York: Academic Press.
fictron, LondonlNew York: Routledge.

ATMOSPHERE
1 thickblanket of gases,containing sus- Lists of atmospheric gases normally refer
)ended liquid and solidparticles, that to dry air, but the atmosphereis never com-
:ompletely envelops the earth, and together pletely dry. The proportion of water vapour
with the earth forms an integrated environ- in the atmosphere in the humid tropics may
nentalsystem. As part of thesystem, it be as much as4 per cent and even above the
)erformsseveral
functions
that
have world’s driest deserts thereis water present,
dowed humankind to survive and develop if only in fractional amounts.Water is unique
dmostanywhereonthe earth’ssurface. among the constituents of the atmosphere
-.
x s t , theatmosphereprovidesandmain- in that it is capable of existingassolid,
.aim the supply of oxygen (0)required for liquid or gas, and of changing readily from
ife itself. Second, it controlstheearth’s one state to another.
:nergy budget through such features as the In addition to the gaseous componentsof
,zone layer and the greenhouse effect, and - the atmosphere and the water in its various
3y means of its internal circulation - dis- forms, there are also solid or liquid particles
:ribUtes heat and moisture across the earth’s dispersed in the air. These arecalled aerosols.
surface. Third, it has the capacityto dispose and include dust, soot, salt crystals, spores.
3f waste material or pollutants generated by bacteria, viruses anda variety of othel
natural or human activity. Society has inter- microscopic particles. Collectively, they arc
fered with all of these elements, and, through often regarded as equivalent to air pollution
ignorance of the mechanisms involved or lack although many of the materials are producec
of concern for theconsequences of its actions,
has created or intensified problems that are Table A-3 The average gaseous
now causing concern on a global scale. composition of ambient air
The constituents of the atmosphere are
collectively referred to as air, a mixture of
individual gases, water and aerosols. GAS Yo BY PARTS PER
VOLUME MILLION
Accounting for more than 99 per centof
the volume of the gaseous atmosphere, nitro- Nitrogen 78.08 780,840.00
gen (N) and oxygen(0)are the major gases.
Some of theremainingso-calledminor 20.95 Oxygen 209,500.00
gases have an importance
9,300.00 far beyond0.93 their Argon
volume. Carbon dioxide (CO,) and methane
(CH,) are important greenhouse gases, for Carbon
dioxide
0.0345 345.00
example.Fromtime to time,othergases Neon 0.0018 18.00
suchassulphurdioxide (SO,), oxides of
nitrogen (NOx),hydrogensulphide(H,S) Helium 0.00052 5.20
and carbon monoxide (CO), along with a Methane 0.00014 1.40
variety of more exotic hydrocarbons, may
becomeconstituents of theatmosphere. Krypton 0.00010 1.oo
Evensmall
in quantities
they
can
0.50 be
0.00005 Hydrogen
harmful to the environment, and although
they
may be produced 0.09 their
naturally, 0.000009 Xenon
presence is increasingly associatedwith
VariableVariable Ozone
pollution from industrialor vehicular sources.
 31 CIRCULATION ATMOSPHERIC

naturally by volcanic activity, forest and grass Further reading

fires, evaporation,localatmosphericturb- Ahrens,
C.D. (1994) Meteoro[og~Today, St
Paul, MN: West Publishing.
ulence and biological processes.
Moran, J.M. and Morgan, M.D. (1997) Meteor-
ology: The Atmosphere attd Sclerzce of Weather.
also See Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentlce-Hall.
Atmospheric
circulation,
Atmospheric
layers,
Atmospheric turbidity.

ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION southern hemisphere, where the greater expanse

of ocean more closely resembles the uniform
The large-scale movement of air around and surface of the model.
above the earth, associated with complex but In the late 1940s and 1950s, as knowledge
of the atmosphere improved, it became
distinct patternsof pressure systems and wind
belts. I t is driven by latitudinal variations in increasingly evident that the three-cell model
theearth’senergybudget,andthroughthe oversimplifiedthegeneralcirculation.The
redistribution of energy helps to reduce these mainproblemarosewiththemid-latitude
variations. George Hadley first proposed the cell. Observations indicated that most energy
classic model of the general circulation of the transfer in mid-latitudes was accomplished by
atmosphere in 1735 as a simpleconvective horizontal cells - such as travelling high and
system,based ontheconcept of a non- low pressure systems- rather than the vertical
rotatingearthwith a uniformsurface,that cell indicated by themodel.Moderninter-
waswarmattheequatorandcoldatthe pretations of thegeneralcirculation of the
poles. Warm buoyant air rising at the equator atmosphereretainthetropicalHadley cell,
spreadnorth
and
south in the
upper but horizontal eddies have come to dominate
atmosphere, eventually
returning the
to mid-latitudes, andhaveevenreplacedthe
surface in high o r polar latitudes. From there, simple thermal cell of polar latitudes.
it flowed back across the surface towards the Conditions in the upper atmosphere are an
equator to close the circulation. integral part of modern studies of the atmos-
Hadley’s originalmodel,withits single pheric circulation.Theupperatmospheric
convection cell in each hemisphere, was circulation is quite complex in detail, but in
eventually replaced by a three-cell model as
technology advanced and additional inform- Figure A - l 9 Simple convective circulation on
ation became available, but his contribution a uniform, non-rotating earth, heated at the
was recognized in the naming of the tropical equator and cooled at the poles
cell. The three-cell model continued to assume
a uniformsurface,buttherotation of the
earth was introduced, and withit the Coriolis
effect, which causes moving objects to swing
to the right in the northern hemisphere andto
the left in the southern. Thus, the winds became
westerly or easterly in this new model, rather
than blowing north or south as in the one-cell
version. The threecells and the Corioliseffect,
in combination, produced alternating bands
of high and low pressure, separated by wind
belts whichwereeasterly in equatorialand
polarregionsandwesterly in mid-latitudes.
Althoughonlytheoretical,elements of this
Source: After Kemp, D.D. (1994) Global
modelcan be recognizedinexistingglobal Envirotzmental Issues: A Climatologrcal
wind and pressure patterns, particularlyin the Approach, LondonlNew York: Routledge
ATMOSPHERIC
Figure A-20 Global atmospheric circulation patterns for January and July
Source: After Kemp (1994)
general termsit is characterizedby an easterly
flow in the tropics and a westerly flow in
mid- to high latitudes. The upper westerlies
includeapattern of waves,calledRossby
waves, which vary in amplitude in a quasi-
regularsequencerepresented by theindex
cycle. During the runof any one cycle there is
significant latitudinal energy transfer. Within
these broad airflows, at the tropopause, there
are
relatively
narrowbands of rapidly
moving air called jet streams, in which wind
32
speeds may average 125-130 km per hour,
although much higher speeds mayoccur.
Modern representations of the generalcir-
culation of the atmosphere take into account
the non-uniform natureof the earth’s surface,
withitsmixture of landandwater,and
include consideration of seasonal variations
in energy flow. Differences in their physical
properties ensure that land and sea warm up
and cool down at different rates. This creates
significanttemperaturedifferencesbetween
33 ATMOSPHERIC

landandwater,andproducesaseries of Figure A-21 A vertical profileof the

pressure cells rather than the simple belts of atmosphere

-
the original models. By altering the regional
airflow, such pressure differences cause dis- 100 temperarum profle
ruption of the theoretical wind patterns. The THERMOSPHERE
changing location of the zone of maximum mesopause
80 [m<
insolation with the seasons also causes vari-
ations in the location, extent and intensity of
MESOSPHERE
the pressure cells and wind belts. Although
such changes are repeated year after year they \
arenotcompletelyreliable,andthisadds
anadditionalelement of variabilitytothe
representation of the atmospheric circulation.

See also
Atmospherlc models, Geostrophic wmd.
TROPOSPHERE
Further reading I I I1 1 1
Barry, R.G. and Chorley, R.J. (1992) Atmosphere, -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 +20
Weather and Climate (6th edition), LondonNew
York: Routledge. temperature ( OC)
Lorenz, E.N. (1967) The Nature and Theoryof the
General Circulatron of the Atmosphere, Geneva: commondifferentiation of theatmosphere
WHO. into a seriesof layers is basedon temperature.
The lowest layer is the troposphere, which
ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT ranges in thickness from about 8 km at the
poles to about 16 km at the equator. Within
Thegaseousenvelopethatsurroundsthe the
troposphere,
temperatures character-
earth, which includes not only gases, but also isticallydecreasewithaltitudeatarate of
a variety of liquids and solids. It also incor- 6.5OC per km. This tropospheric lapse rate is
poratesthevariousprocessesthatcreate quite
variable,
particularly close
to
the
weather conditions. The atmospheric environ- surface, which helps to produce instability in
ment is being threatened a t all scales, from thesystemandmakesthetropospherethe
local t o global, by theaddition of visible most turbulent of the atmospheric layers.
pollutants such as dust, soot and smoke as Thetropopausemarkstheupperlimit
well as by invisiblegasessuch ascarbon of thetroposphere.Beyond it, in
the
dioxide (CO,) andsulphurdioxide (SO,). stratosphere,isothermalconditionsprevail;
Manycurrentenvironmentalissues - acid temperatures remain constant, oratabout the
rain, ozone depletion, global warming - are level reachedatthetropopause,up to an
associated with the disruption of the atmos- altitude of about 20 km. Above that level the
pheric environment. temperature begins to rise again, reaching a
maximum some 50 km above the surface, at
See also the stratopause, where temperatures close to
Aquatic environment, Atmosphere, Terrestrial or slightlyabove 0°C are common. This is
environment. caused by the presence of ozone (OJ, which
absorbsultravioletradiationfromthesun,
ATMOSPHERIC LAYERS and warms the middle and upper levels of the
stratosphere, creating a temperature inversion.
Althoughitsgaseouscomponentsarequite The combination of that inversion with the
evenlymixed,theatmosphere is notphys- isothermallayerinthelowerstratosphere
icallyuniformthroughout.Differencesin createsverystableconditions so thatthe
temperatureandpressureprovideitwith stratospherehasnone of theturbulence
form and structure, for example, and the mostassociated with the troposphere.
A T M O S P H E R I C MODELS 34

Temperatures again decrease with height units have been used to measure atmospheric
abovethestratopauseandintothemeso- pressure including inches of mercury (29.92
sphere,falling as low as -100°C atthe in Hg) and millibars (1013.2
mb),
but
mesopause, some 80 km above the surface. currentlythekilopascal (101.32 kp) is the
The
thermosphere stretches
above
this standard SI unit. Pressure differences lead to
altitude with no obvious outer limit. In this air movement at all scales, from local to con-
layer, temperatures may exceed IOOO"C, but tinental, and drive the atmospheric circulation.
suchvaluesarenotdirectlycomparable to
temperatures in the stratosphere and tropos- See also
phere, because of the rarified nature of the Vapour pressure.
atmosphere at very high altitudes.
For the climatologist and the environmen- ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY/
talist,thetroposphereandthestratosphere INSTABILITY
are the most important structural elementsin
theatmosphere.Themainconversionand The stability o r instability of the atmosphere
transfer of energyintheearthhtmosphere is determined by itsresponse to change. A
system takes place within these two layers of stable atmospherewill resist change, whereas
the lower atmosphere, and interference with anunstableone will allowthechange to
the mechanisms involved has contributed to develop.Theterms
are
mostcommonly
thecreationandintensification of current applied to vertical motion in the atmosphere.
problems in the atmospheric environment. If a parcel of air is forced to rise in a stable
atmosphere, for example, it will return to its
See also original position once the force which caused
Environmental lapse rate. it to rise has been removed. In an unstable
atmosphere, the parcel would continue to rise
Further reading away from its original position. The stability
Kemp, D.D. (1994) GIohaI Envrrorzmental Issues:
A Climatolog~alApproach (2nd edition), London/ or instability of theatmospherecan be
New York: Routledge. determined by comparing the environmental
lapserate(ELR)withthedryorsaturated
adiabatic lapse rates (DALRor SALR). If the
ATMOSPHERIC MODELS
DALR is greater than the ELR, then a dry
parcel of airrising in theatmosphere will
Physical or mathematical representations of always be cooler and therefore denser than
theworkings of theatmosphere,ranging the surrounding air andwill therefore tend to
from regional models such as the mid-latitude fall once the force causing it to riseceases.
cyclonic models used in weather forecasting Theatmosphere is thereforestable.Con-
to general circulation models which attempt versely, if the DALR is less than the ELK the
to represent global circulation patterns. atmosphere will be unstable. similar
A
relationship between the ELR and the SALK
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE will produce stability or instability also. As
air rises and cools, however,its
relative
Thepressureexerted by theweight of the humidityincreasesand it mayultimately
constituents of the atmosphere on theearth's become saturated. I n that case it will cool at
surface and anything on that surface. Atmos- the SALR, which is always less thanthe
pheric pressure decreases with height, but not DALR. It is possible therefore thata parcel of
at a constant rate. The rate is greatest within air will begin to ascend cooling at a DALR
rhe first 5 km above the surface, where most greaterthanthe ELR, butfollowingsatur-
of the atmosphere is concentrated, and much ation will cool at a rate less than the ELR,
less above 20 km. Average sea-level pressure whichleads to instability.Suchinstability
is 101.32 kp, but varies considerably in time whichdependsuponsaturation is called
andplace,withpressurebeingparticularly conditional
instability.
The
stability or
responsive to temperaturechanges.Various instability of the atmosphere is important in
35 ATMOSPHERIC TURBIDITY

Figure A-22 Atmospheric lapse rates and air pollution climatology. Pollutants tend to
atmospheric stability accumulate under stable conditions and are
more easily dispersed when the atmosphere
is unstable.
\
Further reading
Oke, T.R. (1987) Boutzdary Layer Climates (2nd
edition), London: Methuen.

ATMOSPHERIC TURBIDITY

A measure of the atmosphere's aerosol con-

tent as indicated by the attenuation of solar
radiation passing
through it. Formost
purposes, it can be considered as
an
indication of the dustiness or dirtiness of the
atmosphere. Volcanicactivity, duststorms
* and variety
a of physical and organic
temperature processes provide aerosols which are incor-
tropopause poratedintotheatmosphere.Oncethere,
they are redistributed by way of the wind
\ andpressurepatterns,remaining in sus-
pensionforperiodsrangingfromseveral
hours to several years
depending upon
particle size and the altitude attained. Human
\ industrialandagriculturalactivities also
'\ UNSTABLE help to increaseturbidity levels, butthe
\ '. anthropogenic production of aerosols can-
\. .., 'S\ not match the volume of material produced
naturally. The presence of aerosols in the
\\ .. atmospheredisruptstheinwardandout-
.. ward flow of energythroughtheearth/
atmospheresystem.Studies of periods of
intense volcanic activity suggest that the net
temperature effect of increased atmospheric turbidity is
cooling, and some of the coldest yearsof the
tropopause LittleIceAgehavebeencorrelatedwith
A majorvolcaniceruptions.Theeruption of
Mount Pinatuboin 1991 was blamed for the
cool summer of 1992 in North America and
was ultimately linked with a global temper-
9)
aturereduction of 0.5"C. Presentopinion
UNSTABL€
S
c.
sees increased atmospheric turbidity actually
producing a slight warming.
5
See also
Aerosols, Dust Veil Index, Little Ice Age, Nuclear
winter, Pollution, Volcano.

Further reading
Fennclly, P.F. (1981) 'The orlgin and influence of
> airborne particles', in B.J. Skinner (ed.) Climates,
temperature Past and Present, Los Altos, CA: Kauffmann.
AT0M
Groisman, P.Y. (1992)‘Possibleregionalclimate
consequences of the Pinatubo eruption:an empirical
approach’, Geophysrcul Research Letters 19:
1603-6.
Lamb, H.H.(1970)‘Volcanic dust In the atmos-
phere;wlthachronology and assessment of its
meteorological significance’, Philosophical Truns-
actions of the Royal Socrety, A 266: 435-533.
ATOM
The smallest unit of an element that retains
the characteristics of that element and can
take part in a chemical reaction. An atom
consists of a central core or nucleus which
consists of two types of stableparticles -
protons and neutrons. Protons are positively
charged, neutrons are electrically neutral. The
positive charges of the protons are balanced
by an equal number of electrons, which are
negativelychargedparticlesdistributedin
orbits or shells around the nucleus. Since the
number of electronsequalsthenumber of
protons, the atomis electrically neutral.
Figure A-23 A diagrammatic representation
of the structure of a hydrogen atom and an
oxygen atom
36
ATOMIC BOMB
An explosive device in which the explosive
power is provided by the fission of radioactive
elements suchas usuranium (U) or u9plutonium
(Pu).When two subcritical massesof the appro-
priate elements are brought together to create
a critical mass, an uncontrolled chain reaction
takes place, and the energy released is equiv-
alent to the explosionof thousands of tonnes
ofTNT. In addition to producing instantaneous
destruction, the impact of atomic bombs can
continue for many years through the radio-
activitythattheyreleaseintotheenviron-
ment. The first - and, as yet, only - atomic
bombs to be used as weapons were dropped
on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan in 1945.
See also
Nuclear fisslon, Thermonuclear device.
Further reading
Wilson, J. (ed.) (1975) All m ourTime:The
Rwinrscences of Twelve
Nuclear
Pioneers,
Chicago: Bulletin of Atomic Scientists.
ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION
(AEC)

A US federal agency established in 1946 to

control the development of nuclear energy.
The AEC wasresponsibleforoverseeing
majorgrowthinthe US nuclearpower
industryfromthemid-1950stothemid-
1970s.In1977,some of itsdevelopment
responsibilities were taken over by the newly
created
Department of Energy,and
its
regulatoryfunctionwasassumed by the
Nuclear Regulatory Commission.

in
nucleus nucleus
e = electron: p = proton: n = neutron
See also
Atomlc number, Isotope, Nuclear fission.
Further reading
Das, A. and Ferbel, T. (1994)Introductron to
Nuclear and Partrcle Physrw,New York: Wiley.
ATOMIC NUMBER
in
The number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom and the number of electrons in orbit
aroundthenucleus.Theatomicnumber
allows a distinction t o be made between the
atoms of different elements.
ATTENUATION
As applied to solar radiation, it is the dimin-
ution in the intensity of the radiation as a
37 AUTOMOBILE EMISSION CONTROLS

result of its scattering,reflection and absorption Thetermcan be applied to thephysical

by aerosols in the atmosphere. The attenu- devices, suchascatalyticconverters,which
ation of solar radiation provides a measureof limit the emissionsor to the legislative devices
atmospheric turbidity. that setthe levels foracceptableemissions.
Controls are needed because burning gasoline
AUSTRALIAN ENVIRONMENT at hightemperatures in aninternalcom-
ASSESSMENT BRANCH (AEAB) bustion engine leads to the production of a
wide variety of pollutants including oxides of
The
Environment Assessment Branch is nitrogen (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO) and
involvedin theimplementation of thepro- volatileorganiccompounds(VOCs).These
visions of the Environment Protection (Impact pollutantsmaybecometheconstituents of
of Proposals) Act passed originally in 1974 and photochemicalsmog.Inthepast,lead(Pb)
updated in 1995. It protects the environmentby wasalsocommoninautomobileexhaust
assessing proposals for development that emissions, but it has been banned in North
Americasince 1989 because of thehealth
1 involve
the
Commonwealth (federal) risks it posed and also becauseit impaired the
government; efficiency of catalytic converters designed to
2 are funded through grantsto state govern- reduceemissions of theotherpollutants.
ments; Most developed nationshavelegislation
3 involvetheexport of primaryproducts designed to impose controls on automobile
which require Commonwealth approval; emissions. The situation in the United States
4 includeforeigninvestment. is particularlyimportant.Decisionsmade
there have an effect beyond North America,
The AEAB alsoundertakesassessments on sinceAsian andEuropeanmanufacturers
development proposals referred to it by other must meet US emission controls to enter the
agencies. large North American market. Legislated EC
emission levels are now comparable to those
AUSTRALIAN NATURE in the United States, in part because of this. In
CONSERVATION AGENCY the introduction of emission controls, govern-
(ANCA) ment agencies decide what levels are desirable,
andit becomes the responsibility of auto-
Formerly the Australian National Parks and mobile manufacturers and fuel producers to
WildlifeService, theANCAwasformed in develop the engineering needed to meet the
1975astheprincipalnatureconservation requirements.Despiteoppositionfromthe
agency of thegovernment of Australia.Its automobile industry, this approach has ledto
responsibilitiesincludetheconservation of the
introduction of catalytic converters,
the natural and cultural heritage of marine, improved fuel efficiency, cleaner burning
terrestrial and freshwater areas of continental engines and cleaner gasoline. In some juris-
Australia and its external territories. dictions,controlsexceedthoseimposed by
the
national
government. Californiahas
AUTECOLOGY much more stringent regulations than the rest
of the United States, for example, and British
Columbia has an inspection programme for
Thestudy of therelationshipbetween an
exhaust emissions from cars and light trucks
individual organism or single species and its
not required in other parts of Canada. The
environment.
benefits of suchcontrolsaregenerally less
than might be expected because the number
AUTOMBILE EMISSION of motor vehicles continues to rise and many
CONTROLS whichwerebuiltbeforetighterregulations
were introduced continueto pollute at higher
Controls on the nature and volume of pol- levels thannew vehicles. Manyenviron-
lutantsemittedfromautomobileexhausts. mentalists see the problem continuing without
AUTOMOBILE
radical changes such as the introduction of
electric cars (the first mass-production electric
carwasintroduced by GeneralMotors in
December 1996) or the use of hydrogen ( H )
as a fuel, plus lifestyle changes which involve
less use of automobiles.
Further reading
Baarschers,
W.H. (1996) Eco-facts and
Eco-
fiction, London/New York: Routledge.
Marcus, A.A. and Jankus, M.C. (1992) ‘The auto
emissions debate: the role of scientific knowledge’,
in R.E. Buchholz, A.A. Marcus and J.E. Post (eds)
Managing Envrronrnental Issues: ACasebook,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentlce-Hall.
AUTOMOBILE TYRE RECYCLING
Automobile tyres are a major component of
solid waste in most developed nations. About
280 million tyres are discarded every year in
the United States. Not being biodegradable,
a t leastintheshortterm,theytend to
accumulate in large dumps, creating aesthetic
pollution,providingbreedinggroundsfor
mosquitoes in the water that accumulates in
themandrepresentingafirehazard.Fires
which begin in tyre dumps are very difficult
to extinguish.Theyproducetoxicairpol-
lution and the heat of the fire releases liquid
hydrocarbons that flow into and contaminate
the local surface and groundwater systems.
Retreading of old tyres was once common,
but modern radial tyres are costly to retread,
andtheprocess is now rarelyundertaken.
Someare recycled intogarbagecans,mats
and
other
rubber products;others
are
shreddedandincorporated in asphaltroad
surfacing. The energy available from burning
tyres is used directly in thermal electric power
stations and in cement works. Using pyrolysis,
the hydrocarbons in the tyres can be liquefied
38
to produce heating oil and gasoline additives.
However, the total number of tyres recycled
or used as a source of energy is less than 20
per cent of those discarded. Even the intro-
duction of tyre taxes in some jurisdictions has
had little impact, and the disposal of waste
tyres remains a growing problem.
Further reading
Miller,G.T. (1994) Living in theEnvrronment:
Prrnclples, ConnectronsandSolutrons, Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth.
NationalResearchCouncil (US) (1992) Recycled
TireRubber r n AsphaltPavements, Washington,
DC:Transportation
Research
Board:
Natlonal
Research Council.
AUTOVARIATION
Environmentalchangeproducedwhenone
component of the environmentresponds
automatically to change in another.This is
made possible by the integrated nature of the
elements that make up the environment. The
response of vegetation to changes in moisture
availability is an autovariation, for example.
Further reading
Trewartha, G.T. and Horn,
L.H.
(1980) An
Introduction to Climate,New York: McGraw-Hill.
AZOTOBACTER
The most important group of nitrogen-fixing
bacteria. They are aerobic and obtain their
energy by breakingdowncarbohydrates in
the soil. Being an inert gas, nitrogen (N) does
notreactreadilywithotherelementsand
such bacteria make a major contribution to
the nitrogen cycle by moving the gas from the
atmosphereintothesoil,where it is made
available to plants.
 B
BACILLUS change in wavelength, backscattered radiation
doesnotcontribute to theheating of the
A rod-shaped bacterium, characteristic of the earth/atmosphere system.
genus Bacillus. Bacilli are responsiblefor
suchdiseases as anthrax ( B . antbracis) and BACTERIA
tetanus ( B . tetani), but the genusalso includes
beneficial bacteria such as B. subtilis, which Unicellular, microscopic organisms that multi-
synthesizesvitamin B,, in manyorganisms, plyby simpledivision.Theytakevarious
and B. tburrngiensis (BT),used as a non- forms, but are generally classified into four
chemicalpesticide in thecontrol of leaf- different types based on their shape; some are
eating caterpillars and other insects. spherical (cocci), some are rod-shaped (bacilli),
some are spiral-shaped (spirelli) and some are
Further reading filamentous (actinomycetes). Bacteria can
Barjac, H. deandSutherland, D.J. (eds) (1990) also be subdivided accordingto their require-
Bacterial Control of Mosquitoes and Black Flies: ment for free oxygen (0),into aerobic and
Biochemrstry, Gerretrcs and Applicatrons of
Bacillus
thurrngretrsis rsraeliensrs and
Bacillus
anaerobicgroups or, dependingupontheir
sphaericus, New
Brunswick,
Rutgers
NJ: energy source, into autotrophic and hetero-
Unwersity Press. trophic groups. Autotrophic bacteria oxidize
inorganic material to obtain energy, whereas
BACKGROUND AIR POLLUTION heterotrophic bacteria
dependupon
the
MONITORING NETWORK decomposition of organic material for their
(BAPMON) energy. Some bacteria are sensitive to acidity
in theenvironment,andthedestruction of
Aglobalmonitoringsystemestablished by soilbacteria is common in areas where the
terrestrial environment is subject to acid rain.
the WMO in 1968 to collectbaseline and
regionaldata on background levels of pol- Soil bacteria help to maintain soil fertility by
lution in thetroposphere.The
network breaking down organic matter and convert-
monitors suspended particulate matter, CFCs, ingnitrogeninto a formusable by plants.
carbondioxide (CO,), methane (CH,) and Bacteria also have animportant role
in
atmospheric turbiditylevels at more than200 pollution control, being able to decompose a
stations worldwide. The data are being used great variety of organic wastes- from sewage
to evaluatetrends in theconcentrations of
tocrude oil - into simpler compounds
these pollutants. thatcan be reincorporatedintothenatural
environment.Pollutionproblemsarise, in
part, because of society’s ability to produce
BACKSCATTER waste in amounts that exceed the capacity of
natural decomposers such as bacteria. Despite
The redirection of solar radiation back into performing such essential functions, bacteria
space as a result of its interception by atmos- are also responsible for a greatvariety of
pheric
aerosols. Being reflected, withno diseasesincluding anthrax,tetanus,plague
BARIUM 40

and tuberculosis. Most of these respond to hazardous,

radioactive
fission
product,
treatmentwithantibiotics,butstrains of which may be released into the environment
bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics have following a nuclear testor reactor accident.
evolved, raising fearsof a resurgenceof diseases
such as tuberculosis, once thought to have BAROGRAPH
beenconquered.Theapparentincreased
frequency of uncommon diseases such as the A recording barometer. A pen attached to the
so-called'flesh-eatingdisease'caused by a indicatingarm of ananeroidbarometer
streptococal bacterium may alsobe indicative tracesacontinuousrecord of atmospheric
of the ability of new strains of bacteria to pressure
on
chart
paper
attachedto
a
resist antibiotics. revolving drum.

See also BAROMETER

Activated sewage sludge,Bacillus,Biochemical
oxygen demand, Nitrogen cycle.
Further reading
Bisset, K.A. (1970)The Cytology and Life History
ofBactena, Edinburgh: Livingstone.
Wheatley, A. (ed) (1990)Anaerobic Digestion: A
Waste Treatment Technology,LondodNew York:
Elsevier Applied Science.
BARIUM (Ba)
A silvery-white soft metal, which tarnishes
readily when exposed to air. It is used in the
manufacture of paints, glass
andsome
electronicsproducts.Bariumproductsare
poisonous. Ingested through drinking water,
they have toxic effects on the nervous and
circulatorysystem.Bariumalsoexistsasa
An instrument which measures atmospheric
pressure. There aretwo types in commonuse:
the mercury (Hg) barometer and the aneroid
barometer.Theformerisbased on the
principle - firstevaluated by Torricelli,a
student of Galileo,in 1643 - thatthe
atmosphere is capable of supporting a column
of mercuryinaglasstube.Thestandard
atmosphere can support a column of mercury
29.92 in. (76 cm) in height, and changes in
that value indicate changes in atmospheric
pressure. An aneroid barometer consists of a
partiallyevacuated,thin-walled,metalbox
(orseries of boxes)whichexpand(s)as
pressurefallsandcontract(s)aspressure
rises. Such changes are relatively small, and
are amplified through a lever system attached

Figure B-l The principles and structureof a mercury and an aneroid barometer

aneroid box levers

41 BASE EXCHANGE

to a pointer that indicates the pressure on a Figure B-2 The componentsof base
scale. The main advantageof the aneroid over exchange in the soil
the mercury barometer is its portability. The
aneroid barometer may be used as a crude
weather forecasting instrument if descriptive
“day
or humuspartides 1
weather terms such as ‘stormy’, ‘rain’, ‘fair’
and ‘dry’ are indicated on the pressure scale. ( H ) +
&B&@
+ + +
Higher pressure is generally considered tobe +
associated with fair, dry weather, and lower
pressure with inclement weather. Since pres-
sure changes with height in the atmosphere,
aneroidbarometers,calibratedtoindicate
altitude rather than pressure, can be used as
altimeters in aircraft.
i
Further reading
Lutgens, F.K. andTarbuck,
Atmosphere:AnIntroduction
E.J. (1989) The
to Meteorology,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentlce-Hall.
+++A + + + +
BASE 4.
4I
A compoundthatreleaseshydroxylions (H)
+ -charged
Cations
(OH-)when dissolved in water.Bases include
theoxidesandhydroxides of metalsand
othercompoundssuchasammonium hy-
particles. However, every soil has a unique
droxide (NH,OH) that release hydroxyl ions
cation exchange capacity- the total exchange-
on solution. Bases react with acids to form
able cations that a soil can absorb. Once that
salt and water, neutralizing the acid in the
capacity has been filled, additional nutrient
process.
ions remaining in the soil are unbonded to
particles and therefore susceptible to leach-
See also
Alkali. ing. Where soils are subject to acid rain, the
abundant hydrogen ions introduced into the
soil may replace the other cations so rapidly
BASE EXCHANGE thatnutrientsareleachedout of thesoil
before they can be absorbed by the plants,
The exchangeor transfer of cations in solution. thus reducing soilfertility. Cation exchange is
Base exchange(orcationexchange) is a used in hard water areas to soften water for
natural process, but the principle has been residentialandindustrial use. Whenhard
developed for
agricultural
andindustrial water is passed through a water softener, the
purposes.Nutrientssuchascalcium(Ca), calciumionsinthewaterarereplaced by
magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na) and potassium sodium ions, and the water is softened. When
(K) made available through base exchange are the exchange capacityof the softeneris full, it
essential for the growth of plants. Cations of can be recharged by reversing the process.
these elements are normally loosely bonded For example, brine pumped through the sys-
to the surface of clay and humus particles in tem will cause the captured calcium ions to
thesoil,andwhentheyarereplaced by be replaced by sodium ions and the softener
hydrogen ions or other cations they are free will to be ready for use again.
be absorbed by plants. By adding fertilizer to
thesoil,farmersattempt to maintainsoil Further reading
fertility by replacing the nutrient ions which Trudgill, S.T. (1988)Soil and Vegetutron Systems
have been displaced from the clay and humus (2nd edition), Oxford: Oxford UnwersityPress.
B A T H I N G WATER Q U A L I T Y 42

BATHING WATER QUALITY BENTHOS

See water quality.
BATHOLITH
A large igneous geological feature, formed by
the intrusion of molten material into existing
countryrockwhere it subsequentlycooled
and solidified.Individualbatholithscover
thousands of square kilometres and extend
deep into the earth’s crust. Commonly com-
posed of granite, that cooled and solidified
relatively slowly beneath the earth’s surface,
they have a very uniform structure and com-
position.Batholithsaregeologicallystable
and as a result they have been identified as
potential locations for nuclear waste disposal
facilities.
BECQUEREL
The bottom of a body of water, from the edge
of a river or lake to its deepest point, or from
the high water mark to the deepest part of
the ocean. Benthic organisms are those that
occupy this zone.
BENZENE (C,H,)
A clear, colourless, flammable liquid hydro-
carbon present in coal tar and petroleum. The
simplest of the aromatic hydrocarbons, all of
which have a structure and properties similar
to benzene, it is widely used as an industrial
andlaboratorysolvent,and in themanu-
facture of styrene,varnishesandpaints.
Benzene is highly toxic and carcinogenic.
See also
Carcinogen.

The unit used in the SI system to indicate the BERYLLIUM (Be)

radioactivity of asubstance.Namedafter
Henri Becquerel (1852-1908), it has replaced
the curie as a measure of radioactivity. One
becquerel(Bq) is equivalent to theradio-
activity of an element undergoing radioactive
decay a t a rate of 1 disintegration per second.
BENEFlClATlON
The concentration of low-quality ores prior
to smelting. The processinvolves the separ-
ation of the ore from the country rock
crushing, magnetic separation and flotation,
to produce concentrated ore
and
large
amounts of rock waste. Beneficiation
usually carried out at the mine site to save
transportationcosts.Thelargeamounts
wasteproducedcancreatelocalenviron-
mental problems such as air pollution in the
form of dust from the finely crushed tailings
produced in the process and water pollution
fromthetailingsponds in whichthefine
sediments are allowed to settle.
A hard, white metal used to produce light,
strong, corrosion-resistant alloys for the aero-
space and nuclear industries. The inhalation
of airborneberylliumcausessevere respir-
atorydisease(berylliosis),andmayleadto
malignant growths in the lungs. Exposure to
berylliumdustcan also causetemporary
dermititis. As a result, the use of beryllium is
now strictlycontrolledand in theUnited
States it is classified as a hazardous pollutant.
by
BEST PRACTICE/BEST
PRACTICABLE MEANS
is
An approach to air pollution control under
of theAlkaliandCleanAirInspectorate in
Britain,whichtakesintoaccounttheeco-
nomicand
technological realities of the
operation of specific industrialplants. It
attempts t o attain the bestpossible level of
control, given theconstraintsimposed by
existing economics and technology.

Further reading See also

Wills, H.A. (1992) Mirreral Processrtzg Techtzology: Environmental Protection Act (UK).
Art introcirtctrotr t o the Practrccll Aspects of Ore
Treattuetrt utrd Mitzeral Recovery (5theditton),
Oxford/New York: I’ergnmon.
43
BHOPAL
An industrialcity of morethan800,000
people in central India which was the site of a
major industrial accident in 1984. Some 40
tonnes of methylisocyanate,ahighlytoxic
chemical used in the manufacture of carba-
mate pesticides, leaked from a tank in a Union
Carbide chemical plant. The noxious gas that
formed drifted over residential areas close to
the plant, killingan estimated2500 people by
direct exposure, and perhaps as many again
as a result of the after-effects. A further200,000
sufferedrespiratory
problems, temporary
blindness and severe vomiting, and more than
a yearaftertheeventthousandswerestill
suffering side-effects fromexposure to the
gas. Five years of inquiries and litigation
produced the conclusion that the disaster was
the result of poor plant design combined with
questionable operating and safety procedures,
although the company claimed that sabotage
mighthavebeeninvolved.UnionCarbide
wasordered to pay$470million in com-
pensation to the victims. Studies by an inter-
national medical commission suggest that poor
medicalpracticesinthedecadeafterthe
accident contributedto the victims’ suffering.
See also
Carbamates.
further reading
Day, M. (1996) ‘Bad medicinedeepens Bhopal’s
misery’, New Screntrst 152 (2060): 6.
Shrivastava, P. (1987) Bhopal: Anatomy of a Crisis,
San Francisco: Harper & Row.
Walker, G . (1990) ‘Bhopal: five yearson’, Geo-
graphy 75 (2): 158-60.
BIENNIAL OSCILLATION
See quasi-biennial oscillation.
BIOACCUMULATION
The retention of non-biodegradable chemicals,
or those that decay only slowly, in the bodies
of organisms. Toxic metals such as lead (Pb)
andmercury (Hg) and pesticidessuchas BIODEGRADATION
DDT are absorbed more rapidly than they are
excreted and therefore accumulate in the body. The breakdown of materials in the environ-
Accumulationoftentakesplace inspecific ment by natural decay. Accomplished mainly
BIODEGRADATION
locations, including bones, fatty tissues and
organs, such asliver and kidneys. The impact
of bioaccumulation varies with the chemical
and the organism involved, but it can cause
death, prevent reproduction or increase SUS-
ceptibility to disease. The dynamics of food
chains, in which organisms a t a specific level
in a chain consume large numbers of the organ-
ismsinthepreceding level, ensure that the
products of bioaccumulationareamplified
(biological amplification). Thus the chemical
levels in the tissues of predators at the head of
a food chain may be as many as 10 million
times that in the tissues of the producer organ-
isms a t the base of the chain.
further reading
Miller, G.T. (1994) Ltvrng in the Environment (8th
edition), Belrnont, CA: Wadsworth.
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN
DEMAND (BOD)
A measure of pollution in a body of water
based on the organic material it contains. The
organicmaterialprovidesfoodforaerobic
bacteria which require oxygen ( 0 )to be able
to bringaboutthebiodegradation of such
pollutants. The greater the volumeof organic
material, the greater will be the numbers of
bacteria and therefore the greater the demand
foroxygen.Thus,the BOD valuegives an
indication of organic pollution levelsin the
water. It providesnoinformation on other
pollutantssuch as suspendedmineralsedi-
ments or heavy metals. If the BOD exceeds
the available dissolved oxygen in the water,
oxygen depletion occurs, and aquatic organ-
isms will suffer. Fish kills are not uncommon
under such circumstances.
See also
Oxygen sag curve, Pulp and paper industry,Sewage.
further reading
Nebel, B.J. and Wright, R.T. (1993) Environmental
Science: TheWaytheWorldWorks, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentm-Hall.
BIODIVERSITY
by aerobic bacteria, biodegradation is essential
for the recycling and replenishment of raw
materials in a closed material system such as
theearth/atmospheresystem.Mostnatural
materialsandproductsmanufacturedfrom
organic substances are biodegradable. Prob-
lems arise when biodegradable substances are
produced at a rate which exceeds the ability
of thesystem to cope, or whennon-bio-
degradable materials are introduced into the
environment. Crude oil is biodegradable, for
example,butwhenmillions of litres are
spilled in an oil tanker accident, the micro-
organisms which would normally break down
the oil are overwhelmed. For similar reasons,
sewage remains a major pollution problemin
many densely populated areas. Such materials
are degraded eventually, but some products of
moderntechnologysuch as plastics remain
unaltered as solid wastes, while others suchas
insecticides and heavy metals can cause serious
problems by accumulating in the environment.
See also
Biochemical oxygen demand, Carboncycle, Nitrogen
cycle.
Further reading
Allsopp, D. andSeal, K.J. (1986) ftrtroductron
t o Biodeterioratrorz, LondonlBaltmore:Edward
Arnold.
BIODIVERSITY
The variety of life forms that inhabit the earth.
Biodiversity involves habitat diversity, plant
andanimal species
diversity
within
the
various habitats and the genetic diversity of
individual species. The large-scale slaughter
of wild animals, the overharvesting of trees
andotherplantsandthedestruction of
habitat worldwide are threatening biodiversity
a t a time when its importance is becoming
increasinglyapparent. Particular
concerns
are expressed over the habitat destruction in
areas such as the tropical rainforest or the
near extinction of such marine species as the
northern cod and the blue whale, but these
are perhaps only the more extreme examples
of a ubiquitous problem.
See also
Biodiversity Convention.
44
Further reading
Barbier, E.B., Burgess,J.C. and Folke, C. (1994)
Paradise Lost: The Ecologrcal Economrcs o f
Biodiversrty, London: Earthscan.
Gaston, K.J. (ed.) (1996) Biodiversity: A Biology
of NumbersandDifferences, Cambridge,MA:
Blackwell Science.
Reid, W.V. and Miller, K.R. (1989) Keeprng
Optrons Alive: The Screntific Basts for Conservmg
Biodiversrty, Washington, DC: WorldResources
Institute.
BIODIVERSITY CONVENTION
A product of the United Nations Conference
on Environment and Development (UNCED),
outliningpoliciesaimed a t combiningthe
preservation of naturalbiologicaldiversity
withsustainabledevelopment of biological
resources. It wassigned by all participants
excepttheUnitedStates.Thedocument
includes no deadlines, andthelanguage is
generally considered to be weak, but some of
the signatories to the Convention have begun
to put its policies into action. The Australian
government,forexample,hasdeveloped a
NationalStrategyfortheConservation of
Australia’s
BiologicalDiversity,
which is
intended to ensure that by the year 2000 the
decline of remnant native vegetation in that
country will have been arrested and reversed.
Further reading
Hawksworth, D.L. (1995) Biodiversity: Meassrre-
merit and Estimation, New York: Chapman and
Hall,
Parson, E.A., Hass, P.M. and Levy, M.A. (1992) ‘A
summary of themajordocumentssignedatthe
earth summlt and the globalforum’, Envrronment
34: 12-15 and 34-6.
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE
The combinationof mechanisms by which an
element is circulated through the earth/atmos-
pheresystem.Withinthe cycle, an element
moves between sources and sinks, along well-
establishedpathways.Theprocessinvolves
living organic and inorganic phases, and the
net result is that the element may be used and
reused, which is essential in a closed material
flowsystemsuchastheearthlatmosphere
system. Although any given cycle is ultimately
balanced, flow through is normally uneven.
Quantities of an element may be shunted out
45 M E C H A N I S MF E E DBBI A
OCGKE O P H Y S I C A L

Figure B-3 The sulphur cycle in the environment

I ATMOSPHERE1 i

precipitation fossil fuel

combustion

S - Sulphur DMS - dimethyl

sulphide
Sorg- organic sulphur MSA - methanesulphonic add
SO2 - sulphurdioxide CuFeS2 - copper pyrites
SO,- - sulphate FeS2 - iron pyrites
H2S - hydrogensulphide

of the cycle for periods of time. Carbon (C) BIOGEOGRAPHY

and phosphorous (P), for example, are regu-
larly stored in the oceans, perhaps for years at The geography of living organisms, past and
a time, before becoming active in their respec- present.Itincludesthestudy of thedis-
tive cycles again. Similarly, fossil fueldeposits tribution patterns of plants and animals and
represent carbon that has not been directly the processes responsible for these patterns.
involved in the carbon cycle for millions of Biogeographers also study the impactof human
years.
Currentglobal issues
involvedis- activities on the biosphere.
ruption of biogeochemical cycles. Enhancement
of the greenhouse effect has come about as a Further reading
Brown, J.H. andGibson, A.C. (1983) Biogeo-
result of inadvertenthumaninterference in graphy, St Louis: C.V. Mosby.
the
carbon cycle, and
modern intensive Cox, C.B. and Moore, P.D. ( 1 993) Biogeography:
agricultural
production,with
its
concen- An Ecologrcal and EvolutionaryApproach (5th
tration on nitrogen-rich fertilizers, has con- edition), Oxford: Blackwell Science.
tributed to thedisruption of thenitrogen
cycle in many areas. BIOGEOPHYSICAL FEEDBACK
MECHANISM
Further reading
Bolin, B. and Cook, R. (eds) (1983)The Malor Bio- The
hypothesis
developed to explain
geochemrcal Cycles and thewlnteractrons, New degradation-induceddrought in theSahel.
York: Wiley. Overgrazing and woodcutting increased the
Kronberg, B. (1993) ‘Response of majorNorth
American ecosystems to global change: a biogeo- surface albedo, which in turn disrupted the
chemical perspective’, in E.F. Mooney, E.F. Fuentes regional radiation balance. Reduced surface
and B. Kronberg (eds) Earth System Responses to heating
retarded
convective
activity
and
Global Change, San Diego: Academic Press. limited precipitation. With less precipitation,
Kwon, 0.-Y. andSchnoor, J.L. (1994) ‘Simple
globalcarbonmodel:theatmosphere-terrestrial vegetation cover decreased and the albedo of
biosphere-ocean
Interaction’, Global Biogeo- the surface was further enhanced. This is an
chemrcal Cycles 8: 295-305 example of positive feedback.
BIOLOGICAL 46

Further reading residues such as the waste from sugar cane

Charney, J. (1975) ‘Dynamics of desertsand harvesting (bagasse) can be used to produce
drought in the Sahel’, Quarterlyjournal of the
Royal Meteorologrcal Socrety 101: 193-202.
alcohol;humanandanimalwastescan be
digestedanaerobically to producemethane
BIOLOGICAL AMPLIFICATION (CH,) (biogas). Some 40,000 small-scale, local
biogasplantsarecurrentlyactiveinIndia.
Although biomass energy is renewable, rela-
See bioaccumulation.
tivelyinexpensive to produce, and requires
n o advanced technology, it does have certain
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY drawbacks. The conversion of solar energy
by plants, for example, has an efficiency rate
See biodiversity. thatrarelyexceeds 2 percent.Thus, to
produce large quantities of biomass energy,
BIOMASS large areas need to be planted or harvested.
Although biomass energy is often considered
The total weightof living organic matterin a environmentally appropriate,
in
common
given area. The contributionof the terrestrial with fossil fuels it produces smoke and soot
environment to the earth’s overall biomass is particles and carbon dioxide (CO,,).Biomass
muchgreaterthan
that of theaquatic energy is renewable,butcanbeconsumed
environment,butvaluesvary in timeand faster than it can be replaced. In Nepal and
space. Plant biomass, for example, increases adjacent partsof northern India, for example,
rapidly during the growing season, when the the use of woodastheprimary fuel has
energy for biological production is available, denudedhillslopes,leavingthemopen to
and decreases whenthe
plants
die
and erosion. Similarly, in the Sahel, the removal
decompose. Spatial variations in biomass are of scrubbyvegetationfor use as fuel has
large,thebiomass in a tropicalrainforest contributed to desertification in some areas.
being as much as five to six times that of a The future of biomass energy is unclear.Its
similar area in a desert.Animalbiomass in use is likely to remain highest in the
the terrestrial environment reaches a peak in developing nations, where it supplies about
thetropicalrainforestand in thesavanna 40 percent of theenergy used. Among
grasslands of Africa. In the aquatic environ- theindustrializednationsbiomassenergy
ment,thegreatestconcentration of animal accounts for about 5 per cent of the energy
biomass is in theshallowmargins of the used.
tropical seas.
Further reading
BIOMASS ENERGY Aubrecht, G. (1989) Ettergy, Columbus, OH:
Merrill.
World Bank (1992) Development and the Envrrofz-
Energy available from organic materialin the nmzt, New York: Oxford University Press.
environment, that originated as solar energy
absorbed by plants and was converted into
chemical energy by photosynthesis. Biomass BIOME
energy, mainly in the form of wood, was the
main source of energy prior to the develop- Acommunity of plantsandanimals in
ment of fossilfuels.Itincludes theenergy equilibriumwiththeenvironmentalchar-
available in wood, crops,
cropresidues, acteristics - climate, soils, hydrology - of a
industrial and municipal organic waste, food- major geographical area. A biome is usually
processing waste and animal wastes. Someof considered to represent a climax community,
these,
such as wood andvarious
waste that is, the most likely combination of flora
products,canbe used to providedirect and fauna for agivenset of environmental
energy - in wood stoves or incinerators, for conditions. Although animals are an integral
example - but more often they are converted part of any biome,majorbiometypesare
before
beingused.Grain
crops
or
crop normally described and designated in terms
47 BIOME

of theirplantassemblages - forexample, acteristic flora in a specific biome.As a result,

equatorial rainforests, grasslands, taiga. Cli- there is a strong latitudinal element in their
mate is themajorenvironmentalelement distribution. Similarly, the changing climatic
responsible for the development of the char- conditions associated with increasing altitude

Figure B-4 The distribution of the earth's major biomes

""""""""

........-................

""_

Source: Park, C.C. (1992)Troprcal Ramforests, LondodNew York: Routledge

Figure B-5 The boreal forest in northern Canada

.-VT,w;,-.-.q,l;-fi. ..\ ~, ... ' - A m . :
, "

p
I1
.

Photograph: The author

BIOMETEOROLOGY
in mountainous areas have an impact in the
distribution of biomes. Although biomes are
commonly considered as terrestrial
com-
munities,someecologistsalsodenotethe
communities of intertidalzones,estuaries,
coral reefs andfreshwaterenvironments as
aquatic biomes. Most biomes are capable of
absorbingandrecoveringfrom a consider-
able amount of natural disturbance - fires or
insect infestation,forexample - butincreas-
ingly society i s permanentlytransforming
largeareas of manybiomesthroughsuch
activities as agriculture and forestry.
Further reading
Furley, P. and Newey, W.W. (1983) Geogrnphy of
the Biosphere, London: Butterworth.
Stirling, P.D. (1992) Itrtrodrrctory Ecology,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Walter, H. (1979) Vegetntron of theEarth (2nd
edition), Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
BIOMETEOROLOGY
The study of the interactions of living organ-
isms with weather and climate. An interdis-
ciplinary concept, requiring consideration of
such elementsas plant and animal physiology
and biochemistry, as well as climatology and
meteorology at all scales. Many human activ-
ities such as agriculture include a biometeor-
ological element, and human biometeorology
involves the studyof the impact of climate on
clothing, shelter and health.
Further reading
Tromp, S.W. ( 1 980) Biometeorology, London:
Heyden.
BlOREMEDlATlON
The use of micro-organisms, usually bacteria,
to break down organic chemical waste into
less hazardous substances. They may be used
under controlled conditions suchas on a sew-
agefarmor in wastestabilizationponds,
but they also have the potential to clean up
accidental spills of waste material hazardous
to theenvironment. Followingthe Exxon
Valdez oil spill in Alaska in 1989, for example,
bacteria
were
sprayed on
some of the
contaminated beaches. Encouraged to grow
by the application of water-soluble fertilizer,
48
the bacteria fed on theoil and within a month
had made a measurable contribution to the
clean-up. Bioremediation provides an attractive
approach to environmentalclean-up,since
the materials used are relativelyinexpensive,
there is little disruption of the contaminated site
and the by-productsof the processes involved
are usuallyharmless - oftenonlycarbon
dioxide (CO,) and water. Theeffectiveness of
bioremediation may be restricted by
limitations on the availability of nutrients or
oxygen (0)in the contaminated zone.
Further reading
Kaufman, D.G. and Franz, C.M. (1993) Biosphere
2000, New York: HarperCollins.
BIOSPHERE
The zone of terrestrial life, sometimes called
the ecosphere, including the earth’s land and
watersurfacesplusthelowestpart of the
atmosphere and the upper part of the soil and
water layers. Life is present throughout the
oceanbasins,but it is concentrated in the
upper 100-200 m, and it is that layer whichis
commonlyconsidered to be part of the
biosphere. Thebiosphere is very muchan
interactivelayerincorporatingelements of
the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere
integrated
through
the
activities of the
various life forms in the environment.
Further reading
Furley, P. and Newey, W.W. (1983) Geography of
the Biosphere, London: Butterworth.
Huggett, R.J. (1995) Geoecology: AftEvolntiorrnry
Approach, London: Routledgc.
BIOTIC
The living componentsof an ecosystem. They
are usually
classified intoproducersand
consumers.Producers - greenplants,for
example - can synthesize the organic materials
they need from inorganic compounds in the
environment.
Consumers are
unable to
manufacturetheirownfooddirectlyfrom
inorganic compounds, and depend upon the
producers to provide what they need.
See also
Ablotic, Food chain, Photosynthesis.
49 BLUE B O X

BIOTIC INDEX BLACK LIST

Arating used to assessthequality of the AEuropeanCommission list of dangerous

environment by examiningthediversity of
the species it contains.Itcanprovidean
indication of the level of pollutioninan
ecosystem. A water body with a high biotic
index, for example, would be relatively pol-
lution-free, with a wide variety of species. In
contrast, a badly polluted river or lake would
support only a few pollution-tolerantspecies,
and therefore would havea low biotic index.
BIOTIC POTENTIAL
Thetheoreticalreproductivecapacity of a
species under ideal environmental conditions.
The biotic potential of many organisms such
as bacteria, insects and small mammals is so
great
that
theycould easily
exceed the
carrying capacity of their environment. Such
a situation is seldom achieved, however,
because of thepresence of naturalchecks
such as limitedfoodsupply,predatorsand
parasites,
that
combine to
check
repro-
duction or limit the survival of the offspring.
Despite concern for the rapidly growing human
population of the earth, evenin those parts of
theworldwherepopulationsaregrowing
most rapidly the rateof increase is well below
the biotic potential of the human species.
Further reading
Enger, E.D. and Smlth, R.F. (1995) Envirorznzerrtal
Screrrce: A Study of 1r:terrelatrorrshrps (Sth
edition), Dubuque, IA: Wm C. Brown.
BLACK BODY
pollutantscommonlydischargedintothe
aquatic environment.It includes more than120
pollutants considered sufficiently hazardous
that priority must be given to their elimination
from effluent discharged into water bodies.
See also
Red List.
BLACK LUNG DISEASE
See pneumonoconiosis.
BLOCKING
A situation in which tropospheric circulation
patterns become static for periods of days or
weeks. Common in mid- to high latitudes in
the northern hemisphere, blocking is assoc-
iated with large amplitude stationary waves
in the upper atmosphere. Its surface expres-
sion often takes the form of a blocking anti-
cyclone which prevents the movement of other
weathersystemsorcausesthem to deviate
fromtheir
normalpaths.
Blockinganti-
cyclones regularly develop in the eastern and
central parts of the Canadian prairies in the
spring, causing moisture-bearing low pressure
systems to take a more northerly track than
normal.Theresultinglowprecipitationdis-
rupts spring planting on the prairies and creates
ideal conditions for forest fires in the adjacent
boreal forest. Weather conditions in Britain
areofteninfluenced by thedevelopment of
blocking anticyclones over Scandinavia.

Abodycapable of absorbing all of the Further reading

radiation falling upon it and reflecting none. Chandler, T.J. andGregory, S. (eds) (1976) The
Such a perfect absorber exists only in theory, Clinrate of the British Isles, London: Longman.
Knox, J.L. and Hay,
J.E.
(198.5)
‘Blocking
but a dull, black surface may absorb as much signatures in the northern hemlspherc: frequency,
as 90 per cent of theincidenthncoming distributlon
and
Intcrpretatlon’, lorrrrral of
radiation. Black bodies are also good emitters Clinratology 5: 1-16.
of radiation,andablackbodyata given Trewartha, G.T. and Horn, L.H. (1980) A n
Irrtrodrrctron to Climate, New York: McGraw-Hill.
temperature will emit the maximum intenslty
of radiation possible for that temperature.
BLUE BOX
Further reading
Faughn, J.S., Turk, J. and Turk,A. (199 1 ) Physical An approach to curbside recycling, common
Scrence, Philadelphia, PA: Saunders. in North America,which
in recyclable
BLUE-GREEN ALGAE 50

materialsuch as plasticbottles,aluminum
and tin cans are placed in containers (blue
boxes) to be collected by local authorities or
private companies. Pre-sorting by the house-
holderreducesthetime,effortandcost of
separating recyclable material from domestic
waste or garbage.
BLUE-GREEN ALGAE
See cyanobacteria.
them. The ideas set out in Blueprint for SUY-
urual continued to be developed and can be
recognized in part in the concept of sustain-
able development.
See also
World Comrnisslon on Envlronment and Drvelop-
rnent.
Further reading
The Ecologist (1972) Blueprrnt for Survrval,
London: Penguin.

BLUE LIST BOG

A list of bird species experiencing non-cyclic See peat/peatlands; wetlands.

population decline and therefore having the
potential to become endangeredspecies. Pub-
lished periodically by the National Audubon
Society, a private conservation organization
in the United States, thelist is seen as providing
early warning of potential problems for the
specieslisted. In theory,recognition of the
situation should allow appropriate steps be
taken before the crisis stage is reached.
See also
Red Data Books.
Further reading
Cox, G.W. (1993) Conservation Ecology: Bio-
sphere and Biosuruwal, Dubuque, IA: Wm C.
Brown
BLUEPRINT FOR SURVIVAL
A statement on global environmental prob-
lems prepared by the editors of The Ecologist
and publishedoriginallyin thatjournal in
1972. It was also published in book form and
received worldwide attention.
Concerned
with the rate at which resources were being
exploitedandthewaysinwhichtheir use
threatened the environment, the authors
thedocumentcalledfor a reappraisal of a
systembased on constantexpansionand
consumptlon. In itsplace,they advocated a
stable
society in which there
would
minimum disruption of ecological processes,
maximum conservation of materials and
energy, a zero-population growth and a social
systeminwhichanindividualcouldenjoy
these conditions rather than be restricted by
BOREAL FOREST
See taiga and Figure B-5.
BOREHOLE
to
A hole drilled or dug into the earth’s surface
throughwhichgroundwatercanbewith-
drawn. A well.
BOSCH PROCESS
A process used for the industrial production
of hydrogen (H).A mixture of hydrogen and
carbon monoxide (CO), called water gas, is
treated with steam in the presence of a cata-
lyst.Thisoxidizesthecarbonmonoxide to
carbon dioxide (CO,), which is removed in
solution to release the hydrogen. The Bosch
Process is no longer widely used since natural
gas has replaced watergas as the main source
of hydrogen.
BOTTLE LAWS
of
Lawsaimed atencouragingthereuseor
recycling of beverage containers,
usually
through the addition of a returnable deposit
be to theprice of the product. Originally applied
to glass bottles, they now include aluminum
cans and a variety of plastic containers. The
glass bottlescan be refilled whereasthe
others arerecycled. Bottle laws help to reduce
wastethatwouldotherwise be added to
51
sanitarylandfill sites. Theyalsoreducethe
demand for the raw materials and the energy
needed toproducethecontainersand, by
encouraging consumers to return used bottles,
provide a steady supply of material for the
recycling industry.
BRITISHNUCLEARFUELSLIMITED
(BNFL)
Created in 1971 from the Production Group
of the UK Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA),
BNFL is involved in all aspectsof nuclear fuel
supply. It has expertise infuelmanufacture
and enrichment, fuel reprocessing, transport-
ation and waste management plus the decom-
missioning of nuclear facilities, and is also
veryactive in research anddevelopment.
Based
in Britain,
BNFLoperates Inter-
nationally through offices in the US, Japan,
SouthKoreaandChina. Used fuelfroma
number of countries, but particularly Japan,
is reprocessed atthe company’splant at
Sellafield in north-west England.
See also
Nuclear reactor, Nuclear waste, Plutonium, Uran-
ium.
BRITISH THERMAL UNIT (Btu)
The amount of energy required to raise the
temperature of onepound (1 Ib) of water
through1°F - technicallyfrom 5 9 5 ° Ft o
60.5”F. For many purposes it has been super-
seded by the joule (J), but it remains in use in
the US and UK as a unit of energy associated
with the production or transfer of heat. One
Btuis equivalentto1055.06joulesor252
calories.
BROMINE (Br)
A darkredliquidwithapungentodour.
Alongwithfluorine(F),chlorine(Cl)and
iodine (I), it is a member of the halogen group
of elements. Since bromineis a highly reactive
chemical it is never found free in nature, but
can be extractedfrombrine,from highly
salinewaterbodiessuch as theDead Sea
and fromundergroundsaltdeposits.Marine
BROWNIAN MOTION
animals and shellfish also concentrate bromine
in their bodies, and can be used as sources of
the element. Bromine is used as a disinfectant
and in the manufactureof compounds used in
photography and in medicine. Being a power-
ful oxidizing agent it may cause ignition of
combustible materials on contact. Thusin its
free form it is a moderate tohigh fire hazard,
yet in combination with other chemicals such
asfluorocarbons it is a very effectivefire
suppressant. Unfortunately, as a constituent
of the halonsused in fire extinguishers, bromine
has been implicated in ozone depletion.
See also
Bromofluorocarbons, Methyl bromide.
BROMOFLUOROCARBONS
Syntheticchemicalcompounds,commonly
referred to as halons,containingbromine
(Br), fluorine (F) and carbon (C). Similarin
properties to chlorofluorocarbons, and used
mainly in fire extinguishers, they decompose
to release bromine which contributes to the
destruction of the ozone layer.So effective are
halons as ozonedestroyersthattheirpro-
duction was banned in 1994. However,the
potential for future damage remains, in the
form of hundreds of tonnes of bromofluoro-
carbons
which
remain
unused in fire
extinguishers.
Further reading
MacKcnzie, D. (1992) ‘Agreement reduces damage
to ozone layer’, N e w Screrztist 136 (1850): 10.
National Academy o f Sciences (1 976)Halocarbons:
Effects o n Stratospherrc Ozorre, Washington, DC:
National Academy Press.
BROWNIAN MOTION
The random motionof small, inanimate part-
icles suspended in a fluid medium,often
observed in microscopic pollen grains in sus-
pension in an aqueous solution, for example,
or in smoke particles
suspended in air.
Named after
RobertBrown, an English
botanist, who first recognized the process in
1827,theerraticmotion is theresult of
continuousirregularcollisionsbetweenthe
particles and the molecules that make up the
surrounding fluid medium.
BRUNDTLAND COMMISSION 52

BRUNDTLAND COMMISSION

See World Commission on Environment and

Development.

BUFFERSOLUTION

A solution to which large amounts of acidic

or alkaline materials may be added without
markedly altering its hydrogen ion concen-
tration(pH). Anacidbufferconsists of a
weakacidandasalt of that acid:abasic
buffer consists of a weak base and a salt of
that base. The absence or inadequacy of buf-
fer solutions has contributedto the impact of
acid rain on the environmentin areas such as
Scandinavia. With little or no buffering, for
example,thelakes in suchareasbecome
increasingly more acidic.

BUFFERINGAGENTS

Alkaline or basic materials capable of reducing

orneutralizing acidity. Natural buffering
agents such as limestone help to reduce the
environmentalimpact of acidrain. Lime
added to the fossil fuel combustion process or
employed influegasscrubbershelps to
reduce the acidity of emissions. The addition
of lime is alsoawell-establishedmeans of
improvingthequalityandincreasingthe
productivity of acid soils.
See also
LIMB.
BUSINESS-AS-USUALSCENARIO
One of the scenarios used to predict the future
Sorrrce: After IPCC (1990) Clmate Change: The
IPCC Screntific Assessment, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press
status of environmental issues such as global
warming. It isbased onthemaintenance
of the status quo with no attempt made to
reduce the output of the agents of change or
mitigate their impact.
Further reading
Houghton, J.T., Jenklns, J.H. and Ephraums, J.J.
(eds) (1990) Climate Change: The IPCC Scierrtific
Assessment,
Cambridge:Cambridge University
Press.
 C
C,, C, AND CAM PLANTS
Three general groups into which the earth’s
vegetation can be classified. They differ mainly
inthebiochemistry of their photosynthetic
processes. The C, group makes up about 95
per cent of the earth’s biomass and includes
important grain crops such as wheat andrice
as well as most trees. C, plants include maize,
sorghumandmillet.TheCAM or cras-
sulacean acid metabolism plants are mainly
succulents and few are important agricultur-
ally. In the investigation of global warming
the groups have received particular attention
because of thepotentialimpact of rising
levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO,)
andhighertemperatures on theirproduct-
ivity. Although allwillreactpositively to
these new conditions, C, plants will be most
responsive.
See also
Photosynthesis.
Further reading
Graves, J. and Reavy, D. (1996) Global Entaron-
ment Change: Plants, Anrmals and Communitres,
Harlow, Essex: Longman.
CADMIUM (Cd)
A soft, silvery-white heavy metal which usually
occurs in association with zinc (Zn) ore. It is
usedin theproduction of batteries,paints
and fusible alloys. The control rodsin nuclear
reactors arecommonly made of cadmium since
it is a good absorber of neutrons. Because of
itsassociationwithzinc, it appears in the
wasteproductsfromelectroplatingplants.
Cadmium is atoxicsubstancethatcauses
kidneydamage,hypertension(highblood
pressure),increasedboneporosityandthe
inhibition of bone repair mechanisms. Cad-
miumpollutionhas been blamedforthe
occurrence of itai-itai disease in Japan.
CALCIUM (Ca)
A soft,whitemetalwhichtarnishes easily
whenexposed to air. It is essential to life,
being a major constituent of bones and teeth.
In the human body it is obtained from dairy
productsandavariety of green vegetables
with the help of vitamin D. Calcium is most
commonlyfound in compoundform,with
calciumcarbonate(CaCO,) beingthe most
abundant.Alongwithavariety of other
compounds it is important in agriculture and
industry. Calcium carbide (CaC,), for example,
is asource of theweldinggas,acetylene;
calcium cyanamide (CaCN,)is a fertilizer and
used in the manufacture of plastics; calcium
phosphate (Ca,(PO,),) is an ingredient of the
artificialfertilizer superphosphate;calcium
silicate (CaSiO,) is an important constituent
of glassandcement;calciumsulphate or
gypsum (CaS0,.2H,O) is widely used in the
ceramics, paper and paint industries.
CALCIUM CARBONATE (CaCO,)
The most common compound of calcium (Ca):
a white, insoluble solid that occurs naturally
as chalk, limestone, marble and calcite. Most
chalk and limestone deposits are of biological
origin, being the accumulated skeletal remains
of marineorganisms.Calciumcarbonate is
a major component of the bedrock geology
of many parts of the earth, contributing to
CALORIE
Figure C-1Chalk exposed in the White Horse at Westbury, Wiltshire, England
Photograph: The author
landforms such as therelatively subdued chalk
landscapes of SalisburyPlain in southern
England, but also being incorporated in the
ruggedpeaks of theAlpsandHimalayas.
Although calcium carbonate is insoluble in
pure water, it can be dissolved by rainwater,
which is commonly slightly acidic. This has
helped to produce the peculiar landscapes of
limestoneareas,withtheirsteep-sidedval-
leys, caves and underground streams, referred
to as karst topography. Calcium carbonateis
usedinthemanufacture of paints,rubber
goods,plasticsandmedicines,andinthe
form of limestone and marble it is a common
building stone. Cement produced from lime-
stone is also an essential raw material in the
construction industry. Calcium carbonate has
a role in a number of environmental issues.
Although susceptible to damageby acid rain,
it can be used as a buffering agent to reduce
the acidity of soils and waterbodies. Used in
scrubbers, it can lower the acidityof flue gas
emissions. Calcium carbonate also acts as a
sink for carbon dioxide (CO,), and through
this has an influence on level
the of that gas in
54
the eartldatmosphere system. Any reduction
in thenumber of marineorganismsthat
sequester carbon dioxide in the calcium car-
bonate of their skeletons, or any change in
their ability to do so, could help to raise the
level of atmosphericcarbondioxideand
therefore contribute to global warming. Any
increase in the processes which break down
calcium carbonate and release carbon dioxide
would have a similar effect.
Further reading
Sweetmg, M.M.(1972)Karst Landforms, London:
Macmillan.
Taylor, H.F.W. (1990) Cement Chemrstry, London/
Toronto: Academlc Press.
CALORIE
The amount of energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 gm of water through 1°C -
technically from 15.5 t o 16.5"C. This gram
calorie is a very small quantity and for most
practical purposes - for example, in dealing
withfoodenergy - thekilocalorie (1000
55 CANOPY

gram calories) is used. Kilocalories are some- Figure C-2 The components of a CANDU
times referred t o as ‘large’ calories or written nuclear reactor system
withacapitalCasCalorie,butthelatter
steam
tends to cause confusion -the capital is often
ignored or left out inadvertentlyby dieticians
and food producers. For many purposes the
calorie is being replaced by the joule (J), one
calorie being equivalentto 4.1855 joules

CANCER

A rapid, uncontrolled growth of cells that can

invade adjacent tissues, creating tumours or
destroyingbodyorgans,causingincapacity
or death. Often initially site specific, tumours
may release malignant cells that travel in the
body fluids to infect other parts of the body.
Althoughsomeindividualsmaybepredis-
I
posed to certaincancersbecause of their heavy water
inherited genetic make-up, there is increasing moderator
evidence that the introductionof carcinogens
into the environmentby human activities can Pakistan,KoreaandArgentina.In 1996,
be a major contributing factor to the develop-Atomic Energy of Canada signed a contract
ment of cancers. to build four CANDU reactors in China. The
economy and the relatively simple technology
Further reading of the CANDU system make it an appropriate
Oppenheimer, S.B. (1985) Cancer, a Biological and
CIinrcal Introductron, Boston: Jones and Bartlett. technology for nations of intermediate eco-
nomic and industrial capacity, but with the
CANADIAN DEUTERIUM- demand for new sources of nuclear energy
URANIUM (CANDU) being negligible, CANDU seems unlikely t o
reach its full potential.
A Canadian designed commercial nuclear re-
See also
actor that uses heavy water (deuterium) as a
Nuclear fission.
moderator and coolant, each occupying sep-
arate circuits for efficiency and safety. The Further reading
effectiveness of heavy water as a moderator Robertson, J.A.L. (1978) ‘The CANDU reactor
allows natural (unenriched) uranium (23sU) tosystem: an appropriate technology’, Scrence 199:
be used as a fuel, which contributes to the 657-64.
economy of the system. The fuel is contained
in pressure tubes through which the coolant CANOPY
circulates tocarrytheheatproducedtoa
separate steam generator for the production The uppermost layer of vegetation in a forest
of electricity. Thedesign of theCANDU or woodland, usually consistingof the foliage
reactor allows on-power fuelling that limits of the tallest trees. The nature of the canopy
the time itis out of service andgives CANDU will vary accordingto such factors as the type
reactors a very high net capacity factor (i.e. and age of the trees and the time of year. It
energyactuallydeliveredoveraperiod of hasanimportantmicroclimatologicalrole
time compared to the maximum that could bebecause of its ability t o disrupt the flow of
delivered). Most operating CANDU reactors energyandmoisture.Wherethecanopy is
are in the province of Ontario, Canada, but dense, for example, it may intercept as much
systems have also been constructed in India, as 80 per cent of the incoming radiation and
CAPILLARY
more than 40 per cent of the precipitation.As
a result, thecanopynotonlyhasitsown
microclimate, but also exerts a strong influence
on the climateof the forest floor. Removal of
the canopy through forest clearing has sig-
nificant climatological consequences for the
area. In studies of urban climatology,the
canopy layer is the layer of the urban fabric
belowroof level, in which the
micro-
climatology is governed by thenatureand
distribution of theindividualbuildingsand
the activities taking place at streetlevel.
See also
Deforestation, Equatorial rainforest.
Further reading
Oke, T.R. (1987) Boundary Layer Climates (2nd
edition), London: Methuen.
CAPILLARY FLOW
Themovement of waterthroughnarrow
spaces or tubes (capillaries) against the force
of gravity. It is made possible by a combin-
ation of surface tension and the adsorptive
forces between the water molecules and the
capillary walls. Water in the soil can be car-
ried upwards through pore spaces above the
water table as a result of capillary action. The
smaller the pore spaces, the greater the height
to which the waterwill rise. This may provide
plants with a t least some of the moisture they
need during dry conditions and return leach-
ed nutrients to the root zone. However,it can
also lead to soil deterioration in the form of
salinization when water brought from some
depth in the soil profile and evaporated near
the surface, deposits the salts it contains.
See also
Adsorption, Leaching, Salinization.
CARBAMATES
Chemical compounds derived from carbamic
acid (NH,COOH), used as insecticides, fun-
gicides and herbicides.Theirdevelopment
wasencouragedbecause of thegrowing
resistance of some organisms to chlorinated
hydrocarbons such as DDT and concern for
the toxicity of organophosphorous compounds
FLOW 56
used as pesticides. The dangers posed by the
persistence of chlorinatedhydrocarbonsin
the environment led to their being banned in
many countries and carbamates were seen as
a less persistentalternative.Theyhavethe
advantagethattheyarenotstored in the
bodies of animals (i.e. n o bioaccumulation
takes place) and after use theydo not remain
long in the soil. Carbamates are not perfect,
however. Their toxicity for humans and other
animals is variable, but they are highly toxic
to bees and fish. The commercial insecticide
Sevin is one of the most frequently used car-
bamates.
Further reading
Kuhr, R.J. and Dorough, H.W. (1976) Carbamate
Insecticrdes:Chemrstry, Biochemistry a d Toxr-
cology, Cleveland: CRC Press.
Smith, G.J. (1993) Toxrcology and Pesticrde Use itz
Relatrorz to Wildlife, Boca Raton, FL: C.K. Smoley.
CARBOHYDRATES
Organic compounds containing carbon (C),
hydrogen (H) andoxygen (0),withthe
general formula Cx(H20)v.Glucose, a simple
carbohydrate,hasthe ' formula C,H,,O,.
Carbohydrates include monosaccharides (e.g.
glucose),
disaccharides (e.g. sucrose
and
lactose)
and
polysaccharides (e.g. starch,
glycogen and cellulose). The polysaccharides
are composed of simpler carbohydrates com-
binedtogether in branchedorunbranched
chains.Cellulose,forexample,consists of
long unbranched chains of glucose. Carbo-
hydrates are an essential part of the lives of
all livingorganisms.Glucose is produced
during photosynthesis, andis the basic energy
source for metabolic processes in plants and
animals; glycogen (animal starch)is the main
form in whichenergy is stored in animals;
cellulose is the principal structural material
of plants.
Further reading
Ketchnler, N. andHollenbeck,C.(eds)(1991)
Sugars and Sweeteners, Boca Raton, FL: CRC
Press.
McIlroy, R.J. (1967) frztroductron to Carbohydrate
Chenrrstry, London: Buttcrworth.
 57 CARBON

CARBON (C) Figure C-3 Examples of the chemical

structure of simple and complex carbon
A non-metallic element that exists in several compounds
allotropic forms (e.g. diamond and graphite)
and as amorphous carbon (e.g. lampblack).
Carbon, one of the most common elementsin H
the environment, is present in all organic sub-
stances and is a constituent of a great variety
I
H-C-H
of compounds, ranging fromrelatively simple
gases such as methane (CH,) to very complex
I
H
derivatives of petroleum hydrocarbons such
methane
asperoxybenzoylnitrate(PBzN).Thecom-
plexity of carbon-basedmolecules is made (CH 4)
possible by the carbon atom's valency of 4.
Each atom has four available bonds that allow ..
H H
it to unite easily with other atoms to create the /.
complex chains of molecules characteristic of c' "c 0
carbohydrates
the hydrocarbons.
and The
H-C
/ / \ c-c\ H
carbon in the environment is mobile, readily \ / \
changing its affiliation with other elements in c=c O"O"N0,
response to biological, chemical and physical / \
processes, the mobility being controlled H H
through a natural biogeochemical cycle.
peroxybenzoyl nitrate
See also
(PBzN)
Allotropy, Carbon cycle.

Figure C-4 The carbon cycle in the environment

Source: After Kemp, D.D. (1994) G/oba/Envrronmental Issues: A Clinzato/ogical Approach, London/
New York: Routledge
CARBON CYCLE 58
Further reading Figure C-5 Forests as carbon sinks. Only
Nimmo, W.S. (1997) The World of Carbon: forests which are increasing their biomass
OrganicChemistryand Biochenzrstry, Toronto:
Wiley Canada. act as sinks. Stable, equilibrium forests are
carbon neutral
CARBON CYCLE

A natural biogeochemical cycle through which

the flow of carbon (C)in the eartMatmosphere
system is regulated. Carbon moves through
the system mainly as carbon dioxide (CO,) -
although other gases such as methane (CH,)
are also involved - driven by such processes
as photosynthesis, respiration and combustion,
that control the release of carbon compounds
fromtheirsourcesandtheirabsorption in
sinks. The cycle is normally considered to be
I Forest
\ clearance Net C-uptake
\
self-regulating, but with a time-scale of the
order of thousands of years.Overshorter ‘\
periods it appearsto be unbalanced.The
carbon in thesystemmovesbetweenthe
major reservoirs indicated in Table C-l.

Table C-I Carbon reservoirs in the

/’
I Maintalnedgrazing
\
)
\ Gneutral
earthhmosphere system /

RESERVOIR CARBON RESERVES Sorrrce: Moore, P.D., Chaloner, B. and Stott, P.

(1 996)Global Enurronnzental Change, Oxford:
( 1 x 10’ TONNES) Blackwell Science
Atmospheric 750
atmosphere to intensify the greenhouse effect
Terrestrial 2,000 and thus contributes to global warming.
Oceanic 40,000
Further reading
Fossil fuel 5,000 Bolin, B. (1970) ‘Thecarbon cycle’, Scientific
Amerrcan 223 (3): 124-32.
Houghton, R.A. (1995) ‘Land-use change and the
Storage of carbon in the atmospheric and ter- carbon cycle’, Global Chatzge Biology 1: 275-87.
restrialreservoirs is usuallyshort-term,but Schimel, D.S. (1995) ‘Terrestrialecosystems and
the carbon sequestered in the oceans may be the carbon cycle’, Global Change Biology 1: 77-
91.
effectively removed from thecycle for periods
of several centuries, while the carbon in the
fossil fuel reservoir has not been active for mil-
CARBON CYCLE MODELS
lions of years. The growing demand for energy
in modern society has led to the reintroduction Computer-basedmodelswhichsimulatethe
of fossil fuel carbon into the cycle mainly in workings of the carbon cycle. They are used
the form of carbon dioxide, ata rate of some in conjunctionwith
climate
models to
5 billion tonnes per year. The system cannot investigate the impact of atmospheric carbon
cope immediately with the reactivation of this imbalance on global climate.
volume of carbon and becomes unbalanced.
Thenaturalsinksareunable to absorb CARBON DIOXIDE (CO,)
thenewcarbondioxide as rapidly as it is
beingproduced.The excess remains in the One of the variable atmospheric gases, and a
59 TETRACHLORIDE CARBON

greenhouse gas. CO, is produced by the com- Further reading

pletecombustion of carbonaceous (carbon- Baarschers, W.H. (1996) Eco-facts orrd ECO-
fictron, LondonlNew York: Routledge.
rich)substances, by theaerobicdecay of Newell, R.E., Reichle, H.G. and Seiler, W. (1989)
organic material, by fermentation and by the ‘Carbonmonoxideand
the
burning
earth’,
action of acid on limestone(CaCO,).Its Screrztific Anzerrcan 261 (4): 58-64.
current levelin the atmosphere is 353 parts
per million by volume (ppmv), but growing. CARBON TAX
Despite Its low volume, CO, is important to
life on earthbecause of its participation in A policy that would tax fossil fuels according
photosynthesisanditscontribution to the to the amount of carbon (C) they contained.
greenhouse effect. It becomes solid at -785°C The resultant increases in costs would reduce
to form ‘dry ice’, once commonly used as a thedemandforfossilfuels ingeneral and
refrigerant when no other forms of refriger- cause a realignment away from coal to natural
ation were available. Carbon dioxide is also gas. The latter, having a higher energy con-
used in fire extinguishers since it is heavier tent,could be burned insmallerquantities
than air and does not support combustion. than the coal to produce the same amount of
Nor does it lead to the ozone (0,)destruction energy, and the net result would be to reduce
associated with halon-based extinguishers. carbon dioxide (CO,) emissions and slow the
enhancement of thegreenhouse effect. As
See also with any new tax, however, the carbon tax
Calcium carbonate, Carboncycle, Global warming. faces political and economic opposition.
Further reading Further reading
Bach, W., Crane, A.J., Bcrger, A.L.. and Longhetto, Green, C. (1992) ‘Economlcs and the grcenhouse
A. (eds) (1983) CarbonDioxrde, Dordrecht: Reidel. effect’, Climatic Chatrge 22: 265-91.
Hansen,L.D.andEatough,D.J.(1991)Organrc
Chemrstry of the Atmosphere,BocaRaton, FL:
CRC Press. CARBON TETRACHLORIDE
(CCI,)
CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)
An industrial solvent, once widely used as a
A colourless,odourless,tastelessgaspro- dry-cleaningagent,but largelyreplaced by
duced by the incompletecombustion of other compounds because of its toxicity. The
carbonaceousmaterial.Althoughnaturally vapour is an irritant causing headaches and
occurring, in many areas the level o f the gas dizziness,
and
prolonged
exposure
can
in the atmosphere is determined by human cause kidney and liver damage.It is also a
activities. Internal combustion engines are a carcinogen. Carbontetrachloridehas been
commonsource of carbonmonoxide,for identified ascontributingdirectly to the
example,andasaresult it is acommon decay of the ozone layer through the release
component of street level urban air. Cigarette of chlorine (Cl), andindirectly as a feedstock
smokers inhale the gas directly and may have in theproduction o f chlorofluorocarbons
levels of carbonmonoxide intheirblood- (CFCs). Carbontetrachloridehasanozone
streams five to ten times greater than that of depletion
potential (ODP) of 1.1, and
non-smokers. Carbon monoxlde readily forms contributes about 8 per cent to global ozone
astablecompound(carboxyhaemoglobin) depletion.Productionand use of carbon
with the haemoglobin in blood. This effectively tetrachloride was phased out in 1996.
reducestheability of thehaemoglobin t o
carry oxygen (0)around the body and the Further reading
functions of thebrain,lungsandheartare IMacKcnzie, D. ( 1992) ‘Agreement reduces damage
impaired. High dosesof carbon monoxide are to ozone laycr’, N e w Screutrst 136 ( 1850): 10.
lethal, but the effects of long-term exposure
to low levels o f the gas are less wcll under-
stood.
CARCINOGEN 60
CARCINOGEN Figure C-6 The relationship between
population size and the carrying capacityof
A chemical orphysical agent capable of caus- the environment
ingcancer.Thegeneralconsensus is that
a large proportion of human cancers are
directly or indirectly linked to environmental
conditions.Humanactivitiescanintroduce
chemical carcinogenssuch
as
chlorinated
hydrocarbons or physical carcinogens such as
asbestos or
ionizing
radiation
into
the
environment, but natural carcinogens such as
thetoxicmetalsberyllium(Be),cadmium
(Cd) and selenium (Se) are also present. There
are two types of carcinogens: DNA-reactive
carcinogens that alter the DNA of cells, and ~~ ~

epigenetic carcinogens that do not react with TIME

DNA but may alter the immune system, cause
hormonal imbalances or cause chronic tissue accommodatedwithoutecologicaldeterior-
injury,all of whichcould lead to cancer. ation. Under natural conditions, it represents
Carcinogensmay be inhaled, ingested or a theoretical equilibrium state. If the carrying
absorbed through the skin, and their impact capacity of an ecosystem is exceeded because
may be direct or indirect - working through of the rapid growth of the number of organ-
the production of an intermediate chemical, isms in the system, for example, therewill be
for example. There is no simple link between insufficientresources to support the excess
exposuretoacarcinogenandthedevelop- population, and it willdeclineuntilequi-
ment of cancer.Some individualsmay be librium between theresource base andthe
physiologically more able to cope with expo- population is re-established. If the species in
sure to carcinogens than others. the area are fewer than could be supported by
the carrying capacity, populations will tend
See also t o increaseuntil they reachsomeform of
Radioactivity. balance with the resources available. Human
interferencefrequentlycausesthecarrying
Further reading capacity of anareato be exceeded.Intro-
World
Health
Organization (1972) Health ducing extra grazing animals on rangeland or
Hazards of theHumanEnvironment, Geneva: allowingtoo
manypeople to use a
WHO. recreationalarea will eventuallyleadtoa
Chiras, D.D. (1994) Environments! Science:
Actron for a Sustainable Future, Redwood City, deterioration of the environment. Although
CA: BenjaminKurnrnings. theconcept of carryingcapacity is usually
applied a t the ecosystem level, there is also a
CARRYING CAPACITY theoretical carryingcapacityfortheearth
as a whole, applied to the maximum human
The maximum numberof organisms that can population that it might support. A realistic
be supported by a particular environment. If value is probablyimpossible since factors
thatnumber is exceeded,someformof other than resource availability - acceptable
environmental disruption will follow. Although quality of life,for example - will help to
originally an ecological concept, it can also be decide the final carrying capacity.
applied in a socioeconomic context. In agri-
culture, for example, the carrying capacityof See also
Sustainable development.
an area will determine the number of grazing
animals it will support, or when applied to Further reading
recreational land use it represents the number Mungall, C. and McLaren,D.J. (cds) (1990) Planet
of people and types of activity that can be Under Stress: TheChallenge of GlobalChange,
61 CATION

Toronto: Oxford University Press. CATALYTIC CONVERTER

Botkin, D.B. and Keller, E.A. (1995) Envrron-
mental Science: Earthasa Lzvrng Planet, New
York: Wiley. A pollution control device attached to auto-
mobile exhaust systemsto control the output
CARSON, R. of pollutants. The presence of platinum (Pt)
as a catalyst causes unburned hydrocarbons
See Silent Spring. and carbon monoxide (CO) to be converted
intocarbondioxide (CO,). Morecomplex
systemsincludingplatinum,palladium(Pd)
CASH CROPPING
andrhodium(Rh) also convertoxides of
nitrogen (NOx) to nitrogen (N). Since the
Growingcropsformonetaryreturnrather
presence of lead(Pb)reducesthecatalytic
than direct food supply. It may contribute to
action, catalytic converters can only be used
environmental
deterioration
marginal
in
with unleaded gasoline. Most jurisdictions in
lands where the perceived financial incentive
developed nations now require catalytic con-
leads to the cropping of land unsuitable for
verters to be fitted to new vehicles.
development.
See also
See also
Selective catalytic reduction.
Subsistence farmmg.

CATABOLISM CATCHMENT

Adrainagebasin, or the area drained by a

That part of metabolism in which complex
particular riversystem.Adjacentdrainage
organiccompoundsarebrokendowninto
basins are separated by watersheds. In North
simpler ones that can be more easily used by
Americathetermwatershed refers to the
the
organismsinvolved.
In
the
process,
entire drainage basin, and the height of land
energy is released.
between basins referred to as a divide.
See also
Anabolism, Digestion. CATENA

CATALYST A group of soils formed from similar parent

materials, but displaying different character-
A substance thatfacilitates a chemical reaction, istics as a result of localtopography,soil
yet remains unchanged when the reaction is toposequence and/or internal drainage con-
over. Being unchanged, it cancontinue to ditions.
Thechanging
succession of soil
promote the same reaction again and again, profiles from the top of a slope to the base
as long as the reagents are available, or until provides the classic example of a catena.
the catalyst itself is removed. This is a cata-
lyticchainreaction.Enzymesareorganic CATHODE
catalysts.
Anegativeelectrodeorpole. In a primary
See also cell or battery it is the pole from which the
Catalytic converter, Ozone depletion. electrons are discharged before travelling to
the anode.
Further reading
Butt,J.B.andPeterson, E.E. (1988) Activatron,
Deactrvationand Porsonrng of Catalysts, San CATION
Diego: Academic Press.
Dotto, L. and Schiff, H. (1978) The Ozone War, A positively charged ion. During electrolysis,
Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
cations are attracted to the negatively charged
cathode.
CATION h2
See also specific functions.If a cell or group of cells is
Base exchange, Ion exchange. destroyed, their functions willbe lost and the
entire organism maysuffer.
CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY
Further reading
The total exchangeable cations that a soil can Darnell,J.E.,Lodish, H.F. and Baltimore, D.
absorb. (1990) Molecular CellBiology (2nd edition), New
York: Scientific American Books.
Swanson, C.P. and Webster,P.L. (1985) The Cell
See also (5th edition),Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentlce-Hall.
Base exchange, Cation.
CELLULOSE
CAUSTIC CHEMICALS
A carbohydrate that occurs widely in nature.
A term applied to corrosive alkaline solutions It has a fibrous form and is the major con-
-
such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) caustic stituent of the cell walls of trees and other
soda - or potassium hydroxide(KOH). Flesh higherplants.Structurally,itisapolysac-
exposedtocausticsubstancesisseverely charide, consistingof long unbranched chains
burned, and other organic materials can be of glucose,builtupduringtheprocess of
completelyorpartiallydestroyed.Caustic photosynthesis. An estimated 1x 10" tonnes
chemicals are used in a wide variety of indus- of cellulose is producedyearly, by natural and
trial processes.Caustic soda, for example, is cultivated plants. The carbon (C) sequestered
used in the pulp and paper industry to separatein the celluloseis removed from direct partici-
the cellulose fibres in wood by destroying the pation in the carbon cycle until the cellulose
chemicals that bind them together. is decomposed and carbon dioxide (CO,) is
released back into the atmosphere. Cellulose
CELL obtained from wood pulp, cotton and a variety
of other plant sources is used in the manu-
A small unit of living matter or protoplasm. facture of paper, rayon, plasticsand explosives.
Each cell includes a nucleus distinct from the
other protoplasm andis surrounded by a thin Further reading
membrane. In plants, each cell is surrounded Hon,D.N. andShlraishi, N. (eds) (1991) Wood
by a cell wall usually madeof cellulose. Many and Cellulose Chemistry, New York: M. Dekker.
micro-organisms - bacteria,forexample -
are unicellular, with the one
cell providing for CELSIUS SCALE
all of theneeds of the organism. In multi-
cellular organisms, however, the cells tend to A temperature scale devised by the Swedish
bespecialized toallowthemtoundertake astronomerAndersCelsius (1701-1744) in
which the melting point of ice is 0" and the
Figure C-7Diagrammatic representation of boilingpoint of water is 100". Formerly
the components of a cell called the 'centigradescale', it is the most com-
monlyusedscaleininternationalweather
membrane reporting and forecasting, and in the scien-
1 tific community.

See also
VeCuOle Fahrenheit scale, Kelvin.

CENTRAL ELECTRICITY
nucleus GENERATING BOARD (CEGB)

The Englishpublicutilityidentified in the

nucledus 1970s and 1980s as the main source of acid
63 CHALK

rain falling in Scandinavia. Acid gases released Figure C-8 A branching chain reaction
fromthe Board’s thermalelectricpower similar to that initiated by nuclear fission
stations were carried towards Norway and
Sweden ontheprevailingwesterlies,being
converted into acid rain on the way. Initially f
the CEGB protested against the allegations, 6
subsequent f
but ultimately had to accept its contribution
to acidrainandtakesteps - suchasthe
introduction of scrubbers - to deal with the
problem. The CEGB has since been privatized
and split into two separate companies.

Further reading
Central
Electricity
Generating
Board (1979)
Effects of Sttlphur Dtoxldc and Its Derwatives on
Health and Ecology, Leatherhead: CEGB.
Kyte, W.S. ( l988) ‘A programme for reducingS 0 2
emissions from U.K. power stations - present and
future’, CEGB: Corporate Envrronrnent U m t ,
Paper 1-2.

CENTRE FOR SOCIAL AND

ECONOMIC RESEARCH ON THE
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT
(CSERGE)

A research institute based at University Col-
lege LondonandtheUniversity of East
Anglia in Britain. Funded by the UK Economic
and Social Research Council, its purposeis to
studythesocialandeconomicaspects of
global environmental change. This is a very
broad mandate and has allowed the centre to
research a wide rangeof topics including global
climate change, biodiversity, waste disposal,
recycling and sustainable development.
CENTRIFUGALFORCE
The force directed away from the centre of
curvature of an object moving in a circular
path. For many purposesit can be considered
as areaction to thecentripetalforcethat
causes an object to movein a curved path and
is directedinwardtowardsthecentre of
curvature. In theenvironment,theseforces
apply to air in theatmospherefollowing
circular paths as in a cyclone or tornado.
CHAIN REACTION
may be straight or branching. The destruction
of the ozone layer by chlorine (Cl) atoms, for
example, is a straight line chain reaction in
which the same atomis used again and again,
whereasnuclearfission involves branching
chainreactions.Whenaneutronsplitsthe
nucleus of an atom, it releases
several
neutrons,which in turnproceed to split
additionalatoms.Thus,ateachstep,the
amount of fissionincreases.Eachfission is
accompanied by the release of energy and in a
branching chain reaction the release of energy
may be so rapid that a nuclear explosion will
occur. A controlled chain reactionis the basis
of thecommercialproduction of nuclear
energy.
See also
Catalyst, Nuclear fission, Ozone depletion.
CHALK
Soft,white,purelimestoneformedmainly
from the calcareous skeletons of the micro-
scopic marine organism foraminifera.

A reaction which, once begun, is self-sustaining See also

as long as the reactants remain available. It Calclum carbonate.
CHANGING ATMOSPHERECONFERENCE 64
CHANGING ATMOSPHERE See also
CONFERENCE (TORONTO 1988) Steady state.

One of a series of international conferences Further reading

heldbetweentheWorldCommission
EnvironmentandDevelopment ( 1 9 8 3 ) and
the UN ConferenceonEnvironmentand
Development ( 1 9 9 2 ) dealing with the causes,
impactsandmitigation of global issues
associated with the atmospheric environment.
One of the aims of the Toronto Conference
was to raise the level of awareness of these
issues among policymakers.Itfocused
ozonedepletionandthechangingconcen-
trations of greenhouse gases, proposing an
ActionPlan
for
the
Protection of the
Environment, which included support for the
MontrealProtocolandcalledforenergy
policiesaimed at reducing levels of carbon
dioxide (CO,) emissions.
Further reading
McKay, G.A. andHengeveld,H. (1990) ‘The
changing atmosphere’, in C.Mungall and D.J.
McLaren (eds) Planet Under Stress: The Challenge
of GlobalChange, Toronto:Oxford University
Press.
Coveney, P. and Highfield, R. (1995) Frontiers of
on Complexrty:The Search for Order m a Chaotic
World, New York: Fawcett Columbine.
Gleick, J. (1987) Chaos: Maklng a New Science,
New York: Viking.
Lorenz, E.N. (1995)The Essence of Chaos, Seattle:
Unwersity of Washington Press.
CHARCOAL
on Impure carbon (C) producedby the destructive
distillation of organicmatter,particularly
wood. Charcoal was formerly widely used as a
fuel in the iron (Fe) and steel industry before
being superseded by coke during the Industrial
Revolution. It has an important role in many
environmental issues because of its efficiency as
afilteringmedium. Being porous, alimited
volume of charcoal provides alarge surface area
for the adsorption of impurities, and, as a
result, charcoal filters are common in water
purificationandgaseousemissioncontrol
systems. Activated carbon is charcoal treated to
increase its adsorptive capacity.

CHAOS THEORY Further reading

Speight, J.G. (ed.) (1990) Fuel Scwzce and
Perhaps more appropriately termed ‘complex Technology Handbook, New York: M. Dekker.
systems theory’, chaos theory is at odds with
most other theoriesof environmental systems CHEMICAL CHANGE
whichincludeahighdegree of orderand
balance. It involves the study of non-linear A changeinvolving aninteractionbetween
systemscharacterized by variability and chemicals which results in the alteration of
unpredictable
behaviour. Specific inputs the chemical composition of the participating
into such systems do not produce the same elements or compounds. Such changes involve
results every time. In his pioneering work on the creation or breakup of chemical bonds,
chaos theory in the 1960s, EdwardLorenz and may or may not be reversible.
hypothesized that non-linear,
in chaotic
systems,relatively minorinitialdifferences CHEMICAL MODELS
between similar systems are magnified with
time to createincreasinglysignificantdif- Modelswhichsimulatechemicalprocesses.
ferences as the systems run. Such character- In studies of the atmospheric environment,
istics make chaotic systems difficultto model, they are beingdeveloped to investigatethe
and limits their use in prediction. Lorenz saw role of trace gases in atmospheric processes.
weathersystemsaschaotic,andthatmay
explainwhytheaccuracy of weatherfore- CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND
casting is limited to a few days. Chaos theory (COD)
has also been applied to other physical and
biologicalsystemsintheenvironmentand An indication of the pollution level in a water
has economic and industrial applications. sample determined by boiling the sample in
 65 CHERNOBYL

anoxidizingagent, usually potassiumdichro- See also

mate (K,Cr,O,), andmeasuringtheamount Coagu'ation.
of oxygen (0)consumed by the sample overa
given period of time. CHERNOBYL

CHEMICAL
PRECIPITATION The site of the
world's
most
serious
nuclear
reactor accident. In 1986, one of four nuclear
formation
The insoluble
of substance
an -a in a power at
precipitate - as a result of a chemical reaction Chernobyl, Ukraine (partof the USSR at that
in a solution. Precipitation canbe used in waste time) exploded as a resultof human error, lax
treatment to removehazardouschemicals, or OperatingPractices and a Poorly designed
in refining to allow a commercially important system.Theforce of theexplosionwas so
substance to be separated out of a solution. great that the top of the containment vessel

Figure C-9 The spread of radioactive pollutants in the atmosphere following the nuclear
accident at Chernobyl

April 27 May 1

May 2 May 6

Source: After Enger, E.D. and Smith, B.F. (1995) Envrronnzentul Scrence: A Study of lnterrelatrotzshrps
(5th edition),Duhuque, IA: Wm C. Brown
CHINA SYNDROME
wasdestroyed,releasing large quantities of
radioactive material into the environment. In
addition,thereactor’sgraphitemoderator
caught fire, contributing to thecontinued
emission o f radioactivity. Over a ten-day period
hazardous fission products escaped into the
atmosphere, forming a radioactive cloud
which gradually spread over adjacent parts of
Europe. The fire was eventually extinguished
andtheleak plugged by droppingseveral
thousandtonnes of limestone, sandand
boron(B)intothedamagedreactorfrom
helicopters. Thirty-one people were killed by
the explosion, by burns andby the immediate
effects of exposure to high levels of
radioactivity, but it is estimated that several
thousand will die pretnaturely over the next
5 0 years as a result of their exposure to the
radiation. The greatest effects were and will
continue tobe in the immediatevicinity of the
plant. Some 135,000 people were evacuated
from the area, but an estimated 130,000 of
them received significant radiationdoses, and
theincidence of radiation-induceddiseases
such as thyroid malfunction, anaemia, cancer
andbirthdefectsrosesharply in theyears
after the accident. Contamination spread to
adjacent areas of Russia, Poland, Belarus and
beyond to Scandinavia and Western Europe.
To reduce health risks, many countries ban-
nedtheimportationandconsumption of
food from contaminated soil.Even in Britain,
whichwasattheouteredge of themain
cloud, the direct contamination of pasture,
plus the recycling of radionuclides from the
soil into vegetation, was sufficient to cause
the banningof meat and dairy products. With
no pastexperience of anysuchevent,it is
impossible to know what the ultimate effect
of the Chernobyl explosion will be in environ-
mentalterms.Theareaaroundthereactor
may never again be safelyworkable, and even
in areas reasonablyfarremovedfromthe
source of radioactivity, the land may remain
contaminated for decades or even centuries.
The wrecked Chernobyl reactor is now sealed
in a concretesarcophagus,butthathas
already been weakened by the radioactivity
remaining in the site and will need remedial
work.Reactorssimilar to the one which
exploded are still in operation in other parts
of the former Soviet Union.
66
See also
Nuclearenergy,Nuclearfission,Radiationsick-
ness, Three Mile Island.
Further reading
Anspaugh, L.R., Catlin, R.J. andGoldman, M.
(1988)‘The
global
impact of the
Chernobyl
reactor accident’, Science 242 (488.5): 1513-19.
Park, C.C. (1989) Chertzobyl; The Long Shadow,
London: Routledge.
CHINA SYNDROME
See meltdown.
CHITIN
A tough, flexible polysaccharide, structurally
similar to cellulose. It is a n essentialcorn-
ponent of theexoskeletons of crustaceans
and insects and is also present in the cell walls
of some fungi.
See also
Carbohydrates.
CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS
See organochlorides.
CHLORINE (Cl)
A greenish-yellow gas with an irritating smell.
Along withbromine(Br),fluorine (F) and
iodine (I) it is a member of the halogen group
of elements. When inhaled it causes choking,
and for that reason was used as a weapon
during the First World War. Chlorine is a very
reactive element and is not commonly found
free in the environment. It occurs mainly in
the form of sodium chloride (NaCI)or as the
chlorides of metals suchas potassium (K) and
magnesium (Mg). Most free chlorine used in
industry is produced by the electrolysis of brine
(NaCI). It is used in combination with many
organic chemicals to produce pesticides (e.g.
organochlorides), solvents (e.g. carbon tetra-
chloride) and plastics (e.g. PVC). Chlorine is
a strong bleaching agent and is commonly used
as a disinfectant in municipal water supply
systems. As a constituent of chlorofluoro-
carbons (CFCs), chlorine hasbeen implicated
in the destruction of the ozone layer.
 67 CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS

Further reading Figure C-10 Atmospheric concentrationsof

Solarski, R.S.and Cicerone, R.J. (1974) 'Stratos- selected CFCs Press
pheric chlorme. Possiblesink for ozone', Cunadian
Journal of Chemistry 52: 1610-15.
g o,6T"""..."..."."".-.- ""."." "_............... ....".".-
""."..*""
l
CHLORINE MONOXIDE (CIO)
Acompoundcontainingchlorine(Cl)and
oxygen (0), that has been implicated in the
destruction of stratospheric ozone(OJ.Most
chlorinemonoxideintheatmosphereisa
byproduct of the breakdown of chlorofluoro-
carbons (CFCs). C10is an integral partof the
chlorine catalytic chain, a remarkablyefficient
destroyer of ozone.

CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS
(CFCs) Source: Based on data in IPCC (1996) Climate
Change 1995: The Scrence of Climate Change,
Cambridge: Cambridge University
A group of chemicals containing chlorine (Cl),
fluorine (F) and carbon (C), sometimes refer-
red to by their trade name Freon. Their stability
and low toxicity made them ideal for use as See also
propellants in aerosol spray cans and foaming Ozone depletion.
agents in the production of polymer foams.
They are widely used in refrigeration and air- Further reading
conditioning systems. Inert at surface temp- Downing, R.C. (1988) Fluorocarbon Refrrgerants
erature and pressure, they become unstable in Handbook, Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice-Hall.
Molina,M.J. and Rowland, F A (1974) 'Stratos-
the stratosphere, where they break down to phericsmk forchlorofluoromethanes:chlorme
release chlorine. The chlorine in turn initiates atom-catalysed destructlonof ozone', Nature 249:
a catalytic chain reaction which leads to the 810-12.
destruction of ozone (OJ. The signing of the Wofsy, S.C., McElroy, M.B. and Sze, N.D. (1975)
Montreal Protocol in 1987 was the first of a 'Freon consumption: implications for atmospheric
ozone', Science 187: 535-7.
series of agreements aimed at eliminating the
production and use of CFCs by the year 2000.
CFCs are also powerful greenhouse gases.

Table C-2 Characteristics and use of some common CFCs

CFC OZONE DEPLETING

CURRENT
FORMER
OR USE PHASE-OUT
DP) POTENTIAL
CFC-11 1.0 and rigid for agent
Foaming 1996
flexible foams
CFC-12 1.0 conditioning
Refrigeration:
air 1996
CFC-113 0.8 Solvent 1996
CFC-l15 0.6 conditioning
Refrigeration:
air 1996

Source: Kemp, D.D. (1994) Global Enwonmental Issues: A CIimatologrcul Approach (2nd editlon),
LondodNewYork: Routledge
CHLOROFORM 68
CHLOROFORM taminated by sewage.Itcan be controlled
(TRICHLOROMETHANE CHCI,) through
the
provision of pipedand
chlorinated drinking-water supplies and the
A volatile,sweet-smellingliquidonceused construction of sewage disposal facilities.
extensively as an anaesthetic. However, the
dosage was critical and it is now considered See also
too dangerous for general use. Exposure to Water quality standards.
chloroformcanlead to liverdamageand Further reading
there is some evidence that it is a carcinogen.Banarjee, B. and Hazra, J. (1974)Geoecology of
It remains in use as a solvent in the rubber Cholera in West Bengal: A Study m Medical Geo-
and plastics industries, but it is to be phased graphy, Calcutta: K.P. Bagchi & Co.
out there also, since it contributes to ozone
depletion through the release of chlorine (Cl). CHROMOSOME

CHLOROPHYLL A strand of geneticmaterialconsisting of

DNA and protein found in the cell nuclei of
A green and yellow pigment found mainly in plants and animals. Each chromosome con-
the leaves of plants which makes photosyn- sists of aseries of geneswhichcarrythe
thesis possible through its ability to absorb inherited
characteristics of anorganism,
solar energy. Chlorophyll is chemically complex passed on from one generation to the via next
andexistsintwoforms:chlorophyll-a the reproductivecells. Chromosomes occur in
(C,,H,,O,N,Mg) chlorophyll-b
and pairs, and each species has a specific number
(C,,H,,O,N,Mg).Plants,suchasredand of chromosomes - twenty-threepairsin
brown algae or copper beech trees, which are humans - carried in every body cell.
not green owe their colour to the presence of
pigments which mask the greenness of the CIRCUMPOLAR VORTEX
chlorophyll.
A band of strong winds circling the poles in
the upper atmosphere. The vortex is mainly a
See also
Chloroplast. winter phenomenon and best developed around
the South Pole. The vortex contributes to the
CHLOROPLAST development of the Antarctic Ozone Holeby
restricting airflow into and out of the polar
Chloroplasts are complex structures located region.
within
plant cells. They
contain
the
chlorophyll pigments that give green plants Figure C-1 1 The conditions responsible for
their colour, and are therefore the main sites the creation of the southern hemisphere
of photosynthesis. polar vortex

thermal radietlon
CHOLERA to soace
subsiding air subsldlng sur
A bacterial disease caused by drinking water
contaminated by sewage or eating food that
has notbeen washed or is inadequately cooked.
It is common in areas where the growth in Idatton from csoiation from
other latitudes other latitudes
population has outstripped the development
of facilities for providing clean water or dis-
posing of sewage. The problem is most severe
in warm climates, where high temperatures
encourage the growthof the cholera bacteria. Source: After Turco, R.P. (1997)Earth Under
Cholera can erupt following floods or earth- Siege, Oxford/New York: Oxford University
quakeswhendrinking-waterbecomescon- Press
L E G69
ISLATION AIR
CLAY
Afine-grainednaturalsedimentwithgrain
sizes less than 2 p.Such sediments may con-
tain small grains (< 2 pm) of other minerals
such as quartz in addition to the more com-
mon clay particles.
Further reading
Velde, B. (1995) Orrgm and Mineralogy of clays,
Berlin/New York: Sprmger-Verlag.
CLAY-HUMUS COMPLEX
Amixture of thefinestmineral(clay)and
organic(humus)components of the soil.
Particles of humusandclaytend to carry
negative electrical charges on their surfaces
which allowsthem to attract positively
charged nutrient ions such as potassium(K+),
calcium (Ca.+) and ammonium (NH,‘). This
attachment prevents such cations from being control zones in which the type of fuel used
leached out of the soil profile by percolating
water, and makes them available as nutrients
for growing plants.As well as contributing to
soil fertility, the presence of the clay-humus
complex also helps to improvethewater
capacity of thesoil,throughtheability of
both clay and humus to absorb moisture.
CLAY MINERALS
Secondary minerals
formedthrough
the
weathering of bedrock. They can beclassified
into two main groups -thesilicate clays con-
tainingmainlyaluminum(AI)andmagnes-
ium (Mg) formed in mid-latitudesandthe
hydrous oxide clays containing iron (Fe) and
aluminumformed as a result of tropical
weathering. Clay
mineralshave a platy
structurethatallowsthem to pack closely
together,creatingdenseimpermeablesoils
withhigh plasticity. Their finelydivided
nature also allows themto hold and exchange tough air quality standards have
nutrient ions. Thusthe presence of clay
particles in a soil adds to soil fertility. Clay is
also an important industrial mineral. Differ-
entformsareusedfordifferentpurposes.
Kaolin or ‘china clay’ is an important raw
material in theceramicsandpaper-making
industries. Bentonite is used as a drilling mud
and as a liner for ditches and settling ponds
CLEAN
to sealagainstwater loss. Other claysare
employed in brick andtile making and theSO-
called fireclays capable of withstanding very
high temperatures are used in the production
of refractory materials.
CLEAN AIR LEGISLATION
Various laws, acts and ordinances designedto
bringaboutthereduction of atmospheric
pollution.Whenthefirstmoderncleanair
laws were introducedin the 1950s, most were
aimed at controllingvisible pollutants such as
smoke and soot, but more recent legislation
has included gaseous pollutants such as the
sulphur dioxide (SO,) and oxides of nitrogen
(NOx)responsible for acid rain. In Britain, for
example, the original CleanAir Act was pas-
sed in 1956, in part as a result of the impact
of the London Smog of 1952. Itincluded
provisionfortheestablishment of smoke
wouldberestricted.Alateract in 1968,
which introduced the tall stacks policy, was
also mainly concerned withvisible pollutants,
and it wasnotuntilthemid-1980sthat
legislation was introduced by the UK
government to control emissions of sulphur
dioxide.IntheUnitedStates,theinitial
Clean Air Act was passed in 1963, but was
amended in 1970, 1977 and 1990. In federal
jurisdictions,such as the US, Australiaand
Canada, it is common for
the
federal
government to passblanketlegislationthat
establishes air quality standards or timelines
forthereduction of airpollution,and to
expectthe
states or provinces to work
towards meeting them. The states, provinces
and(occasionally)municipalitiesthenpass
legislation to meet the requirements. In some
cases the state and provincial regulations are
morestringentthanthoseproduced at the
federal level. InCalifornia, for example,
been in place
since a t least the 1940s. As a result of Clean
Air legislation, average ambient air pollution
levels have fallen in most developed nations.
Pollution episodes still occur, however, when
emissions are higher than normal or weather
conditionsprevent
the
dispersal of the
pollutants.Amongthedevelopingnations,
the
maintenance or improvement of air
CLEAR CUTTING
quality lags behind thatin the developed world,
even where legislation exists. As a result, cities
suchasBangkok,NewDelhiand Beijing
experience serious air pollution.
See also
Photochemical smog, Smog.
Further reading
Edmonds, R.L. (1994)Patterns of Chrm’s Lost
Harmony, LondodNew York: Routledge.
Smith, Z. A. (1995)The EnurronmentalPolicy
Paradox, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Thackery, T.O. (1971)‘Pittsburgh: how one city
did it’, in R. Revelle, A. Khosla and M. Vinovskls
(eds) The Survruul Equation, Boston, MA:
Houghton Mifflin.
CLEAR CUTTING
The complete removal of trees from an area
duringcommercialforestry.Althoughitis
economically the most efficient way to har-
vest trees, it is no longer considered environ-
mentally sound. Local moisture and energy
Figure C-22 The edge of a clear cut in the boreal forest. The surface debris
Photograph: The author
70
regimes are changed completely and the soil
is exposed todeteriorationandpossible
erosion. Wildlife habitatis destroyed and the
aesthetic quality of the landscape is reduced.
Clear cutting makes sustainable development
difficult, because the changes it produces in
thelocalhydrologyandmicroclimatology
mean that it is not always easy or even pos-
sible t o re-establish the forest. With block or
strip cutting, in which sections are left uncut,
theenvironmentalchangesaremuch less
drastic and natural regenerationis encouraged.
Environmental groups such as Earthfirst and
the Sierra Club have fought against clear cut-
ting in North America, and in some areas of
oldgrowthforesthaveworkedtoprevent
cutting of any kind.
Further reading
Mami, J.S. (1990) ‘Forests: barometersof environ-
mentandeconomy’,in C. Mungall and D J .
McLaren (eds) Planet under Stress: The Challenge
of GlobalChange, Toronto:OxfordUniversity
Press.
or ‘slash‘ is typical.
71 CLIMATE CHANGE

CLIMATE nineteenth century. Modern research methods

also make use of computerized climate models
Thecombination or aggregate of weather to look forward as well as back. The earth’s
conditions experienced in a particular area. It climateappears to havefluctuatedover a
includes averages, extremes and frequencies wide range in the past, with most areasbeing,
of such meteorological elements as tempera- at some time or other,warmer or drier or
ture,
atmosphericpressure,
precipitation, wetter or colder than they are now. During
wind, humidity and sunshine, measured over the Pleistocene, for example, higher latitudes
an extended period of time - usually a mini- experienced a series of ice ages, separated by
mum of thirty years. periods of amelioration. Over
the
past
10,000 years, since the end of the ice ages,
Further reading variationshavecontinued,withperiods of
Barry, R.G. and Chorley, R.J. (1992)Atmosphere, improvement such as the Climatic Optimum
Weather apzd Climate (6th edition),
London: and periods of deterioration as represented
Routledge. by the Little Ice Age. All these changes were
generated by natural processes, but in recent
CLIMATE CHANGE years,therearegrowingindicationsthat
human activitieshave also contributedto
Because of the integratednature of the change. For many scientists, human-induced
earthhmosphere system, climatic conditions climate change ranging from the development
are inherently variable.
Variations
in
such of urban heat islands to global warming is
meteorological conditions as temperature, now of more concern than the natural variety.
precipitation and atmospheric pressure from The importance of this attitude can be seen in
season to season and from year to year are the definition of climate change adopted by
common, for
example. If thevariations the UN Framework Convention on Climate
continue in onedirectionfor a number of Change (FCCC), which sees climate change
years, they can be seen as an expression of as ‘attributed directly or indirectly to human
climatechange. Evidence of pastchange is activity thataltersthecomposition of the
available in many forms:
for
example, global atmosphere and which is in addition to
biological,
stratigraphical,
archaeological, naturalclimatevariability
observed
over
agricultural,glaciological or historical. All comparable time periods’. Much of the
these sources provide proxy data, but change activity in the studyof climate change reflects
is also indicated in the instrumental record thisinterest in thehuman element. As a
that began to take a more reliable formin the result, attention is increasingly being focused

Figure C-13 Sources of evidence of climate change

SOURCES OF
CLIMATE 72

on present and future changes, and their poten- climate over the past million years. Most of
tial impact on society. the data for the project were obtained from
ocean sediments and ice cores, and were fed
See also into numerical modelsto produce someof the
Dendroclimatology,Generalcirculationmodels, earliestcomputer-generatedmaps of global
Interglacial, Palynology. climate.
Further reading
Further reading
Bradley, R.S. and Jones, P.D. (1992) Climate since Calder, N.(1974) Tbe Weather Machine and the
A . D . 1500, London: Routledge. Threat of Ice, London: BBC.
IPCC (1996)Climate Change 1995: The Science of CLIMAP Project Members (1976) ‘The surface of
Climate Change, Cambridge: Cambridge University the ice-age earth’, Science 191: 1131-7.
Press.
Lamb,H.H.(1977) Climate:Present, Past and
Future, Volume 2 , Climate History and the Future, CLIMATIC OPTIMUM
London: Methuen.
Parry, M.(1990) ClimateChangeandWorld
Agriculture, London: Earthscan. Period of major warming during the immed-
SMIC(1971) InadverentClimateModificatron: iatepost-glacialperiodbetween 5000 and
Report of the Study of Man’s Impact on Climate, 7000 years ago, also referred to as the alti-
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. thermal or hypsithermal. Temperatures were
perhaps 1-3°C higherthanatpresentand
CLIMATE CHANGE CONVENTION changesinprecipitationamountsand dis-
tribution also occurred. As a result of recent
See Framework
Convention
on
Climate global warming, current world temperatures
Change (FCCC). are approaching those of the Optimum.

CLIMATE CHANGE DETECTION Further reading

PROJECT(CCDP) Lamb,H.H.(1977) ClimatePresent, Past and
Future, Volume 2, Climate History and theFuture,
London: Methuen.
A WMO project initiated in 1989 to provide Lamb,H.H.(1982) Climate,Historyandthe
reliableanalyses of climate trends, suitable Modern World, London: Methuen
for use in decision making. National meteor-
ological
organizations
providedata
from CLIMATE RESEARCH UNIT (CRU)
which global climate baseline data sets can be
constructed. These data sets are then analys- A research institute, based at the University
ed to establish the status of global climates, of East Angliain England, involved in the
identify any anomaliesthat may be present and study of climatechange,past,presentand
detect possible indications of climate change. future. The unitis active in climate modelling
studieswiththeHadleyCentre of the UK
CLIMATE IMPACT ASSESSMENT MeteorologicalOfficeandwiththemajor
PROGRAM (CIAP) European modelling centres. Scientists from
CRU are participating in a study to recon-
A program commissioned by the US Depart- struct climatic conditions in Eurasia over the
ment of Transportation in the mid-1970s to past 10,000 years, using dendroclimat-
studythe effects of supersonictransports ological
techniques,and,
usinghistorical
(SSTs) on the ozone layer. instrumentaldata,are assessing ways of
establishing the nature and extent of climate
CLIMATE LONG-RANGE variability in Europe over the past 215 years.
INVESTIGATION MAPPING AND Researchintomodernclimatologicalcon-
PREDICTIONS PROJECT(CLIMAP) ditionsincludesparticipation in theMedi-
terranean
Desertification
and
Land Use
A multi-university research project set up in research project. The Climate Research Unit
theUnitedStates in 1971 tostudyglobal publishes
quarterly
a journal - Climate
73
Monitor - which provides current summaries
of global climatic conditions and maintains
an informationsite - Tiempo: Global
Warming and the Third World- on the World
Wide Web.
See also
Dendroclimatology, Models.
CLIMAX COMMUNITY
Amaturecommunitywhichrepresentsthe
final stage in a natural succession, and which
reflectsprevailingenvironmentalconditions
such as soil type and climate. Climax com-
munities are characterized by a diverse array
of species and an ability to use energy and to
recyclechemicalsmore efficiently thanim-
maturecommunities. In theory, they are
capable of indefinite self-perpetuation under
given climatic and edaphic conditions, but if
these conditions change, the community will
change also. Climaticvariations,fireand
disease arecommoninstigators of natural
change, but existing climax communities are
being damaged increasingly by human agri-
cultural and industrial activities.
See also
Biome, Edaphic factors, Sere, Succession.
Further reading
Stiling, P.D. ( 1992) Introductory Ecology, Engle-
wood Cliffs, NJ: I’rentice-Hall.
Woodward, F.I. (1987) Climate and Z’latzt
Distributron, CambridgelNewYork:Cambridge
Unlversity Press.
CLONE
A group of geneticallyidenticalcells or
organisms descended from a single individual
through asexual reproduction. Among simpler
organisms such as bacteria, algae and yeasts,
cloning is brought about by the growth and
division of cells, and in some higher plants
and animals, such as dandelions and aphids,
cloningmayresultfromparthenogenesis - ation was made in 1803 by Luke Howard, an
the developmentof an unfertilized egg intoan
adultorganism.Theidenticalsiblingspro-
duced during multiple births in humans and
otheranimalsarealsoexamples of clones.
Artifical cloning has been successful in plant
CLOUDS
andanimalbreeding,andimportantmedi-
cines such as insulin and human growth hor-
mone have been produced using the natural
cloningproperties of bacteria.Cloninghas
also some potentialin the treatmentof certain
cancers,
but
the
possibility of cloning
completehuman beings through
genetic
engineering raises many ethical questions.
See also
Chromosome, Gene.
Further reading
Griffin, H. and Wilmut, I. (1997) ‘Seven days that
shook the world’, N e w Screntist 153 (2074): 49.
Wilmut, I, Schnieke, A.E., McWhlr, J., Kind, A.J.
andCampbell, K.H.S. (1997)‘Viableoffspring
derived from fetalandadultmammalian cells’,
Nature 385: 810-13.
CLOSEDSYSTEM
See systems.
CLOUDS
Dense,visible concentrations of suspended
waterdroplets or icecrystalsranging in
diameter from 20-50 pm. Nearly all clouds
occur in thetroposphere,wheretheyare
formedwhenair is cooledbelowitssatur-
ation point, usually as a result of the adiabatic
expansion which accompanies uplift. In the
presence of condensationnuclei,thewater
vapour condenses to form droplets of water.
The visible cloud base represents the level at
which condensation begins. Clouds may also
be formed by radiative cooling which lowers
the temperature of the air close to the ground
sufficiently to cause condensation and
produce fog. The ability of clouds toreflect or
absorbradiation gives them animportant
role in the earth’s energy budget. Clouds take
a n infinitevariety of forms,butthereare
sufficientsimilarities among theseforms to
allow them to be grouped into a workable
classification. The firstattemptat classific-
English
sclentist, who
grouped
clouds
accordingtotheirform(cumulus - heap;
stratus - layer; nimbus - rain; cirrus - wispy)
and these descriptors have been included in
all subsequent classifications. Current cloud
CLUB OF ROME 74

Table C-3 Ten basic cloud types

DESCRIPTION
Cirrus (C;) High detached fibrous clouds forming filaments, patches or bands
Cirrocumulus (Cc) Thin, white patches or complete sheetsof cloud with regularly
arranged ripples or bumps.
Cirrostratus (CS) Transparent, white veil cloud, fibrous or smooth in appearance and
often producing a halo around the sun or moon.
Altocumulus (Ac) White and/or grey cloud composed of regularly arranged lumpy,
round masses or rolls.
Altostratus (As) Grey or bluish sheet o r layer cloud largely or totally covering the sky,
and thin enough in placesto reveal the sun.
Nimbostratus (Ns) Grey, dark layer cloud thick enough to blot out the sun. Lower edge
usually diffuse because of falling rain and snow.
Stratocumulus (Sc) Grey and/or white patchesor complete layers of cloud composed of
tessellations, rounded masses o r rolls.
Stratus (St) Grey layer cloud with a generally uniform base, producing drizzle, ice
crystals or snow grains.
Cumulus (Cu) Dense, detached clouds with sharp outlines. They develop vertically
as rising mounds or domes from a nearly horizontal base. Sharp
contrast between the brilliant white sunlit partsof the cloud and the
dark base.
Cumulonimbus (Cb) Dark, dense cloud well developed vertically into high towers. The
upper part of the cloud is usually smooth or fibrous and flattened out
into the shape of an anvil. The base of the cloud is dark with ragged
clouds and heavy precipitation.

classification is based on that derived by the
World Meteorological Organization ( W M O )
and published in its International Cloud Atlas
(1956). It identifies ten basic cloud types that
incorporate descriptive and altitudinal refer-
ences (strato - low level; alto - mid level;
cirro - highlevel). Thus, a high level layer
cloud would be classifed as cirrostratus.
Further reading
MeteorologicalOffice (UK) (1986) Cloud Types
for Ohseruers, Edinburgh: HMSO.
W M O ( 1 9 5 6 ) Irztenzatronal Cloud Atlas, Geneva:
WMO.
CLUB OF ROME
A group of economists, politicians, scientists,
educators, industrialists, humanists and civil
servants who came together in 1968 to bring
their collective intelligence and experience to
bear on the present and future predicament of
mankind. They aimed to foster better under-
standing of the various interdependent com-
ponents - natural and human - that make up
theglobalsystem,andthroughthatunder-
standingencourage policy makersandthe
public to initiate policies that would benefit
society, and in some cases might be necessary
for its survival. The Club initiated a ‘Project
on the Predicament o f Mankind’, which pro-
duced a computer analysis of the statusof the
world in terms of its population, resources,
industrial production and pollution - Limits
to Growth - and a follow-upreportthat
examined alternative
patterns of world
development - MankindattheTurning
Point.
Further reading
Meadows, D.H., Meadows, D.L., Randers, 1. and
Rehrens, W.W. (1972) Ltmrts to Growth, New
75 COAL

York: Universe Books. Table C-4 Carbon content of main types of

Mesarovic, M. andPestel, E. (1975) Mankrmf at coal
the Ttrrrzrrzg Potrrt, London: Hutchinson.

COAGULATION CARBON (%)

The clustering o f finelydividedparticlesin Peat <S7
suspension to form larger particles which may
c.70 to fall out of sus-
then be sufficiently heavy Lignite
pension.Coagulation is one of theenviron- Bituminous
coal c.85
ment’s cleansing mechanisms, contributing to
the removal of soot particles from c.94
the atmos- Anthracite
phere, for example.
use it is estimated that thereis enough coal to
COAL lastforanother 300 to 500 years. The
environmentalcosts of coal use have been
A
black or brown combustible material high, both in extractionand use.Under-
composed of carbon(C),variouscarbon ground mining is costly in human terms and
compounds and
other
minerals such as surface mining has despoiled the landscapein
sulphur (S). The most abundant o f the fossil many areas. Acid mine drainage is common
fuels, it wasformedthroughtheaccum- to both. The use of coal has contributed to
ulation of vegetable matter over millions of such major environmental issues as acid rain,
yearsinenvironments (e.g. swamps, deltas) atmosphericturbidityandglobalwarming.
whichreducedtherate of decay of the Although some improvement has been made
organicmaterialandallowedthepreserv- in dealing with the environmental problems
ation of the solar energy absorbedby it when of coal, near-term solutions areunlikely to be
it was growing. When coalis burned it is that found as long as modern industrial societies
energywhich is released. Mostcoalwas continuetodepend on coal as anenergy
formed from plant material -the humic coals source and a raw material.
-but some resulted from the accumulation of
finely divided vegetable matter such as spore
cases,
algae
and
fungal
material - the Table C-5 World coal reserves (percentage
sapropelic
coals.
The
compression and by region)
temperatureincreasebroughtabout by the
deposition of many metresof sediment on top
REGION RESERVES ( Y o )
of such organic matter caused the progressive
elimination of moisture volatile
and Russia, Ukraine,
constituents and a subsequent increase in the Europe Eastern 31
proportion of carbon in thedeposit.The
Europe
Western 8
classification of coal is based on its carbon
content, with peat having least carbon and North America 23
the proportion increasing through lignite and
bituminous coal to anthracite. The increased America Latin 1
use of coal as a fuel and an industrial raw Africa 6
material during the Industrial Revolution laid
the foundations for modern society. Coal use China 23
peaked initially at the time of the First World Australia, Asia 8
War, after which it sufferedincompetition
withpetroleumand electricity. In themid-
1970s, its position improved againas a result
Further reading
of the 1973 oil crisis, and its use in
Berkowitz, N. (1993) An lrrtroductron to Coal
developing nations such as China and India Technology (2ndedition), SanDiego:Academic
has continued to grow. At the present rate of Press.
COAL GASIFICATION
Kleinbach, M.H. and Salvagin, C.E. (1986)Energy
Technologres and Conversion Systems, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Nisbet, E.G. (1991) Leaving Eden: To Protect and
ManagetheEarth, Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press.
COAL GASIFICATION
The heatingor cooking of coal - sometimes in
place - to releasevolatilegasessuch as
methane (CH,), a cleaner, more efficient fuel
than the coal itself.
See also
Synfuels.
Further reading
Supp, E. (1990) How to Produce Methanol from
Coal, BerlinMew York: Springer-Verlag.
COAL LIQUEFACTION
The conversion of coal into a liquid, petro-
leum-type fuel by a combination of heating
andthe use of solvents and catalysts. The
resultingsyntheticfuel is generallycleaner
burning than the original coal.
See also
Synfuels.
Further reading
Schlosberg, R.H. (1985) Chemrstry of Coal Con-
uersron. New York: Plenum Press.
COEVOLUTION
The evolutionof traits in two or more species
to allowmutually beneficial interactions
among them. For example, the relationship
betweencertaininsectsandthetypes
flowers that they are able to pollinate may
result from coevolution.
COGENERATION
The combined production of heat and power
from one plant. The power is usually in the
form of electricity and the heatin the form of
steam produced from a single fuel source. In
standard thermal electricity generating plant,
the heat in the high pressure steam used to
powerthegenerators is allowed to escape
76
into the environment unused. In a cogener-
ationplant,thatheatwouldbe used for
industrialprocessing,spaceheating or to
provide hot water for domesticuse. Cogener-
ationcanalsobeapplied to diesel or gas
turbine electricity generators in which the hot
exhaust gases are used to heat water. In the
case of the gas turbine, the exhaust gases are
hot enough to produce high pressure steam
that can be used to generate additional elec-
tricity. Cogeneration increases the efficiency
of thefuelconversionprocess.Coal-fired
generators, for example, convert as little as
30-40 per cent of the energy available in the
coal into electricity. In a cogeneration plant,
as much as 80 per cent of the energy in the
coal is made available as heat or electricity.
Further reading
Hay,N.E.(ed.)(1992) Gurde to NaturalGas
Cogeneratron, Lilburn, GA: Fairmont Press.
Kleinbach, M.H. and Salvagin, C.E. (1986)Energy
Technologres and Conuersron Systems, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
COKE
The porous, solid residue that remains when
tar and gas have been driven off during the
destructive distillationof coal. In the process,
one tonneof coal will produce about0.7 tonnes
of coke which is between 80 and 90 per cent
carbon (C).Originally introduced as a replace-
ment for charcoal in the iron (Fe) and steel
industry during the Industrial Revolution, it
is still usedin that and other metallurgical
industries. It is also used as a smokeless fuel.
COLD WAR
of
The period between the end of theSecond
WorldWarandthelate 1980s, whenthe
nations of the North Atlantic Treaty Organ-
ization and the Warsaw Pact maintained an
antagonisticrelationshipwithoutbecoming
involved in a major conflict, or ‘hot’ war.
See also
Nuclear winter.
a
COLIFORM BACTERIA
Bacteria found in the intestinal tract of human
77 COMBUSTION

beings and other mammals, and used as an COMBINEDSEWERSYSTEM

indicator of water quality. The presence of
coliforms in a water system indicates that the
water is polluted, possibly by human sewage,
and thatthere maybe other pathogenic bacteria
present. Cases of food poisoning caused by
theconsumption of meatandvegetables
contaminated by Escherichiacoli arenot
uncommon, and larger scale outbreaks, such
as those in Japan and Scotland in 1996 and
1997, can lead towidespreadsicknessand
even death.
Further reading
Neidhardt, EC. (ed.) (1987) Escherrchiacoliand
SalmonellatyphimuriumCellularandMolecular
Biology, Washington, DC: AmericanSociety of
Microbiology.
COLLAGEN
A fibrousproteinwhich is amajorcon-
stituent of bone,cartilage,skinandother
connective tissue in animals.Tendonsare
almost pure collagen. Collagen molecules are
arranged in helical chains which provide both
strength
and flexibility. Damage to
the
collagen fibresin connective tissue can leadto
physiologicalproblemssuchasrheumatoid
arthritis.When boiled downwithwater,
collagen is converted into a gelatin, which is
used in thefood,photographicandtextile
industries.
A sewer systemin which the pipes carry dom-
estic and industrial sewage aswell as rain and
storm water. Heavy rain, sudden storms or
rapid snow melting can overwhelm the system,
leading to flooding, damage to sewage plants
and pollution. Most modern sewage systems
carry waste water and rainwater in separate
pipes.
See also
Separate sewage systems.
COMBUSTION
Achemicalreaction in whichasubstance
combineswithoxygen (0)(oxidation)to
release energy in the form of heat and light.
The oxygen may be free or in the form of a
compoundsuchasnitricacid(HNO,) or
hydrogen peroxide (H,O,). At the molecular
level, the process begins with the formation
of free radicals and the initiation of the chain
reactionsthat release
the
energy. If the
reactions are very rapid, the energy may be
released withexplosiveforce.Most of the
energy currently used by society is provided
by the combustion of fossil fuels, in which the
carbon (C) and hydrogen (H) in the fuels are
convertedintocarbondioxide(CO,)and
water respectively, as follows:.

COLLOID energy+
c + 0, ">CO,
energy+
Very smallorganic or inorganicparticles -
2H, + 0, --> 2H,O (steam)
usuallyfiner than 0.01 pm - capableof
remainingindefinitelyinsuspensionina
These are the products of complete combus-
liquid.Suchacolloidalsuspensionacts in
tion. Ifcombustion is incomplete - for example,
manyways like asolution,althoughthe because of insufficientoxygen - environ-
colloids are much larger than the particles in
mental pollution may occur in theform of
a true solution. Clay and humic colloids are
unburnedcarbon, excess smoke or carbon
important in maintaining soil fertility. Being
monoxide (CO)gas.
negatively charged and with a large surface
area per unitmass,theyarecapable of See also
attracting
and
holdingnutrient
cations, Metabolism.
making them available to growing plants.
Further reading
See also Bartok, W. and Sarofim, A.E. (eds) (1991) Fossil
Humus. Fuel Combustion: A Source Book, New York:
Wiley.
COMMENSALISM 78

COMMENSALISM and other Assocratrons, London: English Univers-

A close association between organisms of dif-
ferent species in which one species benefits
whereas the other is apparently neither helped
norharmed.Clown fish, for example,live
unharmed and protected among the poison-
ous tentacles of the sea anemone, feeding on
the food remnants unconsumed by the sea
anemone. The sea anemone seems neither to
suffer nor to benefit from the relationship.
Further reading
Gotto, R.V. (1969) Marrne Anrmals: Partnerships
ity Press.
COMMONWEALTH EXPERT
GROUP ON CLIMATE CHANGE
A group of experts brought together by the
Secretary-General of theBritishCommon-
wealth in 1988 to examine the implications
of globalclimatechange,withparticular
emphasis on its impacts on Commonwealth
countries.Thereport of thegrouphigh-
lighted the problems that would be faced by
developingnations,andprovidedpractical

Figure C - l 4 A backyard composter. Provided free

of charge or at minimal costin many parts
of North America to encourage waste minimization through recycling

Photograph: The author

79 CONDENSATION

suggestions onhowtheimpactscould be COMPOUND

mitigated. As with many similar groups, its
reportemphasizedtheimportance of high- A substance containing two or more elements
quality data collection in the monitoring and united by chemicalbonds. Compoundsare
analysis of the changes. created by chemical reactions and cannot be
separated by mechanical or physicaltech-
COMMUNITY niques. The elements involved lose their
individual properties when they form a com-
Ageneraltermfor a group of organisms pound. For example, common salt (NaCI), a
living and interacting in a common environ- whitecrystallinesolid, is formed by the
ment at a particular time. Thesize of the group combination of a highly reactive
metal
and the degree of interaction are variable. (sodium (Na)) anda poisonous gas (chlorine
(Cl)), yet displays none of the characteristics
See also of its
constituents. Specific compounds
Animal community, Plant community. contain a fixed proportion of elements and
exhibit a constant setof properties. Water, for
Further reading example,alwaysconsists of twohydrogen
Brewer, R. (1993) T h e Science of Ecology (2nd
editlon), Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders.
(H) atoms and one oxygen(0)atom and will
always freeze a t 0°C.
COMPOST See also
Mixture.
A soil conditioner and fertilizer produced by
thecontrolleddecay of organicmatter. It COMPREHENSIVE ENVIRONMENT
depends upon the ability of aerobic bacteria RESPONSE COMPENSATION AND
andothermicro-organisms to decompose LIABILITY ACT (CERCLA)
leaves,grass, domestic vegetable refuse and
other organic waste. The process may take See Superfund.
place in unconfined piles or in manufactured
woodenor plasticcomposters.Theend- CONCORDE
product, after six months to several years of
decomposition, is humus.Compost is used Themore successful of thetwo types of
mainly by gardeners, but large-scale compost- supersonictransportbuilt in the 1970s. It
inghas beenused withsome successin was the centre of much controversy at the
tropicalcountriessuch as India,wherethe time of itsintroductionbecause of its per-
need to maintain soil fertility is crucial, and ceived threat to the environment ingeneral
where high temperatures promote rapid decom- and the ozone layer in particular.
position. National governments in Europe -
for
example,
the
Netherlands,Germany, See also
Sweden and Italy - havebuiltlarge-scale Sonic boom, Tu-144.
composting plants, while many North Ameri-
can municipalities have provided composters CONDENSATE
free or at minimal cost, to encourage environ-
mentallyappropriatebehaviourandreduce Light
petroleum
hydrocarbons (pentanes)
the amount of garbage sent to landfill sites. present in an oil reservoir as gas, but separ-
ating out as a liquidwhenpumped tothe
See also surface.
Recycling.

Further reading
CONDENSATION
Polprascrt, C. (1989) Orgunrc Wuste Recycling,
New York: John Wiley. Theconversion of a vapourinto aliquid.
A
commonprocess in the
chemical
and
CONDENSATION NUCLEI 80

petroleumindustries,condensation in the substances are better conductors than others

environment is mostfrequentlyassociated - airormaterialscontaining a highpro-
with the change of water vapour into liquid portion of air are poor conductors,
for example,
water in the atmospheric environment. It is whereasmostmetalsaregoodconductors.
generallybroughtabout by cooling,which Electrical conduction involves the free flowof
reducestheability of theatmosphere to an electric current through a conductor. As
absorb and retain water vapour. If a parcel of with thermal conduction, transmission takes
aircontaining a specific volume of water place attheatomic level, thecurrentflow
vapour is progressively cooled, it will reach a being
associatedwith
the
movement of
temperature at which it is completely satur- electrons along the conductor.
ated - the dewpoint temperature of that par-
cel of air. Any additional cooling beyond the See also
dewpoint will cause the condensation of some Insulation.
of the vapour. This process frequently accom-
paniesadiabaticcoolingasair rises or is Further reading
Kakah, S. and Yener, Y. (1993) Heat Conduction
associatedwiththepassage of relatively (3rd edition), Washlngton, DC: Taylor & Francis.
warm air acrossa cold surface. Condensation
is accompanied by the release of latent heat.
CONSERVATION
See also
Clouds, Condensatmn nuclei, Humidity. Originally,conservationinvolvedthemain-
tenance of the status quo through the pres-
Further reading ervation and protection of natural resources
Moran, J.M. and Morgan, M.D. (1997) Meteor- such as flora, fauna
and
physiological
ology: The Atmosphere and Screme of Weather, features. That concept has come to seen be as
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
having
negative
connotations,
and
the
modernapproachtoconservationincludes
CONDENSATION NUCLEI notonlypreservationandprotection,but
also theplanningand
management of
Smallparticlesintheatmospherearound resources to allow both use and continuityof
which water vapour condenses to form liquid supply. It may also involve the enhancement
droplets. In theabsence of condensation of the quality of some resources (for example,
nuclei, droplets will not form even when the soils)andattemptstoreturnmismanaged
temperature falls below the dewpoint. The air resources to their former state. Although still
then becomes supersaturated - holding more very much associated with natural materials,
moisturethantheoreticallypossible at that the conservation ethic is also applied to human
temperature. Although natural condensation resources such as historic buildings and arte-
nuclei such as dust or salt particles have always facts.
been present in theenvironment,human
activities now makea significant contribution See also
to the production of nuclei. Recycling, Resources, Soil conscrvativn.

Further reading
CONDUCTION Adams, W.M. (1996) Future Nature: A Vision f o r
Conseruatron, London: Earthscan.
The transmission of thermal energy directly Owen, O.S. andChlras,D.D.(1995) Natural
Resource Comeruatron (6thedition),Englewood
throughmatterfromplacesorobjects of Cliffs, NJ: I’rentlce-Hall.
higher temperature to those of lower temp-
erature. For conduction to take place between
objects,
they
mustbe
in
direct
contact. CONSUMPTIVE USE
Transfer of energy takes place at the atomic
or molecular level and continues until both The use of a resource in such a way that its
objectsreachthesametemperature.Some formorcontent is changed,and it is no
81 CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN ENDANGERED SPECIES

longer available for its original use. The con- CONTROLLED TIPPING
sumptive use of water, for example, resultsin
thewaterbeingevaporated,ratherthan See sanitary landfill.
returned to thesystem as surfacewater or
groundwater.Theuse of fossilfuelenergy CONVECTION
resources is also entirely consumptive.
The vertical transfer of heat through a liquid
Further reading or gas by the movement of the liquid or gas.
Skinner, B. (1986) Earth Resources (3rd edition),
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. The fluidincontactwiththeheatsource
warms up, expands, becomes less dense and
CONTINENTAL TROPICAL AIR rises through the surrounding gas or liquid.
MASS (CT) The process is common i n theatmosphere,
whereairheated by conductionfromthe
warm land surface rises. As it rises, it also
An airmassoriginatingovertropical to
cools adiabatically and ultimately returns to
subtropical continental areas, and therefore
the surface to complete the convective circul-
hot and dry. It is commonly associated with
ation. If the air rises above the condensation
the subsiding air beneath the poleward side of
level, clouds will form and rain may follow.
tropical Hadley Cells, which also contributes
Convectiveactivityis a commoncause of
to thewarmthand dryness.Continental
precipitation,particularly in tropicalareas,
tropical air is well developed over the Sahara
where heating is intense and uplift therefore
Desert.
rapid. Tropical Hadley Cells are created by
convective circulation.
CONTINGENT DROUGHT
See also
One of the four typesof drought identified by Advection.
C.W. Thornthwaite.It is characterized by
irregular and variable precipitation in areas Further reading
thatnormallyhaveanadequatesupply of Bejan, A. (1984) Convectron Heat Transfer, New
York: Wiley.
moisture to meet crop needs.Seriousprob-
lems arise because the agricultural system is
not set up to copewithunpredictableand Figure C-l 5 The cause and characteristicsof
sometimes lengthy
periods of inadequate convection
precipitation.
Droughtssuch as those in
Britain in 1975-1976 and 1988-1992 fit the
contingent category.

Further reading
Gregory, K.J. and Doornkamp, J.C. (1980)Atlas of
Drought, London: Institute o f British Geographers.

CONTOUR PLOUGHING
heal source

A method of cultivation employed to reduce

soil erosion. Ploughing to prepare the soil for CONVENTION ON
planting is carried out across the slope rather INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN
thanupanddown it. Thisslowstheflow ENDANGEREDSPECIES(CITES)
of waterdowntheslopeandreducesthe
potential for soil erosion. An agreement drawn up in 1973 to protect a
wide variety of animals and plants thoughtto
See also be at risk of extinction. It has been signed by
Soil conservation. 125 nations, and protects nearly 90 species of
CONVERGENCE
plants and 400 species of animals, by pro-
hibiting trade in the species or products made
from them. Protection cannever be complete,
but CITES has been instrumental in restrict-
ing internationaltrade inivory, rhinoceros
horn, exotic skins and animal parts used in
medicine. The publicityreceivedwhenthe
restrictions
are
enforced
has
helped to
increase public support for the convention.
CONVERGENCE
Horizontal motion in the atmosphere thatleads
to the confluence of air streams and induces
uplift. For example, two air masses of similar
strength and temperature approaching from
differentdirections will be forced to rise
when they meet. If one of the air masses is
warmer, it will rise above the other when the
two masses converge. Convergence can also
take place if one part of a moving air mass is
forced to slow down- for example,as a result
of friction. The more
rapidly
moving
following air will push into the rear of the
slowermovingairforcing it to rise. The
circulation of airaround a lowpressure
system has a convergent motion to it at the
surface, which causes a net inflow of air into
thecentre of thelowandcontributesto
vertical motion in the system. As a result of
the
associateduplift,
convergence in the
atmosphere is often associated with cooling,
condensation and precipitation.
COOLANT
A fluid used to extract heat from a heat source
andthuscausecooling.Forexample,the
watedantifreeze coolant mixture circulating
in aninternalcombustionengineremoves
excess heat from the engine block and trans-
fers it to the atmosphere via a radiator. The
gas,waterorliquidsodium ( N a ) coolants It is named after the French engineer Gaspard
used in nuclear reactors not only maintain the de Coriolis (1792-1843).
reactors at a suitable operatmg temperature,
but also carry fission-generated heat from the CORROSION
reactor core to the steam plant to produce
electricity. Failure of the coolant supply will
allowthe system to overheatwithcon-
sequencesthatmightrangefroma seized in thenaturalenvironment,but
engine to a reactor meltdown.
82
See also
Chernobyl, Three Mile Island.
COPPER (Cu)
A red-brown metal that is readily malleable
and ductile.A very efficientconductor of
electricity, it occurs as freemetal - native
copper - or in a number of ores, including
cuprite(Cu,O),chalcocite(Cu,S)andchal-
copyrite (CuFeS,). Most copper is extracted
from the sulphide ores, by a combination of
roasting,smeltingandelectrolyticrefining.
The sulphur dioxide (SO,) produced during
roastingandsmeltingcontributes to acid
rain. Copper is widely used in the electrical
industry, and is a constituent of a number of
alloys such as bronze (copper plus tin ( h ) )
and brass (copper plus zinc (Zn)).Occurring
free in the environment and easily worked, it
wasone of thefirstmetals used by many
primitive societies. In the form of malachite
(coppercarbonate - CuCO,.Cu(OH),), a
bright green striped mineral, it is also used as
a gemstone.
Further reading
Bowen, R. and Gunatilaka, A. (1977) Copper, rts
Geology and Economrcs, London: Applied Science
Publishers.
CORIOLIS EFFECT
The effect, caused by the rotation of the earth,
that brings about the apparent deflection of
objects moving across the earth’s surface inor
the atmosphere. Deflection is to the right in
the northern hemisphere andto the left in the
southern hemisphere. The effect is greater at
higherlatitudes.Althoughsometimes refer-
red to as the ‘Coriolis force’, it is not a force
In the true senseof the word, since no outside
agency is involved in the apparent deflection.
The deterioration of a substance by chemical
or electrochemical action. I t applies to rocks
it is most
commonly used to describe the deterioration
83
of metals. Therusting of iron(Fe) is an
ubiquitous form of corrosion caused by the
oxidation of the iron into hydrated iron oxide
(Fe,O,.H,O). On some metals, the process is
self-limiting. The corrosion of aluminum (AI),
forexample,producesasurface layer of
aluminum oxide (AILOI) whichprevents
additional oxygen ( 0 )from reaching the sur-
face and therefore inhibits further corrosion.
Since thecorrosionproductsaregenerally
weakerthantheoriginalmetal,corrosion
destroystheintegrity of metalstructures.
Protection against corrosion is possible using
paint, plastic and rubber as sealants to exclude
moistureandoxygen,buttherepairand
replacement of corrosion-damaged structures
worldwide costs billions of dollars annually.
Further reading
Trethewey, K.R. and Chamberlain, J. (1988)
Corrosion forStrrdents of Scrence and Engrneerrng,
Harlow, E s s e a e w York: Longrnanrniley.
COSMIC RADIATION
High-energyradiationreachingtheearth
fromoutsidethesolarsystem - galactic
cosmic rays - or from the s u n - solar cosmic
rays. The galactic cosmic rays are high speed
sub-atomicparticles,mainlyprotonsthat
mayrepresenttheremnants of supernova
explosions.Theaction of cosmicrays on
gases in the upper atmosphere may produce
sufficientoxides of nitrogen (NOy)to con-
tribute to ozone depletion.
Further reading
Ruderman, M.A. ( 1 974) ‘Possible consequences of
nearby
supernovaexplosionsfor
atmospherlc
ozone and terrestrial life’, Scrence 184: 1079-81.
COUPLEDMODELS
Models which combine two or more simu-
lations of elements in the earth/atmosphere
system. Carbon cyclemodels,forexample,
have
been combinedwith
oceanic
and
atmospheric circulation models in the search
for a better understandingof global warming.
In theory, such combinations should provide
a more accurate representation of the earth’s
climate, but the coupled models retain any
errors included in the individual simulations.
CROP ROTATION
Thisremainsanimportantconstraintfor
coupled models.
See also
Coupled ocean/atmosphere climate models.
COUPLED OCEAN/ATMOSPHERE
CLIMATEMODELS
The most common combination in coupled
models. The main problem with these models
is thedifference intimescalesoverwhich
atmospheric and oceanic phenomena develop
andrespond to change. Because of the
relatively slow response time of the oceanic
circulation, the oceanic element
in most coupled
models is much less comprehensive than the
atmospheric element.
See also
Slab models.
CRITICAL MASS
Theminimummass of fissionablematerial
required to sustainachainreaction in a
nuclear bomb or nuclear reactor.At less than
the critical mass, too many neutrons escape
withoutsplittingadditionalatomsforthe
reaction to be self-sustaining.
See also
Nuclear fisslon.
CROP ROTATION
An arable agriculture system in which a field
is plantedwithdifferentcrops in aregular
sequenceoverasetperiod of years.Since
different crops have different demandson the
nutrients in the soil, this ensures that the soil
is not depleted of specific nutrients, as would
happen if no rotation was followed. A corn
crop, which has high nitrogen ( N ) demands,
for example, would be followed by a crop of
leguminousplantssuchas clover,peas or
beans to helprestorenitrogen levels in the
soil. The inclusion of grass in therotation
helps the soil to rest and improves its crumb
structure. Crop rotation alsohelps to prevent
the growth of pests in the soil.
CRUMB STRUCTURE 84
Further reading but now replacedby the becquerel. It is based
Follet, R.F. andStewart, B.A. (eds)(1985) Soil on the radioactivity of radium (Ra) - 3.7 x
ErosronandCropProductrvity, Madison, WI:
Amerrcan Society of Agronomy. 10'" disintegrationspersecond - against
which the radioactivityof other substances is
CRUMB STRUCTURE compared. The unit was named after Marie
Curie,
the
Polish-born
physicist (1867-
1934).
The combination of individual soil particles
intolooseaggregatesorcrumbs.This is
brought about in part by humus which helps CYANOBACTERIA
t o bind groups of mineral particles together.
The resulting structure provides pore spaces Formerly classified as blue-green algae, cyano-
that improve the water-holding capacity of bacteria are single-celled microscopic organ-
thesoilandallowforeasypenetration by isms which contain
chlorophylland
are
plant roots. therefore capable of photosynthesis. Currently
widespreadinsaltandfreshwaterand in
CRUST soils, fossil evidencesuggests thatcyano-
bacteria have been present on earth for more
than 3 billion years, and through the release
The outermost solid part of the earth which
of oxygen (0)duringphotosynthesismay
together with the upper mantle makes up the have contributed to the development of the
lithosphere. It varies in thickness from about current
gaseous
composition of the
6 km in the ocean basins to 35-70 km in the atmosphere.
continents.Compositionalsovariesfrom
basaltic igneous rocks in the ocean basins to Further reading
sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks Miller, G.T. (1994) Lrvrrzg r n theEnvironment,
in the continental areas. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Further reading CYCLONE

Brown, G.C. and Mussett, A.E. (1993) The
lnaccessihleEarth: An ltrtegrated View of rts
StructureandCompositron (2ndedition),New An atmospheric low pressure system,generally
York: Chapman and Hall. clrcular in shape, with the airflow counter-
clockwiseinthenorthernhemisphereand
CRYSTAL clockwiseinthesouthernhemisphereand
converging towards the centre of the system.
A substance in which the atoms or molecules Althoughthetermmay be used formid-
are arranged in an orderly patternto produce latitudefrontaldepressions,whichdisplay
a characteristic three-dimensional, geometrical such characteristics, it is commonly used to
form (e.g.cube, rhombus,hexagon).Solids refer to theintensetropicalstorms in the
which do not form crystals are described as IndianOceanwhicharetheequivalent of
amorphous. Atlantic hurricanes or Pacific typhoons.

See also
CURBSIDE COLLECTION Tropical cyclone.

See blue box. Further reading

Henderson-Sellars, A. andRobinson, P.J. (1986)
CURIE ContemporaryClimatology, LondonMew York:
Longman/Wiley.

A unit of radioactivity formerly widely used

 D
Structuresdesigned to restrict theflow of
surface runoff, usually to control flooding or
to providewaterforirrigationorthepro-
duction of hydroelectricity. They range from
relativelysmallearth-fillfeatures,ponding
back thousands of cubic metres of water, to
massive reinforced concrete structures which
createreservoirscontainingseveral billion
cubicmetres of water. All dams,large o r
small, have an environmental impact on the
area in which theyare built. The obvious change
is in the hydrological cycle, but environmental
interrelationships ensure that the effects are
felt in the local climatology and in the flora
and fauna of the region.
See also
Reservolrs - environmental effects.
Further reading
Petts, G.E. (1984) Imporrnded Rivers: Perspectives
for Ecological Manugentent, ChlchestedNewYork:
Wiley.
Jansen, R.B. (ed.) (1988) Advanced Dam E n g m
eerlng for Deslgn, Construction and Rehabilitation,
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
DARWIN, C.R. (1808-1 882)
Nineteenth-century biologist usually credited
with
the
development of the
theory of
evolution,whichhetermed‘descentwith
modification’. Much of the data on whichhis
theorywasbasedwerecollectedduring his
voyage on the H M S Beagle around the coasts
of South America in the 1830s, but he con-
tinued his work for almost another 20 years
beforepublishingtheresults inhisclassic
volumes, Origin of Species (1859) and The
Descent of Man (1871). The central themes
of thetheoryweredevelopedaroundthe
conceptthat all organismsweredescended
from common ancestors, andas they evolved
theyweresubject to naturalselection.The
latter is commonly referred to as the ‘survival
of the fittest’, in which species able to adapt
to a particular environment ora change in the
environment survive, whereas those unableto
adapt ultimately became extinct. In develop-
inghis evolutionarytheories,Darwinmay
have been influenced by the writings of the
geologist Charles Lyell, who first recognized
the
role of gradual - as opposed to
catastrophic -change in the physical environ-
ment, and by the work of Thomas Malthus
on
the
relationship
betweenpopulation
growth and food supply. At about the same
time, ideas similar to those of Darwin were
beingexamined by AlfredRusselWallace.
The twomen corresponded and their theories
were presented jointly at the Linnean Society
of London in 1858,buttheevolutionary
concepts have come to be associated almost
exclusively with Darwin, and this is reflected
in their popular representation by the term
‘Darwinism’. The work of Darwin and the
otherevolutionaryscientists
was contro-
versial, and gaverise to a debateonthe
relativemerits of creationandevolution
which is yet to be resolved.
See also
Lamarck, J.B. de.
Further reading
Desmond, A. andMoore, S. (1992) Darroln,
London: Michael Joseph.
Stiling, P.D. (1992) Introductory Ecology,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
‘DAUGHTER’ PRODUCT 86

‘DAUGHTER’ PRODUCT See also

Radioactivity.
radioactive
A decay product.
Radon, for
further reading
example, is a decay product of 2zhradium(Ra), I’asqualetti, M.J. (1990) Nitclear Z)ecottlnlissio,trtrs
and in turn produces its own daughters as it and Society: Public Links to a T e c h t ~ ~ cTask,
a l New
undergoes spontaneous decay. York: Routledgc & Kegan Paul.

DECIDUOUS DECOMPOSERS

Organismssuch as bacteriaandfungithat
Describing an organism which sheds parts of
breakdowndeadorganicmaterial. Also
itself at a particular time, season or stage of
called
saprophytes,
they release
digestive
growth. In the plant community, deciduous
enzymes that reduce complex organic mole-
trees shed their leaves annually to allow them
cules into simpler inorganic compounds. The
to cope with the stress of cold or dry con-
chemicals are recycled back into the environ-
ditions. Without leaves, for example, transpir-
ment where they can be reused.
ation is reduced, allowing the trees to survive
whensoilmoisture is low or unavailable.
Amonganimals,the loss of milk-teeth as DEFLATION
infants mature or the annualshedding of horns
by deer are examplesof deciduous processes. The lifting and transportation of fine particles
from loose, dry surfaces by wind. In an area
where a mixture of particle sizes is present,
DECOMMISSIONING WASTES deflation will tend to removethesmaller
particles such as clay, silt and sand and leave
Waste material created when a nuclear reactor behind gravel and pebbles. Where the process
site is closed. Such wastes create major disposal is concentrated in a particulararea itmay
problems. Areas in and adjacent to the reactor create a shallow depression called a deflation
chamber, for example, contain materials which hollow or blowout. Although most common
remainradioactiveforthousands of years. in desert or semi-desert areas, deflation can
Reactors cannot thereforebe demolished like also occur on beaches and in dry areas where
normal structures. The buildings must remain the vegetation cover has been destroyed locally
isolated on site o r perhapsdismantledand - for example, by overgrazing. Deflation can
placed in more secure and permanent storage. be an important agentof environmental change
As the nuclear power stations built in the 1960s in such areas, but it also brings about change
and 1970s begin to age, the problem of dea- in the areas where the the deflated materialis
ling with decommissioning wasteswill grow. redeposited.

DEFORESTATION
The clearing of forested areas as part of a in thecommerciallogging of theboreal
commercial forestry enterprise or for some forest.Thereand in otherareas of the
other
economic purposesuch as the developed world, where forestry continues
expansion of settlement or the development to be an important element in the economy,
of agriculture.
Deforestation
has good
forest
managementrequires
that
traditionally been associated with economic deforestedareas be regenerated,butthe
development,but it is no longercharac- process is notalways effective. Currently,
teristic of developed nations. In such areas, deforestation is most extensive in the
all the trees that are likely to be removed world’s less-developed nations, particularly
havealready been removed.Thereare those in thetropics.Clearcuttingand
exceptions, however. In Canada, for burning of the tropical rainforest in South
example, large areas are cleared every year and Central America,Africa and South East
87 DEHYDRATION

Table D-1 Estimated annual deforestatlon rates in selected low- to middle-income

economies in the 1980s

’000 SQ KM ’000 SQ KM ’000 SQ KM

Brazil 13.8 Nigeria 4.0 Indonesia 10.0
Mexico 10.0 Zaire 3.7 Malaysia 2.7
Colombia 8.9 Tanzanla
Thailand 3.0 2.4

Paraguay 4.5 Cameroon 1.9 Philippines 1.4

Source: Compiled from data I n World Resources lnstltute ( 1 992) World Resorrrces 1992-9.3 A Guide
to the Glohal Envrrorznrent, New York: Oxford University Press

Asiais proceedingrapidly,althoughthe for soil erosion, particularly in hilly areas.

exact rate is difficult to assessaccurately.
Estimates for the Amazon region in Brazil,
forexample,haverangedfrom13,800 to
21,000 sq km per annum. Whatever the true
value, given the demographic and economic
pressures on these areas, the regenerationof
such a large area of rainforest is unlikely.
Theimpact of deforestation extends
beyondthedestruction of thetrees.It
destroys the habitat for other plants and for
forest-dwelling animals. By opening up the
environment, and altering such elements as
radiation, temperature, wind and moisture,
deforestation also produces significant micro-
climatological changes. The higher levels of
solar radiation reaching the surface cause
temperatures to rise, accelerating the decom-
position of organicmatter.Temperature
ranges and wind speeds increase following
deforestation and the intensity of the rain-
fall reaching the surface is higher. The latter
causes more rapid leaching of the nutrients
released fromtheorganicmatter.Runoff
also increases, creating a greater potential
On alargerscale,deforestationmaycon-
tribute to theenhancement of thegreen-
house effect. Much of the deforestation in
tropical regions is achieved through burning
which releases carbon dioxide (CO,) directly
into the atmosphere. In addition, growing
forests are significant carbon ( C ) sinks, and
oncetheyareremoved,therecycling of
carbondioxide is reduced,allowing it to
remain in the atmosphere to enhance global
warming (see Figures C-5 and C-12).
Further reading
Colchester, M. andLohmann, 1.. (eds)(1992)
The Struggle for Larrd artti the Fhtr of the Forests,
LondodAtlantic Highlands, NJ: Zed Books.
Kummer, D.M.(1992) Deforestatron rrz the
Postwar
Philippznes, Chicago:
Universlty of
Chicago Press.
Mather, A.S. (1990) Global Forest Resorrrces,
London: Benaven Press.
Monastersky, R. ( 1993) ‘Thedeforestation
debate’, Screrrce N e w s , 10 July: 26-7.
Richards, J.F. and Tucker, R.P. (eds)(1988)
World Deforestatrorz m the Tzoerrtreth Century,
Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

DEGRADATION-INDUCED biogeophysical feedback mechanism.

DROUGHT
Further reading

which disrupts the regional energy and water

balances. Environmental
degradation
induced DEHYDRATION
by overgrazingorwoodcuttingmayhave
contributed to drought in the Sahel through a The removal of water or its constituents from
D E LTA 88

a chemical compound. Also applied to excess calleddistributaries.

water loss from the human body brought about
by vomiting, dysentery and diarrhoea. Dehydr-
ation is common in Third World nations as a
by-product of unhygienic living conditions.
DELTA
A depositional landform created when a river followingdeposition,suchfactorsasthe
orstreamflowsintoabody of standing volume andsize distribution of the sediments,
water,such as alake or sea. Thesudden
reduction in the velocity of the stream which
results causes it to deposit the sediment it is
carrying. Flocculation of clay particles in salt large areas of flat, easily worked land, kept
water also increasestherate of depositon fertile by a regular supply of nutrients, the
whena riverflowsdirectly intothesea.
Although deposition is generally rapid, it is
not disorganized and deltaic
sediments
exhibit
well-defined
bedding
patterns.
Coarser sediments tend to be deposited first,
forming the foreset beds, while finer clays are
carried further to form the bottomset beds.
The rapid deposition of sediments tends to
block the main stream channel, causing it to
divide and subdivide into secondary channels
Figure 0-2The structure and morphologyof
one of the many forms of delta
Topset beds
Foreset beds
River
Thesettling
out of
sediments as the distributary channels change
helps to produce the topset beds that form the
deltasurface.Theclassicfan-shapedplan
fromwhichthelandformderivesitsname
(the Greek letter A) is well illustrated by the
delta of the River Nile, where it flows into the
Mediterranean Sea.However,duringand
the form of the lake o r seabed offshore and
theimpact of wind,wavesandtides will
influence the shape of the delta. With their
deltas of the world’s majorrivers, such as the
Nile in Egypt and the GangedBrahmaputrain
Bangladesh, have supported large agricultur-
ally based populations for thousands of years.
Despiteregularfloods,whichcandestroy
crops and homes and cause majorloss of life,
the advantages apparently outweigh the dis-
advantages,andhabitationhaspersisted.
Suchlong-termoccupation of thedeltas,
however, has ensured that they are no longer
completely natural features. The construction
of flood protection structures and the creation
of permanent shipping channels have altered
boththeform of deltasandtheprocesses
involved in their formation. In addition, the
construction of dams or the alteration of the
stream channel upstream from the delta can
have an impact on the entire delta environ-
ment by changing the amount and nature of
the
sedimentsreaching it. For example,
reduced sediment yields on many deltas have
also meant a reduction in the availability of
natural nutrients. Replacement of the latter
with chemical fertilizers has created previously
unknown environmental problems.

Further reading
Colella, A. and Prior, D.B. (eds)(1990) Coarse-
grarned Deltas, Oxford/Boston: Blackwell Science.
Ritter, D.F., Kochel, R.C. and Miller, J.R. (1995)
Process Geomorphology, Dubuque, IA: Wrn C.
Brown.

DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION

A concept which combines population change

Topset beds with socioeconomic development. The demo-
Sea graphictransitionmodel reflects thestages
89
Figure D-2 A graphical representation of the various stages of the demographic transition
birth and death ratesiblrth rate high; deathlbirth rate beglns tojbirth and death rates
high; population lowlrate falling; populatlonlfall; death rate fa1ling;llow; population stable
but stable jincreaslng
* rapidly
throughwhichmostEuropeanandNorth
American developed nations have passed. In
Stage 1, birth and death rates are high and
populations remain
small
but relatively
stable.However,deathratescanfluctuate
over a considerablerange - forexample,
because of famine and disease - and at times
populations may decline. Improved economic
andsocialconditionscarrythepopulation
into Stage 2 , in which death rates decline asa
result of an increase in food supply or better
disease control. Birth rates remain high and,
as a result, rapid population growth begins.
With continued technological and economic
development, usually associated with indus-
trialization,thetransitionentersStage 3.
Birthrates begin to fall andpopulation
growthratesdeclineuntileventuallybirth
anddeathratesbecomebalanced a t a low
level, and in Stage 4 the population stabilizes.
In a number of developed nations,an additional
stagecanbeadded in whichbirthrates
actually fall below death
rates
andthe
populationentersadecliningphase.The
demographic transition model suggests that
technological and economic development will
naturally
cause
population to stabilize.
However,theconditionsthatallowedthe
developednations to proceedthroughthe
transition - abundant energy and other natural
resources, availability of land, improved food
supply - areno longeravailable to less-
DENATURING
; opulation
1ncreaslng.jor
declining
$ut less
developed nations. Currently in Stage 2 of the
transition, with rapidly growing populations,
thelatter donothavetheeconomicand
technologicalresourcesrequired to proceed
to the next stage of the model.
See also
Population - environmental effects.
Further reading
Ehrlich, P.R. and Ehrlich, A.H. (1990) The Popu-
lation Explosion, New York: Simon & Schuster.
Parnwell, M. (1993) PopulationMovementsand
the Third World, London: Routledge.
Simmons, O.G. (1990) Perspectives on Develop-
ment and Population Growth in the Thud World.
New York: Plenum.
DEMOGRAPHY
(Thestudy of) statistics onhumanpopu-
lations,includingsuchelements as growth
rate,ageandsexratios,distributionand
density, andtheir effects onsocioeconomic
and environmental conditions.
DENATURING
Theaddition of anunpleasant o r noxious
substance to a product in order to make it
unpalatable.Grain,forexample,may be
treated so that it must be used for seed rather
thandirecthumanconsumption. Similarly,
DENDROCHRONOLOGY 90

methylatedspirit,
mixture
a of ethanol Figure D-3 The elements of tree-ring analysis
andmethanolcapable of causingextreme
intoxication, normally contains pyridine, an
unpleasant, smelly liquid, to discourage
human use.
1 SAMPLING
(coresfrom 10-50 trees)

CROSS-DATING
DENDROCHRONOLOGY (matching ring sequences)
I -
STANDARDIZATION
Amethod o f absolutedatingbased on the (actual growth/expected growth)
growthrings of trees.Sincegrowingtrees
normally add one ringevery year, the age of a
tree can be calculated by counting its annual \
TREE RlNG CHRONOLOGY
growth rings. In turn,consideration of the
(time series of standardized
tree in the evironmental contexto f the area in annual ring widths, with
which it is growing can provide information nonclimatic influences
on the age of other elements in that area. Under removed)
L
certainenvironmentalconditions,sometrees I
may produce multiple rings in a given year or CALIBRATION
(correlation of ring widths with meteorological
perhapsno rings at all.Any problemsthis
record to create transfer function)
might cause can be overcome by sampling a
I
representative number of trees. The process is
‘CLIMATE RECONSTRUCTION’
so accurate that it has been used to provide a (past climates estimatedby
correctionfactorforpre-3000 BP radio- applying transfer function to
carbon dates. rings that pre-date the
meteorological record)
1
See also
I~endroclitnatology.
VERIFICATION
Further reading (reconstructed climates compared with
Schwemgruber, F.H. (1988) Tree Ktttgs. Bczstcs m d results from other sourcesof climate data)
Dordrecht:
A p p l i c r l t ~ o r ~ sof [>ell~ro(./,ror~o/og:y,
Reldcl.
Schwelngruber,F.H. (1993) Trees m d Wood I r I Dell-
droc#m)rtoloby, Rcrlin/Ncw York: Springer-Verlng.

DENDROCLIMATOLOGY
The study o f past climates as revealed by pioneeringwork in dendroclimatologyat
variations in thewidths of theannual the University of Arizona was carried o u t i n
growthrings of trees.
Such
variations the south-western part o f the United States
reflect changes i n growing conditions from where temperatures are nommally sufficiently
one year t o the next, and although the rate high for growth, but moisture is a signifi-
of growth represents the combination of a cantlimitingfactor.Elsewhere,alongthe
variety of factors,the role o f climate is northerntree-line in EuropeandNorth
usuallysufficiently strong to establisha America,forexample,moisture levels are
correlationbetweentreegrowthandsuch adequate,andsummertemperaturescor-
climatic
elements temperature
as and relate well with ring widths. I n some areas,
precipitation.Themostobviousrelation- however, it may not be possible to identify a
ships havebeenidentified in areaswhere relationship between growth and a specific
the trees are growmg under some form of climateelement,while i n thetropicsthe
environmental stress o r close totheir technique is limited by the absence of
climatologicallimits. For example, the distinct
annual
rings in many species.
91
Figure D-4 Palaeoclimatic reconstruction
in dendroclimatology: mean deviations of
tree growth and mean reconstructed
deviations in temperature and precipitation
for the winters of 1861-1870
1861-1870
4 i:!:
......
....
...
. ...,..
4-4
@les 5oo
I
TREE GROWTH
Source: After Frltts, H.C., Lofgrcn, C.R. and
G o r d o n , G. ( 1 980) ‘Past climate reconstructed
from tree rings’, The Jorwzal of
Itlterdisci/~li~zary History X (4): 773-95
Climatereconstructionusingtreerings
now technically very advanced. The process
of establishing a record involves a series of
stages. Initially, the samples obtained in an
area have t o be treated statistically to remove
the influence of non-climatic elements from
the measured ring widths.As a tree ages, for
example, the rings that it produces tend to
becomethinner. By comparingtheactual
width of a ring with the expected width for
a tree of a particular age on the site bemg
examined, standardized values which reflect
only
the
influence of climate can
obtained.Thesestandardizedvaluescan
DENITRIFICATION
The breakdown o f soil nitrates by bacteria to
release free nitrogen (N).Most denitrification
takes place in waterlogged soils where the low
oxygen ( 0 )environment favours the anaerobic
bacteria involved.
See also
Nitrogen cycle.
DENSITY
then be usedto calibrate the sequenceof rings.
Using aperiodforwhichmeteorological
records are available, a statistical relation-
ship is sought between tree ring width over
the same period and aspecific meteorological
parameter such as temperature or precipi-
tation.
Oncethe
relationship has been
1 established, the other rings can be used to
create a recordof meteorological conditions
outside the period for which numerical data
are available. The results are then verified
by comparing them with additional records
fromoutside
the
calibrationperiodor
resultsfromothersources. Using samples
frombristlecone pines, whichareamong
the oldest livingtreesin the world, it has
been
possible to reconstruct changing
climatesoverthepast 4000 yearsinthe
mountains of southern California. By
overlapping samples from these living trees
withringsequencesfromdeadtrees,the
record has been extended back more than
8000 years. Most records are much shorter,
but climatic reconstructions based on tree
rings are available for large areas of North
America andEurope,providinginforma-
is tion on such elements as
temperature,
precipitationand
atmospheric pressure,
both annually and seasonally.
Further reading
Bradley, R.S. and Jones, P.D. (1992) Climate
Sitzce A.D. 1.F00, London: Routledge.
Douglass, A.E. (1971) Clirmtlc Cycles and Tree
G r o w t h , Ncw York: Stcchcrt-Hafncr.
Fritts, H.C. (1976) Tree R m g s mrd Climate, New
York: Academ~cPress.
Schulman, E. (19.56) Detzdroclimatic Charzges i n
Ser~~rarid Amerrcn, Tucson: Univers~tyo f Arizona
Press.
be I’earcc, F. (1996) ‘Lure of the rings’, New
Sc~erztrst152 (2060): 38-42.
Themass of a substanceperunitvolume.
Usually expressed as grams per cubic centi-
metre. In environmentalstudiestheterm is
often used to denote the number of elements
in a given area - populationdensity in
persons per square kilometre, for example.
DENUDATION
DENUDATION
Thewearingaway,orliterallythe‘laying
bare’ of thelandsurface by thecombined
effects of weathering,massmovementand
erosion. The result is a net reduction in the
relief of thelandscape.Themainagent of
denudation is water.Glacialicealsocon-
tributes to the process in mountainous areas
and in high latitudes, and during theice ages,
glaciers had a major rolein wearing down the
landscape.Denudation rates
are
usually
calculated by measuring sediment yield from
drainage basins, expressed as millimetres per
1000 years. Average values may be only a few
millimetres over that time period, but rates
vary considerably in time and place. They are
greatest in areas of strong relief with steep
slopes, little vegetation andabundant pre-
cipitation.Warm,semi-arid regions, with a
sparsevegetation cover, also
exhibit high
denudation rates, and rates are generally lowest
on moist, level plains, where gradients are low
and there is sufficient precipitation to keep the
landscape wellvegetated. Changingclimatic
conditionsovertimealsocausevariations in
denudation rates. Human interventionin the
environmentthroughminingandquarrying,
forest clear cutting inappropriate
and
agricultural
practices
has
accelerated
the
natural rates of denudation in many areas.
Further reading
Sparks, B.W. (1971) Rocks andRelief, London:
Longman.
Summerfield, M.A. (1991) Global Geomorphology,
London/New York: LongmanWiley.
Walling, D.E. (1 987)‘Rainfall, runoff and eroslon of
the land; a global view’, In K.J. Gregory (ed.) Ener-
getrss of the Physrcul Environment, Chichester: Wiley.
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)
A complex organic polymer consisting of a
series of nucleotideslinkedtogether in the
form of a double helix. Nucleotides consistof
a nitrogenous base, plus a pentose sugar and
a phosphate group, and in the DNA molecule,
themainstrands of thehelixaresugar-
phosphate chains, while the nitrogenousbase
providesthelinkbetweenthetwo.DNA,
located in the chromosomes of livingcells,
contains the genetic codes that are necessary
for
the
development and
function of a
92
-
Figure D-5 The DNA double helix
T G
Source: Faughn, J.E., Turk, J. and Turk, A.
(1991) Physrcal Science, Philadelphia: Saunders
particularorganism.TheDNAmolecule is
self-replicating,capable of passing on per-
fectly matched genetic information from one
generation of cells to the next. In this way, it
determines the inherited characteristicsof an
organism. Damage to the structure of DNA,
as a result of exposure to chemicals or radia-
tion, for example, can leadto genetic disorders.
See also
Genes, Ultraviolet radiatlon.
Further reading
Drlica, K. (1984) Understanding D N A and Gene
Clonrng, New York: Wiley.
Hecht,S.M.(ed)(1996) BioorganicChemrstry:
Nuclew Acids,New York: Oxford University Press.
Hoagland, M.B. (1981) Discovery, the Search for
DNA’s Secrets, Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
DEPRESSION
A mid-latitude low pressure system. Depres-
sions are usually circular in form and travel
fromwest to east in mid-latitudes in both
hemispheres, bringing with them changeable
weatherconditionsaccompanied by strong
windsandrain.Theytend to follow well-
developed storm tracks
and
are
major
contributors to the climate of mid-latitudes.
See also
Cyclone, Mid-latitude frontal model.
Further reading
Hidore, J.J. and Oliver, J.E. (1993) Climatology:
An Atmospheric Scrence, New York: Macmillan.
DEPRESSION (THE)
A period of majoreconomicdecline in the
1930s associated with
reduced
industrial
activity, high unemployment and the collapse
of internationaltrade.Theimpact of The
93
Depression in North America was intensified
because it coincided with a period of climate
change which caused drought and created the
Dustbowl in the Great Plains.
Further reading
Garraty,J.A.(1986) The GreatDepression, San
Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
DESALINATION
The removalof dissolved salts fromsea water
or saline groundwater to provide fresh water
for domestic, industrial or agricultural use.
Distillation and reverse osmosis are the most
common processes employed. In distillation,
water vapour, driven off as steam when salt
water is boiled,condenses as freshwater,
leaving
the
solid
salts
behind.
Reverse
osmosis involves the pumping of salt water at
high
pressure
through a semi-permeable
membrane.Dissolvedsaltsareretained on
the
membrane while
fresh
water passes
through. Other less frequently used methods
which accomplish the separation of the salts
DESERT
An area of permanentaridity in which
precipitation is infrequent or irregular in its
occurrence,andtheresultinglowannual
rainfall
totals
are
exceeded by high
evapotranspirationrates.Suchconditions
arecharacteristic of sub-tropicalregions
between 25" and 30" north and southof the
equator. There, the descending arms of the
tropical Hadley Cells inhibit precipitation,
and the high temperatures encourage high
evapotranspirationrateswhichcontribute
to major soil moisture deficits. The Sahara
Desert in North Africa -the world's biggest
- is a product of such conditions. Elsewhere,
desertsarecreated by therainshadow
effects of mountain systems that lie across
the prevailing wind directions - as in North
America,wheretheMojaveandSonoran
Deserts owe their aridity to the presence of
theSierraNevadablockingthemoistair
massesfromthe Pacific Ocean.Therain
shadow effect also applies to the Gobi and
otherdeserts of Central Asia. TheHima-
layaspreventthemoisture of theIndian
DESERT
from the fresh water include electrodialysis -
the passage of an electric current through the
saline solution - and freezing, which causes
theformation of freshwater ice and leaves
behind a concentratedsaltsolution.Distil-
lation is mostwidely used, accountingfor
between 85 and 90 per cent of the freshwater
produced by desalination. The main concerns
associatedwithdesalinationcentreonthe
highenergyuseinvolved,andthepotential
environmental problems
created by the
disposal of largevolumes of salt or brine.
Currently,desalinationplantsprovide less
than 0.1 per cent of the world's fresh water.
They are most commonly found where energy
costsare relatively lowandthecosts of
supplying water from any source are high - as
in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia- or where other
sources are limited and the demand is high
enough to meet the costs - as in Florida and
California in the United States.
Further reading
Porteous, A. (1983) Desalinatmn Technology,
London: Applied Science Publishers.
monsoon from reaching the area, but the
continentality of theregion is also an
importantelement.Itsdistancefromthe
ocean means that the air masses reaching
the area have lost most of their moisture
before they arrive.The world's deserts cover
some S million km2, and an additional 40
million km2 are arid or semi-arid. In total,
some 33 per cent of the earth's land surface
exhibits
desert
characteristics
to
some
degree or other. The area covered by desert
is not static. In the past it has been larger
and also smaller. At varioustimesduring
the Pleistocene, many areas now considered
deserts were much wetter. In the Sahara, for
example, the abandoned shorelines of Lake
Chad indicate that it was once larger and
deeper than it is now. At other times, the
desertshavebeen even drierandmore
extensive. In North Americain thenine-
teenthcentury,parts of theGreatPlains
were so dry that the area was referred to as
'The Great American Desert'. At present the
main
concern is that
the
deserts
are
DESERT
Figclre D-6 The distribution of the world's major deserts
expanding again, with the desertification of
sub-Saharan Africa having the potential to
affect the lives and livelihood of millions of
people. Desplte their overall aridity, water
may be available in deserts fromtimeto
time and from place to place. Occasional
stormsprovideashort-termwatersupply
andsometimescauseflash-floods,while
riverssuppliedfromwetterareasoutside
the deserts provide a permanent source of
water in some areas. The Nile in Egypt, the
Tigris-Euphratessystem in Iraqandthe
Colorado in the United States are examples
of such rivers. In addition, there is often
abundant groundwater beneath the desert.
I t may appear at the surface in the form of
springsorat oases,
but access tothe
groundwater supply in desert areas usually
involves thedrilling of wells.Since such
subsurfacewaterhastakenthousands of
years to accumulate, and the replenishment
of aquifers in descrts is extremelyslow,
carefulmanagement of thegroundwater
resource is important.However, in most
cases, even steady, controlled use leads to a
progressivedepletion of thegroundwater
supply. The typical desert landscapeis often
representedasa sea o f sand,overlyinga
relatively subduedplain,withsome relief
provided by thepresence of sanddunes.
This is the so-called erg desert, whichis well
developed in theSahara,althougheven
there only20 per cent of the surface is sand.
Elsewhere, the combinationof climate, rock
type and relief has produced rocky or stony
surfaces, bare rock pavements, deep valleys
and steepslopes.Masswastingprocesses
94
suchasexfoliationhelptosteepenslopes
and produce scree.
Although water is not common in desert
areas, when it is available - for example,
duringamajorstorm - it canachieve
spectacularamounts of erosion.This is
madepossibleinpart by theabsence of
plant cover, which encourages rapid runoff,
andtheavailability of largequantities of
easily eroded and transported unconsolidated
sediments. The most obvious erosional land-
formsarethe major,usually
dry,
river
channels or wadisof the Middle East, butin
areas of strong relief,smallerscalesteep-
sided canyons are common. The materials
erodedfromsuchfeaturesaredeposited
rapidly, often in theform o f fans,when
water i s no longer available. Wind is also a
potent erosional and depositional force in
desertareas.Liftingloosesandfroma
surface, it can create deflation hollows and
the moving sand can erode adjacent rocks in
a form of natural sand-blasting. The rede-
posited sand may take the form of sheets or
sandduneswhichmoveaccording to the
prevailing wind speed and direction.
Limited precipitationand high evapo-
transpiration limit plant growth, and desert
surfaces are characterized by sparse, xero-
phytic vegetation, or, in some areas, by the
complete absenceof plant life. In places, the
high evapotranspirationratescreate very
salty soils which also inhibit plant growth.
However, even
thosesurfacesthat
are
apparently completely devoid of vegetation
may bloom immediately following precipi-
tation, as seeds and dormant plants respond
95
,apidly to theavailability of moisture.
rhoseplantswhichsurviveinthedesert
:nvironmenthaveadapted to thecon-
iitions,forexample,byreducingtheir
vater needs, and the same appliesto desert
Inimals. Manyhavedevelopednocturnal
labits to avoid the heat of the day, and all
lave adapted to living with the lack of water.
Iespite
such adaptability,
the
biomass
xoductivity of desert areas remains low.
In thepast,thehumanoccupation of
ieserts was restricted to those areas where
water was readily available, such as at oases
x alongriversystems,forexample,in
Zgypt andMesopotamia.Morerecently,
:ethnological advancements and changing
:conomic factors have allowed the develop-
nent of newareas.Improvedimgation
rechniques, for example, have allowed the
[sraelis to bring parts of the Negev Desert
nto agricultural production, while in the
lTnited States the demand for vacation and
retirement facilities in California and Ari-
Figure D-7 The rugged desert landscapeof the south-western United States with its sparse
covering of xerophytic vegetation
Photograph: Courtesy of Susan and Glenn Burton
DESERT
zona has made it economically feasible to
bring water from the neighbouring moun-
tains to supply new residential areas. The
water is alsoused to irrigatehighvalue
crops, such as strawberries or out-of-season
vegetables, and even
golf-courses.Such
situations are the exception, however, and
thepotentialforfurtherdevelopment of
desert areas remains limited.
See also
Desertification.
Further reading
Abrahams, A. and Parsons, A. (1993) Geo-
morphology of Desert Envrronments, London:
Chapman and Hall.
Cooke, R.U., Warren, A. and Goudie, AS. (1993)
Desert Geomorphology, London: Longman.
Louw, G.N. and Seely, M.K. (1982) Ecology o f
Desert Organrsms,LondonlNew York: Longman.
Reisner, M. and Bates, S. (1990) Overtupped
Oasis: Reform or Revolution for Western Water,
Covello, CA: Island Press.
DESERTIFICATION
DESERTIFICATION
The expansion of desert or desert-like con-
litionsintoadjacentareas,initiated by
m u r a l environmentalchange, by human
iegradation of marginal environments or a
:ombination of both. Most
modern
lpproaches to thedefinition of desert-
fication recognize the combined impact of
Idverse climatic conditions and the stress
xeated by human activity (Verstraete
1986).Bothhave been accepted by the
Jnited Nationsas the elements that must be forconcerninrecentyears(van
:onsidered in any working definitionof the
?recess (Glantz 1977). The United Nations
Environmental Program (UNEP) has tended
:o emphasize the importance of the human
impact over drought, but the relative impor- of limited
tance of each of these elements remainsvery
Zontroversial. Some see drought as the
primary element, with human intervention
aggravating the situation to such an extent
that the overall expansion of the desert is
increased, and any recovery - for example,
following a change in climatic conditions -
is lengthier than normal. Others see direct
human activities as instigating the process.
In reality, there must be many causes that
together bringdesert-like conditions to
perhaps as much as 60,000 sq km of the
earth’s surfaceevery year and threaten up to
a further30 millionsqkm.Theareas
directly threatened are those adjacentto the
deserts and semi-deserts on all continents.
Africa is currently receiving much of the
attention, but large sections of the Middle
East,thecentralAsianrepublics of the
former Soviet Union, China adjacent to the
Gobi
Desert,
north-west
India
and
Pakistan,alongwithparts of Australia,
SouthAmericaandtheUnitedStatesare
also susceptible to desertification. Even
areasnotnormallyconsidered as threat-
ened, such as Southern Europe from Spain
to Greece, arenotimmune.Atleast SO
million people are directly a t risk of losing
life or livelihood in these regions. In a more
graphicillustration of desertification,the
United States Agency for International
Development (USAID), at the height of the
Sahelian drought in 1972, claimed that the
96
Sahara was advancing southwards a t a rate
of as much as 30 miles (48 km) peryear
along a 2000 mile (3200 km) front (Pearce
1992b).Although thesespecific numbers
are not universally accepted - for example,
Nelson (1990) has suggested that all such
data be treated with a healthy scepticism -
they do give an indication of the magnitude
of theproblem,andremainone of the
reasons why there hasbeen increasing cause
Ypersele
and Verstraete 1986).
Human nature being what it is, when
drought strikes an area, there is a natural
tendency to hope that it will be short and
intensity. Theinhabitants of
drought-proneareas,therefore,maynot
react immediately to the increased aridity.
Theymaycontinue to cultivatethesame
crops,perhapsevenincreasingthearea
under
cultivation to compensate for
reducedyields, or theymaytry to retain
flocks andherdswhichhaveexpanded
during the times of plenty. If the drought is
prolonged in the arable areas, the cropsdie
and the bare earthis exposed to the ravages
of soil erosion. The Dustbowl in the Great
Plainsdevelopedinthis way. Once the
available moisture had evaporated and the
plantshaddied,thewindremoved the
topsoil - themostfertilepart of the soil
profile - leaving a barren landscape, whicE
eventhe
most
drought-resistant desert
plants found difficult to colonize (Borcherl
1950).
Prolongeddroughtinpastoralareas i:
equallydamaging. It reducesthe foragc
supply, and, if no attempt is made to reducc
theanimalpopulation,thelandmay fa1
victim to overgrazing. Theretention o
larger herds during the early years of thc
Sahelian drought, for example, allowed thc
vegetation to be overgrazed to such ar
extent that even the plant roots died.Wher
the wind blew, it lifted the exposed, loosc
soil particles and carried them away, takin1
with them the ability of the land to suppor
plant and animal life. In combination, thesl
human and physical activities seemed to bl
97 DESERTIFICATION

pushing the
boundaries of the
Sahara Althoughhumanactivitieshave been
Desert inexorably southwards. Out of this widely accepted as causing desertification,
srew the image of the shifting sands, which and
the processesinvolved
have
been
came to representdesertification in the observed,there is increasingconcernthat
popular imagination. As an image, it was thehumancontributionhas beenover-
evocative, but the reality of such a repre- estimated.Currentacademicandpopular
sentation has been increasingly questioned attitudes to desertification owe a lot to the
in the 1990s (Nelson 1990;Pearce 1992b). findings of a United Nations Conference on
Climatic variability clearly madea major Desertification (UNCOD) held in Nairobi,
contribution to desertification in both the Kenya in 1977. At the Conference, the role
Sahel and the Great Plains, and in concert of human activities in land degradation was
with human activities created
serious considered to be firmly established, and the
environmental problems. An alternative contribution of drought wasseen as second-
view sees human activity in itself capable of ary at best. Since human action had caused
initiatingdesertificationintheabsence of the
problem,it
seemed tofollowthat
increased aridity
(Verstraete
1986).For humanactioncouldsolve it. In keeping
example, human interference in areas where withthisphilosophy,theUnitedNations
the environmental balance is delicate might EnvironmentProgram(UNEP)was given
be sufficient to setinmotion a train of theresponsibilityfortakingglobalinitia-
events leading eventually to desertification. tives to introduce preventive
measures
The introduction of arable agriculture into whichwould
alleviatethe
problem of
areas more suitedto grazing, or the removal desertification (Grove 1986). Fifteenyears
of forest cover, to open up agricultural land and US$6 billion
later,
few
effective
or to providefuelwood,maydisturbthe countermeasures have been taken, and the
ecological balance to such an extent that the plan of action is widelyseen as a failure
quality of the environmentbegins to (Pearce 1992a).
decline, and if nothing is done,thesoil The data upon which the UNEP responses
becomes highly susceptible to erosion. In such werebasedarenowconsidered by many
cases, desertification is initiated by human researcherstobeunrepresentative of the
activities with littleor no contribution from real situation. Nelson (1990), for example,
nature. has suggested that the extent of irreversible

Figure 0 - 8 Areas at risk from desertification

DESERTIFICATION 98

iesertification
has
been
over-estimated, human activity was the main cause of the
tlthough he does not deny thatit remains a landdegradation
that
produceddesert-
xrious concern in many parts of the world. ification. Natural causes such as short-term
'roblems arising from
the
timing
and droughtandlongertermclimaticchange
nethod of collection of thedatawere wereignoredor given less attentionthan
lggravated by the LJNEP premise that they deserved, yet both can produce desert-

Table 0 - 2 Action required for the prevention and reversal of desertification

~~ ~ ~~

1 Prevention
(a) Good land-use planning and management:
e.g. cultivation only where and when precipitation is adequate
animal population based on the carrying capacity of land in driest years
maintenance of woodland where possible
(b) Irrigation appropriately managed to minimize sedimentation, salinization and
waterlogging
(c) Plant breeding for increased drought resistance
(d) Improved long-range drought forecasting
(e) Weathermodification:
e.g. rainmaking
snowpack augmentation
( f ) Social, cultural and economic controls:
e.g. population planning
planned reglonal economic development
education
2 Reversal
( a ) I'revention of further soil erosion:
e.g. by contour ploughing
by gully infilling
by planting o r constructing windbreaks
(11) Reforestation
(c)Improvedwater use:
e.g. storage of runoff
well-managed irrigation
( d ) Stabilization o f movmg sand:
e.g. using matting
by re-establishment of plant cover
using o i l waste mulches and polymcr coating
(e) Social, cultural and economic controls:
e.g. reduction o f grazing animal herd stze
population resettlement
99 DESERTIFICATION

-l

like conditions without input from society. environment by developing a good under-
The inclusion of areas suffering from short- standing of environmental relationships in
termdroughtmay well haveinflatedthe thethreatenedareas or by assessingthe
final results in the UNEP accountingof land capability of thelandtosupportcertain
degradation.Failure to appreciatethe activities and by working within
the
variouspotentialcauses of desertification constraintsthatthesewouldprovide. In
wouldalso limit theresponse to the practice, non-environmental elements -
problem. Different causes would normally such as politics and economics - may pre-
elicit different responses,and UNEP’s appli- vent the most ecologically appropriate use
cation of the societal response to all areas, of the land. The most common approaches
withoutdistinguishingthecause,may in prevention
the
to and reversal of
part explain the lack of success in dealing desertification are listed in Table D-2.
withthe
problem (Pearce 1992b). The The fight against desertification has been
debunking o f some of the myths associated marked by a distinct lack of success. Recent
with desertification and the realization that reassessments of the problem, beginning in
even after more than 15 years of study its the late 1980s, suggest that this may be the
nature and extent are inadequately under- result of the misinterpretation of the
stood,does not meanthatdesertification evidence and a poor understanding of the
should be ignored. There are undoubtedly mechanismsthatcauseandsustainthe
majorproblems of landdegradation in degradation of theland.Theadditional
many of theearth’saridlands.Perhaps researchrequired to resolve that situation
sensing an increased vulnerability as a result will further slow
directaction
against
of thecurrentcontroversy,andcertainly desertification,butitmay be theprice
fearful of being left behind in the rush to whichhasto be paid toensurefuture
dealwiththeproblems of thedeveloped success.
world,the
nations occupying the
land
affected appeared at the Rio Earth Summit References and further reading
in 1992andproposeda Desertification Rorchert, J.R. (1950) ‘The climateo f the central
North American grassland’, Arrnuls of the
Convention to
address their
problems.
Assocratrorr of Anrerrcarl Geographers 40: 1-39.
NegotiationscontinuedaftertheSummit, Dregne,H.E. (1983) Desertificatrorz o f Arrd
and in 1994,110governmentssignedthe Lnrrds, New York: Harwood Academic
UN Convention to Combat Desertification. Publishers.
Amuchmorecomprehensivetreatythan Glantz, 1M.H. (ed.) ( 1977) Desertificr7trorr:
Erlvrrorrmerrtal Degradatrorr rrr m d arozrrrti Arid
earlierefforts,theConvention willseek I.arrds, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
innovative
solutionsthrough
national Grove, A.T. (1986) ‘Thestate o f Africa in the
action programmes and partnership agree- 1980s’, The ~eogru”p~rcul~oztrrrul 152: 193-203.
ments. Particular attention will be paid to Hulme, M. and Kelly, M. (1993) ‘Explortng the
Africa, where desertification is most severe. links
between
desertificatlon
and
climate
change’, Emurorznretrt 3 5 : 4-1 I and 39-45.
Althoughobscured by thecurrent Nelson,R.(1990) Drylarrd Murragenzerrt: The
controversyand lost in thecomplexity of ‘Desertificatron’ Prohlenz, World Barlk Tec/~rrrcd
attempts to define the issue of deser- P[?per No. 16, Washington, DC: World Bank.
tificationmoreaccurately, twoquestions I’carce, E (19922) ‘Last chance to savethe
planet’, N e w Screrltrst 134 (1823): 24-8.
remain of supreme importance to the areas Pearce, F. ( I 992b) ‘Miracle of the shifting sands’,
suffering land
degradation. Candesert- N e w Screntrst 136 ( I 851): 38-42.
ification be prevented? Can the desertification Thomas, D.S.G. andMiddleton,N.J. ( 1994)
that has already happened be reversed? In Desertificatrou: Explodirrg Myths,
the
thepast,theanswertobothhasalways Chichester: Wiley.
vanYpersele, J.P. and Verstraete, M.M. (1986)
been a qualified yes, andseems likely to ‘Climate and dcsertification -editorial', Clin~atrc-
remain so, although some researchers take a Ch~7llge9: 1 4 .
more pessimisticview(e.g.Nelson 1990). Verstraete,
M.M. (1986) ‘Definingdesert-
In theory,societycouldworkwiththe ification: a review’, Clinzatrc Chorlge 9: 5 - 1 8.
DESERTIFICATION CONVENTION 100

DESERTIFICATIONCONVENTION DETERGENTS

See United Nations Convention to Combat Synthetic cleansing products, usually derived
Desertification. from petrochemicals. Theyvary in composition
dependingupontheirintendeduse,but all
DESERTIZATION containchemicalscalledsurfactants,which
lower the surface tension of water, enabling
The term formerly used for desertification. the detergent to dislodge dirt from the soiled
material
more easily. Builders are
incor-
DESICCATION porated in detergents to dealwith specific
problems suchas hard water or acidity. Other
The removal of moisture from a substance, additives
such as optical
brighteners,
often through the use of an agent that absorbs bleaches and perfumes are included in most
moisture. Silicagel, for example, is used to domestic laundry detergents. Effective as they
bothdryoutandmaintainthedryness of are at providing cleaning power for domestic,
pharmaceutical products. It is also a climat- industrialandinstitutionalpurposes,deter-
ological concept, applied to an environment gents have also contributed to some serious
that is dryingup,either as part of natural environmentalproblems.Theearlydeter-
climaticchange, as theresult of human gentswhichbecamepopularfollowingthe
activity or as a combination of the two. SecondWorldWardidnotbreakdown
rapidly in the environment, causing serious
See also
foam
build-up in streams and
sewage
Desertification. treatment
plants.
The
production of
biodegradabledetergents in themid-1960s
DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION reduced that problem. More serious was the

Figure D-9 The products of the destructive

The heatingof solid organic substancesin the
absence of air (also called carbonization) to distillation of coal and their uses
produce gases, volatile liquids and charcoal.
Thedestructivedistillation of wood,for
example, is used to produce acetic acid (vine-
gar), but the most common substanceused is
F
destructive
coal.
When
heated to temperatures of distillation
between 900°Cand1200"C,coalreleases
coal gas andcoal tar, withcoke as a by-
product. Prior to the large-scale
use of
natural gas, coal gas, consistingmainly of
hydrogen (H) (50%) andmethane(CH,)
( 3 0 % ) ,was commonly used for heating and r distillation m ( metallurgical
Industries
J
lighting. Coal tar can be refined to provide a
variety of hydrocarbonsincludingbenzene
(C,H,), and naphthalene (C,"HJ, and coke is
I
an important raw material in the iron (Fe)
and steel industry.

See also
Pyrolysis.

Further reading
McNeil, D. (1966) Coal Curbonrzatrort Products,
OxfordLondon: I'ergarnon Press.
Payne, K.K. (1987) Chemicals from Coal: New
Processes, ChlchestedNew York: Wiley.
101 DlCHLORODlPHENYLTRlCHLOROETHANE (DDT)

use of phosphates in laundry detergent as a electrodialysis and is usedin desalination

builder to soften hard water and reduce its plants. Natural dialysis allows the kidneys to
acidity. The phosphate-rich waste water that remove nitrogenous waste from the body. If
thisproducedprovidedextranutrientsfor the kidneys fail, the wastes must be removed
aquatic
plants
and
contributed
the
to through artificial dialysis processes - haemo-
accelerated
eutrophication of lakes and dialysis.
rivers. Thesolution layin thebanningor
strict control of phosphate-based detergents See also
andtheir
replacement by phosphate-free Osmosis.
products.
Further reading
Further reading
Drukker, W., Parsons, EM. and Maher, J.F. (eds)
(1983) Replacement of Renal Futzction by Dialysis:
Davldsohn, A. and Milwidsky,
B.M.
(1987) A Textbook o f DIalysls (2nd edition), Boston, MA:
SyntheticDetergents (7thedition),HarlowlNew M . Nijhoff.
York: LongmanNiley.
McGucken, W. (1991) Biodegradable Detergents
atzd the Environment,College Statlon, TX: A and M DIATOMS
University Press.
Microscopic, unicellular
brown or
green
DEUTERIUM algae.
Theycontain
chlorophylland
are
therefore capable of photosynthesis. Diatoms
A non-radioactive,
heavy
isotope of make a major contribution to primary pro-
hydrogen.Withamassnumber of 2, it is duction in aquatic ecosystems, and provide a
twicethemass of ordinaryhydrogenand base for a variety of fresh and saltwater food
makes up about0.015 per cent of the natural chains.
The cell walls of diatoms are
hydrogen in the environment. Deuterium is a impregnated with silica (SO,), which is hard
component of heavy water (D,O) used as a and insoluble. When the organisms die they
moderator in some nuclear reactors. sink, andthesiliceousskeletonssurvive to
form deposits of diatomaceous earth, which
See also is used commercially in detergents, polishes
CANDU.
and fertilizers. Some petroleum deposits may
have their origins in major accumulations of
DEWPOINT
deaddiatoms.Diatomsarealsousedto
provide information on past environmentsin
Thetemperature
at
whichan
air
mass Quaternary studies.
becomes completely saturated as a result of
cooling. Cooling beyond the dewpoint temp- See also
erature will cause condensation. If the Plankton.
cooling is the result of contact between the
saturated air and a cool surface, water drop- Further reading
lets ordew will formonthe surface. If Round, EG., Crawford,R.M.andMann, D.G.
cooling is theresult of adiabaticprocesses, (1990) Dlatoms, Cambridge: Cambridge Univers-
ity Press.
clouds will form.

DIALYSIS DICHLORODIPHENYL-
TRICHLOROETHANE (DDT)
The separation of dissolved substances using (C,H,CL),.CH.CCL,
a semipermeablemembrane.Normallythe
smallermoleculespassthroughthemem- A chlorinated hydrocarbon once widely used
branewhilethelargerremainbehind. By as abroad-spectruminsecticide.Introduced
applyingan
electric
potential
across
the during the Second World War as a delousing
membrane it can be madepermeable to agent, it proved very effective against diseases
positive or negative ions. The process is called suchasmalaria,yellow fever andtyphus,
DIEBACK
which were spread by insects. Relatively low
productioncosts, itseffectiveness and its
persistence in the environment - one appli-
cation could continueto kill insects for up to
ayear - encouraged its worldwideaccep-
tance. Over the longer term, however, it was
recognized that these advantages came with
serious side-effects. Being a broad-spectrum
product it killed beneficial insects as well as
pests, and having a relatively long half-life -
perhaps 20 years - it tended to accumulate in
theenvironment.Athoughnotsoluble in
water it was soluble in fat, which allowed it
to migrate LIP the food chain, where it accu-
mulated in the body tissue of the predators.
In birds, it caused the thinning of eggshells,
seriouslyreducingthebreedingsuccess of
some species, as Rachel Carson pointed out
in her book Silent Sprrng. By the rnid-l960s,
DDT was found tobe widespread in the fatty
tissue of theworld’shumanpopulation,
passed on frommother to childthrough
breast milk. Although the link between DDT
concentrationandhumanhealthwasnot
clear, its potential to cause serious ecological
disruption was recognized, and it was event-
ually banned or had its use severely restricted.
See also
Organochlocides, Pestndcs.
Further reading
Davles, J.E. and Edmundson, W.F. (eds)(1972)
Eprde1r7rology of D D T , Mount Kisco, NY: E‘utura
Publishing.
Wurster, C.F. (1969)‘Chlorinatedhydrocarbon
insecticides and the world ecosystem’, Biologrcul
Conseruntton 1 (2): 123-9.
DIEBACK
See tree dieback.
DIFFRACTION
The bending, or change in direction, of electro-
magnetic waves. In the natural environment,
diffractlon is responsible for such phenomena
as the coloured haloes visible when a light
source is viewed through fog.
See also
Scattcring o f light.
102
Further reading
Born, M . and Wolf, E. (1993) I’rrnciples of Opttcs:
Electromagtwtrc Theory of Propogatrort, Ittter-
fererzce artd Diffrnctiort of 1,tght (6th edition),
OxfordlNew York: Pergamon Press.
DIFFUSION
The free or random movemento f a substance
from a region in which it is highly concentrated
into one in which it is less concentrated. I n
gases and liquids, it happens spontaneously
at the molecularlevel, and continues until the
concentration becomes uniform. Diffusion is
a feature of manypollutionproblems,but
sincetherate of diffusion is related to
measurable elements suchas temperature and
molecular weight in gases or the temperature
and viscosity of liquids, the distribution and
extent of the problem can often be predicted.
Diffusion can also take place through barriers
that are porous or permeable, for example,
allowing substances to move in and out of
cells. The diffusion of light is brought about
by thescattering of abeam of light. In
culturalgeography,
the
term is used to
describethespread o f ideas,information,
commodities or diseases from a source region
to adjacent areas.
Further reading
Alters. S. (1996) Biology: U17derstartdittg Life, St
Lotus: Mosby.
DIGESTION
The process by which animals convert food
into a form in which it canbe absorbed. Food
productssuchascarbohydrates,fatsand
proteins are ingested through the mouth. In
the stomach and the upper part of the small
intestine,thefood is brokendowninto its
constituent nutrients which are then absorbed
intothelowerpart o f thesmallintestine.
These nutrients provide the body with energy
and contribute to cell and organ growth as
well asthereplacement of damaged tissue.
Indigestible materials are passed through the
system and expelledaswaste. Theterm is
also used to describe industrial processes in
which organic materials are processed into a
simplerusableformusingmechanicaland
chemical methods. The manufactureof paper
103
from trees, for example, involves the diges-
tion o f the original wood to separate out the
fibres required to produce the paper.
See also
Metabolism.
Further reading
Madcr, S.S. ( 1996) Biology, Dubuqur, I A : Wm C .
Ihown.
DILUTION
Thereduction in theconcentration of a
solution by the addition of a solvent, or by its
addition to alargervolume of solvent. An
example of theformer is thedilution of a
beverage, such as orange juice, by the addition
o f water. In environmental studies the latteris
more common, when, for example, effluent is
released into a bodyo f water and is diluted as
a result.
DIMETHYL SULPHIDE (DMS)
A sulphur (S) compound emitted by phyto-
plankton during their seasonal bloom, with
an estimated annual production of 40 x IO”
gm. It is oxidized into sulphur dioxide (SOL)
andmethanesulphonicacid(MSA),which
provide a natural contribution to acid rain.
The MSA is ultimately converted into sulphate
aerosols which are very effective i n reducing
the inflow of solar radiation. They also have
the potential to increase cloud cover through
their ability to act as condensation nuclei. As
aresult o f this,DMSmayhavearole in
globalwarming.Highertemperatures will
encouragegreater
plankton
productivity,
which in turn will bring about an increase in
the production of DMS. The resulting increase
in atmospheric turbidity and cloud cover will
then act as a ncgative feedback and counter
global warming by reducing incoming radi-
ation.
Further reading
Chnrlson, R.J., I.ovclock, J.F,., Andrene, M.O. and
Warren, S.G. (1987) ‘Occanlc plankton, atmos-
pheric sulphur, cloud nlhedo m d climate’, Nrlttrre
3 2 6 : 655-61
E‘cll, N. and LISS, l’. ( 199.1) ‘Can algae cool the
planet?’, NCW Sc/Pt/t/st I39 (1887): 34-8.
DISPERSAL/DISPERSION
DIODE
An electronic device that allows a current to
flow in only one direction. The earliest diodes
were electron tubes or valves, but these have
now been superseded by semiconductors, which
are smaller, cooler in operationandmore
rugged than the valves. Diodes are used to con-
trolpowersupplyandregulatevoltages in
such devices as battery chargers, motors, radios
and televisions, and they are essential com-
ponents in most modern electronic equipment.
DIOXINS
A group of approximately seventy-five
chlorinatedhydrocarbons formedas by-
products of chemical reactions
involving
chlorine (Cl) and hydrocarbons. Dioxins
appear as manufacturing impurities in some
herbicides,
wood preservatives
anddisin-
fectants,andarereleasedintotheenviron-
mentduringtheincineration of chlorine-
based plastics or as a result of the chlorine
bleachingprocess in pulpandpaper mills.
Themosttoxic of thegroup is TCDD,
2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
(C,,H,CI,OL). It is present in theherbicide
2,4,5-T, andwasacontaminant in Agent
Orange, the defoliant used by the US Forces
during the VietnamWar. Substantial amounts
of TCDD were also released as a result o f an
Industrial accident at Seveso In Italy in 1976.
Dioxins are persistent chemicals, accumulating
in soil and human fatty tissue. Health effects
arevaricdandcomplex,rangingfromskin
problems, such as chloracne, to cancers, birth
defectsandseriousImmunological,neuro-
logical and behavioural problems. A reduction
of dioxtn levels in the environment will require
a steadydecline i n the use of chlorine in
manufacturing, and a ban on the incineration
of plastics and other chlorine-based products.
Further reading
Gough, M. (1986) Dtoxrrr, Agcut On7trge: The
h c t s , New York: Plenum Press.
DISPERSAL/DISPERSION
The spread and subsequent dilution o f pol-
lutants in waterandair.The effectiveness
DISPOSAL W E L L S
Figure D-l 0 The releaseof pollutants from a
hospital incinerator. The plumeis coning,
allowing effective and relatively rapid
dilution of the pollutants.
Photograph: The author
of the dilution will dependon such factors as
theconcentrationandreleaserate of the
effluent and the prevailing water and atmos-
pheric conditions. The term dispersal is also
used t o refer to the dissemination of plants
andanimalsfromtheirsourceregionsto
other parts of the world.
See also
Diffusion, Oxygen sag curve, Plume.
Further reading
Williamson, S.J. (1973) Fundamentals of Ais
Pollution, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Stiling, P.D. (1992) Introductory Ecology,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
DISPOSAL WELLS
Specially drilled deep wells or dry petroleum
exploration or production wells into which
fluidsarepumpedasameans of waste
disposal. Any introduction of liquidwaste
104
into the lithosphere has the potential to cause
groundwater pollution, but if the wells are
sufficiently deep, and the rock structures such
thattheyrestricttheflow of thewastes,
pollution is less likely. The injectionof liquids
into theearth’s crust in certain areas has been
observed to cause an
increase
in
earth
tremors. Although the seismic activity pro-
duced has been relatively minor, thereis some
concern that it might act as a trigger for a
larger earthquake.
Further reading
Healy, J.H., Rubey, W.W., Gnggs, D.T. and
Raleigh, C.B. (1968) ‘The Denver earthquakes’,
Scrence 161 (3848): 1301-10.
DISSOCIATION
The breakdown of a substance through the
decomposition of its molecules, either by the
addition of heat - thermal dissociation - or
the passage of an electric current - electro-
lyticdissociation.Thereaction is usually
temporary andreversible. Ammonium chloride
(NH,Cl), for example, readily dissociates into
ammonia (NH,)and hydrochloric acid (HCl)
when heated, but the two products recom-
bine again on cooling.
heating
NH,CI + NH, + HCl
cooling
In
electrolytic
dissociation,
current
a of
electricity passed between electrodes through
an aqueous solutionwill cause the constituents
t o be deposited at the electrodes, with the
reaction taking place at the ioniclevel.
DISTILLATION
A process in which a liquid is vapourized and
the vapour subsequently condensed to produce
a purified form of the liquid or one of its
constituents. Distillation is a natural part of
the hydrologicalcycle. Energy suppliedby the
sun causes surface water to evaporate. The
vapour is carried up into the atmosphere until
it iscoolenoughtocondenseaswater
droplets.Thesedropletsarepurewater,
although the original source may have been
105 DOPPLER EFFECT

salty or polluted. Distillation is the principal greater surface roughness and the increase in
method of purifyingliquids.It is themost frictionaldragthatitcauses.Thiscauses
commonprocess usedin desalination,and convergence of the airflow withincities. Once
has been used
increasingly by domestic the air has passed into the adjacentrural area
consumers to providefreshdrinking-water. the surface roughness is reduced and diver-
Domestic distillers remove toxic metals, non- gence of the airflow takes place. Divergence
volatile organic compounds and kill bacteria also occurs when air exits from the confines
throughtheboilingprocess,but donot of an urban canyon into a more open area
removevolatile
organics
which
simply such as a square or plaza.
condenseandbecomeincorporated in the
distilledwater.Distillation is usedin the See also
production of alcohol,fordomesticand Anticyclone, Convergence.
industrial use. In the petroleum industry, it is
employed to separate out the different products Further reading
Barry, R.G. and Chorley, R.J. (1992) Atmosphere,
contained in crude oil. Since the various com- WeatherandClimate, (6th
edition),
London:
poundscontained in petroleumvapourize Routledge.
and condense at different temperatures, it is Oke, T. R. (1987) Boundary Layer Climates (2nd
possible to separate and thencollect the indi- edition), London: Methuen.
vidual constituents of the original liquid oil.
The process is called fractional distillation. DOBSON UNIT (DU)

See also The unitused to represent the thickness of the

Condensation,Destructivedistillation,Drinking- ozone layer above a given location at stan-
water standards. dard (sea-level) temperature and pressure. If
brought to normal pressure at sea-level, all
Further reading theexistingatmosphericozone (0,)would
Kister, H.Z. (1990) Drstillatron Operation, New
York: McGraw-Hill.
form a band no more than 3 mm thick. One
WorldBank (1980) Alcohol Productron from Dobson Unit is equivalent to 0.01 mm.
Biomass in the Developing Natrons, Washington,
DC: World Bank. DOMESTIC WASTE
DIVERGENCE See garbage.

The spreading of moving air in the atmos- DOPPLER EFFECT

phere. It may involve both vertical and hori-
zontal components.Air descending vertically,
for example, will spread horizontally once it
reaches the surface. This typeof divergence is
associatedwithanticyclones,creating a net
outflow of air from the centre of the system.
Because thedescendingair is also being
warmed adiabatically, it normally createsdry,
fair weather conditions. Divergence may also
occur when air is forced to rise. In equatorial
regions, the rising air over the intertropical
convergence zone (ITCZ)gradually cools and
becomes less buoyant. Unable to return to the
suface because of the warm airrising beneath
it, it is forced to spread (or diverge) north and
south. Divergence hasalso been recognized in
horizontal airflows in cities. The speed of the
air flowing over urban areasis reduced by the
The apparent change in pitch of a sound due
to a change in the relative positions of the
sound source and the listener. The pitch of a
trainwhistle,forexample, will appearto
increase as itapproachesanobserverand
decreaseonce it haspassed.The effect is
caused by the wave-like motionof sound, and
applies to all types of waves. The Doppler
effect has beendevelopedfornavigational
purposes, and Doppler radar is an important
tool in trackingstormsystemsforweather
forecasting.
Further reading
Griffith, W.T. (1992) The Physics of Everyday
Pherzomerza: A Conceptual
Introduction,
Dubuque, IA: Wm C. Brown.
DROUGHT
DROUGHT
lrought is a ratherimprecisetermwith
loth popular and technical usage. To some,
t indicates a long, dry spell, usually assoc-
ated with lackof precipitation, when crops
ihrivel and reservoirs shrink. To others, it is
I complex combination of meteorological
:lements, expressed in some form of moist-
Ireindex.There is no widelyaccepted
jefinition of drought. It is, however,very
nuch a human concept, and many current
lpproachestothestudy of droughtdeal
Mith moisture deficiencyin terms of its
mpact on human activities,particularly
:hoseinvolvingagriculture.
Agricultural
drought is defined in terms of the retard-
ation of cropgrowth by reduced soil
moisture levels. This, in turn, may lead to
xonomic definitions of drought when, for
Example, dryconditionsreduce yield or
cause crop failure, leading to a reduction in
income. It is also possible to define drought
in purely meteorologicalterms,
where
moisture deficiency is measuredagainst
normal or average conditions which have
been
established
through
long-term
observation (Katz and Glantz 1977).
Theestablishment of normalmoisture
levels also allows a distinction to be made
betweenaridityanddrought.Aridity is
usually considered to be the result of low
average rainfall, and is a permanent feature
of the climatology of a region. In contrast,
drought is a temporary feature, occurring
whenprecipitationfallsbelownormal or
whennearnormalrainfall is made less
effective by other weather conditions such
as hightemperature,lowhumidityand
strong winds (Fclch 1978).
Aridity is not a prerequisite for drought.
Even areas normally considered to be
humidmaysufferfromtime to time,but
some of the worst droughts ever experienced
haveoccurred in areasthatincludesome
degree of aridity intheirclimatological
make-up. Alongthe
desert
margins in
Africa, for example, annual precipitation is
low, rangingbetween 100 and400 mm,
but, under normal conditions, this would
allow sufficient vegetation growth to support
106
pastoralagriculture.Somearableactivity
might also be possible if dry-farming
techniques wereemployed, yet
drought
occurs with considerable regularity in these
areas (Le Houerou 1977). The problem lies
not in thesmallamount of precipitation,
but rather in its variability. Mean values of
100 to 400mm are based on long-term
observations and effectively mask totals in
individualyears,whichmayrangewell
above or below the values quoted. Weather
recordsat Beijing, in drought-prone
northern China, show that the city receives
close to 600mm of precipitationin an
average year. However, the amount falling
in the wetter years can be six to nine times
that of the drier years. Only 148 mm were
recorded in 1891, for example, and 256 mm
in 1921, compared to a maximum of 1405
mm in 1956 (NCGCC 1990).Rainfall
variability is now recognized as a major factor
in the occurrence of drought (Oguntoyinbo
1986),and a number of writers have
questionedthe use of ‘normal’values in
such circumstances. In areas of major
rainfall
variability,
the
nature of the
environment reflects that variability rather
than the so-called normal conditions, and
anyresponse t o the problems which arise
from drought conditions must take that into
account (Katz and Glantz 1977).
Drought is perhaps the most ubiquitous
climatological problem society has to face.
Its greatest impact is in areas that experience
seasonaldroughtorcontingentdrought.
Theformer is common in thesubtropics,
where the year includes distinct dry and wet
seasons. Drought intensifies when the dry
season is extended beyond its normal
duration or thewetseasonprovides less
precipitationthanusual.Theextension ol
such conditions overa period of several years
has produced someof the most catastrophic
droughts on record, in areassuch as the
Sahel,
East
Africa,
India,
Chinaanc
Australia, all of which arc
subject tc
seasonaldrought.Contingentdrought i:
characterized by irregular and variablc
precipitation in areas that normally have ar’
107
Idequate supply of moisture to meet their
leeds.Thedroughts of 1975-1976and
1988-1992 in the normally humidUK were
:ontingentdroughts.TheGreatPlains of
NorthAmericahavesufferedcontingent
drought for thousands of years, from pre-
historictimesup to thepresent(Phillips
1982; Rosenberg 1978; Van Royen 1937).
Arguably the most important of these,in
terms of its extent, duration and impact on
government policies and agricultural prac-
tices, was the droughtof the 1930s. It created
the Dustbowl and caused widespread hard-
ship and misery for the inhabitants of the
area,
but it also brought about
the
realization thatdroughtwas an integral
component of the environment of the plains
and had to be treated as such.
Modern views of drought vary with time
and place and with the nature of the event
itself. It may be seen as a technological
problem, a n economic problem, a political
problem, a cultural problem, or sometimes
a multifacetedprobleminvolving all of
these. Whatever else it may be, however, it
is always a n environmentalproblem,and
basic to any understanding of the situation
is therelationshipbetween society and
environment in drought-prone areas.
Over thousands of years, certain plants
and animals have adapted to life with the
limitedmoisture.Their
needsare
met,
therefore no droughtexists.This is the
theoretical situation in most arid areas. In
reality it is much morecomplex,for
although the flora and fauna may existin a
state of equilibrium with other elements in
theenvironment, it is a dynamicequili-
brium,andthebalancecan be disturbed.
Fluctuations in weather patterns,
for
example, might
reduce
the
amount
precipitationavailable,therebychanging
the
wholerelationship. If plantsand
animals can no longer cope
with
the
reduced water supply, they willsufferthe
effects of drought.Dependinguponthe
extent of the change, plants may die from
lack of moisture, they may be forced out of
thearea as a result of competitionwith
species more suited to the new conditions,
or they may survive, but at a reduced level
DROUGHT
of productivity. Thesituation is more
complexforanimals,buttheresponse is
often easier. In addition to requiring water,
they also depend upon the plants for food,
and their fate will therefore be influenced
by that of the plants. They have onc major
advantage over
plants, however.
Being
capable of movement, they can respond to
changingconditions by migrating to areas
where their needs can be met. Some degree
of balance will eventually be attained again,
although certain areas- such as the world’s
desert margins - can be in a continual state
of flux for long periods of time.
Thehumananimal, like other species,
is forced to respond to suchchanging
environmental conditions. In earliertimes
thisofteninvolvedmigration,whichwas
relativelyeasy forsmallprimitivecom-
munities, living by hunting and gathering,
in areas where the overall population was
small. As societieschanged, however, this
responsewasoften no longerpossible. In
areas of permanent oreven semi-permanent
agricultural settlement, with their associated
physical and socioeconomic structures,
migrationwascertainlynot an option -
indeed, it wasalmost a last resort. The
establishment of political boundaries, which
took no account of environmental patterns,
also restricted migration in certain areas. As
a result, in thoseregionssusceptible to
drought,thetendency,perhapseventhe
necessity, to challenge the
environment
grew. If sufficient water was not available
fromprecipitation,eitherithad to be
supplied in other ways - for example, by
well andaqueduct - or differentfarming
techniques had to be adopted to reduce the
moisture need in the first place. The success
of of these approaches dependedvery much on
such elements as the nature, intensity and
duration of thedrought, as well as on
various human factors, which included the
numbers, stage of cultural development and
technological level of the peoples involved.
Technologyhashelpedthose livingin
drought-prone areas to cope with drought.
In some cases
droughtprediction has
allowedresponses to be plannedandthe
impactsmitigated,butthereareconcerns
DROUGHT PREDICTION 108

that technologywillcreategreaterprob- Envrronmental Deterioration inand around Arid

lems in the future, either directly through Lands, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Le Houerou, H.N. (1977) ‘The nature and causes
the rapid depletionof groundwater supplies of desertification’, in M.H. Glantz
(ed.)
or indirectly through the activities that lead Desertification: Environmental Deterioration in
to globalwarming(IPCC 1996; NCGCC and around Arrd Lands, Boulder, CO: Westview
1990). Press.
NCGCC (1990)A n Assessment of the Impact of
Climate Change Caused by Human Actrvities otr
References and further reading Chrna’s Envrronment, Beijing: National
Felch, R.E. (1978) ‘Drought: characteristics and Coordinating Group on Climate Change.
assessment’, in
N.J.
Rosenberg(ed.) North Oguntoylnbo, J. (1986)‘Drought prediction’,
Amerrcan Droughts, Boulder, CO: Westview Climatic Change 9: 79-90.
Press. Phillips, D.W. (1982) ClimateAnomaliesand
Glantz, M.H. (ed.) (1994) Drought Follows the UnusualWeather rn Canada durrng 1981,
Plough, Cultrvatrng Margitlal Areas, Cambridge: Downsview, Ont:
Atmospherlc Envlronment
Cambridge University Press. Service.
IPCC (1996) Climate Change 1995, Cambridge: Rosenberg,N.J.(ed.) (1978) NorthAmerican
Cambridge University Press. Droughts, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Katz, R.W. andGlantz,M.H.(1977)‘Rainfall Van Royen, W. (1937) ‘Prehistorlcdroughts in
statistics,droughtsanddesertificationinthe the central Great Plains’, Geographical Reurew
Sahel’,
in M.H. Glantz(ed.) Desertificatron: 27: 637-50.

DROUGHT PREDICTION Further reading

Schneider, S.H. (1978) ‘Forecasting
future
droughts: is it possible?’,in N.J. Rosenberg (ed.)
Theattempt to forecasttheoccurrence of North Amerrcan Droughts, Boulder, CO: Westview
drought so that responses can be planned and Press.
consequencesmuchreduced.Thesimplest Oguntoyinbo,(1986)
J. ‘Drought prediction’,
approach to drought prediction is the Climatrc Change 9: 79-90.
actuarial
forecast,
which
estimates
the
probability of drought based
on
past DRY ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE
occurrences.Problemswiththelengthand
homogeneity of meteorological records often See adiabatic processes.
reduce the reliability of actuarial predictions.
Links between meteorological variables and DRY DEPOSITION
other physical or environmentalvariables
have beenassessed aspossiblepredictors. A form of acid precipitation consistingof dry
There is, for example, a relationship between acidic particles, which usually fallout close to
sunspotactivityandprecipitation.Drought their emission sources. Sulphur dioxide (SO,)
on the Great Plains has been correlated with is themostcommonconstituent of dry
the minimum of the 22-year double sunspot deposition. The particles are converted into
cycle. The correlation has no physical theory acidswhendissolved in surfacewater,at
to explain it, however, and the relationship whichtimetheirenvironmentalimpact is
does not appear to apply outside the western similar to that of wet deposition. They also
United
States. Mostmodernattemptsat contribute to healthproblemswhenthey
droughtprediction involve teleconnection. come into contact with the moist tissues of
Global sea-surface temperatures (SSTs) have the human respiratory system.
been correlated with drought in the Sahel, for
example,and ENSO events have been DRY FARMING
recognized as precursors of drought in Brazil,
Australia, Indonesia and India. The time lag A technique which involves the preservation
between the occurrence of a specific SST or of several years of precipitation to be used for
an ENSO eventandtheonset of drought the production of one crop.It includes theuse
allows the prediction to be made. of deep ploughing, to provide a reservoir for
109 DUST VEIL INDEX

therainthat falls,plusa combination of DUPONT

techniques to reducelosses by evapotrans-
piration.Theratioindry-farmingareas is
typically one cropyear for every three or four
years of fallow.Althoughonlyabouta
quarter of the rainfall total over the fallow
period may be available to the crops, it can
produce a doubling of the yield.
Further reading
Moore, R.J.(1969)‘Waterand crops’, m R.J.
Chorley(ed.) Water,Earthand Man, London:
Methuen.
DRYSEDIMENTATION
The falloutof dry particulate matter from the
atmosphereunderthe effects of gravity.
Depositionusuallytakesplaceclose to the
source of the material, but dust produced by
volcanic eruptions and pushed higher into the
atmosphere may be carried further. Volcanic
eruptions also provide the largest amountsof
dustfall. The eruption of Mount St Helens in
1980,forexample,depositedbetween 0.2
and 0.4 km’ of fineashoverthewestern
United States. Dry sedimentation is common
in aridregionswherethere is insufficient
moistureforotherforms of atmospheric
cleansingsuchasprecipitationscavenging.
Dustfall regularly occursin northern China in
the spring, for example, when the prevailing
winds bring dust from the Gobi Desert. Less
frequent
occurrencescan be significant
locally.In Australiain1983,amajordust
storm deposited 106 kg of dust per hectare
overthecity of Melbourne. Such amounts
pale in comparison with the 3.50 m of loess
deposits in Chinaformed by drysediment-
ation during the Pleistocene.
The major producer of chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) under the trade name Freon. Although
apparently unwilling to respond in the 1970s
to problems associated with CFC production
and use, following the Montreal Protocol, the
company worked to produce less damaging
alternatives
such
hydrochlorofluoro-
as
carbons (HCFCs) and pledged to reduce its
output by 9.5 per cent by the year 2000.
DUST
A general term for solid particles of varying
materials, sizes and origins,carriedinsus-
pension in the atmosphere. Most dust particles
are considered to have diameters greater than
1 km, but some volcanic dust may be finer
thanthat.Larger particlesremain in the
troposphere,butvolcaniceruptionssome-
times
push
smaller
particles
into
the
stratosphere.Dustoriginatesnaturallyas a
result of volcanic activity,
fires andthe
deflation of particles from deserts and other
arid areas. Human activities such as mining,
quarrying and various agricultural practices
contributedust directly, whileactivities
which increase desiccation or desertification
contributeindirectly by increasingthearea
susceptible to deflation or wind erosion. Dust
in the atmosphere has a role in climate change
through its ability to scatter radiation, and at
the local level may present an environmental
hazard.
See also
Aerosols, Atmospheric turbidity, Dry sedimentatlon,
Dust veil Index.

See also Further reading

Volcano. Kellogg, W.W. (1980) ‘Aerosols and climate’, in W.
Bach, J. Pankrath and J. Williams
(eds),
lrlteractlons of EnergyandClimate, Dordrecht:
Further reading
Reidel.
Burroughs, W.J. (1981)‘Mount St Helens:
a Shaw,R.W. (1987) ‘Airpollution by particles’,
review’, Weather 36: 238-40. Scietrtific Amerlcan 257: 96-103.
Lourenz, R.S. and Abe, K. (1983) ‘A dust storm
over Melbourne’, Weather 38: 2 7 2 4 .
DUSTVEILINDEX (DVI)
DRYLAND SALINITY
Aratingsystemdeveloped by climatologist
See salinization. H.H. Lamb to provide an assessment of the
DUSTBOWL ( T H E )
impact of volcanic eruptions on atmospheric
turbidityandhence on global weather and
climate. It was derived from such parameters
as radiation depletion, the estimated lowering
of average temperatures, the volume of dust
ejectedandtheextentandduration of the
veil. The 1883 eruption of Krakatoa, with a
DV1 of 1000, provided a base against which
all other eruptions were measured. The 1963
eruption of Mount Agung was rated at 800,
for example, whereas the DV1 for Tamborain
1815 was 3000. Other indiceshave been
introduced to refine and modify the DVI, but
none has been so widely used.
See also
Glac~ological volcanic index, Volcanic explosivity
index.
Further reading
Lamb, H.H. (1970) ‘Volcanic dust III the
atmosphere; with a chronology and assessment o f
meteorological
its significance’, Philosophrcal
Trumactiom of the Royal Society, A. 2 6 6 : 435-
533.
DUSTBOWL (THE)
An area of the Great Plains, stretching from
Texas in the south to the Canadian prairies in
the north, which suffered the effects of desert-
ificationinthe1930s.Acombination of
drought and inappropriate farming practices
causedthedestruction of thetopsoiland
allowed it to be carried away by the wind.
The social andeconomicimpacts of the
Dustbowl helped to bring about a reassess-
ment of agriculturaldevelopmentandland
use in semi-arid areas such as the Plains.
110
Further reading
Rosenberg, N.J. (ed.)(1978) North Americun
Drorrghts, Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Worster, D. (1979)DustBorul: The Southern Plains
in the 19.30s, New York: Oxford University Press.
DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
A concept originally used in geomorphology,
but now generally accepted as having much
wider implications. It considers the components
of the environment to be in, or attempting to
achieve, some degreeof equilibrium. The bal-
ance is never complete, however, but requires
a continuing series of mutualadjustments
among the elements that make up the environ-
ment.Therate,natureandextent of the
adjustments requiredwill vary with theamount
of disequilibrium introduced into the system,
b u t in
every environment there will be
periods when relative stability can be main-
tainedwithonlyminoradjustments.The
environment is then said to be in a steady state.
See also
Chaos theory, Ecological balance, Gaia hypothesis.
DYSTROPHIC (LAKES)
Acidic waterbodiesthataredeficient in
calcium (Ca) andhave low nutrient levels. As
a result,they
tend t o be unproductive.
Dystrophiclakesarecharacteristic of acid
peat areas. Decomposition rates are low and
thelakebottomsareoftencoveredwith
undecomposed vegetable matter.
See also
Eutrophlcatlon, Oligotrophic lakes.

EARTH FIRST
A radical international environmental move-
mentinvolved in direct
action
against
individuals, companies and organizations
sees as threateningtheenvironment,Earth
Firstundertakesgrassrootsorganizing, liti-
gationand civil disobedience. In North
America, Earth Firsters havebeen involved in
thedisruption of lumberingoperations
protect forests from chainsaws, and in Britain
they have campaigned against the construc-
tion of motorways by occupying construction
sites. They have also instigated boycotts against
companies such as Shell and McDonalds as a
protest against their perceived disregard for
the environment.
EARTH RESOURCES
TECHNOLOGY SATELLITES (ERTS)
A series of earth-observing satellites launched
by the United States between 1972 and 1984.
Referred to as the Landsat series,
they
evolved from the TIROS and NIMBUS series
E
of meteorologicalsatelliteslaunchedinthe
1960s. By observingtheearth’ssurface in
different
sectors of the electromagnetic
spectrum, Landsat was able to provide inform-
ation on crop production forecasts, soil and
it forestrymanagement,energyandmineral
resource exploration and the assessment of
urbanpopulationdensities.Descendants of
thesesatellitesmonitorallaspects of the
environment from
the
earth’s
radiation
to balance to desertification and pollution, and
a new series of twenty-six satellites is planned
to provide for better monitoring of natural
hazards and disasters.
Further reading
Lawler, A. (1995) ‘NASA mission gets down to
Earth’, Sciefrce 269: 1208-10.
Park, C.C. (1997) The Envrronmerrt: Prrncipks
m d Applicutrons, London: Routledge.
EARTH SUMMIT
Popular name for the United Nations Con-
ference onEnvironmentandDevelopment
(UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.

EARTHQUAKE
A series of earth movements brought about otherandthesmallamounts o f energy
by sudden
a release of energy during involved will be dissipated into the environ-
tectonic activity in the earth’s crust. Earth- ment. If forsomereason no movement
quakes
frequently
accompany volcanic takes place, despite the addition of energy,
eruptions, but the most severe examples are the fault is said to be locked, and energy
associated with
movements along fault continues to accumulate in the fault system
lines. Movement along most active faults is until it is sufficient to break the lock. The
infinitesimalandsmooth.Therocks on sudden release of accumulated energy
eitherside of thefaultline will move causes the earthquake. Waves of energy -
1 vertically or horizontally in relation to each seismic waves - spread o u t in all directions
EARTHQUAKE
From the origin or focus of the earthquake,
but those which reach the surface immed-
lately above the focus- the epicentre of the
quake - and spread from there cause the
most
visible damage.
Earthquakes are
Aassified according to their magnitude and
Intensity. Magnitude is ameasure of the
mergy released and is recordedonthe
RichterScale, anopen-endedlogarithmic
scale starting at zero,butwithnoupper
limit,since there is no evidence thatthe
values of pastlargeearthquakesarethe
preatest
possible. Maximum observed
intensities range between 8.0 and 8.6 - the
1906 San Francisco
earthquake,
for
example,hadanestimatedmagnitude of
8.3 on the Richter Scale - but thousands of
earthquakes of lesser magnitude occur
every year. The intensity of an earthquake is
reflected inthedamagethat it does to
property and is measured on the Modified
Mercalli Scale. The scale was developed in
the early part of the twentieth century and
modified in 1931. It includes twelve values
Figure E - l The world’s earthquake zones
112
ranging
from
Negligible
(detected by
instrumentsonly) to Catastrophic(total
destruction) based on the damage caused to
property.Earthquakes of thesamemag-
nitudeandintensitymaycausedifferent
levels of destruction depending upon local
conditions.Structuresbuiltona sand or
clay substrate, or land reclaimed from the
sea,forexample,suffergreaterdamage
than those built directly upon rock. Areasin
which the buildings have been constructed
or renovated to withstand earthquake shocks
usually suffer less damage than those where
thebuildingshave been constructedusing
local materials and techniques. Factors such
astheseoften lie behindthegreat differ-
ences in the death toll associated with earth-
quakes of similar magnitude and intensity.
InTangshan,China in 1976, buildings of
local brick using traditional methods simply
disintegrated
under
the effects of an
earthquakemeasuring7.6ontheRichter
Scale and more than 200,000 people died.
Nearly 10 yearslaterinMexicoCity an
 113 EARTHQUAKE

Table E - l Recent Japanese earthquakes

CARTHQUAKE DATE MAGNITUDE

DAMAGED
DEATHS
HOUSES
1923
;reat Kanto 7.9142,807 576,262
[ita-Tajima 1925 428 6.8 3475
5 [ita-Tango16,295 1927 7.3
2240
Cito-izu 1930 7.3
1933 7479
Offshore
ianriku 8.1
rottori 7736 7.2
ronankai29,189 7.9
6 aikawa 12,142 6.8
2 Vankai 15,640 1946 8.0
kkui 39,111 7.1
2830Wave
Zhile Tidal 1960 8.5
Viigata 1964 26 7.5 2250
691
rocachi
Offshore
1968 7.9
Miyagi Offshore
1978 28 7.4 1383
Central
Sea of Japan1983 104 7.7 1584
SW Hokkaido Offshore 1993 7.8 601 230
S. Hyogo
(Kobe)
1995 5504
7.2 100,209

Source: Asahi Shlmbun, Japan A l m a ~ ~ a1996

c,

earthquake of similar magnitude produced distributedaroundtheearth,but is con-

a much lower death-toll of between 9000
and10,000,despitethe city’s highpop-
ulation density and the fact that it is built
mainly on the bed of a dried-up lake. Most
of thedamageandthehighestdeath-toll
was in thoseareaswherethesub-surface
materials were unstable or the houses were
of traditionalconstruction.
Earthquake-
proofed buildings and those on more stable
groundhadamuchgreatersurvivalrate.
Indirect
effects of major earthquakes
include fire - caused by the rupturingof gas
lines and the availability of large amounts
of combustible materials -which is difficult
to fight because the water supply system has
usually been ruined. The destruction of the
watersystemmayalsoallowdisease to
spread among the survivors of the earth-
quake. Earthquake occurrenceis not evenly
centrated in thoseareasthatare most
tectonicallyactive.Suchareasinclude the
boundary zones between tectonic plates and
zones of sea floor spreading. As a result, the
areas that experience most earthquakes art
locatedin a belt around the Pacific. This
circum-Pacific belt accounts for more than
80percent of theworld’searthquakes,
among them the most devastating in terms
of both life and property damage. Japan, for
example, has experienced seventeen earth-
quakes with a magnitude greater than 7 this
century,resulting in a death toll of more
than
165,000and
damage
nearly
to
720,000 buildings. On the otherside of the
Pacific in California, the San Andreas Fault
is anearthquakezone
whichhas
the
potential to devastate the large population
centres of southern and central California.
EARTHWATCH
It has formed where the Pacific and North
American tectonicplatesgrindtogether,
and sudden movement along it was respon-
sible forthe 1906 SanFranciscoearth-
quake. Current concernis with the southern
end of the fault which is locked and under
greatstressinanumber of places. The
sudden release of the energy represented by
that stress would have a catastrophic effect
on most of southern California.Other
earthquake concentrations occur in a belt
stretching through the Mediterranean to the
Himalayasandthensouth-eastthrough
Indonesia to meetupwiththecircum-
Pacificbelt in the area of the Philippines.
Mid-oceanic ridge
developmentin
the
AtlanticOceanandtheIndianOceanare
also
regions of increasedearthquake
activity. Outsidetheseareasearthquakes
may be less common, but they d o occur in
eventhemoststableparts of theearth’s
crust, such as the shield areas of Canada
and Australia. Sincethey areunexpected,
earthquakes in theseareasoftencausea
disproportionate amount of damage.
Earthquakes cause major environmental
EARTHWATCH
A non-profit, privately funded organization,
founded in 1972, Earthwatch is one of the
world’slargest sponsors of scientificfield
research. Originating in the United States, it
nowhasaffiliates inAustralia,Britainand
Japan. Its mission is to improve understand-
ing of the planet, the diversity of its inhabi-
tants and the processes that affect the quality inhigherlatitudes,being
of life o n earth. Since 1972, Earthwatch has
been involved in nearly 2000 projects in 11 1
countries, with more than 40,000 volunteers
participating in their activities. In 1997, funds temperaturegradientthatdevelops
have been allotted to support twenty-five new upper atmosphere at the time of the south-
projectsthatincludewildlifemanagement,
archaeology,rainforest ecology, artand
architecture.
EARTHWATCH (UNEP)
programme
A for
monitoringand
co-
ordinatingenvironmentalinformationcol-
114
change. They disrupt drainage patterns, both
on the surface and underground; in moun-
tainousareastheyinitiatelandslidesthat
change the geomorphologyof these areas and
alter vegetation patterns; coastal areas may
be altered catastrophically by the tidal waves
or tsunamiswhichfollowmajor offshore
earthquakes Attempts at earthquake predic-
tion with the aim of reducing loss of life
have met with little success. Potential precur-
sors of damaging earthquakes have included
swarms of minor earth tremors, emissions
of gases from cracked bedrock or unusual
animal behaviour. These may apply to indi-
vidual earthquakes, but as yet there is no
universal signal of an impending earthquake.
Further reading
Chandler, A.M. (1986) ‘Building
damage in
MexicoCityearthquake’, Nature 320 (6062):
497-501.
Davldson, K. (1995) ‘Waiting for the Big One’,
New Sclettttst 141 (1918): 24-X.
deBlij, H.J. and Muller, PO. (1993) Physrrd
Geography of the GIobal Envrrorzment, New
York: Wiley.
Normile, D. ( 1995) ‘Cracking up’, NEWS c r ~ ~ t t t s t
147 (1988):26-31.
lected through
the
Global
Environment
Monitoring System (GEMS) of the UN
Environment Program (UNEP).
EASTERLY TROPICAL JET
A rapidly moving easterly airstream encoun-
tered in the upper atmosphere in equatorial
latitudes. I t is less persistent than jet streams
a summerphe-
nomenon best developedoverIndia
and
Africa, and generally absent over the oceans.
The jet is associated with the strong lateral
111 the
westmonsoonoverIndia.Asimilarbut
separate jet is presentover WestAfrica at
about the same time. In both areas, the zones
of maximum precipitation lie mainly to the
north of the jet axis and in India the move-
ment of monsoon depressions from eastto west
up the Gangesvalley appears to bc controlled
by the jet and the associated upper easterlies.
115 ECOLOGICAL EXPLOSION/POPULATION EXPLOSION
Further reading
Barry, R.G. and Cltorley, R.J. (1992) Attwsphere,
Weather anti Climate (6th edition),
London:
Routledge.
ECOCATASTROPHE
A massive deterioration of the environment
whichthreatenstheflora,faunaandother
ecological attributes of an area. It may take
place suddenly, for example, following an oil
tanker
shipwreck, or it may reflect
the
cumulative effects of environmental damage
over a longer period of time. Western Siberia
provides an example of the latter situation.
There the rapid and uncontrolled exploita-
tion of forests, mineral
deposits
and
petroleumreserveshascreatedecological
disaster in an area that until the 1960s and
1970s was oneof the world’s largest and least
altered wilderness areas.
See also
Nuclear wlnter, Oil tankers.
Further reading
Buchholz, R A . (1992)‘The big spill: oil and water
still don’t mix’, in R.A. Buchholz, A.A. Marcus and
J.E. Post (eds) Marzagrng Enuiromrental Issues: A
Cusehook, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prenticc-Hall.
I’earce, F. ( 1993)‘Thescandal of Siberia’, Neru
Scierztrst 140 (1901): 28-33.
ECOLOGICALBALANCE
Stability in an ccosystemachievedthrough
thedevelopment of equilibriumamong its
various components. This does not imply that
thecommunity is static.It is subject to
natural variations associated with ecological
succession and other influences such as fire,
disease and climate change, but the system is
normallysufficientlyelastic to makethe
necessary adjustments without
major
displacement of thebalance.Humaninter-
ventionthatincludestheintroductionor
removal of plants and animals, pollution of
the environment and destructionof habitat is
nowamaincause of imbalance in many
ecosystems.
See also
Dynarnlc equilibrium, Steady state system.
Further reading
Lieth, H., Esser, G. and Overdieck, D. (cds) ( 1 9 9 1)
Modem Ecology: Basrc arrd Applied Aspects, N K W
York: Elsewer.
ECOLOGICALENERGETICS
The study of theflow of energywithin or
throughecosystems,involvingtheflow of
solar energy into the system, its conversion
into chemical energy via photosynthesis and
itsultimatedissipationasheat energy. The
process is highly inefficient - on average only
1 per cent of the solar radiation is converted
during photosynthesis and 90 per cent of the
stored
chemical
energy is lost to the
environment as heat at each trophic level in a
food chain - but it provides and redistributes
sufficientenergy to allow the various com-
ponents of the biosphere to function.
Further reading
Wiegert, R.G. (ed.) (1976) Ecological Erzergetrcs,
Stroudsburg, PA: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross.
ECOLOGICAL EXPLOSION/
POPULATION EXPLOSION
A very rapid increase in the numbers of an
organism, typical of r-strategists such as grass-
hoppersand mice whichareusuallysmall,
haveashortlife-spanandproducelarge
numbers of offspring.Therapidspread of
infectiousdiseasessuchasinfluenzaand
plague is often the result of explosive growth
among theviruses and bacteria that cause them.
The specific causes of ecological explosions
vary, but most are associated with the removal
of elements that normally act as constraints
on growth. A limited food supply, for example,
will keep a population in check. If the food
supply suddenly becomes abundant,however,
the population will expandrapidly.Such is
the case with the algal blooms which follow
local nutrient enrichment. Alternatively, if the
predators that keep a populationin check are
removed, or the organism involved is moved
to a location where no natural predators are
present, a population explosion will follow.
When rabbits were introduced into Australia,
forexample,the lack of naturalpredators
allowedthe
population to
balloon and
become a major environmental problem.
ECOLOGICAL INTRODUCTIONS 116
Further reading Perspectrue, Chichester: Wiley.
Bolen,E.G. and Robinson, W.L. (1995) Wildlife Holdgate, M.W. and Wace,N.M.(1971)‘The
Ecology
Management
and (3rd
editlon), influence of manontheflorasandfaunas of
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. southern islands’, in T.R. Detwyler(ed.) Man’s
Impact on Envzronment, New York: McGraw-
Hill.
ECOLOGICAL INTRODUCTIONS Turk, J. and Turk, A. (1988) Environmental
Sczence, Philadelphia, PA: Saunders.
The introduction of an organism into an area
in which it is not normally resident, usually as ECOLOGICAL NICHE
a result of human activity. The process may
be deliberate,aswiththeimportation of See niche.
grazing animals and new plant species into
areas of European colonization in the ECOLOGY
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, or it may
be accidental,such as theintroduction of Originally defined by Ernst Haeckel in 1866,
lampreyandzebramusselsintotheGreat ecology is the study of the relationships that
Lakes in thesecond half of thetwentieth develop amongliving organisms and between
century.Shouldtheintroducedspecies be these
organismsand
their
environment.
unable to find its ecological niche in the new Investigationmaytakeplace at different
ecosystem, it will declineand
eventually levels,involving,forexample,thestudy of
become extinct. Rabbits, which had been so therelationships of individualspecies of
successful on their introduction to Australia, plants or animals- autecology - or the study
failed to become established on the island of of community patterns - synecology.
SouthGeorgia,forexample,whenintro- Subdivisionintofunctional ecology, which
duced there in 1872. In most cases, however, dealswithsuchtopics as population size,
theintroduction of species into
new
a behaviour,competitionandpredation,and
environment is detrimental to that environ- historical
ecology,
which
includes
the
ment. Selective grazing by non-native cattle investigation of pastdistributionpatterns
and sheep has caused a change in the grass and
evolution, is also common. Other
cover in many areas in the southern classifications are possible - terrestrial ecology,
hemisphereandovergrazing by goatshas freshwater ecology and marine ecology, for
caused soil erosion. Rats that have escaped example. Popular usage of the term tends to
from visiting ships have
decimated the be
loose, and is commonly applied to
indigenousbirdpopulation in Tristanda environmental problems that have a human
Cunha in the south Atlantic and feral cats - origin.
domestic cats which have gone wild - have
caused the extinctionof a t least five species of See also
birdsnative to NewZealandandfound Carrying capacity, Green Parties.
nowhere else. Thenet effect of ecological
introductions is to disrupt the
existing Further reading
ecological balance. Ultimately a new balance Ehrlich, P.K., Ehrlich,A.H.andHoldern, J.P.
(1977) Ecoscience:Populatron,Resources
and
may be established, often with the introduced Envrromnent, New York: W.H. Freeman.
species as adominantelement,but in the Krebs, C.J. (1985) Ecology, San Francisco: Harper
process,theoriginalenvironmentmay be & Row.
destroyed or at least radically changed. Odum, E.P. (1995) Ecology and our Endangered
Life Support Systems (2nd editlon), Sunderland,
MA: Sinauer Associates.
See also Tudge,C.(1991) GlobalEcology, New York:
Extinction. Oxford University Press.

Further reading ECOSPHERE

Drake, J.A., Mooney, H.A., di Castri, E, Groves,
R.H., Kruger, F.J., Rejmanek, M. and Williamson,
M.(eds)(1989) BiologzcalInvasions: A Global See biosphere.
117
ECOSYSTEM
A term coinedin 1935 by the British ecologist
A.G. Tansley to refer to a community of
interdependentorganismsandthephysical
environment they inhabit. Although there is
no acceptedecosystemhierarchy,theeco-
system concept can be applied at a variety of
scales, fromthemicroscopic tothewhole
earth. The individual organisms interact with
each other and with their environment in a
series of relationships made possible by the
flow of matter and
energywithinand
throughthesystem.Therelationshipsare
dynamic and routinelyrespondtochange,
without altering the basic characteristics of
theecosystem. Cyclical changes in animal
populations, for example, arean integral part
of most ecosystems. Despite the large fluctu-
ations that may be involved, the functional
relationshipsamongorganisms - such as
those between predator and prey - continue,
and ultimatelysomedegree of balance is
restored. Majorenvironmental disruption
such as that caused by climate change or fire,
however, may alter a specific ecosystem
irreversibly, and bring about its replacement
by a systemwithdifferentcharacteristics.
Regular fires, forexample,maycreate a
grassland ecosystemwhereonce a forest
ecosystemexisted. Natural ecosystems are
theoreticallyself-sustaining,butincreasing
human interference is threatening their
sustainability in many parts of the world, and
variousmethods of ecosystemmanagement
havebeen introduced in an attempt to
preserve andprotectcharacteristicnatural
ecosystems.
See also
Carrying capacity, Trophic levels.
Further reading
Stiling, P.D. (1992) Introductory Ecology, Engle-
wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Odum, E.P. (1971) Fundamentals of Ecology (3rd
editlon), Philadelphia, PA: Saunders.
Owen, O S . andChiras, D.D. (1995) Natural
Resource Conseroat~on, Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
I’rentice-Hall.
Tansley, A.G. (1935)‘The use and abuse of
vegetation concepts and terms’, Ecology 16: 248-
307.
ECOTOURISM
ECOTONE
Atransitionzonebetweentwoecosystems.
Although usually most obvious through the
changingdistribution of vegetation,it also
includesother
organismsfromthe two
communities.Thetransitionzonemay be
manykilometreswide
and
includethe
characteristics of the two ecosystems, as in
theparklandareabetweentheforestand
savanna grasslands of the sub-tropics, or it
may be relatively narrow,withthechange
from one ecosystem to the other taking place
within as little as a few hundred metres, as a t
some altitudinal tree lines. Where the zone is
broad, the ecotone will include animals from
both adjacent ecosystems and perhaps others
that are characteristic of the ecotone itself,
producingacommunitythatmay be more
diverse than in the ecosystems. The location
of particularecotones isusuallyassociated
with changes in such environmental elements
as climate, geology and soils, but the nature
of the transition may also be influenced by
such factors as fire, the number of grazing
animals presentin an area or the extentof the
competition between the two communities it
separates.
further reading
Goudie, A. (1989) The Nature ofthe Enoironment
(2nd edition), Oxford: Blackwell.
ECOTOURISM
In its simplest form, the recreational use of
the landscape and the flora and fauna that it
contains.Although it may involve hunting
and fishing,ecotourismhascome to be
identified with the non-destructive use of the
environment,through,forexample,bird-
watching, wildlife safaris or the appreciation
of specialplantcommunitiessuch as the
Californian Redwoods. The wildlife elements
in ecotourism are major sourcesof income in
many parts of the world, generating millions
of dollars every year, forexample, in less
developed countries
such as Kenya and
Tanzania in East Africa. By introducing large
numbers of people to the environment,
ecotourism is also a very effective educational
tool,providingparticipantswith a greater
E D A P H I CF A C T O R S 118

appreciation of the environment, while vertical or horizontal plane, but the neteffect
encouraging them to contribute financiallyto is to create turbulence, and reduce the con-
thealleviation of environmentalproblems. centration by incorporating small amounts of
Paradoxically,thepopularity of ecotourism theconcentrateintothelargerairmassor
has
the
potential to threaten the very water body. Eddy diffusion is one of the most
environmentalattributes it is designed to commonprocesses by whichairandwater
protect. In some areas, for example, sensitive pollutants are diluted and therefore made less
ecosystems might be harmed when excessive harmful.
numbers of tourists disturb wildlife, damage
vegetation or generate
extrawasteand See also
garbage.Thus,whileecotourismcanbe a Diffusion, Pollution, Turbulent flow.
financial
boon for
many areas andcan
contributetothepreservation of environ- Further reading
mentsunderthreat, it is notwithout its Oke, T.11. (1987) Bowrdary Layer Clinzates (2nd
edition), London: Routledge.
potentialproblemsandmust be carefully Williamson, S.J. (1973) Frrrrdamentals of Air
managed. Pollutrorz, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Further reading EFFECTIVERAINFALL

Boo, E. (1990) Ecotourrsm: The Potentral a d
Pitfalls (vols 1 and 2), Washington, DC: W E
Pearce, F. (1995) ‘Sellingwildlifeshort’, New That part of the total rainfall thatis available
Scietrtist 147 (1993):28-31. to meet a particular need. In agriculture, for
Whelm, T. (1991) Nature Torrrwn: Marragrng for example, the effective rainfall might include
the Envrronrnerrt, Covelo, CA: Island Press. that which is retained in the crop root zone,
after evaporation, surface runoff and drainage
EDAPHICFACTORS havetakenplace.Forotherpurposes - for
example,hydroelectricpowerproduction -
The physical,chemical and biological the effective rainfall might be the proportion
properties of soils thatcontribute to the of the precipitation that becomes runoff.
characteristics of ecosystems.Thesecontri-
butions may not always be obvious, because See also
they work indirectly through other factors - Evapotranspmtion.
soil texture making its influence felt through
drainage - but in some cases the effects are EFFLUENT
strong and clear. Acidity or pH, for example,
willinfluencethetypes of organismsthat Technically
any fluid emanatingfrom a
occupy the soil, the types of plants that will source,
but
commonly used to refer to
growandconsequentlythetypes of fauna gaseousorliquidwastedischargedtreated,
that will inhabit anarea. Thus,limestone partially
treated,
or
untreatedinto
the
areas develop their own peculiar ecosystems environmentfromresidential,industrialor
in large part because of the very high p H of agricultural
sources.
Domestic sewage is
their soils. perhaps the most ubiquitous effluent.

EDDY DIFFUSION ELECTRODE

Aprocess by which a concentratedgas or A

conductorthrough
which a n electric
liquid becomes diluted as it mixes with the current enters or leaves a system or device.
adjacentair or water.Mixing is brought The flow of electrons is from the negatively
about by the development of relatively small- chargedcathode to the positively charged
scalecircularorsemi-circularcurrents or anode.
eddies,generated by such conditions as
convection, changesin surface roughness and See also
friction.Eddiesmay be generated in the Electrolysls, Electrolytc.
119 SPECTRUM ELECTROMAGNETIC

ELECTROLYSIS Figure E-2 The electromagnetic spectrum-

frequencies, wavelengths and forms of
The chemical decomposition of an electrolyte radiation
brought about by passing an electric current
through it. The electrolyte is first dissolved o r
melted to allow its dissociation into positively
and negatively charged ions. When the electric
Frquer
1022 1 14
Hz
Gamrrayi
Wavelength

-1 angstrom, A
current is applied, the positively charged ions -1 nm
(cations)migrate to thecathodeandthe 1O’O X-rays
negatively charged ions (anions) to the anode, lo’+ l -
wheretheyareliberatedordeposited.The 10” - l t -
electrolysis of water, for example, produces 10’6 - Ultraviolet -
positively charged hydrogen
ions
and lo1*
- - -1 micron, p
negatively charged oxygen ions that can be 10” - t
Visible
lght -
drawn off at the cathode and anode of the
system
respectively. Industrial
electrolysis
requires large amounts of electricalenergy,
13 -

10’2 -
lof1
-
-
+
Infrared

t -
- -1 centimeter. cm
but it is widely used for the production and 10’0
Mimwaves
-
purification of metals such as sodium (Na), lo9 T
- t ’-1 meter, m
aluminum (AI) and copper (Cu).It is also the 108
TV, FM -
main process for the commercial production 10’-
of chlorine (Cl) from brine. 106 - Slandard
broadcast
-
- 1 kilometer, km
-
lo5 4
electrolysis cathode
anode
2NaCI +2H,O -+2NaOH + Cl, + H,
chlorlne
sodium
hydrogen
brine the vibrations is related to the energy level of
hydroxlde theradiationsource,andindicated in the
Further reading
wavelength.Longwaveradiation(infrared,
Lawrence, C., Rodger, A. andCompton, R.G. for example) is low in energy, whereas short-
(1996) Foutldatrons of Physrccll Chetrtrstry, New wave radiation (ultraviolet, for example) has
York: Oxford Unlversity Press. a high energy content. The energy available in
shortwaveradiation is sufficient to bring
ELECTROLYTE about ionization in some atoms, through the
displacement of electrons. Theresulting
A compound that, when dissolved in a solvent, highly reactive products may cause damage to
or melted by the addition of heat, is capable livingcells andcontribute to theonset of
of conducting a n electriccurrent. In the various types of cancer. In contrast, the non-
process, the compound is decomposed. ionizingradiation of low-energywaves is
generally considered harmless, although there
See also are claims that long-term exposure to radi-
Elcctrolysls. ation from overhead electric transmission lines,
videodisplayterminalsandotherelectric
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM appliances may also cause cell damage. The
bulk of the electromagnetic radiation in the
The
range of electromagneticradiation earth/atmospheresystemoriginates in the
classified according to wavelength, and sun. Being a high energy body, the sun emits
extending from long radio and television waves mainly shortwave radiation, although it also
to short gamma rays and cosmic radiation. produces a wide range of frequencies,
Eachelectromagneticwaveconsists of an including
visible
light,
theonly
type of
electric field and magnetic field vibrating at electromagneticradiationdetectable by the
right angles to each other. The frequency of human eye. When solar radiation is absorbed
ELECTRON 120

- for example, by the ozone layer or the earth's between the atomsof the elements involved.
surface - it is re-emitted at a lower energy
level and therefore at a longer wavelength. ELEMENT
The redistribution of solarelectromagnetic
radiation through scattering, reflection and A substance that cannot be separatedinto
absorption in the environment is the main simplermaterials by chemical or physical
determinant of the energy budget in the earth/ means. Each element is distinguished by its
atmosphere system. atomic number. Since all atoms with the same
atomic number have the same chemical pro-
See also perties, the atomic structure of the element
Atmospheric turbidity, Terrestrial radiation. willdetermineitschemicalcharacteristics.
Each element is identified by a symbol, which
Further reading
Carter, R.G. (1990) Electromagnetic Waves:
may be the first letter of its English name plus
MicrowaveComponentsandDevices, London/ another letter if necessary t o avoid confusion
New York: Chapman and Hall. (e.g. C for carbon or Ca for calcium) or the
Faughn, J.S., Turk, J. and Turk, A. (1991)Physical first letter of its Latin name (e.g. K (kalium)
Scrence, Philadelphia, PA: Sanders. forpotassium).Althoughtherearewide
differences between elements, there are also
ELECTRON sufficientsimilarities toallowthemto be
arranged in a periodic table in which they are
Anegativelychargedelementaryparticle groupedaccordingtotheirchemicaland
occupying an orbit orshell around the nucleus physical characteristics.
of anatom.Thenegativecharge of the
electrons balances the positive charge of the EL NIQO
protons in the nucleusof the atom. Although
much smaller than the other atomic particles, A flow of abnormally warm water across the
electrons determine the chemical character- eastern Pacific Ocean towards the coast of
istics of atoms, since chemical reactions involve Peru. It is associated with changing pressure
the
sharing or
transferring of electrons patternsandareversal of airflowinthe

Figure E-3 Sea surface temperature anomalies in the Pacific Ocean, September
1997

Degrees Celsius
-1.5 -1.0 -.5 .5 1.0 1.5

Source: Courtesy NOAA Climate Diagnostlcs Center

121 EMISSION S T A N D A R D S

equatorial Pacific, a phenomenon referred to EMBRYO

as the Southern Oscillation.An El Niiio event
is preceded by a strong east to west airflow
whichpusheswarmsurfacewater to the
western Pacific basin, allowing cold water to
well up and take its place in the east. When
the Southern Oscillation brings about a reversal
of the airflow, the warm water ponded up in
the western Pacific flows east again to replace
the cold and create an El Niiio. Thename
originallyreferred to a warmcurrentthat
appeared off thecoast of Peruclose
Christmas - hence El Niiio,the(Christ)
Child.
Althoughoriginally
considered
regional event, when strongly developed,
Niiiocankeepareas in theeastern Pacific
warmer than normal for periods of a year or
more, and it is now recognized as being of
globalsignificance,
capable of disturbing
weather patterns in many parts of the world.
See also
Drought predictlon, ENSO, La Niiia.
A multicellular organism in its early stages of
development, following the fertilizationof an
ovum or egg-cell. Although both plants and
animals pass through an embryonic stage, the
term is most commonly applied to animals,
which are considered to be in the embryonic
stage from the timeof fertilization to birth, in
the case of mammals, or hatching in the case
of birds. The term foetus (fetus)is used for a
to humanembryowhich is morethaneight
weeks old, by which time the organ systems
a have formed.
El
EMERSON, R.W. (1803-1 882)
A US philosopher and writer who embraced
the
transcendentalist
philosophy of the
divinity and unity of man and nature. Such
beliefs foreshadowedlaterenvironmentalist
concepts and ideas.

Further reading See also

Glantz,M.H. (1996) Currents of Charzge: El Thoreau, H.D.
Nirzo’s Impact on Climate and Society, Cambridge/
New York: Cambridge University Press. Further reading
Quinn, W.H. and Neal, V.T. (1992) ‘The historical Cox, G.W. (1993) Conservatron Ecology:
record of El Niiio events’, In R.S. Bradley and P.D. Biosphere and Biosurvwal, Dubuque, IA: Wm C.
Jones(eds) Climate Since A D 1500, London: Brown.
Routledge.
Rasmussen, E.M. and Hall, J.M. (1983) ‘El Niiio’, EMISSION STANDARDS
Weatherwtse 36: 166-75.
UNEP ( 1 992) The El Nino Phenomenon, Nairobi:
United Nations Environment Program. Permissible limits of emissions from pollution
sources. They are commonly incorporated in
ELUVIATION clean air or water quality legislation, which
notonlysetsoutthestandardsbut also
The removal of colloidal-sized particles such incorporates mechanisms by which they can
as clay and organic matter from upper soil be enforced.Primarystandardshave been
horizons by percolating water
usually developed to protecthumanhealth,while
followed by their re-deposition or illuviation secondary standardsare
aimed at
other
in lower horizons. Although eluviation is a elementsincludingcrops,
materialsand
naturalpart of soildevelopment, if the structures that have implications for human
particles are removed more rapidly than they welfare and personal comfort. Specific maxi-
can be replaced, the fertilityof the soil will be mum allowable emission levels are based on
reduced. Similarly, the illuviation of the theknowndetrimentalimpacts of certain
particles deeper in the soil profile may affect pollutants or upon thelaboratory-based
thequality of the soil by causingdrainage estimates of suchimpacts.Theygenerally
problems. assume that emissions below a certain level
willhave noadverse effects, anddonot
See also alwaystakeintoaccountthecumulative
Colloids, Leachlng. effects of long-termlow level emissions.
EMISSIONS TRADING 122

Standardshavechangedwithtime,asthe levels, it receives creditforthedifference.

technology to reduce emission levels has been Thatcreditcan beused to offsctexcess
developedandastheunderstanding of the pollution at another of the company’s plants,
impacts of specific pollutants has improved. it can be banked for future use or sold to
another company. The tradeis not on adirect
See also 1:l ratio, however. The credit allowed is less
Alr qualitystandards, Clean air legislation, thantheoriginalsaving so that ultimately
Ernisslons
trading,
Environmental
Protection there willbe a reduction in total emissions.
Agency (EPH), Safe DrinklngWater Act, Water
quality standards. Evidence indicates that emissions trading has
not had a major impact on pollution reduc-
Further reading tion,
and
environmentalists suggestthat
Holmes,G.,Theodore, L. andSingh, U. (1993) unless the transfer credit limits are reduced
H a d b o o k of Ewrrotznretrtal Murulgetmttt utrd significantly, the scheme will produce only a
Techrrology, New York: Wiley. shifting of emissions rather than the desired
reduction.
EMISSIONS TRADING
Further reading
Aschemedeveloped by theUnitedStates Hcggelund, M. (1991) Etnrssrom Perrtrrt Trading:
EnvironmentalProtection Agency(EPA) to A Policy Tool to Redrrcc the Atnrospherrc
Co~cerrtrutrort of Greed7orrse Gases, Calgary:
encouragecompaniestoreducepollution. Canadian Energy Rcsearch Institute.
Various
approachesare
involved,
but in Rapaport, R. (1986) ‘Trading dollars for dirty a d ,
essence, if acompany is able to reduceits Science 86 (7):7.5.
output of pollutants helow the EPA emission Smith, Z. A. ( 1 995) Tl7e Envrro?rnzerrtal Policy
Paradox, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: I’renticc-Hall.

ENDANGEREDSPECIES
Species of plantsandanimalsthreatened Figure E-4 Numbers and distribution of
with extinction because their numbers have tigers in India
declined toa critical level asaresult of
overharvesting o r because their habitat has North and Central: North East:
12 reservesin 7 states: 8 reserves in10 states:
been drastically changed. That critical level 1922 tigers 1369 tigers
is the minimum viable population (MVP), 603 on reserves
andrepresents
the
smallest
number of
breedingpairsrequired to maintainthe
viability of the species. The numbers
involved are difficultto determine, but vary
withthe species.
Large carnivores,
for
example, tend to have a lower MVI’ than
small mammals such as rabbitsor mice. The
total number of endangered species is not
easily estimated,buttheConvention on 3 reserves In 3 states:
International Trade in Endangered Species
(CITES) lists some 3000 animals and about 113 on reserves
24,000 species of plants sufficiently
endangeredthattrade in them is either
completely prohibited or strictly regulated. 1989 - 4334 tigers
CITEShas becnsigned by 125 nations,
many of which have also passed legislation
directed reducing
atpressure
on ~orrrcc:Courtesy Government o f India Web
endangered species, through restricttons on Pages
123
hunting, wildlife management and habitat
preservation. The movement to retain bio-
diversityalsofavourstheconservation of
endangered species. Large mammals such as
elephants, whales, gorillas and tigers have
received most attention, but smaller organ-
isms frommigratorybirdstominnows to
spiders
have also beenidentified
as
endangered. Exotic plants, such as tropical
orchidsorthecacti of thesouth-western
United States, also make headlines from time
to time when dealers, collectors or poachers
areapprehended,butthousands of other
plantspeciesareendangered by everyday
human activitiessuch as agricultureor
forestry. Some endangered species
have
been brought back
fromthe
edge of
extinction - forexample,thewhooping
crane,theAmericanbison,theperegrine
falcon -while others are being preserved in
zoos or wildlife refuges.
However, the
number of endangered species or threatened
species (those likely to become endangered
ENERGY
The capacity to do work. Energy takes a
rariety of forms and can be converted from
me form to another to meet specific needs.
rhere is no simpleuniversallyaccepted
:lassification of energyforms,butmost
:lassifications include the following:
kinetic - theenergypossessed by an
object in motion.
B potential - theenergy possessed by an
object as a result of its position. A bag
of flour on a shelf, for example, retains
the energy expended to place it in that
position. If the bag falls off the shelf the
potentialenergy willbecomekinetic
energy.
thernzal- heat energy.
electrical - theenergyassociatedwith
an electric charge in an electric field.
chemical - the energy released during a
chemical reaction.
nuclear - theenergyreleasedduringa
nuclear reaction.
radiant - energy transmitted In the form
of radiation.
ENERGY
in the foreseeable future)is growing rapidly
andaccording to someenvironmentalists
the annual extinction rate of all species has
reachedepidemicproportions.Arguments
for the preservation of endangered species
commonly cite
the
economic,
medical,
aesthetic o r recreationalimportance of
particular species, but on a broader scale all
species may be consldered as integral
components of theenvironmentalsystem,
and any loss of even one species must have
an effect on the integrity of that system.
See also
Blue List, Red Data Books.
Further reading
Cohn, J.P. (1990)‘Elephants:remarkableand
endangered’, Bioscremc 4 0 (1): 10-14.
Leigh, J. ,Boden, R. and Briggs, J. (1984)Extrnct
and Endangered Plants of Australia, Melbourne:
Macmillan.
Miller, G.T. (1994) h u n g the Enzwomnetzt,
Relmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Energy can be converted from one form to
another.Thechemicalenergy in coal,for
example, is converted into thermal energy
through combustion, which in turn can be
converted into electrical energyin a thermal
electric power station. Such conversions are
not perfect,however. All involve some
energy loss. Even a natural process such as
photosynthesis, in whichradiantenergy
fromthesun is convertedandstored in
plants as chemical energy, may convert as
little as 2 percent of thesolarradiation
falling on a plant. A division into renewable
and non-renewable energy resourcesis often
madeinenvironmentalstudies.Renewable
energycan easily be replacedonce it has
beenusedbecause of regular regeneration
atsource.Solarenergy usedin the earth/
atmospheresystem,forexample, is con-
tinuously replaced by new energy createdby
fusionprocesses in thesun;theenergy
obtainedfromplants isreplaced by the
growth of new plants; the energy in flowing
water is renewed through the hydrological
cycle.
In contrast,
whennon-renewable
ENERGY 124

nergy is used it cannot be replaced, or can therehasbeen a majordeterioration in

'ereplacedonly on a time-scale that lies environmental conditions. Global environ-
'utsidethehumanframe of reference. mental issues such as acidrain,increased
Vhen coal is burned,forexample,the atmospheric turbidity and the enhancement
nergyreleased cannot be renewed, and of the greenhouse effect all have an energy
lthoughthereareplaces onthe earth's component, and the ever-growing demand
urface where new coalis being formed, the forenergy is attheroot of theserious
housands of years required
for
its deterioration of air, water and soil in many
ormation take it out of even the long-term parts of the world. Many environmentalists
nergyplans of society.
Until themid- advocatethereturn to renewableenergy
ighteenth
century,
society
depended resources, but while that has been successful
nainly uponrenewableenergyresources, in someareas, it is
unlikely thatsuch
Ind its net impact on the environment was sources as solar energy, biomass energy or
rery limited. The impact of energy use only the energy from wind and waves would be
)egan to be global with the increased use of sufficient to meet modern demands.
:oal from the 1750s on. Coupled with the
teamengineand used in a variety of Further reading
ndustrialprocesses,coalwasresponsible Berry, R.S. (1991) Understarzding Energy:Energy
EntropyandTherntodynanztcsforEveryman,
initiating
'or increasingly
the rapid River Edge, NJ: World Scientific.
mvironmental change that continued with Byrne,J. and
Rlch, D. (1992) Energy artd
he
development of petroleum energy Enuironment: The Policy Challenge, New
'esources. In the late twentieth century, the Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
levelopedindustrialsocietiesdepend on Howes, R.H. and Fainberg, A. (eds) (1991) The
Energy Sourcebook, New York: American
,etroleurn and electricity as theirmain Institute of Physics.
iources of energy. Coal is generally less Long, R. (1989) Energy and Conseruatlou, New
mportantthan it oncewas,although it York: H.W. Wilson.
.etainsitspredominantposition in some Nathwam, J.S., Siddall, E. and Lind, N.C.(1992)
Energy for 300 Years: Benefits and Risks,
ess developed nations, such as China, for Waterloo, Ont:
Institute for Rlsk
Research,
:xample, where it is abundant and cheap. University of Waterloo.
Energy consumption has increased six-fold Priest,J. (1984) Energy:Prtnciples,Problems,
since 1800, and accompanying that increase Alternatrves, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Figure E-5 Changing technology and energy consumption

steam engine

i
:
engine
nuclearpower I
draughtanimals ___) :
I
I

water : wind ____)

Industrial Revolution
I I I I I I
1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
125 ENERGY

ENERGYBUDGET andEnvironmentalTechnologies, IAburn, GA:

Fairmont Press.
An accounting of the flow of energy through
a system. Originally applied by ecologists to
ENERGYEFFICIENCY
ecosystems,theapproach is also usefulin
industrytochecktheenergy efficiency of The ratio of the work done by a process or
industrial
processes. Theconcept is also mechanism to thetotalenergyconsumed,
applied by climatologists to the relationship normallyexpressed as a percentage. It is
between the amount of solar radiation entering commonly applied to
the
conversion of
the earthhtmosphere system and the amount energy from one form to another, with the
of terrestrialradiationleaving.Intheory, amount of energy put in to a convertor
these energy fluxes should balance. In practice, compared to the amount of energy available
although the concept of balance is a useful followingtheconversionprocess.Ateach
one, it applies only ingeneralterms to the stage in a food chain,forexample,the
earth as a wholeover an extendedtime efficiencyisonly about 10 percent. The
period. It is not applicableto any specific area remaining 90 per cent is lost in the form of
over a short period of time. heat or used to allow the
converting
organisms to function. In industry,energy
See also efficiency values vary considerably. Thermal
Heat budget. electric power stations are usually less than
40 percentefficient intheirconversion of
ENERGY CONSERVATION chemical energy to electrical energy, whereas
hydroelectricpower
stations, in which
mechanical energy is converted to electrical
Using less energy to achieve the same amount
energy, can be as much as 95percent
of work or decreasing the amount of fuel used
efficient.
to
producethe
sameenergyoutput. By
Withthegrowingconcernfordeclining
reducingdemand and
improvingenergy
energy resources, rising energy costs and the
efficiency, energy resources can be conserved.
impact of large-scale energy consumption on
Energy conservation has both environmental
the environment, the term has assumed a less
andeconomicimplications. By using less
technical meaning. I t refers, for example, to
energy and usingitmore efficiently, the
the willingness of society to change its user
output of combustion products is reduced, to
habits so that less energy is wasted, and may
the benefit of the atmospheric environment,
involve increased government intervention in
and the necessity to mine and drill for new
the form of incentive programmes or greater
energy resources is lessened, to the benefit of
education on energy use.
the
terrestrial
environment.Conservation
receives most attention when energy costs are
high. Greater efficiency and reduced demand Table E-2 Energy efficiency in a typical
will offsettheimpact of sucheconomic thermal electric power plant
conditions. During the periodof rising petro-
leum prices in the 1970s and 1980s, improved
insulation in residential buildings, the develop- Chemical
energy
coal
in 100 units
ment of moreefficientinternalcombustion
Heatstack
gases
lost
in 10 units
engines andchangestorenewableenergy
sources all contributed to energyconserv- Heat lost
cooling
in water 50 units
ation and helped to diminishtheimpact of
the rising costs. Electrical transmission losses 3 units
Total losses 63 units
Further reading
Auhrecht, C.J. (1989) Energy, Columbus, OH: Electrical
energy
delivered 37 units
Merrill.
Kicketts, J. ( 1995) Cotnpetrtrue Energy Management Energy efficiency of the plant: 37%
 ENHANCEDGREENHOUSE EFFECT 126
Further reading ENSO
Chapman, J.D. (1989) GeograpbyandEnergy:
Cotntnercral Energy Systems and Natronul
Policres, London: Longman. An acronym for El Niiio - Southern Oscil-
Kleinbach, M.H. and Salvagin, C.E. (1986) E:nergy lation.
Techtzologres urld Conversion Systems, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: I'renttce-Hall.
Natural
Resources
Canada ( 1 9 9 6 ) Energy
ENTROPY
Eff1clencg Trends r n Canadu: Etzergy Efficiency
Indicators, Ottawa: Natural Resources Canada. A thermodynamic measure of the degree of
disorderwithinasystem. In awell-ordered
ENHANCED GREENHOUSE system, for example, there will be a distinct
EFFECT separationbetweenwarmbodiesandcool
bodies.
Withtime,
however,the
heat is
See greenhouse effect. graduallyredistributed so that all bodies

Figure E-h The impacts of an ENSO event

land Gasses

Sop Atmospheric
Surlace
lovol
tomperaturo oarbon dloxlde

Fiahenes Climate
-logy
I l

r
HUMAN DIMENSIONS 1

+L CHRONIC
- d l 6trMure damage
Region

- dosorliticalion
- saline intrusionInlo
er rontalization - flood plain
-ground water recharge
- droughl termination - land 10888s

Health Food supply Tdurlsm Famine Scales

Glabal Rqlonal Local

landresenlsment I - rnlaralion

Local Re~jonal National

(mostly stable) (mostly unstable)

Source: Nkemderlm, LC. and Budikovn, D. (1996) 'The El Niiio-Southern Oscillation has a truly global
impact', I G U Bulletin 46: 30
127 ENVIRONMENTAL EQUILIBRIUM

within the system have the same temperature. ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE

Such a system is considered to be much less RESEARCHCENTRE (ECRC)
orderedthan
the
original
andtherefore
possesses greater entropy. In any
closed An organization based at University College
system, the level of entropy always increases London involved in themonitoringand
with time, and as it does so its energy level modelling of change in aquatic and terrestrial
decreases. As aresult,entropycanalso be ecosystems. Its activities include investigation
consideredmeasure
as
a of a system’s of acidprecipitation,theeutrophication of
inability to do work. lakes,climatechangeandnatureconserv-
ation, in the UK and internationally.
Further reading
Kerry, R.S. (1991) Understntldirtg Energy: Ertergy, ENVIRONMENTAL
Etztropy
and
Thentlotfyrlattzrcs for
Everyman,
Rlver Edge, NJ: World Sclentific. CONSEQUENCES OF NUCLEAR
Glassby, G.P. (1988) ‘Entropy pollution and WAR (ENUWAR)
environmental degradatlon’, Atnhlo I7 (S):330-5.
An investigationintotheimpact of large-
ENVIRONMENT scale
nuclearwar on theenvironment,
sponsored by theInternationalCouncil of
A combination of thevariousphysicaland Scientific Unions (ICSU) through the Scientific
biological elements that affect the life of an Committee on Problems of the Environment
organism. Although it is common to refer to (SCOPE). It grew out of the concerns raised
‘the’ environment,thereare in factmany by the conceptof nuclear winter postulatedin
environments, all capable of change in time the
early 1980s. Studies by the SCOPE-
andplace,but allintimatelylinkedandin ENUWAR researchersidentifiedthedirect
combinationconstitutingthewholeearth/ and indirect biological effects of nuclear war
atmosphere system. They vary in scale from on ecology and agriculturc as a major threat
microscopic to global and maybe subdivided to society.
according to theirattributes.Theaquatic
environment, for example, is that of rivers, See also
lakes and oceans, the terrestrial environment TTAI’S scennrlo.
that of thelandsurface.Theterm‘built
environment’ has been applied to areas, such Further reading
as cities, created by human activity. The Harwell, M.A. and Hutchlnson, T.C. (1985)
E~tvrro~rnzentalCortsrqtrettces of N~tclear War,
human element hasdominant
a role in Volrrnre 11: kkologrc~~lmzd Agricrrltrtrd Effects,
modern environmental studies,
and as a SCOPE 28, New York: Wiley.
resultenvironmental scienceincludes not SCOPE-ENUWAK(1987)‘Envlronmental cons-
only
the
traditional sciences suchas equences of nuclear war: an update’, Erlvlrotlrnent
29: 4-S and 4.5.
chemistry, physics and biology, but also
engineering,economics,sociology,politics
and law. The studyof the environment is thus ENVIRONMENTAL EQUILIBRIUM
very much interdisciplinary in nature.
The concept of dynamic balance among the
Further reading constituents of the environment. Changes in
Anderson,S.H., Beiswinger, R.E. and I’urdom, one of the components, tending to produce
P.W. ( 1 993) Ettvrrotztt~e~~tulSciettce, New York: instability, are counteredby charges in others
Macmillan. whichattempt to restorethebalance.The
Holland,H.D.and Peterson, U. ( 1 9 9 s ) L ~ u r r ~ g
Datrgero~rsly: The Earth, I t s Resources m d t h e balance is never complete, however. It is a
Krlvtrotznzerzt, Princeton, NJ: I’rlnceton Unlversity dynamicprocessthatincludesacontinuing
Press. series of mutual adjustmentsamong
the
Simmons, 1.G. (19Y.3) Itrterpretirtg Nature: elementsinvolved.
Therate,
nature
and
Cltltlrral Cortstrrrctlotts the
of E;rrvirotmctzt, extent of the adjustments required will vary
I.ondon: Routledge.
with the amount of disequilibrium introduced
I M P A C TE N V I R O N M E N T A L
intothesystem,butin every environment
there will be periods when relative stability
can be maintained with only minor adjust-
ments. This inherent stability of the environ-
ment tends to dampen the impactof changes
even as theyhappen,andanydetrimental
effects that they produce may go unnoticed.
At other times the equilibrium is so disturbed
that stability is lost,andmajorresponses
arerequiredtorestorethebalance.Many
environmentalists view modern environmental
deterioration
the
result
as of human
interference in the system a t a level that has
pushedthestabilizingmechanisms to their
limits, and perhaps beyond.
See also
Dynamic equilibrium, Gala.
Further reading
Kemp, D.D. (1994) Global Enulronmental Issues:
A Climatologrcal Approach (2nd edition), London/
New York: Routledge.
Lovelock, J.E. (1979) Gaia - A New Look at Life
on Earth, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
ASSESSMENT (EIA)
Assessmentandanalysis of thepotential
impact of various forms of human activities
on
the
environment. Formalstudies
existing
environmental
conditions
and
expectedchangesarecommonlyrequired
beforemajordevelopmentprojectssuchas
water diversion ormineralextractionare
allowed.Theresults of theassessmentare
presentedintheform of an environmental
impact statement which is made available for
discussion among the
various levels of
government, with
additionalinputfrom
environmental organizations and the general
public.Suchdiscussionsmaylead tothe
abandonment of project, theitsor
modification to reduce the perceived impact.
In theory, a project should onlybe allowed to
proceed if theimpactstatementindicates
minimalenvironmentaldisruption,but
some cases socioeconomic considerations are
allowed to override strict
environmental
factors.
Environmental impact assessment
can be made to work wellin theconsider-
ation of short-term, direct impacts, but it is
128
generally less successfulin dealing with the
cumulative impacts of longer term, less direct
impacts, such as climate change, for example.
Further reading
Gilpln, A. (1995) EnvrronmentalImpactAssess-
ment(ElA):Cutting Edge fortheTwenty-First
Century, CambridgeNew York: Cambridge
University Press.
Glasson, J., Therivel, R.S. andChadwick, A.
(1994) lntroductrontoEnvironmentalImpact
Assessment, London: UCL Press.
Wood,C. (1995) Enurronmental ImpactAsses-
ment: A Comparatrue Review, London: Longman.
ENVIRONMENTAL LAPSE RATE
The rate at which temperature declines with
increasing altitudein the troposphere. Although
the lapse rate varies with time and place it is
normallyconsidered to average -6.4"C per
1000 m. Since the atmosphere is heated from
below, abnormalheatingorcoolingcan
increase o r reduce the lapse rate and in some
cases cause it to be reversed. The relationship
between the environmental lapse rate and the
dry
and
saturatedadiabatic
lapse
rates
determines atmospheric stability in the tropo-
pause.
Further reading
McIlveen, J.F.R. (1991) Fundamentals of Weather
of and Climate, London: Chapman and Hall.
ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION
Laws,acts,
by-laws, protocolsand
con-
ventions aimed at preserving and protecting
the environment. At one end of the scale are
international agreements, such as the Montreal
Protocol or CITES, that require
further
legislative action by thesignatories.Atthe
other are municipal by-laws, such as waste
disposal regulations, designed to meet local
needs or conditions. Current environmental
legislation is less effective than it might be
because of inadequate enforcement. This is a
particular problem at the international level,
in but often appliesto national legislation where
several jurisdictions are involved.
See also
Cleanairlegislation,Env~ronmentalProtection
Act (UK),NationalEnvironmental PolicyAct,
129 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

Ozone Protection Act, Resource Conservation and growingappreciation of theeconomicand

Recovery Act, Safe DrmklngWater Act,Super- political components in environmental issues,
fund, Tall stackspolicy, 30 per cent club,US Forest
SerwceMultiple Use Sustained Yield Act, US particularlyastheyapply to theproblems
Global Climate Protection Act,US Wilderness Act. arising outof the economic disparity between
rich and poor nations. The modern environ-
ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT mentalmovement is aggresive,withcertain
organizations using direct action in addition
The environmental movement has its rootsin to debate anddiscussion to draw attention to
the growing concern for nature which char- the issues.
acterizedall
sectors of society - from
literature to science - in the nineteenth century. See also
Earth First, Earthwatch, Emerson,R.W., Friends of
Interestwasmainly in theconservation of theEarth,Greenpeace,Greenparties,Muir, J.,
naturalconditionsthatmanifested itself in NationalAudubon Society, NatureConservancy,
the creation of national parks, forests reserves NatureConservancyCouncil,RainforestAction
andgame preservesin North America and Network, Sierra Club, Thoreau, H.D., Wilderness
Society, Worldwatch Institute, Worldwide Fundfor
Europe. Between thewars,particularly in Nature.
North America,wheredroughtdevastated
large areas of agricultural land in the 1930s, Further reading
more attention was paid to soil conservation. Cox, G.W. (1993) ConseruatronEcology:Bio-
By the 1950s and 1960s, pollution had sphere atrd Biosururval, Dubuquc, IA: Wrn C.
become the central environmentalissue. After Brown.
Marcus, A.A. andRands, G.P. (1992) ‘Changmg
a decline in the 1970s, when concerns over perspectives
the
environment’,
on in R.A.
energy replaced the environment in the public Buchholz,A.A.Marcusand ].E. Post
(eds)
interest,
environmental
the movement Managrng Envrronmental Issues: A Casebook,
rebounded,reflecting an increasing level of Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
concern with society’s ever-increasing ability Shabecoff, P. (1993) A Fierce Green Fire: The
Amerrcan EnvrronmentalMouement, New York:
to disrupt environmental systems on a large Farrar, Straus & Giroux.
scale. A new environmentalism has emerged, Wall, D. (ed.) (1993) Green History: A Reader rn
characterized by abroadglobaloutlook, Envrronmental
Lrterature,
Philosophy
and
increased
politicization and growing
a Politics, London: Routledge.
environmentalconsciousnessthattakesthe White, L. (1987)‘Thehistoricalroots of our
ecologic crisis’, Scrence 155: 1203-7.
form of wastereduction,prudent use of Worster, D. (1995)History ofEcologica1 Thought,
resources andthedevelopment of environ- (2ndeditlon),Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity
mentally safeproducts.
There is also a Press.

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Thecontamination of thephysicaland intoaccount,sincetheearth/atmosphere
biological components of the earthlatmos- systemincludes
mechanisms capable of
phere system to such an extent that normal dealingwithalmostanyform of con-
environmental
processes
are
adversely tamination or disruption.Largerair or
affected.
Althoughsome
writers
and waterpollutants,forexample, fall out of
researchers
regardpollution as anthro- the air or water streama as resultof gravity,
pogenic in origin, natural sources can also gases
may be absorbed by plants,
providesufficientextraneousmaterial to neutralized by oxidation or dissolvedin
disruptnormalenvironmentalprocesses. water, and organic
materialsmay be
Volcanicactivity, forexample,cancause destroyed by bacteria. The capacity of the
major air pollution or water pollution and environment to deal with pollutants in this
destroy flora and fauna by covering them way is not unlimited, butit might be argued
withvolcanicash or lava.Withtime,the that
pollution
occurs
only
whenthe
environment adjusts to take such changes environment’scapacityfordealingwith
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION 130

Idditional material is surpassed. Such levels evokearesponseuntiltheyhavecaused

Ire difficult to establish, however, since the majorenvironmentaldamage.Noisepol-
mpact of a given amount of pollutant will lution is similar,in that it is not visible.
mrywithsuchfactorsasthephysical However, along
with
moretraditional
lature of the environment, the age and mlx forms of pollution, it makes serious
a
Jf organisms and the timing or duration of contribution to the quality of the environ-
:he pollutionevent.Emissionsfrom 100 ment incitiesandhasbegun to create
:ars in a restricted airshed would have the problems in rural areas also as power boats,
potential to cause a greater environmental snow-machines and
all-terrain vehicles
impact than the same emissions in an open, increase in popularity. To be treated
well-ventilated location. Similarly, 1000 effectively, pollution must be controlled at
barrels of oil spilled on a rocky, sub-Arctic source. There is little point, for example, in
shoreline would not have the same impact liming a lake to reduce the acidity of water,
as 1000 barrels spilled on a sandy, tropical if industry continues to emit acid gases into
beach.Forsomecontaminants,theintro- the atmosphere. In the case of the nuclear
duction of a human element allows specific industryand
certain
branches of the
pollution levels to beestablished. It is chemicals industry,
potential
pollutants
possible,forexample, to calculatemaxi- may be so hazardousthattheremust be
mum levels of airpollutantsthatcan be complete control,
with a no-emissions
tolerated by normal,healthyindividuals policy and permanent or long-term manage-
without
harm.
Permissible levels of ment of waste products.Although the
chemicals in drinking water
can be technology exists to handle most, if not all,
developedalso.
They
are
not
ideal, pollution
problems,
socioeconomic or
however, since like the wider environment political factors may prevent its adoption.
individual humans also react differently to There have been some successes, such as the
thesame levels of contamination. Young reduction in waterpollution by detergent
children,olderadultsorindividualswith phosphates and control of the production
existing health problems commonly suffer and emission of CFCs, but other pollutants
more
than
healthy,
mature
adults. suchassewageandautomobileexhaust
Furthermore,thetests used toestimate gases remain serious and growing problems
these levels arenot necessarily conducted in some areas. Since the 1940s and 1950s,
on human subjects, but on animals under governments haveintroducedsignificant
laboratoryconditions.Thus,attemptsat volumes of anti-pollution legislation and set
establishing the levels of pollution that the standards for air and water quality. Success
environmentorelements o f theenviron- has been mixed, however, and as pollution
mentcanwithstandhavemetwlth only problems become increasinglyglobal in
limitedsuccess.
It is increasingly clear, scope,internationalco-operationbecomes
however, that human actlvities are adding essential. The successful implementation of
contaminants to the environment at rates theprovisions of theMontrealProtocol
whicheasilyexceeditsability tocope. showsthatco-operationcanwork,but
Pollution takes many forms, most of which differences in national economicand
startedaslocalproblems,butwhichare politicalagendascreatethepotentialfor
now global in extent. Even in the Arctic, far ongoing problems.
removedfromindustrial actlvity, airpol-
lution is present in the form o f Arctic Haze, See also
and oil slicks can be found in the middle of Acid ram, Air quality, Atmospheric turbidity,
the world’s oceans. Some o f the pollutants, Bhopal,Chernobyl,Clean a i r legislation, l h s t
veil Index, Eutrophication,
Fumigation,
suchas
human sewage or
smoke, are Greenhouse gases,Incincratmn,
Lcachate,
obvious,whereasothers,suchasradio- Livestock waste, Love Canal, Noise abatement,
activeemissions,toxicgases or chemicals Nuclear
waste,
Oil
pollution,
Oil tanker
dissolved in water are invisible and may not accidents, Oxygcn sag curve, Photochemical
131 EPILIMNION

smog, Preclpitatlon scavenging, Scrubbers, Soot,
Tall stacks policy.
Further reading
Costello, M.J. and <;amble, J.C. (1992) ‘Effects
of sewagesludge on marme fish embryos and
larvae’, Marine Erruironnrental Research 33: 49-
74.
Freedman, K. ( 1995) Enurronnrentczl ECCJlOgy:
The Ecological Effects of Pollutron, Dlsturbarzce
nnd other Stresses (2nd edition),San Diego, CA:
Academic Prcss.
Howard, R and Perky,M. (1991) Porsoned
Skies, Toronto: Stoddart.
Newson, M. (1992) ‘The gcography of
pollution', in M. Newson (ed.) Managitrg the
Human Impact on theNat~trrzl Enurrorrment:
Patterrrs and Processes, LondonlNew York:
Belhaven Prcss.
Turco, R. ( 1 997) Earth Under Siege: From Alr
Pollrrtron to Global Change, New York: Oxford
University Press.
Vatavuk, W. (1990) Estrmatrrzg Costs of Arr
Pollrttrotr Control, Chelsea, MI: Lcw~s.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION inlivingorganisms,through,forexample,

ACT (UK) their
ability initiate
to reactions,
that
normallyrequire
high
temperatures, at
Legislationenacted inBritainin 1990 to temperaturesthatcan be tolerated by the
improve the control over the pollutionof air, organisms. Enzymes also assist in the micro-
landandwater. It promotedanintegrated biologicalreactionsassociated
with
such
approach to pollution in which the environ- processes as decay andfermentation,and
mentalimpacts of majoremissions to air, have been developed commercially for use in
land
andwater
are
considered in com- the food and drug industries. Pollution can
bination rather than individually. It requires destroy or impair the functions of enzymes by
the use of the best available techniques not causing chemical o r physical changes in their
entailing excessive costs to be used in protein. The enzymes are then no longer able
controlling emissions. toinitiateessentialreactions, cellsdie and
living organisms are damaged or destroyed.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
Further reading
AGENCY(EPA)
Alters, S. (1996) Biolog:UnderstandingLife, St
Louis: Mosby.
US agency established In 1970 to co-ordinate Dugas, H. (1995) Bioorgatrrc Chernlstry: A
government action on environmental issues, Chemrcal Approach to Enzyme Actron (3rd
and thus it is involved in the establishment, edition), New York: Sprmger-Vcrlag.
monitoring andenforcement of environ-
mental standards. It engages in research and EPICENTRE
supports environmental protection activities
at the state and local level.In thepastthe See earthquake.
agencyhas beencriticizedforlaxenforce-
ment of regulations and beingpolitically EPILIMNION
motivated in its decision making.
Thesurfacelayer of warmerwater lying
See also abovethethermocline in alake. It is best
Superfund. developed in the summer months when solar
radiation levels are higher andwindand
ENZYME wave action help to distribute the available
energy.Temperaturechangesandthecon-
A protein produced by living cells that acts as sequent vertical movement or overturning of
catalyst
a in organic
chemical
reactions. thelakewater in theautumndestroysthe
Enzymestend to be reaction specific,being layer, but it is re-establishedfollowingthe
involvedinonly one type of reaction or at overturning of thelakewatersagain in the
most only a limited range of reactions. They spring.
have an importantrole in metabolic processes
EPIPHYTE 132

Figure E-7 The temperature structureof a thick that it allows little lightto reach ground
level. Many of the trees, shallow rooted in
.:; .., . j.
.:..............
~
,
........
..,..
...... , ' . .-:.;:.
...,.,.,.,?' ;....:.... thin soils, are underpinned by buttresses. The
trees in turnsupportagreatvariety of
..i.....
C.' climbing plants and epiphytes that use the
:
.i. hypolimnion . ,....~ ~ ~ .
.:,..:. ._:.
., ...... trees to reach the sunnier conditions in the
:. .:. .....>+'
,
........
...........
.. .............................
..:..'.'., .
:
........ :...... .:..: ....... upper levels of theforest.Therainforest
See also vegetation is typically stratified, consisting of
Hypolimnion, Lake stratification. as many as five layers from the forest canopy
to the forest floor. The greatest amount of
EPIPHYTE biomass is present in the tree layers that have
access to light, whereas, on the forest floor,
A plant whichis not rooted in the ground, but where little light penetrates, the vegetation is
lives upon or is attached to another plant. poorlydevelopedandwidelyspaced.With
Thehostplantprovides no nutrients,only the absence of seasons, the trees do not shed
support. Epiphytes are common in the tropi- their leaves at any particular time of year,
cal rainforest where plants such as orchids and, as a result, the forest is considered to be
are found perchedintreeswheretheycan evergreen. Because of the ideal
growing
have access to moresunlightthanatthe conditions and
the
rapid recycling of
surfaceand receive nutrientsandmoisture nutrients through the system, the equatorial
from the canopy above. The host tree appears rainforest is biologically very productive and
to obtain no benefits from the relationship, is claimed (although not without dispute) to
but is unharmed by thepresence of the have the greatest abundance and diversity of
epiphyte. plants and animals of any of the terrestrial
biomes. Many commerciallyimportanttree
Further reading species such as ebony, teak, mahogany and
Fitter, A. and Hay, R. (1987) Environmental rubber grow there, while forest plants also
Physiology of Plants (2nd edition), London: provide a wide range of raw materials that
Academic Press. can be processed into pharmaceuticals. Like
all tropical forests, the equatorial rainforest is
under increasing pressure from development.
EPOCH In Asia, for example, high value hardwoods
such as teak are being overharvested, while in
Asubdivision of one of the major periods Brazil the forest is being cleared at a rate of
into which the geological historyof the earth 10,000 km2peryeartoprovidelandfor
is divided. The Pleistocene andHolocene agricultural or industrial development.
epochs, for example, are subdivisions of the AccordingtoFriends of theEarth,such
Quaternary period. destruction is responsible for the extinction
of more than 8000 rainforestspecies every
EQUATORIAL RAINFOREST year. Diverse as the rainforest flora and fauna
may be, they cannotcontinue to undergo
One of the world's major biomes. Equatorial suchstresswithoutseriousenvironmental
rainforests are located in a zone some 10"N effects. Additional impacts include changesto
and S of theequator,mainly in Amazonia, temperatureandmoisture regimes,reduced
equatorial west and centralAfrica and south- soilfertility and soilerosionwhichensure
eastAsia, all of whichexperienceheavy thatoncetheforest is destroyed it is very
precipitation (1750-2500 mm)and high, difficult to re-establish. On aglobalscale,
fairly constant temperatures (25-28°C) rainforestdestructionhas beenlinked to
through the year. Such hot, moist conditions globalwarming. Clearing
the
forest by
encourage rapid and abundant plant growth, burning introduces additional carbon dioxide
withthetallesttreesexceeding 30 m in (CO,) into the atmosphere, while the removal
height, and supporting a canopy sufficiently of the vegetation reduces photosynthesis and
133 EROSION

therefore the recycling of the gas. As a result, model is allowed to run until a new equili-
destruction of the equatorial rainforest is the brium is established. The new model climate
second largest causeof increased atmospheric canthen be comparedwiththeoriginal to
CO,, whichcontributestotheprogressive establish the overall impactof the change.
enhancement of the greenhouse effect. Clearly
the threat to the rainforest is serious and has See also
implications that extend beyond the tropics, Transient models.
but attempts to improve the situation through
such approaches as sustainable development, EQUINOX
bans on logging and mining and the creation
of forest reserves have as yet had only limited The timea t which the sunis directly overhead
impact. atthe equator. It occurstwicea year, on
21 Marchand 23 September,asthesun
See also (apparently)travelsbetweentheTropics of
Extinction, Statement of Forest Principles. Cancer and Capricorn. Although the earth's
axis is tilted at 23.5" from the vertical, at the
Further reading equinox it is neither tilted towards the sun
Cunningham, W.P. and
Saigo, B.W. (1990)
Envrronmental
Science:
Global
A Concern, nor
away
from it, and
the
circle of
Dubuque, IA: Wm C. Brown. illumination passes through both poles. As a
Friends of the Earth (1989) Rainforests:Protect result, day and night areof equal length at all
Them, London: Friends of the Earth. latitudes.
Park, C.C. (1992) TroprcalRarnforests, London:
Routledge. Figure E-8 The relative positions and
Place, S.E. (1993) Tropical
Rainforests:
Latin
American
Nature
and Socrety in Transrtron, orientations of the earth and sun at the
Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources. solstices and equinoxes
Whitmore, T.C. (1990) A n Introductron to
TroprcalRarnforests, Oxford:OxfordUniverslty spring
Press. equinox

EQUILIBRIUM

A conceptoftenapplied in environmental summer

studies, it implies a state of balance among
theindividualcomponents of aparticular
environment. It may also be applied to the
wholeearth/atmospheresystem. If equili-
brium is achieved, the systemis said to be in a
steadystate.Thisdoesnotmeanthatthe
system is static. The balance is achieved
throughmutualadjustments, reflected
in
positive or negative feedbacks, for example,
among the various elements in the environ-
ment.
See also
Dynamic equilibrlum, Environmentalequilibrium.
EQUILIBRIUM MODELS
A form of general circulation model (GCM).
Change is introducedintoamodelrepre-
senting existing climate conditions, and the
solstice
autumnal
equinox
See also
Precession of the equinoxes, Solstice.
EROSION
The wearing away of the earth's land surface
by suchprocessesasweathering,solution,
abrasion, corrosion and transportation. The
mechanisms involved include gravity, wind,
waterand ice. Eachcreatescharacteristic
landforms and variesin importance with time
and place. During the Pleistocene epoch, for
example, ice (glacialerosion)replacedrun-
ning water (fluvial erosion) as the dominant
ESTER
form of erosion in manynorthernareas.
Rocktypecan also be important.Uncon-
solidatedsandsandgravelaremore easily
eroded than solid granite, while rocks such as
limestone are worn down by chemical pro-
cesses such as corrosion and solution rather
than by the direct physical impact of abrasion.
Although erosion is entirely natural, it can be
deliberately or inadvertentlyenhancedor
reduced by human activities. Poor cultivation
practices or the removalof vegetatlon in hilly
areascontribute to increasedsoilerosion;
interference with the hydrology of an area -
by building a dam, for example- can alter the
rate
and
nature of fluvial
erosion. Less
directly, acid rain can contribute to increased
erosion inlimestoneareas.Measuresfor
combating erosion vary with the mechanisms
involved, but include such activities as slope
stabilization,streamchannelmodification
andcoastalprotectionusingseawallsand
breakwaters.
See also
Denudation.
Further reading
Ritter, D.F., Kochel, R.C. and Miller, J.R. (1995)
Process Geomorphology, Dubuque, IA: Wm C.
Brown.
Thornes, J.B. (ed) (1995) Vegetatrotz and Erosrorz:
Processes arzd Envrrorzmerrts, ChichesterlNew
York: Wiley.
ESTER
An organic compound that is the equivalent
of thesalt of aninorganicacid,produced
whenthehydrogen in theorganicacid is
replaced by anorganicgroup. Aceticacid
(CH,COOH), for example, becomes the ethyl
ester, ethyl acetate (CH,COOC,H,) when the
hydrogen (H) in its carboxyl group (COOH)
is replaced by the ethyl group (C,H,). Esters
areimportantcommercialchemicals,being
present in manyanimalfatsand oils, and
some are used as flavouring essences because
of their pleasant smells.
Further reading
Solomons, T.W.G.( 1992) Orgmrtc Chenzrstry (5th
edition), New York: Wiley.
134
ETHANOL
Ethyl alcohol(C,H,OH).One of themost
common alcohols-, traditionally produced by
thefermentation of thenaturalsugars in
grainandfruit,andthe base formany
alcoholic beverages. In industry, whereit is in
demand as a solvent, most ethanol is produced
through the hydrolysis of ethene (ethylene),a
gas derived from petroleum.In Brazil and the
UnitedStates,ethanolproduced by thefer-
mentation of sugarcanewasteandgrain
respectively has been used as a vehicle fuel,
usually in the formof gasohol, a combination
of gasoline and ethanol.
Further reading
World Bank
(1980) Alcohol Prodzrctzorz from
Biomass ttz the Developing Cozrrztrres, Washington,
I X : World Bank.
EUROPEAN ARCTIC
STRATOSPHERIC OZONE
EXPERIMENT (EASOE)
An experiment undertaken during the north-
ern winter of 1991-1992, using ground meas-
urements; balloons, aircraft and a variety of
modelling techniques to establish the nature
and extentof ozone depletion over the Arctic.
Further reading
Pyle, J. (1991) ‘Closing In on Arctlc ozone’, N e w
Screntrst 132 ( 1794): 49-52,
EUSTASY
Theconsideration of sea-level change on a
worldwide scale. In recent geological time the
major eustatic changes have been associated
with the glaciations of the Quaternary era.
These
glacio-eustaticchanges
involved a
lowering of sea levelduring glacial periods,as
more water was retained on landin the form
of ice, and a rising sealevel duringinter-
glacials as the ice melted and the water was
returned to the ocean basins. Estimates of the
decline in sea level at various glacial maxima
range from 85 m to 120 m below current sea
level, whereasduringtheinterglacials sea
levels rose again, perhaps exceeding current
levelsby a few metres. In postglacial times,
during the climatic optimum (hypsithermal),
135 EUTROPHICATION

sealevel wasperhaps6mhigherthan at eutrophic

lakescloudy 111 nature.
Lakes
present. In northern latitudes, the question of usually become eutrophic with agc as nutri-
custatic sea-level changes during glaciations, ents
accumulate,
but
the
addition of
interglacials and in postglacial times is pollutantssuchassewage,phosphatesand
complicated by isostaticmovements of the agricultural
fertilizers
can
speed
up
the
earth’s crust. It is difficult to obtain accurate process.
values o f eustaticchangeundersuchcon-
ditions,
and
most
estimateshave been See also
obtaincd from observationsIn lower latitudes Eutrophication, Oligotrophic lakes.
well awayfromthedirect effects of ice.
Although glacial variations have caused the EUTROPHICATION
greatest eustatic changes, other factors, such
as tectonic changes, which alter the shape and Thenaturalageing o f awaterbodychar-
capacity of theoceanbasins,alsohavethe acterized by increasing levels of dissolved
potential to contribute.Achange in temp- nutrients in the water.
These in turn
erature of sea water could also causesea level encourage the growth of aquatic plants often
to rise. An increasein 1°C of themean in the form of algal blooms. Eutrophication
temperature of the oceans
would cause also occurs in coastal sea areas,where‘red
sufficientexpansion of thewatertobring tides’ are an indication of a rapid increase in
about a rise in sea level of perhaps as much as local nutrient levels. When the plantsbegin to
60 cm. Recent concern with global warming die, the increasein bacterial activity raises the
has drawnattentiontothisfact.Glacio- biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), and so
eustaticchange is also a potential con- the
waterbecomes deoxygenated. Eutro-
sequence of global warming. The increase in phication is a natural process, but it has been
the melting of glaciers and ice-caps following accelerated by human activitieswhichadd
a n estimated increase of 8°C in high latitudes suchproductsassewage,agricultural fer-
has the potentialto cause a measurablerise in tilizers anddetergents to thewaterbodies.
sea level. In the extreme case of temperature The additional nitrogen ( N ) and phosphorus
increases sufficiently great to cause complete (P) fromsucheffluentsencouragesplant
melting of the Greenland and Antarctic ice growth. The introduction of phosphate-free
sheets, sea level might increase by some 60 m. detergentsandtheimprovement of sewage
treatment facilities has slowed eutrophication
See also in some areas. In the late 1960s and 1970s,
Isostasy. for example, Lake Erie in North America was
in astate of advancedeutrophicationthat
Further reading many environmentalistsconsidered to be
Dott, 1C.H. (ed.)(1992) Elrstasy: The Historrcd
U p s [Itrd Dowtzs of LI M a p r Geologrcal Concept, irreversible. In places it was covered by great
Boulder, CO: Geological Soclety of America. mats of floating algae,
andstretches of
Flint, 1I.F. (1971) Glrzrlal and Qlrutermzry shorelinewerecontaminated by masses o f
Geology, New York: Wiley. rottingplantmaterial. Since then,effluent
WC<: ( 1996) Climate Chrlrrge 19Y.5: The Scrence of
Climate Change, Cambridge: (:ambridge control has reduced the problemsignificantly.
Universlty Press. Eutrophication remains a major concern in
Morner, N.A. (1980)Earth Rheology, Isostasy urrd many areas, however, including enclosed seas
Etrstnsy, N K WYork: Wilcy. such as the Mediterranean, which are more
Ritter, D.F., Kochel, R.C. and Miller, J.R. (1995) susceptible to theproblemthantheopen
Process Geonrorl,ho/og)~,Dubuque, IA: Wm C.
Brown ocean.

EUTROPHIC (LAKES) Further reading

Ashworth, W. (1986) The Late, Great Ldkes: An
Etrvrro?rnre?rta/ History, NKW York: Alfred A.
Water bodies that havc a high concentration Knopf.
of nutrients and are high in organic product- l’earce, F. ( 199.5) ‘Dead in the water’, New Scientrst
ivity. High organic levels also tend to make 145 ( 1963): 26-3 I .
EVAPORATION 136
EVAPORATION low relative humidities
encourage high
evaporation rates thereis insufficient moisture
The process of vaporization by which a liquid and actual evaporation is restricted. Rates are
is converted into a gas or vapour. This change also high over the Gulf Stream in the western
in staterequirestheabsorption of energy AtlanticOceanandoverthe Kuro Siwo
normally supplied by the adjacent environ- current in the Pacific, particularly when dry
ment - for example, from a hot surface, or continental airmoves out over theoceans. The
from the surrounding air. Once the change accurate measurement of evaporation is not
hastakenplace,theabsorbedenergy iseasy. Instrumentssuchasevaporatingpans,
retained by the vapour in the form of latent which provide evaporation rates from an open
heat.Whentheprocess is reversed and the water surface, and atmometers, which provide
vapour is condensed back into a liquid, the evaporationratesfromasaturated,porous
latent heatis released into the environment in surface,present
information on potential
the form of sensible heat. Evaporation has a ratherthanactualevaporation, since the
role in several major processes in the earth/ supply of moisture is not limited.
atmosphere system. It is an integral part of Comparisonswithothervariablessuchas
the hydrological cycle, for example, initiating precipitationand soil moistureavailability
the recycling process which involves both the allow
actual
evaporationrates to be
physical redistribution and the cleansing of calculated. Formulae have been developed for
the system’s water supply. estimating evaporation from such variables as
Evaporation also contributes to the earth’s precipitation,
drainage,
runoff
and soil
energybudget, by helping to redistribute moisture storage (water budget approach) or
energywithin theatmosphere.Theenergy from durationof sunshine, air temperature, air
from solar radiation used to evaporate water humidityandwindspeed(energybudged
in the tropics is retained by water vapour in aerodynamic approach), but all contain
theform of latentheat. If thatvapour is potential sources of error, usually in the form
carriedintohigherlatitudes, it carriesthe of data reliability.
latent heat with it, to be released as sensible
heat if condensation takes place.
Similar Further reading
conditions also develop in frontalsystems, and Barry, R.G. and Chorley, R.J. (1992) Atmos-
the net result is a redistribution of energy in phere,WeatherandClimate (6thedition),
environment.
the which
The
rate
at London: Routledge.
evaporationtakes place depends upon Monteith, J.L. (1981) ‘Evaporation and sur-
moisture availability, temperature, humidity and face temperature’, Quarterly Journal of the
air movement. If no moisture is available, no Royal Meteorological Society 107: 1-27.
evaporation will take place. If moisture is
available,however,acombination of high EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
temperatures, low relative
humiditiesand
strong
winds will producemaximum Thetransfer of waterfromtheterrestrial
evaporation. Under calm conditions, the evapor- environment into the atmosphere, combining
ation rate will decline with time, as the input evaporation fromthe
land
surfacewith
of water vapour into the atmosphereincreases transpiration from plants. A division is com-
the relative humidity. Air movement helps to monlymadeinto
actual
and
potential
maintain a high evaporation by replacing the evapotranspiration.Theformerrepresents
saturatedairwithdrierairthatcanabsorb measurableevapotranspiration,
and is
more moisture. The greatest annual evaporation limited by the availability of water - once the
rates occur over the tropical oceans. Rates are availablewaterhas beenused up n o more
also high over thecontinents in
tropical evapotranspiration can take place - whereas
regions, wheremoisture is available. More the latter is an artificial value based on the
evaporation takesplace over the rainforest, for assumption that there are no restrictions on
example, than over the tropical deserts.In the theavailability of water. It representsthe
lattercase,although high temperaturesand environment’s capacity for evapotranspiration.
137 EXPONENTIAL GROWTH

The difference between actual and potential environment. In thisnaturalselectionpro-

evapotranspiration is a measure of the water cess, onlythefittestsurvived.Thosethat
deficitin an area. Evapotranspiration is an could not adapt to a particular environment
important element in waterbudgetstudies, o r to a changeintheenvironmentfaced
where, for example, it is usedin the calcu- ultimate
extinction. In some cases,
co-
lation of irrigation requirements. evolution, in whichtheevolution of one
organism was intimately tiedt o the evolution
See also of another,was recognized.Evolutionary
Moisture deficit, Moisture surplus, Thornthwaite, concepts have become widely accepted and
C.W. supported by findings in palaeontology and
genetics research which were not available to
Further reading Darwin. In some quarters, however, the
Kovacs, G. (1987) ‘Estimation of averageareal
evapotranspiration’, journalofHydrology 95: controversy between evolution and creation-
227-40. ism continues.
Oke, T. (1987) BoundaryLayerClimates (2nd
editlon), London: Routledge. Further reading
Cherfas,J.(ed.) (1982) Darwm U p toDate,
EVOLUTION London: New Science Publications.
Darwin,C. (1859) On the Orrgrn o f Spectes by
Means of Natural Selection,London: John Murray.
The conceptof gradual, cumulative change. It Gish, D.T. (1979) Evolutron, The Fossils Say No
can be applied to organisms,objectsand (3rd edition), San Diego: Creatlon-Life Publishers.
ideas. The concept is commonlyassociated Margulis, L. andOlendzenski, L. (eds) (1992)
EnvrronmentalEvolution:Effects of theOrigin
with Charles Darwin, but it owes its initial and Evolutron of Life onPlanet Earth, Cambridge,
development to the workof Jean Baptiste de MA: MIT Press.
Lamarckonchangesin speciesinthelate Schneider, S.H. and Londer, R.S. (1984) The
eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. His Coevolutron of Climate and Life, San Francisco,
ideas were further developed by the geologist CA: Sierra Club.
Charles Lyell, who first recognized the roleof
gradual change (as opposed to catastrophic EXFOLIATION
change) in the physical
environment. It
continuestohave a roleinexplainingthe A form of mechanical weathering in which
development of landforms, such as hillslopes, the surface layers of a rock are peeled off in
or the patterns associated withriver systems, layers,
sometimes
referred
as
to
‘onion
for example, but it is recognized that rapid weathering’,since, on spheroidalrocks,the
change initiated by tectonic activity o r severe peelingtakestheform of concentric shells.
storms cannot be ignored. In the atmospheric Exfoliation may be caused by repeated expan-
environment, many of the models developed sion and contraction of the rock as a result of
to studyandpredictchangearebasedon heatingandcoolingor by pressurerelease
evolutionaryconcepts, in that theyinvolve following the removal of the overlying material
the introductionof relatively small changes to by erosion. In some cases, exfoliation may be
the system which are allowed to accumulate the result of chemical weathering when the
over a given period of time or until a specific absorption of water causes minerals to swell
condition has been realized. The concept has andcreatesenoughpressure to loosenthe
achieved
its
widest
development in the layers.
biological sciences, based mainly on the ideas
of Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in the EXPONENTIAL GROWTH
mid-nineteenthcentury. In theirtheory of
evolution, all organisms were descended from Change in whichgrowth is cumulative, as
commonancestors,
with
the
resultant illustrated by the concept of compound
variations brought about by the survival of interest. In that case,theinterestwhich
species or groups of individualswithin accrues over a fixed period of time, such as a
species that were best suited to a particular year, is added to the original sum (principal)
EXTINCTION 138
Figure E-9 A graph to illustrate the concept EXTINCTION
of exponential growth
Theelimination of all individuals in a
1200
particular species. The species is effectively
1000 removedfromtheearth/atmospheresystem
800 andcannot be replaced.Extinction is a
600 natural process brought about, for example,
400
by theinability of a species to copewith
changingenvironmentalconditionsorwith
200
increased competition from another species.
0 It is also partof the Darwinian conceptof the
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 ‘survival of thefittest’, in which organisms
time that adapt to change survive, whereas those
and interest during the second year is calcu- that do not adaptbecome extinct. Perhaps as
lated on theprincipal plus thefirst year’s many as 98 per cent of the species that ever
interest.Althoughtherate of increase (as existed on eartharenowextinct,although
indicated by the interest rate) may remain the many of these are now represented by their
same,the
amount received as interest descendants. The modern horse (Equus), for
increases every year. In environmental studies, example, is a descendant of the ‘dawn horse’
exponentialgrowthappliesparticularlyto (Eohippus)whichbecameextinctsome 40
population. If the offspring in a population millionyears ago. Massextinctionspunc-
produce at the same rateas their parents, the tuate the environmental history of the earth,
population will grow exponentially. If a withsome,such as theelimination of the
woman gives birthtotwodaughters,for dinosaurs at the end of the Cretaceous, giving
example, and each of these daughters gives rise to much speculation. Despite these periods
birth to two daughters, at the third generation of more rapid extinction, natural extinction
there will be four daughters descended from rates are much slower than modern figures
the original mother. After four generations, whichareinflated as a result of human
herfemaledescendants will numbereight, activities. The currentextinctionrate is
andafter five generations will number estimated to beas much as 1000 times thatof
sixteen. Such a sequence of numbers - 1 , 2 , 4 , the average natural rate, and the total poolof
8, 16, 32,etc. - illustratesexponential some29 to 30 million species is being
growth (or geometric growth as it was once depleted ata rate that may exceed 40,000per
called) and when plotted on a graph, forms a year. The accelerated extinction of plant and
curvethatbecomessteeper as the sequence animalspecies is broughtabout by such
progresses. Exponential growthof this type is activities as habitatalteration,commercial
common at some time in the development of and sports hunting and fishing, introduction
all organisms, and continues until the popu- of new species and attempts at predator and
lation reaches some degree of stability as it pestcontrol. As a result,manyspeciesare
approaches the
carrying
capacity of the now
endangered
face
imminent
and
environment. In some cases, however, especially extinction. Animals such as whales, big cats
among small organisms such as bacteria, the and pandas receive most attention, but many
population exceeds the carrying capacity of insects and plants are also threatened. Since
the environment and crashes. Malthus com- plants are a t the base of all food chains, their
pared the exponential (geometric) growth - increasinglyrapidextinctionmay in turn
1, 2 , 4 , S, 16, 32, etc. - of the world’s human threatenotherorganisms.Not all human-
population with the arithmetic growth - 1,2, induced extinctions are necessarily bad - the
3, 4, 5 , 6, etc. - of its food resources and elimination of the smallpoxvirus,
for
predicted that its population would crash. example, was beneficial - but the current rate
is increasingly
consideredunacceptable.
See also Much more attention to the conservation of
Overpopulation. species and the maintenanceof biodiversity is
139 EXXON

requircd, however, if thetrend is to be seen as bringing a species one step closer to

reverscd. extinction.

See also EXXON VALDEZ

Darwln, C.II., Endangered
species,
Evolution,
Extirpation. Atankerwhichranaground on a reef i n
PrinceWilliamSound,Alaska in March
Further reading
Chiras, D.D. [ 1991) E~tvrro~~mentnl Scmtce, Red- 1989, spilling some 38,000 tonnesof Alaskan
wood City, CA: Benjarn~n/Cummings. crude oil, and ultimately contaminating
Stanley,S.M. (cd.) (1987) Extructron, New York: nearly 1000 km of coastline. Parks, wildlife
Scientific American. refuges,criticalhabitatareasandagame
Stiling, PD. (1 992)Zrrtrodrrctory Ecology, Engle-
wood Cliffs, NJ: Prcnt~cc-Hall. sanctuarywereamongtheaffectedareas.
Initial responses involved containing thespill,
EXTIRPATION skimming oil from the water, rescuing oiled
wildlife and protecting salmon hatcheries in
The elimination of a species from a specific the
area.
Exxon,owner of thetanker,
area as a result of such factors as environ- employed several thousand workers to clear
mental change, over-predation or disease. It is the shoreline, using a variety of techniques,
less serious than extinction, since members of including manual removal of the oil, cleaning
the species survive in other areas and may be of rocks by hand,highpressure,hotwater
reintroducednaturallyor by humaninter- washing and bioremediation. Large amounts
vention if theconditionsthat led totheir of oil remained along the coast at the end of
initial
elimination
change. For example, the1989season,andclean-upworkwas
wolves thathad been wiped out in necessaryinsomeareasaslateas1994.A
YellowstoneNationalPark in thewestern majorsurvey of thearea in 1995found
United States were reintroduced in the form residual contammation in a numberof places,
of breeding pairs capturedin a similar habitat but also found wildlife in all stages of
in Canada. In some cases, extirpation may be recovery. Bald eagles appeared to have

Figure E - I O The spread of oil following the Exxon Valdez grounding

EXXON
recovered fully, some waterfowl were on the
way to recovery, but had not reached pre-spill
populations,whileotherslikethe Pacific
herring
were in significantdecline. The
monitoring and research, which is likely to
continue for someyears, has already provided a
better understanding of the most appropriate
techniques for the clean-up of oil spills in a
fragile northern environment.
VALDEZ 140
See also
Oil tankers, Trans-Alaska pipeline.
Further reading
Davldson, A. (1990) In the Wake of the Exxon
Valdez: The Devastating Impact of the Alaska Oil
Spill, San Francisco: Sierra Club Books.
Keeble, J. (1991) O u t o f t h e Channel: The Exxon
ValdezOil Spill t n Prince WilliamSound, New
York: HarperCollins.
FAHRENHEIT SCALE centimetres. The term 'radioactive fallout' is
usedinreference to radioactiveparticles
A scale developed by Gabriel Daniel Fahren- released into
the
atmosphere by nuclear
heit (1686-1736) in which the melting point explosions.
of ice is set at 32" and the boiling point of
water under standard atmospheric pressure is See also
Atmosphericturbidity,Atomicbomb,Therrno-
212". Although still used in some countries, nuclear device.
such as the United States,in popular weather
reporting and forecasting, it is generally no Further reading
longer in scientific use, having been replaced Chester, D.K. (1993) Volcanoes and Society,
by the Celsius scale. Conversion between the LondodNew York: E. ArnoldlRoutledge, Chapman
two scales can be achieved using the follow- and Hall.
ing formulae: OECD.Nuclear Enerrrv Arrencv 11987) The
Radiologrcal Impact of &e Cb&nobyl Accident on
"F = 32 + 9/S"C OECD Countries, Pans:NuclearEnergyAgency
(OECD).
"C = 5/9("F - 32)

See also
FALLOW
Kelvin.
Arable
land left
untilled o r tilled, but
FALLOUT unsown,foraseason.Fallow is anormal
component of crop rotations in arable
The depositionof particulate matter from the agriculture,allowingtheland to rest and
atmosphere on to the earth's surface. Fallout recover from the effects of cropping. It is also
may take place rapidly and near the source of common in areas wheredryfarming is
theparticles,particularly if thematerial is practised. There the land may be tilled, but
large and released close to the surface. Finer left withoutacropforseveralyearsto
particlesreleased or pushedhighintothe provide a reservoir for precipitation, allow-
atmosphere may
remain
suspendedfor ing soil moisture levels to rise.
several years before returning to the surface
as fallout. The particle size and quantity of
materials involved is quite variable. The dry
deposition of acidparticles,forexample, Acute food shortage leading to widespread
includesminutechemicalparticlesthatare starvation. It is usually associated with large
unlikely to accumulate in sufficient quantity scale natural disasters such as drought, flood
to be obvious at the earth's surface, whereas or plant disease which produce crop failure
major volcanic eruptions, such as those of M t anddisruption of food supply. Faminehas
St HelensandPinatubo,areoftenaccom- beena recurringproblem inAfrica in the
panied by fallout of large ash fragments that second half of the twentieth
century.
accumulate locally todepths of tens of Drought-induced famine killed thousands of
F A M I N EE A R L YW A R N I N GS Y S T E M 142

Figure F - l The distribution of famine in Further reading

Africa CanadianInternatlonal
Ikvelop~nent Agency
( 1 985) Food Crrsrs r n Afrrcu, Hull, Quebec: CIDA.
Jowett,J. (1989) ‘Chlna:thepopulation of the
I’eoplc’~ Republic’,SAGTjourrral 18: 38-49.
Kemp, D.D. (1994),Glohnl Etrvrrotzme?ztal Issues:
A Clinzato/ogrcul Approach,(2nd edition) London/
New York: Routledge.
Parry, M.L.. (1978) Clinme Chunge, Agricrrlture
and Sett/eme?zt, Folkestone: Dawson.

FAMINE EARLY WARNING

SYSTEM (FEWS)

An informationsystemfunded byUSAID
aimed at forecasting famine in sub-Saharan
Africa.Usingremotelysensed andground-
based data on such factors as drought and
crop health, specialists provide forecasts of
potential food availability. The provision of
W pre-harvest crop assessments allows warnings
of potential famine to be issued where neces-
sary. FEWS warnings are used in assessing aid
people in the Sahel between 1968 and 1973,
to countries at risk from famine.
forexample,and in Ethiopia in theearly
1980s, a food supply already decimated by
drought and locusts, was further reduced by FAUNA
civil warand politicaldissension,putting
more than 3 million people a t risk of The animal life characteristic of a particular
starvation.Perhapsthegreatestfamine of biome. The savanna biome, for example, sup-
recent times was that in China between 1958 ports large populationsof herbivores, such as
and 1962, when a combination of drought wildebeest,
antelope
andkangaroo,
and
and problems associated with the collectiv- predators in theform of lions,cheetahs,
ization of agriculture led to widespread hyenas or dingoes that prey on them. Any
harvestfailure.Overthatfour-yearperiod, change in biome,
a whether
natural
or
Chinasuffered 25-30 millionmoredeaths human-induced, has the potential to alter the
than might have been expected under normal associated fauna.
conditions.Famine also appears with some
regularity in the history of Europe. The Irish Further reading
potatofamine of the 1840s, which led to Cole, M.M. (1986) The Suvatrnus, San Diego:
Academic Press.
death or emigrationformillions of people,
was caused by plant disease. Even earlier, in
theseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies, FEEDBACK
famineswererecorded in Scotland,Scan-
dinaviaand
Iceland,
apparentlybrought Occurs in integrated systems where changein
about by the deteriorating climatic conditions onepart of a systemwillinitiatechange
associatedwiththeLittleIce Age. Despite elsewhere in the system. The feedback maybe
improved technology,conditions such as direct, involving only two elements, orit may
drought, disease and social unrest, which have be looped involving one or more additional
contributed to famine in the past, remain, and variables. The change may befed back into
famine is therefore likely to continue torecur. thesystem in suchaway as to diminish
(negativefeedback)
or
augment(positive
See also feedback) the effects of the original change.
Desertification, Natural hazard. Negativefeedbacks
are
common in the
143 FEN

Figure F-2 Feedback and the maintenance of homeostasis in humans

vasodilation vasoconstriction
reduces heat gain
(loss) @eatgain) reduces heat loss
by increasing by restricfiing
Mood flow to skin Mood flow toskin
L

perspiration shivering
reduces heat gain increases heat
through evaporative production through
(heat) (heatgain) muswlar actMly

environment, where they act as a form of self- positive feedback to augment the initial rise
regulation.
The
ability of mammals to in temperature. Withtime, however, the
maintainanearconstantorsteadybody rising water vapour would condense, leading
temperature - a condition called homeostasis to increasedcloudiness. Thecloudswould
- forexample,dependsupon
negative reduce the amount of radiation reaching the
feedback.Positivefeedback is illustrated by earth’s
surface
and
therefore
cause a
therelationshipbetweentemperatureand temperature reduction - a negative feedback
albedo
represented by snow cover. A - which might moderate the initial increase.
lowering of temperatures at
the
earth’s Suchcomplexitiesadd to the difficulties of
surface would allow the persistence o f snow creating models that represent the workings
coverbeyondthenormalseason.This, in of the earthhtmosphere system accurately.
turn,wouldincreasetheamount of solar
radiation reflectedback intospace,causing See also
surfacetemperatures to fall evenmore and Autovariations, General circulatwn models.
encouraging snow to remain even longer. The
relationship between temperature and albedo Further reading
Chorley,R.J.andKennedy, B.A. (1971) Physrcal
through solar radiation is an example of a G ~ o g r ~ p l ~ Ay : Systems Approach, London:
looped feedback. Many feedbacks are much Prentice-Hall International.
morecomplexthanrepresented by these Washington,W.M.andParkinson, C L . (1986)
examples,andthiscausesdifficultieswhen IntrodLtctlofz t o T h r e e Dznte?tsro~zal Clinmtc
environmental relationshipsareexamined Modelling, Mill Valley, CA:UniversnyScience
Hooks.
through m o d e h g . I n thestudy of climate Cushach, U. and Cess, K.D. (1990) ‘Proccsses and
change, for example, the feedbacks maybe so modelling’, in J.T. Houghton, C.J. Jenkins andJ.J.
intimatelyinterwoven that
their
ultimate Ephraums (eds)
Climate Chatrge: The lPCC
environmentalimpactcan be difficult to Screntific Assessnzettt, Cambridge: Cambridge
Universlty I’ress.
assess. The highertemperaturesassociated
with an intensified greenhouse effect would
bring about more evaporation fromthe
earth’s surface. Since water vapour is a very
effective greenhouse gas, this would create a See peat/peatlands.
 FERMENTATION 144

FERMENTATION FERREL’S LAW

The chemicalbreakdown of carbohydrates Deduced by William Ferrel

in
the
mid-
by yeasts and bacteria through the action of nineteenth century, it states that moving airin
enzymes, usually under anaerobic conditions. the northern hemisphere is deflected to the
It includes lactic fermentation, which leadsto right of its path as a result of the Coriolis
theformation of lacticacid - a common effect. In the southern
hemisphere,
the
process in the production and preservationof deflection is to the left.
food - butit is mostoftenapplied to
alcoholic fermentation in which the actionof FERTILE CRESCENT
enzymes, such as zymase, on certain sugars
produces ethanol and releases carbon dioxide The name given to an arc of land stretching
(CO,). from the NileValley in Egypt, north along the
coast of the Mediterranean sea, east to the
Lactic fermentation valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates and south
C,H,,O, + 2CH,CH(OH)COOH to the head of the Persian Gulf. It includes the
acid lacticsugars modernnations of Egypt,Israel,Lebanon,
Syria,Iraqandpart of westernIran.The
Alcoholic fermentation climate is characterized by hot, dry summers
and mild, moderately wet winters. Precipit-
C,H,,O, = ZC,H,OH + 2 C 0 ,
ation is unreliable, however, and drought is
carbon
ethanol
sugars not
uncommon. Althougharguably
not
dioxide fertile by current standards, the availability
of water in themajorrivers of theregion
The production of ethanol through the fer- supported permanent agriculture and allow-
mentation of a variety of high carbohydrate ed
the
development of theworld’sfirst
crops
such as sugarcane,
sugarbeets, agriculturally based civilizations.
sorghum and corn (maize) has been suggested
as an environmentally appropriate means of See also
providing a substituteforpetroleum-based Agrarlan civilizations.
fuels. Projects have been developed in Brazil
and the United States using sugar cane and Further reading
Haberman, A. and Hundey, I. (1994)Cioilizatior~s:
corn respectively to produce automotive fuel. A CulturalAtlas, Aglncourt,
Ont:
Gage
The
technology is relatively
simple, but Educational Publishing.
productioncostsremainhigherthanfor Hughes, J.D. (1975) Ecology rrr Ancre??t
gasoline, and most of the alcohol produced Civilizatrorrs, Albuquerque:University o f New
through fermentation continues to be used in Mexico Press.
alcoholic beverages and as a solvent or chem-
ical raw material in industry. FERTILIZER

See also Any substanceadded to soil to provide a

Gasohol. source of nutrientsforplants.Theactive
components in all fertilizers are nitrogen (N),
Further reading phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) combined
Ward, O.P. ( 1989) Ferrnerrtatron Biotechrrology: in proportionsthatvaryaccording to such
Prrnciples, Processes and Products, Englewood factors as their source or the requirementsof
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
particularcrops.Otherchemicalssuchas
lime (CaCO,)may be added to the soil to
FERNAU GLACIATION improve its chemical composition or texture,
but
they
are
not
usually
regarded as
See Little Ice Age. fertilizers.Fertilizersaregroupedaccording
to origin into organic and inorganic forms,
145 FILTRATION

withthelattersometimesreferred to as Envrronment, New York: M. Dekker.

chemical or artificial fertilizers.
Organic Colwell, J.D. (1994) Estimatrng Fertilizer Require-
ments: A QuantitativeApproach, Wallingford:
forms
include
farmyardmanure
(the CAB Internatlonal.
combination of animalwastesandstraw), Smith, S.R. (1996) Agricultural Recycling of
green manure (growing crops such as grass Sewage Sludge and the Envrronment, Tucson, AZ:
and cloverploughedbackintothesoil), CAB International.
compost (decayed or decayingplantwaste)
and sewage sludge (treated urban sewage).In FIELD CAPACITY
China, raw human sewage - night soil - is
added directly to thesoil as a readily A measure of the amountof water retained in
available and effective fertilizer. Commercial a soil after excess moisture has drained away.
inorganicfertilizersareproducedwiththe When this conditionis attained, the voids and
constituentchemicals (N-P-K) combined in porespaces in thesoilareholdingthe
varying proportions accordingto the needs of maximum volume of water possible.
particular crops. A broad spectrum fertilizer
might be coded 10-10-10, for example, See also
meaning that it contained equal parts of all Soil moisture storage.
three chemicals, whereas one coded 5-20-20
would be used specifically for crops requiring FILTRATION
less nitrogen, but a higher proportion of both
phosphorus and
potassium. Theuse of The process by which unwanted substances
chemicalfertilizerssuch as thesehasoften areremovedfrom a fluidmedium - solids
been criticized by producers and consumers from a liquid or gas, for example. The results
of natural food products. They do provide are achieved by passing the fluid through a
essentialnutrients, however, andwithout filter consisting of a porous material such as
them worldwide foodproduction would paper,wovencloth,ceramics or sandin
decline
substantially.
Indeed,
the sharp whichtheporesare sufficientlysmall that
increaseinfoodproductionthataccom- onlyfluidscanpassthroughandlarger
paniedtheso-calledgreenrevolutionwas materialsare
retainedon
the filter.
In
directly linked to the increased availability of addition to such mechanical devices, filtering
nitrogen-rich fertilizers. Chemicalfertilizers can be accomplished very effectively by
are often easier to use and faster-acting than adsorption, in which particles
become
their organic equivalents, but they do have attached to the filter by physical or chemical
the disadvantage that theydo not add organic bonds. The adsorptive qualities of charcoal
matter to the soil.In contrast,farmyard make it a very efficient filter, for example. In
manure, compost and green manure not only some cases
filtration is achieved atthe
fertilize the soil but also help to improve its expense of the filter. A crushed lime (CaCO,)
structure by adding organic materials suchas filter, forexample, will removeacidgases
humus, which increasethe
water-holding such as sulphur dioxide (SO,) from flue gases,
capacity of the soil and reduce the potential but in the process it is converted to calcium
for erosion. Theexcessive or uncontrolled use sulphate(CaSO,).Filtration is one of the
of fertilizers, and the consequent washout of mostcommonand effective approaches to
soluble nitrates and phosphates from the soil, controlling the emissionof pollutants into the
lead
can to contamination
the of environment.
groundwater supplies or the eutrophication
of water bodies. See also
Scrubbers.
See also
Inorganic matter, Organlc compounds. Further reading
Cherernisinoff, P.N. ( 1995) Solids/Lrqurds Separ-
ation, Lancaster, PA: Technomlc Publishrng.
Further reading Orr, C . (ed.) (1979) Filtratron: Prfnciplesand
Bacon, P.E. ( 1995) Nitrogen Fertilization ~n tl7e Practices, New York: M. Dekker.
FIRE
-
C)ne of theresults of combustion,and a
nmjor force for change in the environment
hLost natural fires are caused by lightning.
PAthough seen in human terms as destruc-
tlive events, fires are an integral part of the
ecology of manyareas.Forestfires,for
e xample, help to
regeneratethe
forest
C ommunity by destroyingdeadordying
t rees andthose infestedwithdiseaseor
1’nsects. The resulting ash provides a ready
S upply of nutrients for the regrowth of new
\regetation after the fire. Some trees such as
1 ackpine,Douglas fir and lodgepolepine
alctuallybenefit from fires,becausetheir
S,eed cones will only open under the high
t emperaturesproduced by the fires. The
c:cology of tropicalandtemperategrass-
1ands also depends upon
the
regular
Iccurrence of fire. The firesburn off the
lead grass that accumulates at the end of
t.he growing season, encouraging the growth
(If new grass, and providing a renewed food
;upplyforthelocalfauna. Becausefires
t:end to be more destructive to trees than to
Ip u s , persistentfireswillhelp to prevent
1:he colonization of grasslands by trees, and
I[nayevenallowgrass to move into areas
which would normally support tree species. healthier,moreresilientforest,although
!Plantcommunities that
are
shaped by
periodic fires in this way are known as fire-
lclimax or pyroclimax communities, because
they areprevented by fire fromachieving
themix of speciesassociatedwith a true
climax community based on such factors as
soil and climate. The natural vegetation of
Mediterranean climateregionssuch
as
southern France and California is an example
of a pyroclimax community. Fire has been
used by societyformillions of years for
lighting,heatingandcooking.Primitive
societiesusedfire to clearlandforagri-
culture or to encourage the growth of new
grass to provide food for their animals. Fire
was also used directly in hunting t o drive
Igame animals into traps or into areas where budge: Cambridge Unlversrty Press.
1they could be more easily slaughtered. Used
- J
146
in this way, fire was one of the first mechan-
isms by which human beings brought about
major (if local) change to the environment.
Fire continues to be used to clear forests- in
the 1987 burningseason inBrazil, some
80,000 km2 of tropicalrainforestwere
destroyed by fire - and in some agricultural
practicessuch as burninggrainstrawor
stubble. In modern society, however, the ten-
dency is to prevent fires wherever possible
because of the damage that they d o to the
terrestrial environment and because of the
gases and particulate matter they addto the
atmosphere. Running contrary to this is the
view among some ecologists that fires are
natural, and unless there is danger to life or
property they shouldbe allowed to run their
course. This ‘let-it-burn’
approachwas
adopted by the US Forest Service in 1972,
and received its greatest test in 1988 when
major fires destroyed thousands of hectares
of forest inYellowstoneNationalPark.
AlthoughthePark Service was severely
criticizedinsomequarters,surveyssoon
after the event showed that loss of wildlife
and damage to soil were minimal, and the
long-termimpact of thefirewould be a
lacking someof the aesthetic qualitiesof the
pre-fire landscape. In the built environment,
fires continue to cause millions of dollars’-
worth of damage annually. Their impact on
urban morphology is most obvious, butfire:
involving chemicals, plastics and rubber can
add large amounts of noxious substances tc
the local and regional environment.
Further reading
Carey, A. and Carey, S. ( 1 9 8 9 ) Yellowstottc’s Re(
Summer, Flagstaff, AZ: Northland Publishing.
Fuller, M. (1991 ) Forest Fires: At2 Introdlrction tc
Wildland Fire Behavrour,Managetrtettt,Firefight
tng and Preventton, New York: Wiley.
I h s o t t i , H. (1993) Fire, NcwYork: Oxforc
University Press.
Whelan, 1’. (1995) The Erology of Fire, Cam-
147 FLOCCULATION

FIRSTWORLD CLIMATE produced.Theoilscanthen be refinedfor

CONFERENCE(GENEVA 1979) specific uses. The process was first developed
in the early twentieth century and wasused in
Sponsored by theWMO,theConference Germany during the Second World War as a
examinedtheimpact of climatechange on source of synthetic oil. It is currently one of
agriculture,fishing,forestry,hydrologyand the
processes used
in SouthAfrica,
the
urban development. To meet the need for co- world'sleadingproducer of synthetic oil,
ordinated scientific research into the causes yielding about two barrelsof oil and as much
and implications of climate change, the con- as 1000 mi of gas per ton of coal.
ference endorsed a W M O proposal to set up
See also
the World Climate Program (WCP). Coal gasificatlon, Coal liquefaction.

FISCHER-TROPSCHPROCESS Further reading

Aubrecht, G (1989) E m r g y , Columbus, OH: Merrill
One of the processes used in the liquification Publishing.
Rylander, P.N. (1985) Hydrogenatton Methods,
of coal. When coal is burned in the presence London: Academlc Press.
of oxygen (0)and steam, it produces a mixture
of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H). FISSION
With the addition of a catalyst such as nickel
(Ni) or cobalt(CO),hydrogenation of the
carbon monoxide takes place, and methanol See nuclear fission.
(CH,OH), plus variouswaxesand oils, is
FIXATION
Figure F-3 The stages and products of the
See nitrogen fixation.
Fischer-Tropsch process

FLASH-POINT

The lowest temperature at which a flammable

combbstion substance (usually a liquid) gives off suffic-
ient vapour to catch fire when ignited.

FLOCCULATION

I carbon
monoxide /l
l

Theaggregation of finesediments,such
clay,heldinsuspension in aliquid.The
as

G
resulting particles are still small, but may be
too large to continue in suspensionand
nickel thereforesettle out of theliquid. In the
littoral
environment,flocculation is an
important process in the formation of deltas.

V Clay colloids carried into the sea by a stream

or riverbegin to flocculate as soon as they
meet the salt water. The latter is an electrolyte
whichcausestheelectricallychargedclay
particles to bind together and sink to the sea
bed wheretheycontributematerialtothe
delta-buildingprocess.Flocculation is also
part of the sewage treatment process where it
svnthetic oil) aids the removal of fine solids from sewage
effluent.
FLOOD 148

"he inundation of normallydryland by Similarly,in manyareassnowmeltcauses

vater. Flooding causes millions of dollars'- annual spring flooding, but the extent and
vorth of property damage and
takes duration of the flooding can be increased
lundreds of lives every year (see TableF-l). when ice accumulation in the river channel
t is most common in river valleys o r along constrictsthe flow. This is common in
he coastal areas of lakes, seas and oceans. Canadaand Siberia,wheresnow in the
tiver
floods
are
causedwhen a river headwaters of north-flowingriversbegins
:hannel is incapable of carrying the volume to melt, while the lower reaches remain ice-
)f water added to it, and the excess spills boundand
unable to copewith
the
wer on to the adjacent floodplain. Heavy increased flow. Some degree of coastal
Ind prolonged precipitation,
snowmelt, flooding frequently accompanies high tide
:hannelconstrictions,
damfailures
and levels, butthe
area
affected
may be
dterations to drainage basins may produce increased significantly when high tides are
)r
contribute to flooding either singly accompanied by river floodsor by storm
x combination.
in Intense,
prolonged surges in which strong onshore winds drive
xecipitation
flooding,
cause
will thewaterashore.The1953North Sea
xuticularly if the ground is already floodswerecaused by a combination of
iaturated,
but
the
flooding
may
be highspringtidesandstrongnorthwinds
Iggravated by urban developmentor that pushed large volumes of water into the
leforestation withina drainage basin which southern end of the basin to inundate the
eads to a n increase in the rate of runoff. low-lying coastal areas of the Netherlands

Table F - l The causes and consequencesof some major floods

YEARDEATHYDAMAGE
LOCATION CAUSE
1997 South ChindHong Kong ? Monsoon rains/
Typhoons
1997 River Oder, GermanylPoland 100+/$3 billion Heavy rain/Poor dyke
maintenance
1997 Red River, USNCanada <5Olc. $1 billion Spring snowmelt
1993 Mississippi River, USA 50/$10 billion Rain/Snowmelt
1991 Bangladesh 125,000/? Cyclone/Storm surge
1988 Bangladesh 2000/? Monsoon rains
1988 Sudan ? Torrential rains
1982 Peru 2500/? Torrential rainsIEl Niiio
1973 Mississippi River, USA 11/$1.2 billion RainISnowmelt
1972 Black Hills, S. Dakota, USA 242/$163 million Torrential rainslFlash
flood
1970 Bangladesh 2000,000+/? Cyclone/Storm surge
1963 Northern Italy 2000+/? Dam overtopped
1953 Northern Europe 2000+/? Storm surgeMorth Sea
1938 Yellow River, China 1000,0001? Destruction of dykes by
military action
1928 Florida, USA 2400/? Hurricane
191 1 Yangtze River, China 100,000/? Monsoon rains
1889 Johnstown,
Pennsylvania, USA 2000+/?
burst
Dam

Sources: Various
149
and eastern England. Similar storm surges
accompany the
hurricanes
that
pass
through the Caribbean or thecyclones in
the Bay of Bengal that regularly devastate
Bangladesh. Seismic sea waves or tsunamis
are less common,butfollowingearth-
quakes or volcanic eruptions, they too can
cause very rapid and destructive floodingin
coastal areas. Global warming through the
increased melting of glaciers and ice sheets,
and the subsequent rise in sea level, has the
potentialtoincreasethefrequencyand
extent of coastal flooding.
Floods are a naturalpart of thehydro-
logical cycle and contribute to both erosion
and deposition. In human terms, however,
they are seen as a serious hazard to life and
property, and human responses to flooding
reflect that. The most obvious response is to
provideprotectionagainstit by building
embankments or barriers, such as the dykes
which protect the coast of the Netherlands,
or the levees which line major rivers such as
the Mississippi. The diversion of rivers and
the
straightening or deepening of their
channels allow themto carry more water and
therefore reduce the amount that spills over
on to the floodplain. At the other end of the
scale, the response may include acceptance of
floodingplussomeform of adjustment to
minimizetheimpact. Zoning by-laws, for
example,maypreventthe use of a flood-
pronearea
for residential
development,
or requirefloodproofing of buildings or
structures so that flood damage is minimized.
Acceptance of flooding in this way is usually
combined with flood frequency analysis and
emergency measures procedures to warn
FLOODPLAIN
An area of limited relief bordering ariver
inundated when the river overflows its banks
during a flood. Floodplains are generally low
and flat, but possess somerelief in the formof
the levees which border the main channel and
the abandoned channels which indicate the
former course of the river as it meandered
across the floodplain. Poor drainage on the
floodplain
encourages
the
persistence of
FLOODPLAIN
people and secure structures when floodingis
imminent. A modern approach
to flood
problems is to consider the integrated nature
of the entire drainage basin rather than only
the area prone to flooding. This recognizes
that activities allowed in one partof the basin
may have serious consequences elsewhere in
the system. The channelization of one section
of a river, for example, might cause flooding
downstream where the existing channel may
be unable to accommodatethenewflow
regime.Similarly, a changeinland usein
theupperreaches of a drainagebasinmay
well have consequences far
downstream.
Deforestation of theupperreaches of the
Ganges and Bhramaputra rivers in the foot-
hills of the Himalayas has been blamed by
some researchers for major flooding problems
in Bangladesh, where the rivers combine to
flow intothe Bay of Bengal.Suchcircum-
stances suggest that flood prevention requires
the management of an entire drainage basin
rather than just the areas that are obviously
prone to flooding.
Further reading
Coch, N.K. (1995) Geohazards:Naturaland
Human, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Handmer, J. (ed.) (1987) Flood Hazard Matrage-
ment: Brittsb alrd Internattonal Perspectrues,
Norwich: Geo.
Ives, J.D. and Messcrli, B. (1989) The Himalayan
Dilemma: Reconciling Developmettt atld
Conservation, London: Routlcdge.
Mayer, L. and Nash, D. (eds) (1987) Catastrophrc
Flooding, BostonlLondon: Allen BC Unwin.
Rasld, H. and Pramanik, M.A.H. (1993) ‘Areal
extent of the1988flood in Bangladesh:how
much did the satellitc imagery show?’, Natrrral
Hazards 8: 189-200.
wetlands, suchas the backswamp areas found
towards the landward edge of the plain. The
floodplainsurface is composed of fine
sediments deposited during flooding. Regular
deposition of these sediments maintains the
fertility of thefloodplainsoilsandmakes
themattractive to settlement,despitethe
hazards posed by regularflooding.
The
agrariancivilizations of EgyptandMeso-
potamia depended upon this regular renewal
of soil quality, and the large populations that
inhabitthefloodplains of Bangladesh and
FLORA
Chinaattest to theircontinued’attraction.
The availability of flat land and proximityto
the river providing water for industry and
transportation also made floodplains attrac-
tive for urban development. As a result, many
of the world’s largest cities, such as London,
Paris, New Orleans, Shanghai and Calcutta,
have grown up on floodplains or on deltas
where the floodplains reach the sea. Modern
environmentalplanners,however,tendto
regardallfloodplainsashazardland,best
suited for recreational and certain types of
agricultural land use rather than for urban
residential or industrial development.
further reading
Ritter, D.F., Kochel, R.C. and Miller, J.R. (1995)
Process Geomorphology, Dubuque, IA: Wm C.
Brown.
Ward, R.C. (1978)Floods - Geographical
a
Perspective, London: Macmillan.
FLORA
Thecombination of plants in aparticular
area. Each biome has a characteristic flora.
The term also refers to the friendly bacteria
whichhelptoprotectthehumanbody
against invasion by pathogens.
FLUE GAS
A mixture of hot waste gases released during
combustion. The constituents are predomin-
antlynitrogen (N), carbondioxide(CO,),
carbon monoxide
(CO)andsteam,
but
depending upon the fuel being used and the
combustionprocessinvolved, it mayalso
contain sulphur dioxide (SO,) and oxides of
nitrogen (NOx).Particulate matter such asfly
ash, a by-product of the combustion of the
veryfine pulverizedcoal used in modern
furnaces, may also be exhausted along with
the gases.
See also
Acid rain, Flue gas desulphurization.
FLUE GAS DESULPHURIZATION
(FGD)
The process by which sulphur dioxide (SO,)
150
Figure F-4 A schematic diagram of the
workings of a scrubber
entratnment -
separator
lime-rich liquid
c sprayed into
calcium sulphate
sludge out
is removed from the exhaust gases produced
by the burning of coal.FGD is commonly
used in coal-fired thermal generating stations
to reduce the outputof acid gases which lead
to the formation of acid precipitation. The
process takes several forms, but usually involves
the exposure of the acid gases to an alkaline
or basicsubstance,suchaslimestone or a
lime-richliquid, in ascrubber.Thesulphur
dioxide in the flue gases combines with the
calcium carbonate (CaCO,) in the limestone
to producecalciumsulphate or gypsum
(CaS0,.2H,O).FGD is currentlythemost
popular formof acid emission control, in part
because it is capableof reducing the output of
sulphur dioxide in exhaust gases by between
80 and 95 per cent, but alsobecause the equip-
ment required is technically quite simple and
can be added to
existing
power plants
relatively easily. Problemsremainwiththe
disposal of thelargeamounts of gypsum
generated - some 1.5 m tonnes per annum
from a large plant - and the environmental
impact of quarryingrequiredtomeetthe
increasing demand for high-grade limestone.
Most industrial nations have sulphur dioxide
reduction programmes in place and these are
likely to be met in large part by the
installation of FGD equipment.
further reading
Ellis, E.C., Erbes, R.E. and Grott, J.K.(1990)
‘Abatement of atmospheric emissions m North
151
America: progress to date and promise for the
future',in S.E. Lindberg, A.L. Page and S.A.
Norton(eds) AcrdicPrecrprtatron,
Volume
Sources,DeposrtronandCanopylnteractrons,
New York: Springer-Verlag.
Kyte, W.S.(1986) 'Some aspects of possible control
technologies for coal-fired power stations in the
Unlted Kingdom', Mine and Quarry 15: 26-9.
FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTION
(FBC)
The burning of a mixture of crushed coal,
limestone and sand in the presence of high-
pressure air. The airis blown in from the base Sources,DeposttronandCanopyInteractions,
of the combustion chamber through a bedof
sand,untilthesandbegins to resemblea
boilingliquid.Atthatpomtthecoaland
limestoneareaddedandthecombustion
process begins. Continualmixingensures
that combustionis very efficient, allowing the
use of relatively low-grade fuels if necessary.
Acid gas emission
control
is
alsovery
efficient, with upto 90 per centof the sulphur
( S ) in
the fuel being absorbed by the
limestone. Since furnace temperatures remain
relatively low, FBC alsoleads to reduced
emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOx).As yet
FBC technologyisnotwidelyused,being
restricted to low-pressure boilers
anda
number of pilot thermal electric generating
Figure F-S A schematic diagramof the
workings of a fluidized bed combustion
system
to gas turbine
flue'gases
FLUORINE
20 per
plants, but with the ability to produce
cent
more
electricity
than
conventional
3,
systems for the same coal consumption, it has
the potential to expand.
See also
Acid ram, LIMB, Scrubbers.
Further reading
Ellis, E.C., Erbes, R.E. and Grott, J.K. (1990)
'Abatement of atmospher~c emissions in North
America: progress to date and promise forthe
future',in S.E. Lindberg,A.L.Page and S.A.
Norton (eds) AcidicPrecrprtatron,
Volume 3,
New York: Springer-Verlag.
Ramage, J. (1983) Energy: A Gurdebook, Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
FLUORINE (F)
Ahighlytoxic,greenish-yellowgaswitha
pungentodour.Alongwithbromine(Br),
chlorine (Cl) and iodine(I), it is a member of
thehalogengroup of elements.Beingthe
most reactive of all elements, it is not found
free
the
inenvironment,
but
must be
manufacturedthroughtheelectrolysis of
potassiumhydrogendifluoride
(KHF,).It
occurs mainly in the form of fluorspar (CaF,),
used in the chemical and ceramics industries,
andcryolite(Na,AlF,),usedextensively in
aluminum(Al)smelting.Demandforthe
element increased rapidly with the develop-
ment of fluorocarbon-based refrigerants and
propellantssuchasFreonandthetetra-
fluoroethylene polymer, Teflon, marketed as
a corrosion resistant and non-stick coating.
Fluorine compounds are also used in uranium
(U) processing, the production of detergents
and the refiningof some formsof gasoline. As
sodium fluoride (NaF), it has been added to
drinking-water and toothpaste as an aid in
the prevention of tooth decay.
See also
Chlorofluorocarbons.
Further reading
Chambers, R.D. (1973) FIuorrne m Organrc
Chemistry, New York: Wiley.
Waldbott, G.L., Burgstahler, A.W. and McKinney,
H.L. (1978) Fluoridatron: TheGreatDilemma,
Lawrence, KA.: Coronado.
FLUOROCARBONS
Figure F-6 The chemical structureof typical
fluorocarbons
CFC-11 CFC-l2
(CFC13) (CF&I,)
l
chlorine (Cl)
fluorine (F)
FLUOROCARBONS
One of a group of synthetic organic com-
pounds called halocarbons in which some or
all of the hydrogen atoms have been replaced brazing, soldering and welding of metals to
by fluorineatoms.Firstdevelopedinthe
United States in the 1930s as refrigerants, it of the metals being joined.
was soon recognized that being for the most
part nonflammable, noncorrosive, nontoxic
and chemically inert, they had much wider
applications. Through their use as solvents,
propellantsinaerosolspraycansandas
coating materials such as Teflon (polytetra-
fluoroethene), their use expanded rapidly in
the1960sand 1970s. Like other halo- commonsource of pollution from thermal
carbons,however,fluorocarbonshavebeen
implicatedinthedestruction of theozone fly ash is now commonly filtered out of the
layer, and their production is being phased
out.
See also
Bromofluorocarbons, Chlorofluorocarbons,Ozone
depletion.
Further reading
Downing, R.C. (1988)Fhorocurbon Refrtgerunts
Handbook, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
FLUVIAL PROCESSES
Processesassociatedwithflowingwater in
rivers or streams in the runoff sector of the
152
hydrological cycle. Includingtheerosion,
transportation and deposition of sediments,
they are the most important group of geo-
morphic processes at work in the terrestrial
environment.
Further reading
Morisawa, M. (1985)Rtvers, NewYork: Long-
man.
Richards, K.S. (ed.) (1987) Rwer Channels:
Envrronment and Process, New York: Blackwell.
FLUX
(1)The rateof flow of mass or energy per unit
area. The horizontal flux
sented askilograms persquare
of moisture is repre-
metreper
second (kg m%'), for example, and the flow
of solar energy as calories per square centi-
metre per day (cal cm-2day1).
(2) Asubstanceusedinthesmelting of
metallicores,thatcombineswithwaste
materials in the ores to form scum or slag
which can be removed from the surface of the
molten metal. Fluxesare alsousedinthe
reduce oxidation and allow for better fusion
FLY ASH
Finelydividedparticulatescarriedintothe
atmosphere by fluegasesfollowingcom-
bustion. The ash may include unburned fuel
aswellascombustionproducts.Oncea
electric power stations and industrial plants,
gases
beforethey
are
released
into
the
environment.
FLYWAYS
The routes followed by migratorybirdsas
they
movebetween their
wintering
and
breeding grounds in spring and autumn. In
North America, four majorflywaysmay
carry as many as 100 million birds, mainly
waterfowl, in one season. Knowledgeof these
migratory routes and the resting places used
by thebirds en route providedhunting
of food at least
societies with a reliable source
153 FLYWAYS

Figure F-7 The flyways of North America

I
FOAM 154

twice a year. The aboriginal inhabitantsof the able,thedetergentsretainedtheirfoaming

Hudson Bay area in northernCanada,for ability when released in waste water, and the
example, participated in a spring and autumn natural agitation of waves or flowing water
goose hunt, made possible by the presence of reactivatedthefoam.Althoughmainly an
major flyways along the west and east coasts aesthetic problem, the foam indicated the likely
of the bay. Similarly, in Europe, a variety of presence of otherpollutants.Underpublic
migratory species from songbirdsto wildfowl and governmental pressure in the late 1960s,
wereregularlynetted,snaredandshot on thedetergentindustrybegan to introduce
theirway
between Africa andnorthern biodegradable products that were moreeasily
Europeinthespringand on thereturn removed through sewage treatment and less
journey in theautumn. An estimated 240 likely to foam inrivers andstreams.The
million songbirds continue tobe harvested in production of solidplasticfoamshas been
Italy every year. Modern sports hunting also ilnplicatedinthedestruction of theozone
takes advantage of the presence of these fly- layer, because of the escape of CFCs used as
ways. Now strictly controlled, hunting using blowing or foaming agentsin the process.
modernfirearms
once
decimated
such
unlikelypreyspecies as hawksandcranes. Further reading
The numbers of birds using the flyways has Garrett, P.R. (ed) (1993) Defoamrng: Theory and
always varied, depending upon such factors lrzdustrral Appliccltrotzs, New York: M. Dekker.
asreproductive success andweathercon-
ditions, but in recent years human activities FODDER
have had a significant impact. In both North
AmericaandEurope,thedraining of wet- Animal food which has been grown or col-
landsandthedestruction of forestshas lected
specifically for
animals.
Examples
reduced the availability of resting places for includegrass,shrubs, hay, straw,various
the migrating birds, and the building of tall grains and turnips.
structures
such as radioand television
towers, lighthouses and refinery smokestacks See also
causes the death of perhaps as many as half- Forage.
a-millionbirdsannually in North America
alone. The maintenance of existing wetlands FOG
or the provision of wildlife refuges and the
development of various treaties dealing with A suspension of small water droplets in the
migratory bird populations attempt to deal lower atmosphere which causes visibility to
with such problems. be reduced to less than 1 km. I t is caused by
condensation when moist airis cooled below
Further reading the dewpoint. The most common types of fog
Cox, G.W. (199.3) Cortseroatrorz Ecology: areradiationfogandadvectionfog.Radi-
Biosphere m d Bioszrrvrvol, I h b u q u e , I A : Wm C. ationfog is formedon clear, calmnights
Brown. when terrestrial radiation easily escapes into
the atmosphere causing the temperature of
FOAM thesurface to fall. If outwardradiation
continues and the airis sufficiently moist, the
An aggregation of gaseous bubbles in water atmosphereclosetothesurfacemay be
or other liquids, produced by vigorous mix- cooledbelowitsdewpoint,leadingtocon-
ing, fermentationorsomechemicalaction densationand
the
formation of fog.
whichcauseseffervescence. Withsufficient Advection fog forms when relatively warm,
aeration,foam will formnaturallyinthe moist air is cooled as it moves over a colder
aquaticenvironment,butthewidespread surface. When maritime air flows overa cold
adoption of synthetic detergents in the 1950s landsurfaceduringwinter,forexample,
and1960s led to theseriouspollution by advection fog will form and persist as long as
foam of rivers and lakes. Not being biodegrad- the wind blows. The natural formationof fog
 155 FOOD CHAIN

may be aggravated by human activities reachestheultimateconsumer is even less.

which, for example, add condensation nuclei The numbers of organisms in a food chain
or abundant water vapour to the atmosphere.also tendto decline as the levels increase,
creatingtheso-calledpyramid of numbers.
See also Largeherds of antelopearerequiredto
Cloucis, Haze, Smog. support only a few lions, for example. Link-
ages among the elements in the chain are so
Further reading strong that disruption at onelevel will be felt
Anthes, R.A., Cahir, J.J., Fraser, A.B. and
Panofsky,
H.A. (1981) The
Atmosphere (3rd along
the
entirechain.
Removal of the
edition), Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill. producer, for example, will reduce the food
Murray, W.A. and Kurtz, J. (1976) A Study of Ice supply for theprimaryconsumers,perhaps
Fog atzd Low Temperature Water Fog Occurretzce causing a decline their
in numbers by
atMildredLake,Alberta, Edmonton, Alta:Syn- starvation,which in turn reducesthefood
crude Canada.
supply for the predators. At the other end of
thechain, a reduction in thenumbers of
FOOD CHAIN
predators will allowthepopulation of the
grazing primary consumers to increase, thus
A group of organisms linked to each other
placingstress ontheirfood supply. The
through their production and consumption of
introduction of rabbitsintoAustralia,for
food and energy. Most food chains are short
example, createda short food chain with only
(perhaps four or five links) and linear, with
a limited number of predators. This allowed
some form of green plant at one end and a
the rabbit population to increase to such an
carnivore or omnivore at the other. A simple
extent that it competed with other primary
food chain could be made up as follows:

Grass + Antelope -+ Lion

(carnivore)
(herbivore) Figure F-8 The transfer of energy in a food
chain or trophic chain
(secondary
(primary
(producer)
consumer)
consumer)
1000 kcal SOLAR ENERGY

Thegrassproducesthefoodandenergy
through photosynthesis. It is then consumed
990 kcals I
by the antelope, whichin turn is consumed by to
thelion. In thiswayfoodandenergyare environment
passed along thechain,witheachstage
referred to as a trophic level. This is an v
example of a grazing food chain. Ultimately
theenergyreachesthedecomposers.They 9k d s I
convertdeadorganicmatterinto its con- avallable to
stituent
parts,
releasing
nutrients
and to
initiating a detrital food
chain,
which environment HERBIVORES
includes a variety of detrivoresandother
detritusconsumers.Theconversionprocess
in any food chainis relatively inefficient, with STORED IN ANIMALTISSUE
as much as 90 per cent of the useful energy
0.9 kcas
beinglostduringtheconversionfromone I
level to another, usually in the form of heat. availaMe to
to
Thus only 1 per cent of the energy available environment CARNIVORES
from the grass wouldbe stored in the body of
thelion.Aquatic food chainstendto be
longer than terrestrial chains, and as a result
v
the amount of the original solar energy that 0.1 k d S T O R E D IN ANIMAL TISSUE]
FOOD WEB
consumers,bothnaturalanddomesticated,
for food. In some places, the abundance of
rabbitscausedthecompletedestruction
thevegetationandthe
initiation of soil
erosion. The introductionof the viral disease
myxomatosis in the 1950s was so effective in
killing off the rabbits that predators such as
foxesand eagles turnedtoother native
species, but eventually their populations also
slumped.Asimilardisruption of the food
chain occurred
followingthe
accidental
escape of the experimental rabbit calicivirus
in 1995.
Humansareattheupperend of many
foodchains,andcanadapttotherelative
inefficiency of thechains.Inthedeveloped
nations, for example, farmers grow grain to
be fed to cattle or pigs. The beef or pork is
theneaten by humans. Being omnivorous,
however,they couldtake a moreenergy-
efficient approach, and eat the grain beforeit
is processed by theanimals.Theresulting
food savings could then be made available to
the less developed nations
whereunder-
nourishment and even malnutrition are major
problems.Harvestingthelower levels of a
food chain has also beenconsideredinthe
aquatic
environment,where
experimental
fishing of large zooplankton, such as Antarc-
tic
krill, has been carriedout.Lack
knowledge of the impact of such harvesting
ontheoceanic food chains,whichdepend
upon krill, plusnegativeeconomicfactors
have ensured that it has not gone beyond the
experimental stage.
See also
Ecological introductions.
Further reading
Cox, G.W. (1993) Conservatrota Ecology: Bios-
phere and Biosururual, Dubuque, IA: Wm C.
Brown.
Kaufman, D.G. and Franz, C.M. (1993) Biosphere
2000: Protectitzg our Global Enwronrnent, New
York: HarperCollins.
FOOD W E B
Althoughfoodchainsare basicallylinear,
individual chains are commonly interlocked
atvarious levels to form a web.Different
predators, for example, may share the same
156
prey, andconsumersmayaltertheireating
habits - and become involved in a new food
of chain - if their preferred food source is no
longeravailable. The presence of decom-
posers at all trophic levels also helps to link
individual chains into a web.
FORAGE
Animal food in its natural state available for
grazing by animals.Itincludesalmostany
type of plant material, even those from which
human beings can extract littleof food value.
Excessive foragingcanleadtoovergrazing
and environmental deterioration.
FOSSIL
Remains of organisms or parts of organisms
that have been preserved in the rocks (usually
sedimentary rocks) of the earth’s crust. For
fossilization to occur, the organism involved
must possess a skeleton or hard structure and
must be buried beneath sediments soon after
death. In some cases the entire organism is
preserved, but more commonly the soft parts
decay and onlytheskeletonremains.The
original compositionof the skeleton mayalso
be changed, calcium carbonate (CaCO,) being
of replaced by silica (SO,), for example.
Occasionallywholeorganismsorparts of
organismsmaysurvive. Fossil mammoths
have been found in frozen ground in Siberia,
forexample,andthe fossilpollenusedin
palynology consists essentially of the unaltered
exoskeletons of pollen grains.
See also
Palaeontology.
Further reading
Paul, C.R.C. (1980) The Natrtral History of
Fossils, London: Weldenfeld & Nicolson.
FOSSIL FUELS
Fuels that
are
the
residues of organic
material. Likefossils,plantsandanimals
were buried by sediments or drowned, andin
the resulting anaerobic environment retained
much of their stored
energy.Coal,for
example, contains chemical energy converted
 FRICTION

fromsolarenergy by photosynthesiswhen Atmosphere: The Climate Change Conventron and

theplantsweregrowing. It is that energy rts Context, London: Earthscan.
which is released whenfossil
fuels
are
burned. Fossilfuelsinclude coal,oiland FREE RADICAL
naturalgas,themainenergysources in
advanced industrial societies. They are non- A group of atomswhichusuallyexists in
renewablesources of energy and finitein combination with other atoms, but may exist
quantity, but world supplies remain sufficient independentlyunderspecialcircumstances.
for several centuries. Fossil fuel consumption Possessing one or moreunpairedelectrons,
is a major contributor to a number of current free radicals arehighly reactive. They havean
environmental issues including acid
rain, importantrole in theformation of photo-
atmospheric turbidity and global warming. chemical smog. Hydrocarbon radicals such as
the ethyl radical (C,H,), for example, contri-
Further reading bute to the formatFon of peroxyacyl nitrate
Kraushaar, J.J. and Ristinen, R.A. (1993) Energy (PAN), an oxidant whichis one of the major
and the Problems of a Technologrcal Society (2nd contributors to the toxicity of photochemical
edition), New York: Wiley. smog.

FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON Further reading

CLIMATE CHANGE (FCCC) Williamson, S.J. (1973) Fundamentals of Air
Pollution, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
One of the conventions signed at the Earth
Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The FCCC FREON
grew out of concern for global warming, but
was signed only after much controversy, and The
commercial
namefor
chlorofluoro-
endedup as a relatively weakdocument carbons(CFC),developed by theDuPont
lacking evenspecific
emission reduction Company.
targets and deadlines. Its main aimis to bring
aboutthestabilization of greenhousegas FRICTION
emissions at a level whichwouldprevent
dangerousanthropogenicinterferencewith Aforcewhichprevents or resistsrelative
theclimatesystem.FollowingtheSummit, motionbetweensurfaces in contact. Before
the IPCC was reorganized to provide onebodycanmoveoveranother,enough
information
needed to support
the energy must be applied to overcome the static
implementation of theConvention,and in frictionbetween the two. This is associated
early 1996 it presented its report to the 159 with the surface roughnessof the two bodies.
countries that had ratified the document. A Generally, the rougher the two surfaces, the
Conference of the Parties (COP) was set up to greater will be the coefficient of static
deal
with
the
transfer of scientific and friction. The concept is perhaps more easily
technical knowledge among the parties and seen when two solid bodies are involved, but
the implementation of the provisions of the friction also applies when a fluid moves over
Convention. a solidsurface, for example.Windmoving
over the surfaceof the earth or water flowing
Further reading over the bed of a river both experience the
Adger, W.N. (1995) ‘Compliance with the climate
change convention’,Atmospheric Envrronment 29:
effects of friction, which slows the movement
1905-15. of the air or the water. If the earth’s surfaceor
IPCC (1996)Climate Change 1995: The Science of the bed of the stream varies in roughness, the
Climrzte Change, Cambridge: Cambridge University resultingvariations in thecoefficients of
Press. frictioncauseturbulence,whichmayhave
Kauppi, P.E. (1995) ‘The United Natlons Climate
Convention:unattainable or irrelevant’, Science implications for the mixing of pollutants in
270: 1454. the atmosphereor the extent and distribution
Pitt, D. andNilsson, S. (1994) Protectlrrg the of erosion and deposition in river beds.
ARTH FRIENDS OF THE 158
See also well-woodedmid-latitudes,fuelwoodcom-
Turbulent flow. monly
takes
the
form of large
logs.
Furfher reading
Elsewhere,fuelwoodmay be no more than
Rabinowicz. E. (196.5) Frrctron and Wear of the branches and twigsof scrub woodland,as
Materrals, New York: Wiley. is the case in the arid or semi-arid parts of
Africa and Asia. Thecutting of fuelwood
FRIENDSOFTHEEARTH(FOE) makes a major contribution to desertification
in such areas.
A federation of autonomous environmental
Further reading
groups founded in 1971. FOE is represented
De Montalembert,M.R.andClement, J. (1983)
in fifty-twocountriesandclaimstobethe Fuelwood Supplies rn the Developrng Countrtes,
largestinternationalnetwork of environ- Rome: Food and Agricultural Organlzation of the
mental groups. It is concerned with social and United Nations.
economic factors in relation to the environ-
ment,
and
operatesat all scales from FUMIGATION
international,where it is involvedinthe
preservation of the rainforest, to local, where (1) Thedestruction of bacteria, insects,
groupsattempt to controlinappropriate rodentsandother pests by exposureto
waste disposal or oppose the construction of poisonousgases,smoke or vapours. It is
roads through environmentally fragile areas. commonlyusedinenclosedspacessuch as
greenhouses or grain stores.
FUEL (2)The rapid build-upof air pollutants, often
to dangerous levels, in the atmospheric
A substance used to produce thermal energy, boundary layer. Fumigation is frequently
either through combustion - as in the case of producedwhentemperature
a inversion
the fossilfuels - or through changes in its prevents the upward dispersion of pollutants.
physical chemistry - as in the case of nuclear Frequently a night-time phenomenon
in
fuels. urbanareas,earlymorningheating usually
causes
sufficient
turbulence
mix
tothe
FUEL DESULPHURIZATION pollutantswithcleanerairandtherefore
dilute them.
The reduction in the sulphur content of fuels
such as coaland oil priorto combustion. Meth- See also
Turbulent mixing.
ods vary from simple, cost-effectiveprocesses
such as the crushing and washing of coal to Further reading
more complex chemical cleaning methods such Oke, T.R. (1987) Boutzdary Layer Climates (2nd
as coal gasification or liquefaction. edition), London: Routledge.

FUEL SWITCHING FUNGI

One of the simplest approaches to the control
of acid gas emissions, involving the replace-
ment of high-sulphur fuels with low-sulphur
alternatives. The most common form of fuel
switching is the replacement of high-sulphur
coal with a low-sulphur coal. Coal may also
be replaced entirely by oil or natural gas.
FUELWOOD
Wood products harvested for use as fuel. In
A group of relatively simple organisms which
range from easily visible mushrooms and toad-
stoolstomicroscopicyeastsandmildews.
Fungi may consistof a single cell or a mass of
very fine threads or filaments (hyphae), and
are characterized by their lack of chlorophyll.
Since
they cannot
participate in photo-
synthesis,they are considered to be hetero-
trophic - they obtain their nutrients directly
fromtheenvironment.Reproductiontakes
place by means of spores. Numbering perhaps
159 FUSION

asmany as 47,000 species,fungihave an See also

important role in the recycling of plant and Fungicide.
animalmatter in thesoil,butthesame
qualities that make them good decomposers Further reading
Carlile, M.J. and Watkinson, S.C. (1994) The
also allow themto cause problemsof decay in Ftrngt, Boston: Academlc I’rcss.
food,fabricsandotherorganicmaterials
important to society. The fungal infestation FUNGICIDE
of timber causes dry rot, for example. Some
fungi are also parasitic on plants and animals.
A chemical used to destroy harmful fungi.
Beneficial forms of fungiincludevarious
varieties of edible mushroom plus the yeasts
used in baking, brewing and the preparation FUSION
of otherfoodstuffs.
Antibiotics
such as
penicillin can be produced by culturing the See nuclear fusion.
appropriate fungi.
 G
GAIA HYPOTHESIS
First developed in 1972 by James Lovelock,
andnamedafteranancientGreekearth
goddess, the Gaia hypothesis views the earth
as a single organism in which the individual
elements coexist in a symbiotic relationship.
Internalhomeostatic
control
mechanisms,
involvingpositive and negativefeedbacks,
maintain an appropriate level of stability. It
hasmuch in commonwiththeconcept
environmentalequilibrium,butgoesfurther
in presenting the view thatthe living
components of the environment are capable
of working together actively to provide and
retainoptimumconditionsfortheirown
survival. In the simplest case, animals take up themainstrengths
oxygen (0,)duringrespirationandreturn
carbon dioxide (CO,) to the atmosphere. The
process is reversed in plants, carbon dioxide
beingabsorbedandoxygenbeingreleased.
Thusthewasteproductfromeachgroup
becomesaresourcefortheother.Working
together over millions of years,theseliving
organisms have combinedto maintain oxygen cumulative effects thatcouldthreatenthe
andcarbondioxideat levels capable of
supporting their particular forms of life and,
through
carbon
dioxide,
maintain
the
greenhouse effect at a level which can provide
a temperature range appropriate for thatlife.
This is one of the more controversial aspects
of Gaia,flying in theface of conventional
scientificopinion,whichsince a t leastthe
time of Darwin has seen life responding to
environmental
conditions
rather
than
initiating them. Some interesting and possibly Since thehuman species is a t presentthe
dangerouscorollariesemergefromthis.
would seem to follow, forexample,that
existing
environmental
problems
which
threatencurrent
forms of life and life
processes - forexample,globalwarming,
ozonedepletion - aretransitory,and will
eventually be brought under control againby
the environment itself. Some scientists view
theacceptance of thisaspect of Gaiaas
irresponsible, since it also requires the accep-
tance of the efficacy of naturalregulatory
systems
which
as
are yet unproven,
particularly in their ability to deal with large-
scale human interference.Lovelockhimself
of hasallowedthat Gaia’s regulatorymech-
anismsmay wellhavebeen weakened by
human activity.Systems copewithchange
most effectively when they have a number of
options by which they can take appropriate
action, and this was considered to be one of
of Gaia.It is possible,
however, that the earth’s growing population
has created so muchstress on the environ-
ment that the options are much reduced, and
the regulatory mechanisms may no longer be
able to nullify the threats to balance in the
system.Thisreduction in thevariety of
responses available to Gaiamayevenhave
survival of the human species. Although the
idea of the earth as alivingorganism is a
basic concept in Gaia, the hypothesis is not
anthropocentric. Humans are simply one of
the many forms of life in the biosphere, and,
whatever happens, life will continue to exist,
but it may not be human life. For example,
Gaia
includes
mechanismscapable of
bringing
aboutthe
extinction of those
organismsthatadverselyaffectthesystem.
It source of most environmental deterioration,
the partial or complete removal of mankind
might be Gaia’s natural answer to the earth’s
current problems.
161
See also
Symbiosis.
Further reading
Joseph, L.E. (1990) Gala: The Growth o f a n Idea,
New York: St Martin's Press.
Lovelock,J.E. (1972) 'Gaia as seen through the
atmosphere', Atmospheric Environment 6: 579-80.
Lovelock,J.E. (1986) 'Gaia:theworldasliving
organism', N e w Scientist 112 (1539): 25-8.
Lovelock,J.E. (1988) The Ages of Gala;A
Biography of our Ltvrng Earth, New York: Norton.
Lovelock, J.E. (1995)Gala: A N e w Look at Life on
Earth (2nd edition), Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Schneider, S.H. and Boston, P.J. (eds) (1991)
Scientists on Gaia, San Francisco: Sierra Club Books.
GAMMA RAYS
High-energy electromagnetic radiation with a
wavelength of less than 10"pm, capable of
causing ionization. They are similar to X-rays,
but have greater penetrating power, allowing
at least partial penetration of substances such
asconcreteandlead(Pb)whichnormally
stopX-rays.Gammaradiationreachesthe
earthascosmicradiationfromspace,but
most is absorbed in theatmosphere.Other
sources of gamma rays include the decay of
certain radioactive minerals such as uranium
(U) or radium (Ra), either naturally or as the
result of controlled nuclear reactions and the
detonation of nuclearweapons.Withtheir
high penetrative power, gammarays easily
enter the human body, where their ionizing
properties can lead to major cell damage and
the initiation of various types of cancer.
See also
Ionizing radianon.
Further reading
Miller, E.W. and Miller, R.M. (1990) Envlronrnental
Hazards:
Radioactive Materrals andWastes: A
Reference Handbook,Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio.
GARBAGE
Domestic refuse ormunicipalsolidwaste,
including
both
organic
and
inorganic
materials. The bulk of the waste is paper and
cardboard (41 per cent in North America; 38
per cent in theUK),followed by metals,
plasticsand glass (c. 23 per cent in both
GAS LAWS
North America and the UK) and food wastes
or vegetable matter (c. 26 per cent in North
America; 20 per cent in UK). Most garbage is
disposed of in sanitary landfill sites or burned
in incinerators, but both typesof disposal are
being re-examined. Appropriate landfill sites
are
increasingly
difficult
find
to
and
incineration causes problems in the form of
airpollutionandtoxicash. As aresult,
greater attention is being given to recycling
the waste, although not all garbage can be
recycled and some other formof disposal will
continue to be required.
See also
Ocean dumping.
Further reading
Jones, B.F. and Tinzmann,M. (1990) Too Much
Trash?, Columbus, OH: Zaner-Bloser.
Pfeffer,
J.T. (1992) Solid Waste Management
Engineering, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
GAS
A substance which has the form of a com-
pletelyelasticfluid in which the atoms and
molecules move freely in random patterns.
See also
Gas laws, Liquid, Solid.
GAS LAWS
Thermodynamiclawsthatdealwiththe
relationship between the temperature, pres-
sure and volume of gases. The most important
of theseare Boyle's lawandCharles' law.
According to Boyle's law, thevolume of a
given mass of gas at constant temperature is
inversely proportional to its pressure (i.e. p v
= U constant). Charles'lawstatesthatthe
volume of a given mass of gas, a t constant
pressure, is directly proportional
to
its
absolute temperature (i.e. V/T = a constant).
The two laws may be combined in the gas
equation - pV = RT, where p = pressure; V =
volume; R = the gas constant and T = temp-
erature K. Althoughthesearetheoretical
relationships that apply only to the so-called
perfect gas, they can be proven experimentally
and have a role in weather forecasting using
atmospheric models.
GASOHOL
Further reading
Cutnell, J.D. and Johnson, K.W. (1995) Physrcs
(3rd edit~on), NewYorklToronto: Wiley.
GASOHOL
A mixture of gasoline and ethanol or meth-
anol used as a fuel forgasoline-powered
motors. Since ethanol and methanol can be
produced from waste agricultural and wood
products, the production of gasohol has been
seen as a means of reducing the energy loss
causedwhenthesematerialsarediscarded,
while at the same time reducing the demand
for gasoline. It is used regionally in the United
States, in areas where the abundance of corn
providestherawmaterialforethanolpro-
duction, but even there it is not economically
competitive
with
gasoline
and
requires
government subsidy.
See also
Alcohol.
162
of sulphur dioxide (SO,) and oxides of nitro-
gen (NOx)into sulphuiic and nitric acid, all
thereactionstakeplacewiththevarious
compounds remaining in a gaseous state. Gas
phase reactions are less efficient than liquid
phase reactions.
See also
Acid precipltation.
GEIGER COUNTER
Geiger-Muller counter. An instrument used to
detect the presence of radiation by measuring
the ionization causedby radioactive particles.
Ionization of a gas suchas argon in the sensor
of the instrument disrupts its electrical field
and the resulting voltage pulse is recorded by
a counter or amplified to produce a n audible
signal.
GENE

GASOLINE Genesconsist of segments of DNA which

control the characteristics of specific organ-
Petrol.Amixture of volatilehydrocarbons isms or parts of organisms, and allow these
used mainly as a fuel in the internal combus- characteristics to be transmitted from gener-
tion
engine.Mostgasoline is produced ationtogeneration.Located on chromo-
through the refining of petroleum, but it can somes,theycontainthechemicallycoded
also be obtained from
coal
through instructionsfortheassembly of particular
destructive
distillation
subsequent
and proteins, which in turn determine the form
refining. Different qualitiesof gasoline canbe and function of the organism involved. The
produced by mixing the appropriate volatile humanbodycontainssome 100,000 genes
components. Aircraft
and
automobiles located on twenty-three chromosomes. They
requiredifferentmixtures,forexample. In controlsuchobviousattributesas eye and
additionthe
tohydrocarbons, gasolines skincolour,butthepresenceorabsence of
commonlycontainotherchemicalssuchas specific genes can be a contributing factor to
antioxidants, anti-icing agents and detergents such diseases
haemophilia
as or cystic
in proportions that
dependupontheir fibrosis.
Genes that
produce
alternative
intended use. characteristics are calledalleles. For example,
alleles of the gene for eye colour can produce
Further reading brownor blueeyes in an individual. Any
Society of Automotive Englneers (1994) Gasoline: change in the nature of a particular gene will
Cvmpvsrtiorr arrtf Additives t o Meet the lead to a change in the the organism. This can
Perfvrrrtarzcc nrzd Ernrsslorz Reqrrrrements vf tbc
Nineties, Warrendale, PA: Society o f Automotive happenthroughnatural
mutation, which
Engineers. produces a new gene slightly or significantly
different
from
the
original,
or
through
GAS PHASE REACTION accidentalexposuretochemicalsorradi-
ation.Throughgeneticengineering,organ-
Chemical reactions that take place with the isms can be given newcharacteristics by
reactants in a gaseous state. In the conversion manipulating the genes they possess.
163 GENERAL CIRCULATION MODELS

See also the same rate.As a result, certain alleles from

Evolution, Genome. themoreprolificindividuals willbecome
more
common,
whereas
those
from
Further reading individualswhich donotreproducemay
Lewin, B. ( 1 987) Genes, New York: Wiley.
Suzuki, D.T. (1989) A ~ Introduction
I to Genetrc ultimately be lost from
the
population.
Analysrs, New York: Freeman. Selectivebreeding of plants and animals to
produce particular traits also tends to reduce
GENE POOL the variety of genes in the gene pool. While
this may be beneficial in the short term, in the
The sum of all the different genes, including longer term it may make a species less able to
alleles, that
are
contained in the
total respond to change and thereforeless likely to
population of a species. The gene pool survive if theconditionsforwhich it was
therefore
contains
the
genetic
all or selectively bred no longer apply.
hereditaryinformationaboutthat species.
The make-up of the gene pool changes with Further reading
timebecause of differentialreproduction - Cook, L.M. ( 1 9 9 1 ) Genetrc a d Ecologrcal
not all individuals in a species reproduce at Dtversrty, New York: Chapman and Hall.

GENERAL CIRCULATION MODELS (GCMs)

Climatemodelstakevariousforms,and when one or more of the components of the

involve
various levels of complexity atmosphere is altered. In anattempt to
depending upon the application for which emulate the integrated nature of the earth/
they are designed. GCMs are
three- atmosphere system,
atmospheric GCMs
dimensional models that providefull spatial have been coupledwithotherenviron-
analysis of theatmosphere.Theyincor- mentalmodels.
Recognizing the
major
poratemajoratmosphericprocessesplus contribution of the oceans to world climat-
local climate features predicted through the ology, the most common coupling is with
process of parameterization.Thesimul- ocean
models. In theory,such
models
ations of current and
future
climates combinmgtheatmosphericandoceanic
provided by these models require powerful circulations should provide a more accurate
computers capableof processing as many as representation of the earth’s climate. Thisis
200,000 equations at tens of thousands of not always the case, however. The coupling
points in a three-dimensional grid covering of the models leads to the coupling of any
theearth’ssurface,andreachingthrough errorsincluded in theindividualmodels.
two to fifteen levels as high as 30 km in to The so-called ‘model drift’ which occurs can
the atmosphere. In addition to these grid- be treated, but it remains a constraint for
pointmodels,spectralmodelshavebeen coupled models. Another major problem is
developed. In these, the emphasis is on the thedifference intime-scalesoverwhich
representation of atmospheric disturbances atmospheric
and
oceanic
phenomena
orwaves by afinitenumber of math- developand
respond
change.
to The
ematicalfunctions.
Many of the
more atmosphere generally responds within days,
advanced models incorporate this approach. weeks or months, while parts of the oceans
GCMs can be programmed to recognize - for example, the ocean deeps - may take
the role of land and sea in the development centuries or even millennia to respond. As a
of global climates and climate change. Their result,
running
completely
a interactive
complexrepresentation of atmospheric coupled ocean-atmosphere model, until all
processes allows the inclusion of important elementsreachequilibrium, is time-con-
feedbackmechanisms,andtheycandeal sumingand costly.Because of this,the
with the progressive change set in motion oceanic element in most coupled models is
GENERAL CIRCULATION MODELS 164

nuch less comprehensive than the atmos- general

circulation
models,
problems
,hericelement. Theocean is commonly remain, often associated with their inability
nodelled as aslabwhichrepresentsonly to deal adequately with elements that are
.he uppermost layer of water in which the integral to thefunctioning of theearth/
:emperatme is relatively uniform with atmosphere system. These include the roles
iepth.Oceanicheatstorage is calculated of clouds, oceans and feedback mech-
m l y from the chosen depthof the layer and anisms.Cloudsareimportantbecause of
x h e r elementssuch as oceanic heat the significant influence which they exert on
:ransportandexchangeswiththedeeper the earth’s heat
budgetthroughthe
?arts of the oceanare
neglected or reflection and absorption of radiation, but
:alculated
only
indirectly. Thus
the theyare
difficult to simulate, in part
accuracy of theresults is limited.Sea-ice because they develop at the regional level,
models, carbon cycle models and chemical whereasGCMsareglobal inscale. Para-
models have also been recognized as having meterization provides
partial
only
a
the portential to contribute to climate solution, but progress is being made in the
simulationwhen
coupled to existing provision of regionalscaleconditions to
GCMs.Carbon cycle models,particularly GCMs - for example, through nested models
important in studies of globalwarming, - which may improve the representation of
have already been coupled to ocean models, clouds.Despite lengthy experimentation
and chemical models have been developed withcoupledocean-atmospheremodels,
to investigatetheinfluence of other trace representation of theoceansremains a
gases on thegeneralcirculation of the source of uncertainty. Part of the problem is
atmosphere. the paucity of observational data, and this
Most of the effort in the developmentof reflected to some extentin the relatively low
GCMs has gone into producing equilibrium resolution of theoceancomponents in
models. In these, change is introduced into coupled models. Attempts must be made to
a model which represents existing climate address the inadequacy of the data through
conditions and the model is allowed to run thedevelopment of an oceanicobserving
until a new equilibrium is reached. The new network, if the ocean component in models
model climate can then be compared with is to be improved. Both clouds and oceans
the original to establish the overall impact are also involved in feedback mechanisms.
of the change. Mostof the numerous GCMs The representation of feedbacks is a highly
used to study the impact of a doubling of complex butimportant element in the
atmospheric carbondioxide
(CO,) on consideration of climate-related processes.
world climates have been of this type. They Feedbacks are incorporated in some formin
make no attempt to estimatechanging mostGCMs, with
their
number and
conditions during the transient phase of the complexity varying from model to model.
model run, although these conditions may The IPCC investigators in 1995 identified
well have important environmental impacts feedbacks
involving
clouds,
surface
longbeforeequilibrium is reached.The radiation budgets and the carbon cycle in
development of transient or time-dependent the
terrestrial
biosphere as
particularly
modelswhichwouldprovidetheinterim important sources of uncertainty.
The
informationlaggedbehindthat of equili- constraintsthatthisimposesonGCME
brium models, but that discrepancy is now must be recognized, and appropriate
being
addressed. In theIPCCsecond allowances made,when analysingtheil
assessment of climate change compiled in predictions or incorporating them in policy-
1995, forexample,tenexperimentswere making decisions.
run using transient models compared with All models represent a compromise
only one available for the first assessment betweenthecomplexities of theearth,
five years earlier. atmosphere systemand
the
technica
Despitethegrowingsophistication of constraints of computer hardware anc
16.5 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION S Y S T E M S

software. Despite the tens of thousands of Australian Geographrcal Studies 29: 202-25.
Hengeveld, H. G.(1991) Understanding Atmos-
hours of computing time that went into the
pherrc Change, SOE Report 91-2, Ottawa:
production of the IPCC 1995 reports, for Environment Canada.
example, the results are far from definitive. IPCC
(1990) Clinrate
Change: The IPCC
Progress in the developmentof GCMs since ScientificAssessment, Cambridge:Cambridge
1990 is impressive, however, and with further University Press.
IPCC (1996) Climate Change 1995: The Science
development andrefinement, the coursesnow of Climate Change, Cambridge:Cambridge
being pursued by modellers have considerable Unlversity Press.
potentialfornarrowingthegapbetween Kemp, D.D. (1997) ‘As the world warms: climate
climate simulation and reality. change1955’, Progress 1tt Physrcal Geography
21 (2): 310-14.
Ramanathan, V., Pitcher, G.J., Malone, K.C. and
Further reading Blackmon, M.L. (1983) ‘The
response of a
Cusbach, U. andCess, R.D. (1990)‘Processes spectral
GCM to refinements in radiative
and modelling’, in IPCC ClimateChange:the processes’, Journal of Atmospheric Science 40:
IPCC Screrttific Assessment, Cambridge: 605-30.
Cambridge University Press. Washington,W.M.andParkinson,C.L.(1986)
Henderson-Sellers, A. (1991)‘Globalclimate AnlntroductiontoThree Dimenstonal Mode-
change:thedifficulties of assessingImpacts’, ling, Mill Valley, CA: Universlty Science Books.

See also
GENETIC ENGINEERING
Gene pool.
The manipulation of the genetic make-up of
anorganismtoproducesome desired - GENETICS
usuallybeneficial - effect.A generemoved
from a chromosome in one organism may be The scientific study of heredity.
spliced to the chromosomeof another to pro-
duce a specific condition in the second organ- GENOME
ism.Alternatively,they may be attached to
microscopic organisms such as bacteria and The complete set of genes characteristic of a
introducedinto
the cells of the second particularorganism.TheHumanGenome
organism that way. Genetic engineering has Mapping Project is the in
process of
beenused to producedesirabletraits in establishingthegeneticcomplement of the
domesticatedplantsandanimals,and is a human species, by identifying all 60,000 to
well-established process for the productionof 80,000 human genes andmappingtheir
antibioticsandhormones. On the negative location on specific chromosomes.
side,the release of geneticallyengineered
organisms into a new environment which has GENUS
no particular controls or restraints for that
organism could have disastrous results. A grouping of species that share common or
Further reading similar characteristics.
Fincham, J.R.S: Ravetz,
and J.R. (1991)
GenetrcallyEttgtneered Organisms:Benefitsand GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
Risks. New York: Wiley. SYSTEMS (CIS)
GENETIC DRIFT Systems
developed to collect,
store
and
analyse data that include a spatial element.
Random change in the genetic make-up of a They are usually computer-based and include
population. It is most common in small pop- several components designed to allow:
ulations,where it reducesgeneticvariation
and may contribute ultimately to extinction 1 The acquisition of data from census reports,
of a species. maps or satelliteimagery, to createan
GEOMORPHOLOGY

inventory of appropriate information. logical processes. They investigate the actions

2 The processing andmanagement of the of such agents of erosion, transportation and
data base. deposition as weathering,runningwater,
3 Analysis of data to produce new inform- waves,glacialice and wind, which individ-
ation. By comparing individual elementsin ually and collectively contribute to the
the data bank, CIS can establish relation- formation of landforms.
shipsamongthem. For example,com-
parison of the hydrology, floodplain topo- further reading
graphyandsoiltype of anareamight Chorley, R.J., D u m , A.J. and Bcckinsalc, R.P.
allowtheestablishment of criteriafor (1973) The History of the Strrdy of Z,arzdforms,Vol
2: The Developmetzt of Geomorphology, London:
delineating hazard land. Additional com- Methuen.
parisonwith
elements
from
the
built Goudie, A. (1995) The Charrgrng Earth: Rates of
environment would then allow the identifi- Geomorphologrcal Processes, OxfordlCambridge,
cation of properties at risk. MA: Blackwell.
4 The output of the results of the analyses, Ritter, D.F., Kochel, R.C. and Miller, J.R. (1995)
Process Geomorphology (3rd edition), Dubuque,
often in the form of a series of computer- IA: Wm C. Brown.
generated maps. Strahler, A.H. and Strahler, A.N. (1992) Moderrz
Physrcal Geography (4thedition),New York:
Geographic
informationsystems
have Wiley.
Summerfield, M.A. ( 1991 ) GIohal Geonzorphology,
becomeimportanttools in environmental London/New York: LongmanNiley.
planning, in large part becausetheycan be
used to collect,integrateandanalyselarge GEOPHYSICAL FLUID DYNAMICS
volumes of data accurately and more rapidly LABORATORY (GFDL)
than is possible with traditional methods of
analysis.
The GFDL is one of the research units of the
US National Oceanic
and
Atmospheric
Further reading
Bonham-Carter, G. (1994) GeographrcInform-
Administration,based in Princeton, New
atrorr Systenzs for Geoscrerztrsts: Modellingwith Jersey.Its goal is to understand and predict
GIS, New York: Pergamon Press. theearth’sclimateandweather,including
Martin, D. (1991) Geographrc Informatron consideration of human the elements
Systenzs and therr SocroecononzicApplications, involved. Researchers at GFDL are currently
London: Routledge.
Maguire, D.J., Goodchild, M.F. and Rhind, D.W. investigatingweatherandhurricanefore-
( 1991) Geographical informatron systems,Harlow, casting, El Niiiopredictions,stratospheric
Essex: Longman Scientific. ozone depletion and global warming.

GEOMORPHOLOGY GEOSTROPHIC WIND

The studyof the form of the earth’s surface.It Awind in thefreeatmosphere (i.e. atan
grew up in the late nineteenth century as a altitude of 500 to 1000 m and therefore not
branch of geology dealing
with
the affected by surface friction) in which
morphology or form of theearth’ssurface. directionand velocity represent a balance
Although it continues as a sub-discipline of betweenthe
pressure
gradientand
the
geology, particularly in the United States, it is Coriolis effect. It flows parallel to the isobars,
now more often considered an integral part of unlike surface winds, which are affected by
physicalgeography.Earlystudiestended to friction and therefore cross the isobars at an
be descriptive in
nature
with at best a angle. In the northernhemisphere the
qualitative
assessment of the
processes geostrophic wind flows with low pressure to
involved.Incontrast,moderngeomorph- the left and high pressure to the right. In the
ological
studies are highly quantitative, southern hemisphere the situationis reversed.
commonlyinvolvingdetailedmeasurement The velocity of thegeostrophicwind is
and analysis of landforms and geomorpho- directly dependent upon the magnitudeof the
167 GLACIATION

Figure G-l The dynamics of the geostrophic extraction of energyfromthegeothermal

wind zone may allow the rocks to cool down and
reduce
the efficiency of the process. In
.996kp - LOW PRESSURE

p e w r e gradient
4 ”---
addition,thedissolved gases andminerals
present in geothermal fluids can lead to rapid
corrosion of the system. The environmental
1000 kp
impacts of geothermal power plants are much
100.4 kp less thanthose of conventionalplants,but
they include the primary problems of noise,
odour and groundwater contamination, plus
secondary concerns such as the disruption of
HIGH PRESSURE local hot springs orgeysers and even induced
seismic
activity. Geothermal fields in the
pressuregradientand is inversely propor- USA, Iceland, Italy and New Zealand already
tional to thelatitude,being less at higher contributetopowerproduction,buttheir
latitudes than at lower latitudes for the same impact is largely local and the contributionof
pressure gradient. geothermalzones to globalenergyrequire-
ments is limited.
See also
Isopleth. Figure G-2 Tapping the geothermal energy
in the earth’s crust
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY generator , ‘

Energyavailable in themoltenandsemi-
molten rocks beneath the earth’s crust. The
high
temperaturesthat
this
creates in
adjacentsolidrocks in certain areas causes
sub-surface water to be superheated
or
converted into steam, which can be used for
direct
space
heating
converted
or into
electricityin a conventionalpowerplant.
Most existing geothermal plants
depend
upontheproduction of naturallyheated
watcr,buttheexpansion of production is
technically possible through the injection of
cold surface water into hot, dry rocks 3 to 5 :;geothermal zone.;
km beneath the earth’s surface. The injected
water would be under pressure and become
superheated.Whenreturned to thesurface
and
normalpressure it would
convert
instantlyintosteam,whichwouldprovide
thepowerforthegeneration of electricity. Further reading
After condensation the
waterwould be Kleinbach, M.H and Salvagln, C.E. (1986) Energy
Technologres and Conuersron Systems. Englewood
returnedagainbeneaththesurfacefor re- Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
heating.Despitehavingtheadvantage of Wohletz, K. andHeiken, G.(1992) Volcunology
supplying apparently free andrenewable andGeothermalEnergy, Berkeley: University of
energy, geothermal zones are being developed Califorma Press.
onlyslowly. Developmentandproduction
costs remainsufficiently high that geothermal GLACIATION
energy
cannot
readily
compete
with
conventionalenergy
sources.
Technical Aperiod of globalcoolingwhichcaused
problems also exm. For example, the rapid glaciers to advance and ice sheets to expand.
GLACIER
See also
Ice ages.
A body of snow and icelyingwholly or
mostly onlandandcapable of movement.
Glaciers occurwhen the accumulationof winter
snow exceeds summer melting or ablation.
When the accumulation is sufficiently great,
the base of the snowpackis converted into ice
through a process of compaction and recrys-
tallization. The amount of snow that must
collectbefore ice is formeddependsupon
suchfactorsaslocaltemperatureandthe
density of the snow, and may vary between
13 and 80 m,butonceformed, it is the
deformation of thebasal ice thatcauses
glaciers to move. Once moving they are capable
of erosion,transportationanddeposition,
Figure G-3 The distribution of glaciers in
Scotland: c. 10,500-10,000 BP
168
producingcharacteristicglaciallandforms.
Glaciers arecommonly classified according
to theirmorphological (e.g.valleyglaciers,
ice sheets), dynamic(e.g. active- fast moving,
passive - slowmoving) or thermal (e.g.
temperate,polar)characteristics.Currently,
glaciers cover some 10 per cent of the earth’s
land surface, with theice sheets of Greenland
and Antarctica accounting for most of that
total, but during the Pleistocene, ice sheets
coveredmuch of thenorthernhemisphere,
reaching as far south as the Great Lakes in
North America, and
southern
Britain,
GermanyandPoland in Europe.The ice
retreatedfromthese
areas
some 10- or
12,000 years agobuttheyretaintypically
glaciated landscapes formed at that time.
Further reading
Hart, J. and Martinez, K. (1997) Glacial Analysts
(CD-Rom), London: Routledge.
Menzies, J. (ed.) (1995) Modern G l a c d Enuirotz-
ments: Processes, Dynamrcs and Sediments,
Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Sharp, R.P. (1988) Lrurng Ice: Understanding
Glacrersand Glaciatrotz, New York: Cambridge
Universlty Press.
Sugden, D.E. and John, B.S. (1976) Glaciers and
Landscape, London: Edward Arnold.

GLACIOLOGICAL VOLCANIC
INDEX (GVI)

An index based on aciditylevels in glacial ice

as
revealed by ice
cores.
This gives an
indication of sulphurdioxide (SO,) levels
associatedwithpastvolcaniceruptions, an
element absent from both the dust veil index
and the volcanic explosivity index.

GLOBAL ATMOSPHERE WATCH

(GAWZ

A
programme established by theWorld
Meteorological Organization (WMO) in 1989
tomonitorthecomposition of theatmos-
phere. It is involvedinresearchaimed at
developing a betterunderstanding of the
atmosphere and prediciting the evolution of
such
elementsas
climate
change,
ozone
depletion and atmospheric pollution. The CAW
Source: After Sissons, J.B. (1967) The Evolutropr provides the scientific assessment of the state
of Scotland’s Scenery, Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd of the atmospheric environment forGEMS.
169 GLOBAL OZONE OBSERVING SYSTEM

GLOBAL CLIMATE OBSERVING nations who provide data on climate change,

SYSTEM (GCOS)
Created by the WMO,IOC, ICSU and UNEP
to develop a dedicated observing system to
meet requirementsformonitoringclimate,
detecting climate change and predicting climate
variationsandchange.Thework of the
GCOS is intended to reduce current uncertain-
ties associated with inadequate observational
data intheseareas.Thedatacollectedare
expected to have a n important impact on the
ability of general circulation models (GCMs)
to improve the quality of their predictions.
GLOBALENERGYAND WATER
CYCLE EXPERIMENT (GEWEX)
An interdisciplinaryproject of theWCRP,
aimed at providing a better understanding of
thehydrological cycle andglobalenergy
fluxes.Itusesdirectobservation as well as
information provided by model predictions.
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT
MONITORING SYSTEM (GEMS)
A system co-ordinatedby UNEP as part of its
Earthwatcheffort to monitortheenviron-
ment worldwide. It involves more than 140
pollution,
deforestation,
ozone
depletion,
and greenhouse gas changes. By analysing such
informationGEMSmakesperiodicassess-
ments of the world’s environmental health.
Further reading
McCormick, J. (1991) UNEPIWHO GEMS
Assessment of Urban Aar Quality: UrOan Alr
Pollutron, Nalrobi: UNEP.
GLOBAL FORUM
A conference of non-governmentorganiz-
ations (NGOs) held at the same time as the
United Nations Conference on Environment
and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro,
1992. It included a wide rangeof topics - from
the preservationof biodiversity to sustainable
development - that generally paralled those
included in the main UNCED event.
Further reading
Parson, E.A., H a s , P.M. and Levy, M.A. (1992) ‘A
summary of themajordocumentssignedatthe
earth summit and the global forum’, Environment
34: 12-15 and 34-6.
GLOBAL OZONE OBSERVING
SYSTEM (G0,OS)
A network of some 140 ozone(0,)monitoring

Table G-I Global Forum -treaties and other documents prepared by NGOs

Earth Charter
A short statement of eight principles for sustainable development intended to parallel the Rio
Declaration
Treaty groupings
N G O Co-operation and Institutron-Building Cluster: includes treaties on technology, sharing
of resources, poverty, communications, global decision making and proposals for N G O
action.
Alternative Economic Issues Cluster: includes treaties o n alternative economic models, trade,
debt, consumption and lifestyles.
Major Envrronmental Issues Cluster: includes treaties on climate, forests, biodiversity, energy,
oceans, toxic waste and nuclear waste.
Food Production Cluster: includes treaties on sustainable agriculture, food security,fisheries.
Cross-Sectorial Issues Clusters: includes treaties on racism, militarism, women’s issues,
population, youth, environmental education, urbanization and indigenous peoples.
GLOBAL WARMING 170

stations
worldwide which use ground total
atmospheric concentration, all of which
monitoringandremotesensingtechniques to is provided to theGlobalEnvironmental
obtaininformation on thehorizontalandMonitoringSystem(GEMS).
vertical distribution of ozone as well as the

GLOBAL WARMING

Since the beginning of the century, there has
been a rise in global mean temperatures of
about 05°C. Thebasic cause of this warm-
ing is seen as theenhancement of the
greenhouse effect overthesameperiod
brought on by rising levels of anthro-
pogenicallyproducedgreenhouse gases.
Carbondioxide (CO,) emissionshave
received most attention but methane (CH,),
nitrousoxide (N,O) andCFCshave also
contributed through their ability to retain
terrestrial radiation in the atmosphere, and
thus
producewarming.The
observed
warming is what might be expected from
the rising level of greenhouse gases, but the
change has not been consistent. The main
increase took place between 1910 and 1940
andagainafter1975.Between1940and
1975, despite rising greenhouse levels, global
temperatures declined. Such variations are
not uncommon in the climate record, and
the changes that have taken place are well
withintherange of normalnaturalvari-
ations in global temperatures. However, the
warming between the 1960s and 1980s was
morerapidthanthatbetweenthe1880s
and1940,
andJamesHansen of the
Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS)
claimed in 1988 that the global greenhouse
signal is sufficiently strong for a cause-and-
effect relationshipbetweentheanthropo-
genically produced carbon dioxide increase
andglobalwarming to be inferred.His
conclusion was not widely accepted at the
time, but in 1996 the IPCC also claimed to
recognize a human influence in the current
global warming.
Estimates of warmingarecommonly
obtained by employing general circulation
models, set to provide information on the
temperatureimpact of a setincrease in
carbondioxide. By themid-1980s it was

Figure G-4 Measured globally averaged (i.e. land and ocean) surface air temperaturein the
twentieth century
0.5
c

0)
0
!!?
B
C
0.c

-0.5 -
I I I I I 1 I I
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980
Source: After Joncs, M.D.H. and Henderson-Sellers, A. (1990) ‘History o f the greenhouse effect’,
Progress m Physrcal Geography 14: 1-18
171 GLOBAL

Figure G-5 Projected change in global surface temperature following a doubling of carbon
dioxide (a)December, January, February (b) June,
July, August

Source: Compiled fromdata in IPCC (1990) Climate Change: The IPCCSczentific Assessment,
Cambridge: Cambrldge University Press

estimatedthatadoubling of CO, would to 2°C with a maximum of 3.S°C, to be

cause an average warming of 1.3-4"C. In
1990,the IPCC assessment produced values
of 1.5-4.5"C with a best estimateof 25°C.
By the time of their second assessment in
1995,their best estimate had been reduced
reached by 2100.
Although the estimated temperatures are
not particularly high - mainly because they
areglobalaverages - evidencefrompast
worldtemperaturechangesindicatesthat
GLOBAL W A R M I N G 172

hey areof a magnitude which could lead to reduction

a inprecipitation,butsome
ignificant changes in climate and climate- projectionsindicatethatmorerainfall is
,elated
activities.
During
the
Climatic possible in parts of Africa and south-east
lptimum some 5000 to 7000 yearsago, Asia.Confidenceintheability of comp-
emperatures in North America and Europe uterizedmodels t o predictprecipitation
were only 2-3°C higher than the present changes is low, however.
tverage, but they produced major environ- Given the rangeof possibilities presented
nentalchanges.Evidencefromthattime in the estimates of future global warming it
,eriod and from another warm spell in the is difficult t o predict its environmental and
:arly Middle Ages 800 t o 1000 years ago socioeconomic impacts. However, using a
dso suggests that the greatest impact of any combination of investigative techniques -
:hange will be felt in mid- to high latitudes ranging from laboratory experiments with
the
nnorthernhemisphere.Northern plants to the creation of computer-
Zanada, for example, might experience an generated modelsof the atmosphere and the
ncrease of 8-12°C in mean temperatures in analysis of past climateanomalies -
:he winter,whereasinlowerlatitudesin researchershaveproducedresultswhich
southern Europe, the Sahel and south-east provide a general indication of what the
Asia the predicted increases generally fall consequences might be in
certain
key
between 1-2°C. sectors.
Warming would
bring
about
Because thevariouselementsinthe changes in the length and intensity of the
atmospheric environment are closely inter- growing season which, coupled with new
related, it isonly t o be expectedthat if moistureregimeswoulddisruptexisting
temperatureincreases,changesinother vegetation patterns,
both
natural
and
elements will also occur. Moisture patterns cultivated. Across the northern regions of
are likely to be altered, for example. Semi- Canada, Scandinavia and Russia, the trees
arid grassland areas would likely experience of the boreal forest would begin to colonize

Figure G-6 Impact of global warming on central and eastern Canada

Source: After Kernp, D.D.(1994) Global Envfronment Issues: A Climatologfcal Approach, London/
New York: Routledge
173 GLOBAL WARMING

hetundra as theyhavedone
during melting of snow and ice as warming
varmer spells in the past. Along its south- progresses. The IPCC has predicted arise of
m margin,however,theywouldcome 38-55 cm by theyear 2100, butother
mder pressure from the poleward spread of estimatessuggestthatanincrease of as
Ieciduous trees and grassland. much as a metre is possible. Even with the
Higher temperatures might threaten the lowerestimates, coastal
regionswould
‘orests indirectly through an increase in the experience increased flooding, greater coastal
‘requency of forest fires and insect infest- erosionandthedisruption of economic
ttions, and if the rate of change takes place activities. For some nations
occupying
nore rapidly than the forest can respond, islands that are currently onlya few metres
xpid die-off of large numbers of trees is a above sea level (the Alliance of Small Island
,ossibility. Whatever the final outcome, it States,forexample),thepredicted rise
lppears likely that global warming in the wouldbedisastrous.Some,such as the
lorthern forest would disrupt the northern Maldive Islands in the Indian Ocean, would
xosystems, and in turn have a significant becomeuninhabitable,particularly if the
mpact on those countries, suchas Canada, increased storminesspredicted by some
Sweden, Finland and
Russia,
where models came to pass.
lationalandregionaleconomiesdepend The range of potential impacts is great,
fery much on the harvesting of softwoods but in many cases the realityof the situation
from the boreal forest. mayonly
become apparent
whenthe
In lower latitudes where the temperature changes have occurred, for there are many
dement is less dominant,theimpact of variablesinvolvedinthepredictions.The
global warmingwouldbe felt through human factors, as always, are particularly
changes in the amount and distribution of unpredictable.Technology,politics,socio-
moisture. In northern Australia, for exam- economic conditions and even demography
ple, the increased poleward penetration of can influence warming,
for
example,
monsoon rains would allow the expansion throughtheircontribution to changes in
of tropical and subtropical vegetation. In greenhouse gas concentrations, yet the nature
China,agriculturaloutput is expected to andmagnitude of thevariations in such
rise as a result of the northward spread of elements is almost impossible to forecast.
crops such as rice, corn and cotton, and the Despite such uncertainties and a certain
increase in the area in which tropical and degree of dissension among scientists and
subtropicalfruitscan be cultivated. Of politicians,
the
international
view as
majorconcern to manyagriculturalists is expressed by theFrameworkConvention
the expected decrease in precipitation in the on Climate Changeis to see global warming
world’s grain-producing areas, which along as a serious threat to the environment and
withhighertemperatures,couldincrease society in the future, which must be dealt
the frequency andseverity of drought in the with now. Attempts to arrestcontinued
grain belts of North America,Russia and warming havecentred
mainly on
the
Ukraine,leading to morefrequentcrop controlandreduction of greenhousegas
failures. Martin Parry - a leading analystof emissions, but the degreeof success is as yet
theagricultural
implications of global limited.
warming - has predicted a decline in grain
yields of 15-20 per cent in Africa, tropical Further reading
LatinAmericaandmuch of Indiaand Flavin, C. (1989) SlowingGlobal Warnzzng: A
south-east Asia by the middle of the twenty- Worldwide Strategy (Worldwatch Paper
91).
first century. Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute.
Another major concern associated with Hansen, J. and Lebedeff, S. (1988) ‘Global
surface air temperatures: update through 1987’.
water is a rising sea level brought about by Geophyszcal Research Letters 15: 323-6.
the thermal expansionof the oceans and the Henderson-Sellers, A. (1990) ‘Greenhousc
additionalwateradded to the sea by the guessing:whenshouldscientistsspeakout?’
GLUCOSE
Climatic Change 16: 5-8.
Hulme, M.( 1 993) ‘Global warming’, Progress r n
Physical Geography 17: 8 1-9 1.
IPCC (1 990)Climate Change: The IPCC Scwztific
Assessment, Cambrldgc:CambridgeUniversity
Press.
II’CC ( 1 9 9 6 4 C h n a t eCbartge 1995: TfJe Screrlce
of Climate Change, Cambrldge:
Cambridge
University Press.
II’CC (1996b) ClimateChange 1995: Impacts,
Adaptatrons and Mitrgation of Climate Chatzge
Cambridge: Cambridge Unlversity Press.
IPCC ( 1 9 9 6 ~CIimate
) Change 1995: Economrc
and Socral Dimensions of Climate Change,
Cnrnbridgc: Cambridge University Press.
Kellogg, W.W. (1987)‘Mankmd’simpact on
climate: the evolution of an awareness’, Climatic
Change 10: 113-36.
Kemp, D.D. (1991) ‘Thegreenhouseeffect:a
Canadian perspective’, Geography 76: 121-31.
Lindzen, R.S. ( 1994) ‘ O n thc scientific basis for
global
warmlng
scenarios’, Envrronmental
Polltlttotz 83: 125-34.
GLUCOSE
One of the simplest carbohydrates, glucose or
dextrose (C,H,20,) is a hexose(six-carbon
atom) monosaccharide (simple sugar). Glucose
is produced during photosynthesis and is the
basic energy source for metabolic processes in
plants and animals, other sugars and carbo-
hydrates being converted into glucose before
beingutilized to provide energy.Glucose
occursnaturally in honeyandsweetfruits,
and is prepared commercially from starch and
other carbohydrates by hydrolysis. It is used
in the brewing and confectionery industries.
GODDARD INSTITUTE FOR
SPACE STUDIES (GISS)
Establishedin 1961, GISS is a US National
Aeronautics and Space Administration research
institutelocated in New YorkCity.It is
primarilyconcernedwithstudies of global
climatechange,bothpastandfuture,but
researchers at GISS are also involved in the
investigation of other planetary atmospheres,
atmospheric chemistry
and
astrophysics.
Much of the research involves the analysis of
global
data
sets
using
models of the
atmospheric, terrestrial and oceanic environ-
ments. The research approach also includes
174
NCGCC (1990)A n Assessment of the Impact of
Climate Change Carrsed by Human Actrurtres on
Chrna’s Enurronnzent Beijing: National
Coordinating Group on Climate Change.
Parry, M. and Duncan, R. (1994) The Economrc
Implicatrons of C/lnzate Change r n Brrtailz
London: Earthscan.
Pearce, F. (1992)‘Gram yieldstumble I n a
greenhouse world’, N e w Screntist 134 (18 17): 4.
Pittock, A.B. and Salinger, M.J. (1991) ‘Southern
hemisphere climate scenarios’, CIimatrc Change
18: 205-22.
Simons, l? (1992) ‘Why global warming would
take Brltain by storm’, New Screntrst 136 (1846):
3.5-8.
Titus, J.C. (1986) ‘Greenhousceffect,sea level
rise
and
coastal
zonemanagement’, Coastal
Zone Management Journal 14: 147-72.
Warrick,R.A. (1993) ‘Slowingglobal w a r n m g
and sea level rise:theroughroadfrom Rio’,
Transactrons of the Institute of Brrtrsh
Geographers NS 18:140-8.
thestudy of otherplanets as anaid to
forecasting the future evolutionof the earth.
GOLD (Au)
A soft, yellow, precious metal. It is eminently
malleable and ductile, capable of being beaten
into sheets as thin as 0.0001 mm. Gold is very
resistant to corrosion and does not combine
readily with other chemicals. It is found free
in nature, and extracted from its ore using
mercury (Hg) orcyanide. Gold is used for coins
and jewellery and in the electronics industry.
Whereincreasedhardness is required it is
alloyed with copper (Cu) or silver (Ag).
Further reading
Doyle, R.W. (1 987)Gold: History and Genesrs ( ~ f
Depostts, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
GRASSLANDS
Regionsinwhichtheclimaxvegetation is
dominated by grasses,butmaycontain a
variety of annual and perennial plants. Grass-
lands form one of the earth’s major biomes.
They occur in both temperate and subtropical
regions,andarenaturallyassociatedwith
areas where the available moisture is insuf-
ficient to support trees orotherwoody
175 GRAVITY

Figure G-7 The distribution of the world’s grasslands

I

Source: After Park ( 1 992)

vegetation.Theprairies of North America, enrichmentprovided by thedroppings of

the steppes of central Asia, the veld of South grazing animals tendsto produce fertile soils.
Africa and the pampas of South America are Given the low levels of moisture character-
examples of temperate grassland. All exper- istic of such areas, however, overgrazing or
ience
high evapotranspiration rates
that cultivation can make them susceptible to soil
restrict the availability of moisture at certain erosion
and
even
desertification.
Most
times of the year. A similar effect is produced grassland areas are no longer natural. Native
by periods of seasonal drought in the grasseshave beenreplaced by cultivated
subtropical savanna grasslands of the Sahel species to improve grazing conditions, or by
and of the East African plains. Even where grains such as wheat or maize. In many areas,
sufficient moisture may be available for the grasslandshave been created by clearing
growth of woody plants, for example, close forests improving
or wasteland - for
to thegrasslandmargins,thepresence of example, draining
swamps - where
the
grazinganimals o r naturalfirestendsto potential agricultural return warrants it.
favourthesurvival of thegrasses.Large
grazing animalsare
the
main
fauna in See also
grasslandareas,fromthebison of North Great Plains.
America to the various kinds of antelope in
Africa and the
kangaroos in Australia. Further reading
Associated with these are the predators such BourliPre, F. (ed.) (1983) Troprcal Sauarztzas,
Amsterdam: Elsevicr.
as lions, cheetahs, wolves and hyenas which Coupland, R.T. (cd.) ( 1979) Grassluttd Ecosystems
prey on the grazing animals. Smaller burrow- of the World, CambridgeMcw York: Cambridge
ingmammalssuch as rabbitsandprairie University Press.
dogs,whichcan easily workthegrassland
soilarealsocharacteristic of the world’s GRAVITY
grasslands. In both temperate and subtropical
grassland the return of nutrients and humus The force of attraction between the earth and
to thesoilwhenthegrassdiesandthe a body on itssurface. All objectshavea
GRAY 176
gravitational attraction for each other, but it Figure G-8 The Great Plains of North
is only when large masses such as the earth America
are involved thattheimplications of that
attractionbecomeevident.Theforcethat
causes a body released into the atmosphere to
fall to the earth’ssurface,forexample, is
gravity, andtheweight of thatbody is a
measure of the force of gravity. Having such a
large mass the earth’s gravitational influence
spreads beyond its boundaries, allowing it to
retain the Moon asits satellite.

GRAY
Further reading
The SI unit of radiation absorbed dose (rad). Bamforth, D.B. (1988) Ecology and Human
Organizatron on theGreat Plarns, NewYork:
Onegray(Gy) is equivalent to an energy Plenum Press.
absorption of 1 joule per kilogram.
GREEN DATA BOOK
GREAT AMERICAN DESERT
A companion volume to the Red DataBook,
A term applied to the western interior plains the Green Data Booklists plants that are rare,
of North America in the nineteenth century. endangered and under threatof extinction.
The image grew out of the reports of
exploratoryexpeditionswhichvisitedthe GREEN PARTIES
plains during one of the periods of drought
common to the area, and observed the results Political organizations which aim to protect
of natural desertification. theenvironmentthroughthe use of estab-
lishedparliamentaryprocedures.Although
Further reading individual parties
have specific
goals,
in
Bowman, I. (1935) ‘Our expanding and generalthe
so-calledGreens
favour self-
contracting desert’, Geographical Review 25: 43- sufficiency, sustainabledevelopment and the
61.
Lawson, M.P. (1976) TheClimate of theGreat use of appropriate technology, while oppos-
American Desert, Lincoln: University of Nebraska ing the further development of nuclear energy
Press. and challengingexistingpollutioncontrol
and abatement programmes. The largest and
GREAT PLAINS most powerful green party is Die Griinen in
Germany, and
the
EuropeanParliament
An area of temperate grassland with a semi- includescoalition
a of Greens. In 1990
arid climate in the interior of North America. Alaskaintroducedgreenpolitics to North
They stretch for some2500 km from western America by becoming the first state to give a
Texas in thesouthalongtheflanks of the Green Party official standing.
RockyMountains to theCanadianprairie
Further reading
provinces in the north. Although the Plains
Dobson, A. (1990) Green Polittcal Thought,
are a major producer of agricultural products LondonlNew York: Routledge.
suchascattleandgrain,theysufferfrom Spretnak,C.,Capra, F. andLutz, W.R. (1986)
periodicdroughts of great severity. These Green Politrcs, Santa Fe, NM: Bear.
have included the droughts that produced the
Dustbowl of the 1930s, the so-called Great GREEN REVOLUTION
AmericanDesert of thenineteenthcentury
andthePuebloDrought of thethirteenth The name given to the rapid increase in crop
century. production brought about in the late 1950s
 177 GREENHOUSE EFFECT

and 1960s by a combination of increased could improve food production significantly.

fertilizeruse andtheintroduction of new However,problemswithincreasingcosts,
higher yielding varieties of grain. The main potentialenvironmental impacts and
the
grains
involved
were
wheat
and rice, predictedagriculturalimpacts of global
introducedparticularlytosouth-east Asia, warmingsuggestthatthebenefits will be
where they helped food production to keep difficult to sustain.
pacewiththerapidlygrowingpopulation.
These
new
varieties
were
much
more Further reading
demanding than indigenous grains, requiring Brown, L.R. (1970) Seeds o f Change: The Green
largequantities of artificialfertilizers and Revolutron and Development rn the 1970s, New
York: PraegedOverseas Development Council.
abundant water for bestresults.Whenthe Day, R.H. and Singh, I. (1977) Economrc
cost of fertilizers rose rapidly in the 1970s, Development as an Adaptive Process: The Green
many of thenationsthathadbenefited Revolution rn the Indian Punjab, CarnbridgelNew
initially could no longer afford the necessary York: Cambridge University Press.
Gordon, R.C. and Barbier, E.R. (1990) After the
quantities,andtheadvantagesprovided by Green Revolution:Sustainable Agrrculture for
thenewcropvarietiescouldnotbe fully Development, East Haven, CT: Earthscan.
realized. Furthermore, there is some concern
that the replacement of a range of local plant
varieties with only one or two high yielding GREEN REFRIGERATOR
types increases the vulnerability of the crops
to pests and disease. Although that situation Arefrigerator developed in Germany in
can be kept in check using
pesticides, which the normal CFC refrigerant has been
economicandenvironmentalcostscan be replaced by a propanelbutane mixture.
high and success is notguaranteed. In its Although such a mixture has a greater
time,
the
Green Revolutionshowedthat coolingcapacity than CFCs, it is also
agricultural technology appropriately applied inflammableandthereforebanned in some
countries.
Figure G-9 Increasing grain yields made
possible by the Green Revolution Further reading
Toro, T. (1992)‘German industry freezes out green
frldge’, N e w Screntrst 135 ( 1 935): 1h .
‘000
tonnes

6ooo 1 GREENHOUSE EFFECT

The
name given to the
ability of the
atmosphere to be selective in its response to
different types of radiation. Incoming short
wave solar radiation is transmitted unaltered
to heat the earth’s surface. The returning long
waveterrestrial
radiation is unable to
COLOMBIA /RICE penetratethe
atmosphere, however. It is
131% Increase 237% increase
absorbed by the so-called greenhouse gases,
causing the temperatureof the atmosphere to
rise. Some of the energy absorbed is returned
to the earth’s surface, and the net effect is to
maintaintheaveragetemperature of the
earthhtmosphere systemsome 30°C: higher
0 1965 1960 1955 than it would be withoutthegreenhouse
effect.Theprocesshas beenlikened to the
Source: Derived from data in Foin, T.C. (1976) way in which a greenhouse works - allowing
Ecologrcal Systems and the Enuirontnent, sunlightin,buttrappingtheresultingheat
Boston: Houghton Mifflin inside - hence the
name.
Althoughthe
GREENHOUSE GASES 178

Figure G-10 Radiation fluxes and the greenhouse effect

@) solarradiation @ greenhousegases
@ earth’s surtace @ re-radiation back to surface
@ terrestrialradiation @ radiation lost to space

analogy is not perfect, the term continues to
be widelyusedfordescriptivepurposes.
Enhancement of the greenhouse effect as a
result of rising levels of greenhouse gases has
contributed to global warming.
Further reading
Bolin, B., Doos, B.R., Jager, J. and Warrick, R.A.
(eds) (1986) TheGreenhouseEffect, Climatrc
Change and Ecosystems, SCOPE 29, New York:
Wiley.
Pickering, G.T. and Owen, L.A. (1994) An
Introductron toGlobal Environmental
Issues,
LondodNew York: Routledge.
enhancement of the greenhouse effect. The
amount of carbondioxiderecycledduring
photosynthesis is also being reduced because
of worldwide deforestation, which allows the
extra gas to remain in the atmosphere. The
net result has been a gradual global warming,
projected to continue as long as the volumes
of greenhouse gases
in
the
atmosphere
Figure G-l 1 Contribution of greenhouse
gases to global warming: (a)1880-1980;
(b) 1980s

GREENHOUSE GASES
The group of about twenty gases responsible
for the greenhouse effect through their ability
toabsorblongwaveterrestrialradiation.
They are all minor gases and together make
up less than 1 per cent of the total volume of
the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide (CO,)is the
most abundant, but methane (CH,), nitrous
oxide (N,O), the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
andtroposphericozone (0,) also
make
significantcontributionstothegreenhouse
effect. Water vapour also exhibits greenhouse
properties,buthasrecewed less attention
than the others. Since the beginning of the
twentieth century, rising levels of these gases
in the atmosphere, associated with increasing Source: After Kemp, D.D. (1994) Global
fossilfueluse,industrialdevelopmentand Envrronment Issues: A Climatologrcal
agricultural activity, have brought about an Approach, LondonINew York: Routledge
 179 GREENPEACE

Table G-2 Sources of greenhouse gas emissions

ACTIVITIES
SECTORS GASES PERCENTAGE O F
GLOBAL TOTAL
Energy Fossil fuel
combustionCO,, CH,, N,O, 0 , 54
Natural gas leakages
Industrial activities
Biomass burning 3
Forest Harvesting CO,, CH,, N,O
Clearing
Burning 8
Agriculture Rice production (paddies) CO,, CH,, N,O 4.5
Animal husbandry 3
(ruminants)
Fertilizer use 1.5
Waste management Sanitarylandfillwaste CO,, CH,,N,, 0,, CFC 5
Disposal
Incineration
Biomass decay
Other Cement
production CO,, N,O,
CFC 1
CFC productionhe 11.5
Miscellaneous 8.5

Source: After Green, 0. and Salt, J. (1992) ‘Limitlng climate change: verifymg national commitmcnts’,
Ecodecisron, December: 9-1 3

continue to rise. Plans to slow the warming
include a reduction in greenhouse gas emis-
sions and a slowing down of deforestation,
but the results are, as yet, insignificant.
Further reading
Boag, S., White, D.H. and Howden, S.M. ( 1994)
‘Momtoring
and
reducing
greenhouse
cmissionsfromagricultural,forestryandother
human activities’, Climatic Charzge 27: 5-1 1 .
Bolle, H.J., Seiler, W. and Bolin, B. (1986) ‘Other
greenhouse gases and aerosols’, In B. Bolin, B.R.
Doos, J. Jager andR.A.
Warrick(eds)
Greenhouse Effect, C/imatrcChange ami Eco-
systems, SCOPE 29, New York: Wiley.
GREENPEACE
An international, independent environmental
organization founded in Vancouver, Canada
in 1971. Its non-violent but confrontational
approach to global environmental issues has
created major publicity and won the organiz-
ation a largefollowingworldwide. It has
tackledsuch issues as commercialwhaling,
the harvestingof seal pups, dumpingof waste
on land and at sea, clear cutting by lumber
gas companies,andtheemission of toxicpol-
lutantsintotheairandwater by industry.
Following a policy of supporting peace and
disarmament,Greenpeacehasmadeseveral
The attempts to prevent the continued testing of
nuclearweapons,mostrecently in 1996 by
confrontingtheFrenchgovernment in the
South Pacific. All these activities are carried
out in pursuit of Greenpeace’s goal of
ensuring the continuing abilityof the earth to
nurture life in all its diversity.
GREY WATER 180
Further reading Further reading
Hunter,R. (1979) Warriors of theRarnbow: A Hanink, D.M. (1994) The Internatronal Economy:
Chronrcle of Greenpeace, New York: Holt, A Geographtcal Perspecttve, New York: Wiley.
Reinhart & Winston. Meadows, D.H., Meadows, D.L., Randers, J . and
Behrens, W.W. (1972) The Lintits to Growth, New
York: Universe B o o k s .
GREY WATER
GROUND CONTROL
Wastewaterwhichdoesnotcontainthe
products of bodilyfunctions,beingmainly The use of observation and measurement at
product
the of bathing, showering, the earth’s surface to verify information
dishwashingand
similar
activities.
It is provided by remote sensing from satellites or
generallyconsideredsuitableforlawnand aircraft.
garden irrigation, and in areas such as the US
south-west where water is scarce, it is seen as GROUNDWATER
a simple way of increasing the efficiency of
water use. The water that accumulatesin the pore spaces
andcracks in rocksbeneaththe
earth’s
GRID-POINT MODELS surface.Itoriginates as precipitationand
percolatesdownintosub-surfaceaquifers.
Climatemodelsthatprovide full spatial The upper limit of groundwater saturation is
analysis of theatmosphere by means of a the water table. Groundwater moves under
three-dimensionalgridcoveringtheearth’s the influenceof gravity, although usually only
surface and reaching an altitude of as much slowly, and may
return t o thesurface
as 30 km. The progressive solution of thous- naturally - forexample,through springs.
ands of equationsateach of thesepoints Increasingly it is pumpedfrom wells and
allows powerful computers to provide simu- boreholes for
human use. The rate of
lations of current and future climates. withdrawal commonly exceeds the rate of
recharge, and in many areas the groundwater
supply is decliningrapidly. In theUnited
See also
General circulation models. States,most of themajoraquifersarenot
being recharged by precipitation as rapidlyas
they are being exploited and consequently are
GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT overdrawn.Thewithdrawalratefromthe
(GNP) Ogallala Aquifer beneath the Great Plains in
the United States is estimated to be 100 times
Thetotalvalue of all goodsand services the recharge rate, and the rapidly dropping
produced by a nation’s economy in a given water table means that water is being pumped
period of time,usually a year. It is a con- to the surface from depths in excess of 1800
venientbutcrudeindicator of the level of m. Similar problems of aquifer depletion are
economic activity in a country, and is com- occurring in other areas suchas Saudi Arabia,
monly used to differentiatebetweenmore China and India, where surface water isin
developed
countries
(MDCs)and less short supply, and groundwater is essential to
developed countries
(LDCs). In environ- meet local needs. In Mexico City, the demand
mental terms it can be misleading. The costs is so high that the water-tableis declining at a
of pollution clean-up, for example, add to the rate of morethan 3 mper year. Another
GNP, although in real environmentaland threat to groundwater supplies comes from
economic terms the impact is negative. Simi- contamination. Petroleum and chemical spills
larly,positiveenvironmentaldevelopments frequentlyseepintogroundwatersystems,
such as energy-efficientappliances,which and use of excessfertilizers and pesticides
benefitsociety by reducingpollutionand also contributes to pollution in some areas.
conserving resources, may actually reduce the The slowthrough-flow in most aquifers
GNP through thesavings they generate. ensures that the impact of thesepollutants
181
Figure G-12 The nature and sourcesof threats to groundwater
CONTAMINATION
continuesformanyyears.Incoastalareas,
the excess removal of freshwater from
aquifersmayallowtheincursion of salt
water, which effectively prevents further use
of the system for most domestic and indus-
trial purposes.
Further reading
Brown,A.G.(ed.) (1995) Geomorphologyand
Grozrndtuater, ChichestedNew York: Wiley.
Miller, G.T. (1994)Lzvrtzgin the Environment (8th
edition), Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Sloggett, G. andDickason, C. (1986) Ground-
water Minztlg zn theUnitedStates, Washington,
DC: Government Printing Office.
GROWING SEASON
Theperiod of theyearwhenmeandaily
temperaturesexceed
the
temperature
at
whichplant
growth
takes
place. Since
different plants mature a t different rates, the
length of the growing season will determine
the mix of natural vegetation and the typesof
crop that will grow in a particular area. In
mid- to highlatitudes,frost in springand
autumn will damage plants at the beginning
and end of the growing season, when daily
temperaturesexceedthegrowththreshold
but night-time values fall below zero.
GYRE
GULF STREAM
A warm ocean current, originating in the east-
ern Caribbean, which flows north along the
eastern seaboard of the United States before
swingingnorth-eastwardsintotheAtlantic
Ocean, whereit becomes the weaker and cooler
North AtlanticDrift. The latter is responsible
for warming Western Europe particularly in
the winter, when temperatures as far north as
northernNorwayareabnormallyhighfor
that latitude at that timeof year.
Further reading
Neumann, G . (1968) Ocean Currerrts, Amsterdam/
New York: Elsevier.
CYRE
The roughly circular patterns assumedby the
major surface currents in the world’s oceans.
Centredonthesubtropicalhighpressure
cells, the waterin these gyres circulates clock-
wisein thenorthernhemisphereandanti-
clockwise in the south, under the influenceof
the atmospheric circulation.
See also
Oceanic circulation.
 H
mosaic of areas differentin stages of
development. Changes may be minoror
The specific environment in which an organ- temporary - forexample,theresult of a
ism lives. Although the term may be linked forest fire - or much more dramatic and long
with a particular species - for example, the lasting - forexample,followingthemajor
habitat best suited for elephants - any given climate change which produced the ice ages.
environment will be shared by a variety of The impact on organisms also varies,from
organisms
that
have
requirements in minor to catastrophic, with the complete loss
common, or depend upon other organisms in of habitat perhapsbringing
about
the
thehabitat.Habitatsrange in scale, from extinction of a particular species.Increas-
worldwide to continental, to regional or local ingly, habitat change or loss is being caused
andevenmicroscopic. Thenature of any by human activitiessuch as deforestation,
habitat is determined by a large number of development of agriculture, industrialization
variables,butmostcan be groupedinto and urbanization. In many parts of the world
climatic,topographic,edaphicandbiotic the nature of the local o r regional habitat is
factors. Of these, the climatic factors - for anthropogenicallydetermined,and evenin
example, light, heat, moisture and wind- are areasgenerallyconsiderednatural,such as
generallyconsidered to be of mostimpor- the Arctic, the human imprint is present.
tance, particularly at largerscales. The others
become more importanta t a regional or local Further reading
scale,
sometimes in combination with Cox, G.W. (1993)Conservatton Ecology:Bios-
climate. The combination of topography and phereandBiosuruival, Dubuque, IA: Wm C.
Brown.
climate, for example, leadsto the zonation of Newman, A. (1990) The Tropical Rarnforest: A
vegetation with altitude, with a consequent World Survey of Our Most Valuable Endangered
zonation in habitats. Edaphic factors include Habrtats, New York: Facts o n File.
elements of soil structure, texture, chemistry Woodward, ET. (1987) Climate and Plant
D~stributton, Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity
andmoisturecharacteristics. Biotic factors Press.
includetheimpact of animalgrazingand, WorldResourcesInstitute(1992)‘Wildlifeand
increasingly, human interference. The habitat’, in World Resources 1992-9.3: A Gmde to
combination of all these elements determines the Global Enurrorzmertt, New York: Oxford
the resource availability in a specific habitat Unlversity I’rcss.
and therefore its carrying capacity. Habitats
tend to include a natural patchiness, brought HADLEY CELLS
about by local variations in topographical or
edaphicfactors,
for
example,and
they Convection cells thatform in thetropical
change naturally as a result of normal atmosphere north and south of the equator.
environmental
dynamics.
However,
the NamedafterGeorgeHadleywho, in the
response to change may differ from one part eighteenth century,developed
the classic
of a habitat to anotherand as a result a model of the generalcirculation of the
specific habitat suchas a forest may includea atmosphere based on convection. High
183 HALF-LIFE

Figure H - l The location and structureof the HALF-LIFE

tropical Hadley Cells
The time taken for a radionuclide to lose one
..-..*-L- tropical tropopause "=-.~-+."
...e
half of itsradioactivity. For example,a
nuclide with a half-life of ten years will lose
50 per cent of its original radioactivity after
the
first
tenyears, 50 per cent of the
remaining radioactivity over the second ten
years, and so on. Thus at the end of thirty
years, the substance will still contain 12.5 per
cent of its original radioactivity. The process
N.E. Trades zqne S E Trdm involves progressive
radioactive decay, in
30 - 40'N EQUATOR 30 - 40's which an unstable element releasesionizing
radiation, while producing a unique sequence
of decayproductsuntilastableelement
temperaturescause
the
surface
air in
remains. '"Uranium, for example, ultimately
equatorialregions to warm andbecome
decaysintothestableproduct 'ohlead, but
buoyant. Rising away from the sourceof heat
intermediate steps in the process include such
and under theeffects of adiabatic cooling, the
elements as 2'4thorium and z'4polonium. The
temperature of the air falls and it becomes
half-life of differentnuclidesvariesfrom
less buoyant.Unable to sinkback to the
seconds(2'4poloniumat1.64 x seconds)
surface because of the warm airrising behind
to billions of years (""uranium at 4.5 X 10'
it,it is divertednorthandsouthatthe
years).Witheachsucceeding half-life, the
altitude of the tropopause and
reaches
hazardpresented by a substancedecreases,
between 20 and 30"N and S before beginning
but with highly radioactive materials which
to descend. The world's great hot deserts are
have half-lives of millions or even billions of
located at these latitudes
beneath
the
years, the hazard persists beyond any human
descending arms of the Hadley Cells where
time-scale.Althoughtheconcept is most
thesubsidingaircreateslarge,warm,sub-
commonly used with reference to radioactive
tropicalanticyclones.Thestability of these
substances, it is alsosometimes used to
high-pressuresystems is so effective in
indicate the time taken for pollutants to be
counteracting the processes required to cause
expelledfrombiologicalsystems.Organic
precipitationthataridity is normal.From
theseanticyclonessome of theairreturns
towardstheequatorasthenorth-eastand Table H - l The half-life of selected
south-east
tradewinds to complete the radionuclides
circulation.Some o f theairmovingpole-
wards in the upper section of the Hadley Cell
is incorporated in the subtropical jet stream, RADIONUCLIDE
HALF-LIFE
which flows in the vicinity of the tropopause Polonium "To 1.64 x 10"s
above the sub-tropical high-pressure cells.
Krypton X'Kr 3.16 min
See also Radon ?2LRn days3.83
Adiabatic process.
Strontium 9nSr years
28.5
Further reading
Barry, KC;. and Chorley, R.J. (1992)Atnzosphere, Radium '"Ra 1.6 x 10' years
Weather and < : h a t e (6thedition),
London:
Routledge.
Carbon I4C 5.73 x 10' years
Uranium L'xu 4.47 x 10' years
HADLEY, G.
Indium ' 'In
I 4.41 x l o i 4years
See Hadley Cells. Source: After Cutnell and Johnson (199.5)
HALOGENATED HYDROCARBONS 184

mercury (Hg), for example, has a half-life of bromine (Br), commonly used in fire extin-
seventy days in the human body. guishers.Withozonedepletionpotentials
between 3 and 10, they are more effective in
Further reading destroying the ozone layer than chlorofluoro-
Cutnell, J.D. andJohnson, K.W. (1995) Physrcs carbons. A ban on halons was implemented
(3rd editton), New YorkTToronto: Wiley. in 1994.
Das, A. andFerbel, T. (1994) Imoductrolz to
Nuclear and Particle Physrcs, New York: Wiley.
See also
Bromofluorocarbons.
HALOGENATED
HYDROCARBONS
HAMBURGER CONNECTION
Hydrocarbons into
whichchlorine(Cl),
bromine(Br)
and/orfluorine (F) - the The linkbetweentheclearing of the equa-
halogen elements - have been introduced. In torial rainforest and fast food production in
some cases (for example, chlorinated hydro- the developed nations, particularly the United
carbons)thehalogensareaddedtothe States. Theforestsarecleared to provide
hydrocarbons,whereasinothers(chloro- grazing land for cattle and the meat produced
fluorocarbons,forexample),thehalogens is exported to
earn
revenue.The
direct
replacethehydrogen ( H ) atoms in hydro- environmentaldamagecaused by deforest-
carbons such as ethane and methane (CH,). ation is compounded by the loss of the carbon
Halogenated hydrocarbons such as organo- (C)sinkprovided by thetrees,
and an
chloride
pesticides
have
caused
major increase in methane (CH,) production from
problems in the terrestrial
and
aquatic thecattle.Thetermapplies to beef from
environments and chlorofluorocarbons have Central
America,
that
not
but
from
been responsible for ozone depletion and the Arnazonia, which is prevented from entering
environmental problems associated with it. theUnitedStatesforhealthreasons.The
‘hamburgerconnection’has been opposed,
See also with some success, by environmental groups
Halon, Organochlorides. such as the Rainforest Action Network.

HALOGENS Further reading

Hecht, S. (1990) ‘The sacred cowin the green hell’,
The Ecologrst 20: 229-35.
A group of highly reactive, toxic elements - Myers,N.(1981)‘Thehamburgerconnection:
fluorine (F), chlorine(Cl),bromine(Br), how
CentralAmericanforests
become North
iodine ( I ) - which occupy Group 7A in the America’s hamburgers’, Amhio 10: 3-8.
periodic table. They react readily with metals
to form salts (for example, sodium chloride) HARDWATER
andwithorganiccompounds to form a
variety of complexchemicals(forexample, See water quality.
organochlorides,chlorofluorocarbons).The
salts, or halides, are highly soluble in water
HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION
and are common constituentsof sea water.

Further reading
A water-basedcivilizationwhichdeveloped
Gutmann, V. (ed.)(1967-1968) Ha1ogc.n Chenl- in the Indus valley some 5000 years ago. Like
istry (3 vols), New York: Academic Press. the Egyptian and MesopotamIan civilizations,
Zumdnhl, S.S. (1993) Chenzrstry (3rdedition), it consisted of a number of city states sup-
Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath. ported by agriculture on thefertile river
floodplains. Its decline around 1800 BC was
HALONS onceattributed to invasion by adjacent
nomadic tribes, but current evidence suggests
Synthetic
organic
compounds
containing that drought wasa major contributing factor.
185 HEAT BUDGET

See also HEAT BUDGET

Agrarian civilizations.

Further reading
A measure of the net transfer of energy from
Calder, N. (1974) The Weather Machrne and the one body or system to another as a result of
Threat of Ice, London: BBC Publications. temperaturedifferencesbetweenthem.The
Singh, G., Joshi, R.D., Chopra, S.R. andSingh, transfer takes place through conduction, con-
A.B. (1974) ‘Late-Quaternary
history of the vection, radiation and evaporation.It applies
vegetationandclimate of theRajasthanDesert,
India’, PhilosophrcalTransactrons of the Royal to both animate and inanimate objects with
Society, B 267: 467-501. the ideal situation being a balanced budget in
whichtheheatenergyentering a body or
HARMATTAN system is balanced by the amount leaving. In
homeothermic animals such as humans, for
A hot, dry, dusty wind which blowso u t of the example, a balanced heat budgetis important
SaharaDesertovertheSahelandmuch of for themaintenance of theircharacteristic
WestAfricaduringthenorthernwinter. It stablebodytemperature.Therelationship
bringscontinentaltropicalairsouthwards may be represented as follows:
whichcontributes to theseasonaldrought
characteristic of the area. The Harmattan (or S=(M-W)+(’R’C-E)
the Doctor) brings a welcomerespitefrom where S = rate of heatstorage in body
the hot, humid, uncomfortable and unhealthy
conditionsassociatedwith
the
maritime M = rate of total metabolic energy
tropical air mass that covers the region for production
the remainder of the year, but the dust which
W = rate of external work
accompanies it causestransportandcom-
performed, expressed as its
munications problems.
heat equivalent
Further reading R = net rate of heat exchange by
Adetunji, J., McGregor, J. and Ong, C.K. (1979) radiation between the body
‘Harmattan haze’, Weather 34: 430-6.
and its environment
HAZARDOUS WASTE C = net rate of heat exchange by
conduction-convection
See waste classification. between the body and its
environment.
HAZE
E = rate of heat loss by
Fineaerosols, < l p m in diameter,heldin evaporation-convection to the
suspension in the atmosphere. Haze includes environment
dust and salt particles produced by natural (Mather 1974)
and human activities as well as hydrocarbons
such as terpenes released by vegetation. To maintain equilibrium, S should be zero. It
Althoughindividuallytheconstituents of mayvaryfromthat by small amountsfor
haze are invisible, together they can reduce limited periods of time, but a positive budget
visibility, particularly if they act as condens- will ultimately lead to heat stroke, whereas a
ation
nucleiand
attract
moisture. Haze negative budget, in which heat loss exceeds
aerosols scatter light and leadto variations in heatgain,maylead to hypothermia. On a
the colour of the atmosphere, particularly a t larger scale, the heat budget concept can be
sunrise and sunset. applied to the entire
eartldatmosphere
system. Thebudget is determined by com-
See also paring the input of solar radiation with the
Arctic Haze.
output of terrestrial radiation, which can be
represented by the equation:
HEAT ISLAND

Q* = K * + L * budgets of oceansandcontinentsarealso
quite different and a specific area can have
where Q* = net all-wave radiation flux
variations in its heat budget from season to
density
season. Geological and palaeoclimatic evidence
K* = net short wave radiation suggests that even over the longer term the
system remains in a stateof flux. The disrup-
L* = net long wave radiation
tion of the environment by human activities
(Oke 1987) also interferes with the heat budget. At a local
scale, deforestation,urbanizationandthe
Q* and L* may be positive or negative, but creation of reservoirs, for example, cause a
K* is either positive or zero (for example, at change in the local heat flow. On a larger
night),nevernegative.Balanceisachieved scale, increased atmospheric turbidity and the
when Q* = 0. Any imbalance would cause the depletion of the ozone layer alter the flowof
eartldatmospheresystemtobecomeeither incoming solar radiation while the enhance-
hotter or colder than normal. In practice, the ment of the greenhouse effect alters the outward
eartWatmosphere system’s heatbudget is flow of terrestrial radiation, allof which have
extremely complex - for example, it includes the potential to disrupt the heat budget.
storage elements which slow the heat transfer
- and seldom balances over the short term. See also
Thecomplexityinpartreflectsthegreat Energy budget.
variety of sub-systemsintheenvironment.
Further reading
The heat budget of tropical regions differs
Barry, R.J. and Chorley, R.C. (1992)Atmosphere,
from that in high latitudes, for example; the Weatherand
Climate, (6th edition), London:
Routledge.
Mather, J.R. (1974)Climatology:Fundamentals
Figure H-2 The components of a human and Applicutrons, New York: McCraw-Hill.
scale heat budget Oke, T.R. (1987)Boundary Layer Climates (2nd
edition), London: Routledge.

HEAT ISLAND

See urban heat island.

HEAVY METALS

Metals such as mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), tin

(Sn) and cadmium (Cd) that have a relatively
high atomic weight. Problems arise when they
are converted into a soluble organic form or
concentrated by hydrologicalorbiological
processesuntiltheybecomehazardous to
natural ecosystems and human health. The
mobilization of heavy metals in areas suffering
from acid rain may contribute to the decline
of aquatic biota. Methyl mercury, a soluble
Q* All W B M radiationflux OF Anthmpogenk
hem flux mercury compound, has been linked to nerv-
a,, Msbte heal flux OM Metabolic heat flux ous disorders and lead poisoning is a health
OE EvaporaHveheat flux 00 Ground heet flux problem of longstanding.Althoughheavy
AOS Change In net h e m storage
metalsarefoundnaturallyintheenviron-
ment, the main pollution problems arise from
Source: After Oke, T. (1978)Boundary Layer theirreleasefrommineralandmetalpro-
Climates, London: Methuen cessing and industrial activities. InBrazil, for
187 HERBIVORE

example, rivers have been polluted with selectiveherbicides.Phenoxyherbicidesare

mercury compounds used in gold (Au) mining routinelyused in forest regeneration to kill
and in Japan in the 19SOs, Minamata Bay off the unwanted species that compete with
was polluted by mercury compounds released theyoungseedings,andformanyyears
in the effluents from plastics factories. thousands of tonneswere usedin North
Americaduringthegrowingseasontorid
See also lawns of unwanteddandelionsandother
Minalnata disease. weeds.
Although very
effective,
these
syntheticherbicidescomewithanenviron-
Further reading mental price. Many are now recognized as
Fergusson,
T.G. (1990) The HeavyMetals:
Chemistry,Environmental
Impact and Health carcinogens, and 2,4,5-T has been banned for
Effects, OxfordMew York: Pergamon Press. most usesin theUnitedStatessince 1979.
Both 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T were constituents of
HEAVY WATER AgentOrange, a defoliant used by the US
forcesinVietnam.Theircontamination by
dioxin,apotentcarcinogenat very low
A form of water in which the hydrogen (H)
concentrations,made
them even more
atoms have been
replaced by deuterium.
hazardous
than
ususal.
Environmental
Heavywater, ordeuteriumoxide ( D 2 0 ) , is
problemshave led tothe restricteduse of
present in natural water in a ratio of about
many herbicides and the development of less
one part in 6500 and is separated from it by
hazardous replacements. New urea-based
fractionaldistillationorelectrolysis.Heavy
herbicides,for
example,which work by
water is used in the laboratory as a tracer in
inhibitingphotosynthesis,are less toxic t o
chemlcal reactions, and on an industrial scale
animalsand less persistent in theenviron-
is commonly used as a moderator and coolant
ment.
Continued
research
new
into
in nuclear reactors.
herbicides is alsorequiredbecause of the
See also
development of resistance in many weeds to
CANDU. existing herbicides.

Further reading See also

Miller, A.E. and van Alstyne, H.M. (1994) Heavy
Water: A Drstr?~ctrueatid Esserrttal Compot~errtof
CANDU, Chalk River, Ont: Chalk River Nuclear
Laboratories, Atomic Energyo f Canada Limited.
Ramage, J. ( 1983) Etrergy: A Gurdebook, Oxford:
Oxford Unlvcrsity Press.
Carhamatcs, Organochloridcs.
Further reading
Grower, R. (ed.) (1988) Etrorror~t~zerztal
Chemrstry
of Herhrcrdes, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

HERBICIDES HERBIVORE

Chemicals used to kill plants or inhibit their A plant-eating organism. The more obvious
growth. They are sprayed on the foliage or herbivores are
mammals, but
the
group
introduced into the root systems. General or includes a widerangefrominsectssuchas
broad-spectrumherbicidesaretoxic to all aphidsthroughsmallmammals such
as
plants,whereas selectiveherbicidestarget rabbits and grazing animals such as deer, to
onlyspecificplants.Herbicidestakemany the
largest of the
land
mammals, the
forms, that differ widely in their effectiveness elephant. Herbivores are considered primary
environmental
and impact.
Inorganic consumers,directlydependentontheplant
chemicalssuchascommonsalt(sodium speciesthatoccupythebase of all food
chloride (NaC1)) are simple and safe general chains.
Some
insect
herbivores
have
herbicides,
more
while
complex
the developeddependence
a uponparticular
chlorinatedphenoxyacetic acids,
such
as plant species, and adaptations among grazing
2,4-D and 2,4,S-T, which mimic the structure mammals include
specialized
teeth
and
of plant growth hormones, are very effective complexdigestive
systems
necessary to
HETEROGENEOUS CHEMICAL REACTIONS 188

enable
them to digest
plant
material. Shine, K. (1988) ‘Antarctic ozone - an extended
Domesticated herbivores such as sheep and meeting report’, Weather 43: 208-10.
cattle
are
an
importantcomponent of
agricultureinmanyparts of theworld. HIGH-LEVEL RADIOACTIVE
Through overgrazing,the
production of WASTE
waste and the releaseof methane (CH,) from
their digestive systems they contribute to a Wastematerialproduced by thenuclear
number of environmental problems. industry,itincludesspentfuelandrepro-
cessing waste. High-level nuclear wasteis hot
Further reading
andintenselyradioactivewhenproduced,
Crawley, M.J. (1983) Herbrvores: The Dynamics
ofdnimal-Plant Intera&ons, Berkeley: Universityof anditsdisposalmusttakeboth of these
California Press. factors into account. Much of the heat is lost
during the first decade of storage, but many
HETEROGENEOUS CHEMICAL of the fission products present in the waste
REACTIONS havelong
half-lives
and it will
remain
radioactivefortens of thousands of years.
Chemical reactions which take place on the Thebulk of the high-levelwastecurrently
surface of the ice particles that make up polar being produced by nuclear reactors is stored
stratosphericclouds.Thesecloudscontain on site in water-filled pools, steel drums or
nitric and hydrochloric acid particles which concrete silos. As theamount of waste
through
complex
a series of reactions accumulates - by the year 2000, the United
ultimatelyreleasechlorine
(Cl)
into
the States alone will have close to40,000 tonnes
stratosphere.
the
In
form of chlorine in temporary storage - some more permanent
monoxide(ClO)itthenattackstheozone form of disposal willbe required. Land-based
layer. Similar reactions have been identified disposal in deep mines or boreholes has been
onthesurface of stratosphericsulphate examined by a number of governments, while
particlessuchasthosereleasedduringthe others have considered deep ocean burial as a
eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991. possibility. Whatever method is chosen, the
challenge willbe to provide protection for the
Figure H-3 Heterogeneous chemical environmentoverthethousands of years
reactions in the Antarctic stratosphere required for the waste to lose its radioactivity.

See also
Actinides, Half-life, Nuclear waste.

Further reading
Brookins, D.G. (ed.) (1987)GeoIogrcul Disposal of
High-LevelRadioactweWastes, Athens: Theo-
phrastus Publications.
Edwards, R. (1996) ‘Sellafield’sTrojan Horse’,
New Screntrst 149 (2011):11-12.
Murray, R.L. and Powell, J.A. (1988) Under-
standing Nuclear Waste, Columbus, OH: Battelle
Press.

HOLOCENE
Source: Turco, R.P. (1997) Earth under Siege,
Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press The most recent or postglacial part of the
Quaternary period which began some 11,000
Further reading
years
ago,
following
the
decay of the
Keys, J.G., Johnston, P.V., Blatherwlck, R.D. and
Murcray,F.J. (1993) ‘Evidence for heterogeneous Pleistocene ice sheets.Ithasbeenchar-
reactions in the Antarctic autumn stratosphere’, acterized by considerable environmental
Nature 361: 49-51. changebroughtaboutmainly by climatic
189 HUMIDITY

variability. The disappearance of the ice a t agriculture and industry. Hormones are used
the endof the Pleistocene was followedby the to manage the growth and reproduction of
continuedamelioration of climatethat domesticated animals,
for
example, and
peaked about 5000years ago in the Climatic syntheticherbicides,whichimitatenatural
Optimum, allowing animals and vegetation hormones, are commonly sprayed on crops to
to migrate back to the areas recently vacated inhibit the growth of weeds. Hormones are
by the ice. At about the same time, the return also widelyusedinmedicine.Insulin,for
of water to the oceans from the melted ice example, is essential for
thecontrol of
sheets caused a major marine transgression. diabetes, while oestrogen, progesterone and
Since then,climatehasincluded a consid- testosterone
have been
used
in various
erable
number of fluctuations,
the best quantities and combinations for birth control
developedbeinganotherwarm spell in the since the 1960s.
early Middle Ages between c. AD 850 and
1200 - the Little Optimum - and a period of See also
deterioration,theso-calledLittle Ice Age, Metabolism.
between AD 1550 and 1850. Each of these
fluctuations was accompanied by measurable Further reading
Moore, T.G. (1989) Biochemzstry and Physzology
variations in such environmental elements as of PlantHormones (2ndedition),NewYork:
thedistribution of flora and fauna, partic- Springer-Verlag.
ularlyinhigherlatitudes in thenorthern
hemisphere. Human activities also feltthe
impact of thesevariations - forexample,
HUMAN DIMENSIONS OF
through agriculture. In the latest part of the
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL
Holocene, the disruption of the environment
CHANGE PROGRAM (HDP)
by human activitiesappears to havethe
potential to bringaboutclimatechange, Aprogrammesetup by theInternational
through, for example, the enhancement of the SocialScience Council (ISSC) in1988 to
greenhouse effect. examine
dynamics
the of inter-
the
relationships between society and the global
Further reading environment. A better understanding of such
Roberts,N. (1989) The Holocene: An Enurron- relationships will allow the identification and
mental History, Oxford: Blackwell. initiation of broad social strategies aimed at
Mannion,A.M. (1991) Global
Enuwonmental preventing or
mitigatingthe
undesirable
Change: A NaturalandCulturalEnvironmental
History, Harlow, Essex: Longman. impacts of globalchange.TheHDPhas
developed a research programme to address
HORMONE therelationshipsbetweentheenvironment
and such human factors as population size,
An
organiccompoundwhich
controls density, growthrateandsocialstructure,
specific metabolic functions in an organism. productionkonsumptionpatternsandtech-
Produced in only small quantities at a limited nologicaldevelopments.Data
from
such
number of siteswithin anorganism,hor- studies will permittheanalysis of policy
mones are
transported
target
to areas optionsavailablefordealingwithglobal
elsewhereintheorganism as required. In environmentalchangewhilepursuingthe
animals,
example,
for hormones
are goal of sustainable development.
produced by ductless endocrine glands, such
as the thyroid and pituitary glands, released HUMIDITY
intothebloodstreamandcarriedtothe
appropriate parts of the body. In plants, the A measure of the amount of water vapour in
hormones are translocated via thevascular the atmosphere. Absolute humidity refers to
tissue.
Hormonescontrol
the
growth, the total mass of water in a given volume of
reproduction and development of plants and air; specific humidity is the ratio of the mass
animals, and theiruse has become commonin of water vapour in the air to the combined
HUMUS 190

mass of the water vapour and the air; relative in harmonywiththeenvironment,taking

humidity is the amount of water vapour in from it only what they needed. That suggests
theaircomparedtotheamount of water someknowledge of theworking of the
vapour the air can hold at that temperature. environmentandsomedegree of control
In popularusagetheterms‘humidity’and over it. In reality, althoughtheseprimitive
‘relative humidity’ are commonly considered societiesunderstoodtheenvironment well
as synonymous. enough to survive,theyweremostlikely
dominated by it, and their development was
further reading very much limited by what it allowed them t o
Barry, R.G. and Chorley, R.J. (1992) Atmosphere, do. However, being few in number, and oper-
Weather utzd Climate (6th edition),
London: ating at low energy levels with only basic tools,
Routledge.
they did little to alter their environment.
HUMUS Further reading
Bettinger,R.L. (1991) Hunter-Gutherers: Archue-
Partially decomposed organic matter that is ology ami Euolrrtlotrury Theory, New York:
an essential component of fertile soil. Humus Plenum Press.
Burch, E.S. andEllanna, L.J. (cds) (1994) Key
is dark brown in colour, colloidal in structure Issues Hunter-Gutherer
Research, Oxford/
and rich in bacteriaandfungi.Itaidsthe Providence: Berg.
retention of soil moisture, helps to bind soil
particles together and bonds with nutrients, HURRICANE
keeping them in the upper layers of the soil
where they are easilyaccessible to growing
A
cyclonic
storm
whichforms
over
the
plants.
Thehumus-rich,black-earth soils
tropical North Atlantic Ocean with sustained
(chernozems) of temperategrasslandareas
wind speeds in excess of 64 knots (120 km/
suchasthemidwesternUnitedStateswere
amongthemost fertile in theworldwhen hr).
they were first brought under cultivation.
See also
T r o p m l cyclones.
See also
Clay-humus complex, Colloids.
further reading
Robinson, A. (1993) Eurthshock: Climate
further reading Cottrplexity and the Forces of Nuttrre, London:
Stcvenson, F.J. (1994) Hlrnrrts Chetmstry: Getwsrs, Thames and Hudson.
Composttrotr. Reactiom (2nd edition), Ncw York:
Wiley.
HYDRATION
HUNTING AND GATHERING
The addition of water or its constituents to a
Apre-agriculturalform of subsistencein chemical compound.
whichsocieties
obtainedfoodfrom
the
naturalenvironment by huntinganimals, See also
catching fish and collecting fruits, nuts and Anhydride, Dehydration.
seeds.
Hunting
and
gathering
societies
continue to exist, but few, if any, are HYDROCARBONS
untouched by moderndevelopments.They
may use iron tools or firearms, for example, Organic compounds composed o f hydrogen
as well as modern methodsof transportation, ( H ) and carbon (C) bound together in chains
andparticipate in themoneyeconomy by or rings.Theymay be solid,liquid or gas.
selling the products of the hunt and buying Hydrocarbons,such
petroleum
as and
manufactured goods. The impact of hunting natural gas, are used mainly as fuels, but are
and gathering societies on the environment also suitable foruse as lubricants andas feed-
was limited, and they are often seen as living stocksforavariety of industrialmaterials.
191 HYDROELECTRICITY

Figure H-4 The chemical structure of simple fuel with a C:H ratio of 1:4 (e.g. CH, -
and complex hydrocarbon methane),compared to petroleumwitha
ratio of c.l:2 (e.g. C,H,, - octane), and coal
H which has a ratio of no more than 1:l.
I See also
methane H-C -H Carbon tax, Fossil fuels.
I Further reading
H Schobert,
H.H.
(1991) The
Chemistry of
Hydrocarbon Fuels, London: Newnes.

HYDROCHLOROFLUOROCARBONS
HH H iso-octane (HCFCs)
\I/
H C H H H A widelyusedsubstituteforchlorofluoro-
I I I I I carbons (CFCs) consisting of hydrogen (H),
fluorine(F),chlorine (Cl) andcarbon (C).
H-C-C- C-C-C-H
Being less stablethanCFCs,hydrochloro-
I 1 I I I fluorocarbons begin tobreakdown in the
H C H C H troposphere before they can diffuse into the
I
/ ‘H / \H I ozonelayer.HCFCshaveozonedepletion
potentials (ODP) which range between 0.16
H H H H
and 0.016 and limited atmospheric lifetimes
H = hydrogen C = carbon of one to twenty years. As a result, they are
about 95 per cent less damaging than normal
CFCs, but still have a negative impact on the
The plastics and fertilizerindustries,
for
ozone layer. They are considered transitional
example,depend very much on products
chemicals between the major ozone destroy-
derivedfromhydrocarbons. As fuelsthey
ers and ozone-friendly replacements, and are
contributeto a number of environmental
to be phased out progressively by 2030 under
concerns.Whenburned in thepresence of
the terms of a series of agreements arising out
oxygen (0),hydrocarbonsreleasethermal
of the Montreal Protocol. Continuingreassess-
energy plus water vapour and carbon dioxide
ment of the ozone issue,however, makes it
(CO,), bothof which are greenhouse gases:
likely that deadlineswill be subject to regular
revision.
e.g. C,H,, + SO,---->5C0, + 6H,O
(pentane)
See also
Hydrofluorocarbons.
If combustion is incompleteorinefficient,
poisonous carbon monoxide (CO) will also Further reading
be produced.Most of theliquidhydro- Kanakidou, M., Dentcner, F.J. andCrutzen, P.J.
carbons contain few impurities, butif sulphur (199.5) ‘A globalthrec-dimensionalstudy of the
(S) is present combustion willresultinthe fatc o f HCFCs and HFC- 134ain thc troposphere’,
/olrrrza/ of Geophysical Research 100: 18781-801.
release of sulphurdioxide (SO,) intothe Turco, R.1’. (1997) Earth U d e r Siege: FromAlr
atmosphere to
contribute to acid rain. ~’ollutrort to GlobalChange, OxfordlNew York:
Impuritiessuchassulphurcan be removed Oxford University Press.
fromtheliquidandgaseoushydrocarbons
throughrefining,
but
the
problem
with HYDROELECTRICITY
carbon dioxide remains. Some relief can be
obtained by using hydrocarbons in which the Electricity produced by usingthekinetic
proportion of carbon (C) to hydrogen (H) is energy available in flowing water. Where the
low.In that respect,naturalgas is the best gradient of a stream is steeporanatural
 HYDROELECTRICITY 192

waterfallexists,thewatercan be directed Figure H-5 A diagrammatic representation

throughturbine
a to
drive
an
electric of a hydroelectric plant
generator. Damming the stream to create a
reservoir allows the continued generation of
electricity, even when the natural streamflow
is low. Hydroelectric systems are character-
ized by their efficiency, which can reach as
high as 90 per cent in some plants compared
with as little as 3 0 4 0 per cent in equivalent
thermal or steam-driven plants.
Hydro
systems can be brought on stream much more
rapidly than thermal plants, and are therefore
able to respond more effectively to changes in
demand.Modern developmentsthe
in
provision of hydroelectricityhaveinvolved
the construction of large integrated systems, electricity. Itis also much more efficient, since
producing in excess of one gigawatt (1X lo9 it uses a renewable energy source, with no
watts) of power (see
TableH-2)and loss of energy to the environment through the
providingirrigation,
flood
controland heatingandcooling of water.It is not
recreational facilities. Small-scale plants are completely problem-free, howevec The build-
alsobeingbroughtintoproduction.These ing of dams disrupts the local hydrology, for
microhydro units with outputs of as little as example, and the reservoirs created may take
100 kilowatts (100 X lo3 watts) are being agricultural land outof production, or displace
installed to provide electrical energy for local people. Because many of the best hydro sites
or on-site use with any excess being sold to are also areas of scenic beauty there may be
theregional utility. Hydroelectricityhasa conflict between the needsof tourists and the
number of environmentaladvantagesover developers. The James Bay Project in Canada,
electricity produced thermally. Sinceno fossil the Itaipu Dam inBrazil and the ThreeGorges
fuels areburned,there
is
no
pollution developmentunderconstruction in China
associatedwiththeproduction of hydro- have been criticized because of such problems.

Table H-2 Examples of large scale hydroelectric power schemes

PROJECT CAPACITY
(Gigawatts)
Cabora Bassa Mozambique
RiverZambezi 1.2
Zambezi Kariba
Churchill Falls Churchill
River
Canada 5.25
antins Tucurui 8.0
James Bay
10.0 CanadaRiver Grande La
Guri Venezuela River 10.0
ana Itaipu 12.6
Three
Gorges
(under
construction)
Yangtse
River
China 13.0
gu Altamira 18.0
Source: Various
193 HYDROGEN OXIDES

Hydropower currently provides between 20 synthesis of several industrial

chemicals
and 25 percent of the world’selectrical including ammonia (NH,), hydrochloric acid
energy, and there is considerable potential for (HCI) and methanol (CH,30H). With twoto
further development worldwide, but partic- three times the energy content of gasoline by
ularly in Africa, Asia and South America. weight, hydrogen has the potential to be a
majorfuelsource.Ithastheaddedbenefit
See also that it is non-polluting when
burned,
Dams, Reservoirs - environmental effects. producing
only
water. Being highly
flammable,however,
and
susceptible to
Further reading explosion under certain conditions, its wide-
Deudney, D. (1981) Rwers of Energy: The Hydro- spread use would be accompanied by safety
powerPotential, WashingtonDC:Worldwatch
concerns. Some of these would be obviated
Institute.
Fritz, J.J. (ed.) ( 1 984) Small and Mi711 Hydropower by storing the hydrogen in the form of metal
Systems: Resource Assessrnetrt and Prolect Feasi- hydride fuel cells, from which the gas could
bility, New York: McGraw-Hill. be released by heating as required. At present
McCutcheon, S. (1992) EIectrlc Rlvers: The Story the use of hydrogen as a fuel is not feasible
of the James Bay Project, New York: Paul.
because of the high energy cost - the energy
used to produce the hydrogen is greater than
HYDROFLUOROCARBONS thatavailablefromthe gas itself. Further
(HFCS) developmentseemsunlikelyunless a cheap
supply of the electricity needed for electro-
Organic chemicals containing hydrogen (H), lysis can be found.
fluorine (F) and carbon (C), which are seen
as
appropriate substitutes for CFCs and HCFCs Further reading
since they contain no chlorine (Cl) and have Dinga, G.P. (1988)‘Hydrogen:theultimatefuel
an ozone depletion potential (ODP) of zero. and
energy
carrier’, ]ournal of Chemlcal
Hydrofluorocarbons are very effective green- Educatmn, 65(8): 688-91.
house gases, however, with the potential to
contribute to globalwarming as their use HYDROGEN BOMB
increases.
See thermonuclear device.
HYDROGEN (H)
HYDROGEN ION
Acolourless,odourless, highly flammable CONCENTRATION
gas. With a mass numberof 1 it is the lightest
element,normallyexisting in a diatomic The number of hydrogen (H)ions in a litre of
molecular form (H2).It does not exist free in a substance. It is used to measure the acidity
the environment, but is commonly found in of a solution, and usually represented in the
combinationwithotherelementssuchas form of a p H value.
oxygen (0)and carbon (C) as water, carbo-
hydrates or hydrocarbons. Two other isotopes See also
of hydrogen are known - deuterium with a Acid.
mass number of 2 and tritium with a mass
number of 3 . These ‘heavy’ hydrogens occur HYDROGEN OXIDES (HO,)
inonlysmallamounts in theenvironment,
but both have been developed for use in the A group of naturally occurring compounds
nuclearindustry. Free hydrogen is manu- derived from water vapour (H,O), methane
factured by the actionof steam on water gas - (CH,)andmolecularhydrogen(Hz).They
a mixture of carbonmonoxide(CO)and includeatomichydrogen (H), thehydroxyl
hydrogen - or natural gas, in the presence of radical (OH) andtheperhydroxylradical
a catalyst.Itcan also be produced by the (HO,), referred to collectively as odd hydro-
electrolysis of water. Hydrogen is used in the gens. Although relatively low in volume, they
HYDROGENATION 194

Figure H-6 The destruction of ozone by hydrogen oxides

- @ + M
I

+M
r

are very effective ozone destroyers, because pheric pollution: multiplethreats to earth‘s ozone’,
Science 186: 335-8.
of their
participationin
catalytic
chain
reactions. The HOx group may be responsible
for about 11 per cent of the natural destruc- HYDROGENATION
tion of ozone in the stratosphere. Hydrogen
oxides lose their catalytic capabilities when The chemical combination of hydrogen (H)
they are converted to water vapour. with another substance. The process normally
requirestheaddition of heatandpressure
Further reading plus the presence of a catalyst. The hydro-
Hammond, A.L. and Maugh T.H. (1974) ‘Stratos- genation of coal causes the combination of
195 CYCLE HYDROLOGICAL

Figure H-7 The components of the hydrological cycle

advectionof moist air overland

4
(91

I I I I
I I I I evaporation I I I I I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I

aanspiration precipitation
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I

(84) I I I
I I I I

the carbon (C) in the coal with hydrogen (H) HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
to produce a synthetic oil containing a variety
of hydrocarbons.Theprocess(namedthe A complex groupof processes by which water
Fischer-Tropschprocessafteritsinventors) in its various forms is circulated through the
was developed in Germany in the 1930s, and earth/atmospheresystem. It is powered by
canproducetwobarrels of oil and almost solar radiation which provides the energy to
300 m' of gas per ton of coal. During the maintain the flow through such processes as
SecondWorld War, the German war effort evaporation, transpiration, precipitation and
dependedonthehydrogenation of coal to runoff. Short- and long-term storage of water
supplymuch of the oil it needed. More in lakes, oceans, ice sheets and the ground-
recently, South Africanplants
have been waterreservoir is alsopart of the cycle.
hydrogenatingsome 3500 tons of coalper Although it is usual to consider the hydro-
day by thismethod.Hydrogenation is also logical cycle as one all-encompassing system,
used in the food industry to harden liquid fats there are in fact many regional and seasonal
and oils. The production of margarine from variationsthatmayhaveenvironmentalor
animal and
vegetable oils, for
example, societal implications. The relationship between
requires hydrogenation. thevariouselements in the cycle in ahot,
semi-arid area, for example, is very different
See also from that in a cool, moist location. Similarly,
Destructive distillation.
in higher latitudes the difference in the cycle
between summer and winter is quite distinct.
Further reading
Kleinbach, M.H. and Salvagin, C.E. (1986)Erzergy The human impact on the cycle is mainly in
Technologies atztf Conuersro>1Systems, Engkwood the runoff sector, with water being diverted
Cliffs, NJ: Prcnticc-Hall. for domestic, industrial and agriculturaluses,
Rylander, P.N. (1985) HydrogenationMethods, but modern society interferes with almost all
London: Acadcmic Press.
aspects of the cycle. Evaporation and trans-
pirationaredisrupted by agriculturaland
forestry practices, boreholes and wells allow
HYDROLOGY 196
access to thegroundwatersystemandthe such as thefeldspars.Thehydrolysis of
construction of dams and reservoirs creates orthoclase to kaolinite is an example of the
additional storage. Since the cycle is a closed process in action.
system in material terms, human activities d o
notdepletetheentiresystem,butexcess 2KAISi,O, + 2H++ 9H,O ----, H,AI,Si,O, +
withdrawal from the runoff or (kaolinite)
groundwater (orthoclase)
sectors can create local shortages of water.
4H,SiO, + 2K’
Mosthuman usesinvolveonlyshort-term
withdrawal from the system, but when the
water is returned its quality is oftenmuch Organic compounds can also be decomposed
impaired by a variety of pollutants.The by hydrolysis.Esters,forexamplecan be
hydrolized into alcohol and acid, while the
cleansing of suchpollutedwater,mainly
through evaporation and precipitation, is an hydrolysis of thesugarsandstarches in
important but less well-acknowledged feature carbohydrates is the starting point for many
processes in the food industry. The hydrolysis
of the hydrological cycle.
of organic waste has the potential to reduce
waste
disposal
problems
and
recover
Further reading
Berner, E.K. and Berner, R.A. (1987) The Global
substancessuch as ethanolwhichcould be
Watercycle:
Geochemrstry
and
Envrronment, recycled by the chemical industry.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Briggs, D. and Smithson, P. (1997) Fundamentals Further reading
of Physrcal Geography (2ndedition),London: White, A.F. and Brantley, S.L. (eds) (1995)
Routledge. ChemrcalWeatherrngRates of SilicateMinerals,
Strahler,A.H. andStrahler,A.N. (1992) Modern Washington,
DC:
Mineraloglcal
Society of
Physical Geography (4th edition), NewYork: Wiley. America.

HYDROLOGY
The scientificstudy of water in theearth/
atmosphere system. It includes not only sur-
face water, but also water in the atmosphere
andinthegroundwatersystem. Physical
hydrologyfocuses on thedistributionand
circulation of water, while applied hydrology
is moreconcernedwithwaterandhuman
activities, and includes consideration of
water quality,irrigation,drainage,erosion
and flood control.
See also
Hydrological cycle.
Further reading
Ward, A.D. and Elliot, W.J. (eds) (1995) Environ-
mental Hydrology, Boca Raton, FL: CRCILewis.
Ward, R.C. and Robinson, M. (1990) Prrnciples of
Hydrology, Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill.
HYDROLYSIS
The decomposition of a salt in water to form
an acid and a base. The process is important
in the chemical weathering of rocks, partic-
ularly in thebreakup of silicateminerals,
HYDROMETEOROLOGY
The science thatcombineshydrologyand
meteorology, with its main emphasis on the
atmospheric sector of the hydrological cycle.
The analysis of meteorological elements and
events, for example, can be appliedto hydro-
logical issues such as flooding, irrigation and
domestic water supply.
HYDROSPHERE
Thatpart of theearth’scrustcovered by
water,bothsaltandfresh. It includesthe
oceans, seas, rivers and lakes, that together
cover about 74 per cent of the earth’s surface.
More than 95per cent of the volume of water
inthehydrosphere is in theoceans,with
maximum depths in the deep ocean trenches
in excess of 10 km. On land, the bulk of the
freshwater is located inarelativelysmall
number of large lakes such as Lake Baikal in
Siberia
and
the
Great
Lakes in North
America. Much of the hydrosphere, even that
in the middleof the oceans, suffers from some
degree of pollution.
197 HYPSITHERMAL

HYDROXIDE a result of prolonged exposure to low

temperatures and inadequate control of heat
A compound formed when one of the hydro- loss. This cooling causes reduced metabolic
gen (H)atoms in wateris replaced by another and heart rates and impairs mental functions
atom or group. Hydrogen is releasedin the because of reduced blood flow to the brain.
process, Whenhypothermia threatens,
the
body
responds by restrictingbloodflow to the
e.g. 2Na + 2H,O -->2NaOH + H, extremities where heat loss is greatest, which
(sodium
(sodium) maylead to tissuedamageintheform of
hydroxide) frostbite. Treatment for hypothermia involves
theslowraising of the body's temperature,
Metal hydroxides such as sodium hydroxide but inseverecases,
(for
example,core
are alkalis. temperaturebelow26-27°C)thismay be
insufficient to prevent death.
HYDROXYL RADICAL
See also
Heat budget.
See hydrogen oxides.
Further reading
HYPOLIMNION Pozos, R.S. and Wittrners, L.G. (eds) (1983) The
Nature and Treatment vf Hypothermra,
The colder,
denser
layer of water
lying Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
beneath the thermocline in a lake.
HY PSITHERMAL
See also
Epilirnnlon. See Climatic Optimum.

HYPOTHERMIA

The decline of thecorebodytemperature

(37°C in humans) to dangerously lowlevels as
-
ICE ICE AGES

The solid state of water. It occurs normally
when the temperatureof the water falls below
its freezing point (0"C),but is also formed by
the compaction and recrystallization of snow.
Ice crystals form in the atmosphere through
the condensation and freezing of water vapour
around condensation nuclei.
Periods in the geological history of the earth
whenglaciers and ice sheetscoveredlarge
areas of the earth's surface. Ice ages occurred
in series, separated by periods of temperate
conditions calledinterglacials. Geological evi-
dence indicates that major ice ages occurred
in Precambriantimes (>S70 millionyears

Figure 1-2 The distribution of ice during the most recent ice age: 20,000 to 18,000 years ago

Source: Moore, P.D., Chaloner, R . and Stott, P. (1996) G[oOnl E ~ ~ v ~ r o ~ t mCeh~u t~agle Oxford:
,
Blackwell Science
199 IGNITION

ago), and during the Cambrian, Ordovician
and
Permo-Carboniferous periods of the
geological time-scale. The most recent series,
the Quaternary glaciations, began some 2.5
million years ago and persisted until 10,000
years ago causing major disruption of land-
forms,drainage,animalcommunitiesand
vegetation.Duringthattimeperiodthere
may have been as many as twenty separate ice
ages andsomeobscrversconsidercurrent
conditions to represent an interglacial rather
than a postglacial period. Although ice ages
are
broughtabout by changing climatic
conditions,theexactmechanismsinvolved
remain a matter of controversy. Theories put
forward to explain the causes of the ice ages
range from sunspotcycles and changing solar
energy output to volcanic activity and
changes in theearth’sorbit(suchasthose
postulated by Milankovitch), all of which
have the ability to disrupt the earth’s energy
budget and the potentialto initiate cooling.
See also
Interstadial, Llttle Ice Age, Milankovitch cycles.
Further reading
Dawson, A.G. ( 1992) Ice Age Earth, London/New
York: Routledge.
Flint, R.F. (1971) Glacral and Quaternary
Geology, New York: Wiley.
Harvey, L.D. (1988)‘Climaticimpact of ice-age
aerosols’, Nature 334: 333-5.
Mannion, A.M.
(1991) Global Etzurrotzntentczl
Change:ANatural atzd Cultural Etruironnrerttal
History, Harlow, Essex: Longman.
Sharp, R.P. (1988) Living Ice: Uttderstatzdittg
Gluclers ami Gluctatrotr, New York: Cambridge
University Press.
atmospheric turbidity associated with volcanic
activity. Chemical analysis reveals the level of
atmospheric acidity in the past and variations
in the oxygen (0)isotope content of the ice
allows past climatesto be reconstructed as far
back as 150,000 years.
Further reading
Delmas, R.J. (1991)‘Environmentalinformatlon
from ice cores’, Reviews of Geophysrcs 30 (1):
1-21.
Mosely-Thompson, E. and Thompson, [..G. ( 1994)
‘Dust in polar ice sheets’, Analysrs 22 (8):44-6.
Robock, A. and Free, M.P. (199.5) ‘Ice cores as an
Index o f global volcanism’,l o u r m i of Ceophyszcal
Research 100: 1 1549-67.
IGNEOUS ROCK
One of the three fundamental groupsof rock
that make up the earth’s crust. Igneous rocks
areformed by thesolidification of molten
magma at the earth’s surface (extrusive origin)
or within the crust (plutonic origin). They are
generally crystalline in texture, larger crystals
being more common in rock such as granite
whichhascooledslowlywithinthecrust,
whereas smaller crystals are typical of rock
such as basalt which has cooled more rapidly
on
the
surface. Because of their acidic
composition, areas underlain by igneous rocks
such as granite are particularly susceptible to
acid rain.
See also
Lava,
Metamorphic
rock,
Sedimentary
rock,
Volcano.

ICE CORES Further reading

McBirney,A.R. (1993) Igneous Petrology (2nd
edition), Boston, MA: Joncs and Bartlett.
Columns of ice, usually up to 100 mlong,
removedfrom ice sheets or glaciersand
analysed to provide evidence of past environ- IGNITION
mentalconditions.Coreshave been taken
from mountain glaciers andice sheets around The initiationof the processof combustion. It
the world, but the most significant inform- may take place slowly, by the application of
ationhas been obtainedfromthethick ice anopen flame,
for
example, or rapidly
sheets of Greenland and Antarctica. The latter throughtheproduction of ahighenergy
provide information on the mass balance of spark.
the world’s major ice sheets and the changing
chemistry of the atmosphere. The presence of See also
dustlayersindicatesperiods of increased Ignitlon temperature.
IGNITION TEMPERATURE 200

IGNITION TEMPERATURE advantages, and the provision of systems to

preventtheemission of acidgases,toxic
The temperature to which a substance must materials and particulate matter has led to its
be heated to produce combustion. reconsideration as a wastedisposalsystem.
Municipal waste is frequently buried in sani-
IMPERMEABLE tarylandfillsites,but as theavailability of
suitablelocationsdeclines,incineration is
Having a structure that does not allow the increasinglybeingconsidered as an alter-
passage of liquids or gases.In thenatural native.Since
municipalwaste
commonly
environment,thepresence of impermeable includes as much as 40 per cent combustible
materials has implications for water supply, material,incinerationwould considerably
pollution control and petroleum production. reduce the bulk of the waste. In addition, the
The presence of animpermeablelayermay heat released can be used to produce steam
preventor
restrict
the
normalflow of and assist the
generation of electricity,
groundwater,forexample,andreducethe although the calorific value of waste is much
recoveryrate of a water well. Natural or lowerthanthat of coal.Theolddisad-
constructed layers of impermeable materials vantagesassociatedwiththeemissions of
such as clay or plastic sheeting are commonly acidgases andparticulatematterarenow
used to prevent the migration of pollutants under control, but problems with toxic gases,
fromdisposalsitesintoadjacentstreams, produced as a result of incompletecom-
lakes or groundwater systems. Because of their bustion, still remain. The ash produced can
ability to restrict the sub-surface flowof liquids also createproblems,since it maycontain
and gases, thenatureanddistribution of heavy metals and other toxic products that
impermeable rocks
exerts important
an requirespecialstorage or additionaltreat-
influence on the size and location of petroleum mentbeforedisposal.Incineration is parti-
deposits.Industriallyproducedimpermeable cularly effectivein dealingwithhazardous
materialssuch as metals, plastics and rubber organicwastessuch as thoseproduced by
products are important for the provision of hospitals or by industry. Special incinerators
containers,
pollution
control devices, have been designed to meet the requirements
protective clothing and health products. of specific waste products, and even the most
hazardousproducts - for example, poly-
See also chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxin - can
Permeability, Porosity. be disposed of safely by incineration.The
United
States
Environmental Protection
IMPERVIOUS Agency (EPA) requires a 99.9999 percent
efficiencybefore grantingpermitsforthe
Impermeable. operation of such in-cinerators. Such special-
ized devices also have the advantage that they
See also are usually mobile and can be taken to the
Pervious. waste source, thus reducing the dangersasso-
ciated with the transportation of hazardous
INCINERATION waste.

The disposal of waste material by burning. See also

Incineration was one of the earliest forms of Recycling.
garbage
disposal,
and
small
backyard
incinerators in the formof old, perforated oil Further reading
drums are still common in many parts of the Hester,R.E. andHarrison, R.M. (eds) (1994)
United States. Incineration fell into disfavour Waste lncrneration and the Envtronment,
Cambridge: Royal Society o f Chemistry.
in the 1970s and 1980s because of the gases Miller, G.T. (1994) Livrng in the Environment:
and particulate matter thatit released into the Prrnctples, Connecttorts and Solutrorts (8th
atmosphere.However, it doeshavecertain edition), Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
201 INERT ( G A S E S )

INDEX CYCLE creating a growing consumer demand. Although

See zonal index.
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Aperiod of rapidtransitionfromanagri-
cultural to an industrial society, beginning in
Britainin themid-eighteenthcenturyand
spreading to other partsof the worldin the next
two hundred years. It was characterized by a
major expansion in the use of coal as afuel, in
thesteamengineand in theiron industry.
Together, these encouraged the growth of new
industrial cities incorporating heavy industries
based on coal, iron and steel, as well as an
expanding textile industry powered by the new
steam engines. Railways and steamshipslinked
these cities with their sources of raw materials
andtheirmarkets.Populationgrew rapidly,
providing the necessary labour force and also
Figure 1-2 Improved metal working and
engineering techniques associated with the
Industrial Revolution allowed the creation of
such structures as this late nineteenth-
century railway bridge over the River Forth
in central Scotland, still used by mainline
traffic more than 100 years later
the Industrial Revolution was a period of great
technical achievement and economic develop-
ment, it also marked the beginning of increas-
ingly serious environmental deterioration. The
rapidly growing population, new urbanization
and industrialization created local and regional
environmental stress through such elements as
sewagedisposal, mineralextraction, energy
conversion and the sprawl of urban-industrial
activities over the adjacent rural land. Current
environmental issues such as acid rain, global
warming,atmosphericturbidityandwater
pollution have their roots in activities initiated
or expanded during the Industrial Revolution.
Industrializationbasedoncoalcontinuesin
Chinaand India, creatingthepotentialfor
further environmental deterioration in these areas.
See also
Acid mine drainage, Pollution, Smog.
Further reading
Alfrey, J. and Clark, C. (1993) The Landscape of
Industry, London: Routledge.
Ashton, T.S.(1967) The lndustrtal Rwolutton -
1760-1 830,London: Oxford University Press.
Hudson, P. (1992) lndustrral Revolutron, London:
Edward Arnold.
Morris, R.J. and Langton, J.(1986) Atlas of
Industrializrng Brrtain, London: Routledge.

INERT (GASES)
Substances that are inert do not participate
readily in chemical reactions. Few substances
arecompletelyinactive. Even some of the
noble gases - argon, neon, helium, krypton,
radonandxenon - oncethought to be
completely inert are now known to produce
compounds with
other
chemicals.
The
stability of asubstancemaychangewith
environmental conditions. Nitrogen (N), the
commonest gas
the
in
atmosphere, is
effectively inertundernormalatmospheric
conditions.
dilutant
acts
aIt
as for
atmospheric oxygen (O), but
does
not
become chemically involved with it. At high
energy levels, however, following a flash of
lightning or the spark in aninternal
I
combustion engine, the nitrogen (N) becomes
Ri active and combines with the oxygen ( 0 )to
produce oxides of nitrogen (NOx).Similarly,
Photograph:The author CFCs which are
inert
under
normal
INFILTRATION
conditions of temperature and pressurein the
troposphere become unstable when exposed
to different
conditions in upper
the
atmosphere. As a resulttheybreakdown,
creatingby-productsthatinitiatechemical
reactions destructive to the ozone layer.
INFILTRATION
The penetration of the pore spaces or cracks
in a permeable body by a fluid. The
percolation of rainwater into
soil is an
example of the infiltration process.
See also
Infiltration capacity.
INFILTRATION CAPACITY
The rate at which water percolates into the
soilfromthesurface.Infiltrationcapacity
tends to be greaterwhen a soil is dryand
diminishes as the soil gets wetter. If the pore
spaces in a soil are filled or water is added at
a rate that exceeds the ability of the soil to
absorb it - forexample,during a heavy
thunderstorm - theexcesswater will flow
over the surface. Infiltration capacity varies
withsoilstructure,vegetationcoverand
slope,andanyactivity
that
alters
these
factorsmay have a localenvironmental
impact.The removal of vegetation, by
allowing precipitation
to
reach
the
surface more rapidly thanit can be absorbed,
willeffectivelyreduce infiltrationcapacity.
Thisencouragesgreaterrunoffwhichcan
lead to accelerated erosion.
INFRARED RADIATION
Low energy, long wave radiation, sometimes
referred to as heatradiation,withwave-
lengths between 0.7 pm and 1000 pm in the
electromagnetic spectrum. Terrestrial radiation
is infrared. It is captured by the atmospheric
greenhousegasesand as a result is respon-
sible for the heating of the earth/atmosphere
system. Infrared radiation is not visible to the
human eye, but instruments which sense the
production of infraredradiationhave been
developedforavariety of purposes.For
202
example, they areused in weather forecasting
to measure variations in the temperature of
clouds, inforestry to distinguishbetween
healthy and diseased trees, in engineering to
identify areas of heat loss in buildings, and in
medicine tolocatehotspots in thebody
which may indicate the presenceof malignant
growths. Because infrared radiation
can
penetrate fog and haze, infrared sensors may
providedetailedinformationnotavailable
from visual sensors. Permanent records can
be produced by usingphotographic film
sensitive to radiation in the infrared section
of the spectrum.
Further reading
Faughn, J.S., Turk, J. and Turk, A. (1991) Physrcal
Science, Philadelphia: Saunders.
Vincent, J.D. (1990) Fundarnentals of Infrared
Detector Operationarzd Testrng, New York: Wiley.
INORGANIC MATTER
Material which is of mineral origin, and does
not contain carbon (C) compounds except in
the form of carbonates.
INSECTICIDES
Chemicals used to kill insects. They may be
naturalorsynthetic in origin.Theformer
includenicotinesulphate,
obtainedfrom
soil tobacco leaves, pyrethrum,extractedfrom
the heads of chrysanthemums, and rotenone
from the root of the tropical derris plant. In
addition to thesebotanicals,micro-organ-
isms also provide natural control of insects.
The
bacterium Bacillus thuringensis,for
example, has provedvery effective against the
sprucebudwormoutbreaksthat cyclically
threatentheconiferousforests of North
America. Natural insecticides do not persist
in the environment, areeffective at lowdoses,
donotaccumulate in organisms,arenot
biologicallyamplified and
havelow to
moderate toxicity for
humans and
other
animals. However, they tend to be expensive
to produce. Syntheticinsecticidesinclude
chlorinatedhydrocarbons,organophosphates
andcarbamates.Theyaregenerally very
effective in killing insects, but come with certain
drawbacks. The
chlorinated
hydrocarbon
203 INSULATION

DDT, forexample,played a majorpart in spaces contained within them. The efficiency

controlling malaria in tropical regions suchas of insulatingmaterial is indicated by its
Sri Lanka(Ceylon) in thelate1940sand RSI-value - a numerical representation of its
1950s. However, because of its persistence in resistence to heat transfer. Insulation is impor-
the environment, its bioaccumulation and bio- tant for comfortin clothing and buildings and
logical amplification in food chains, it presented for safety in the home and in the workplace,
a major threat to wildlife and has sincebeen but it also has economic and environmental
banned or severely restricted in its use. implications. During the energy crisis in the
Although organophosphates have only a low 1970s,additionalinsulationwasaddedto
persistence anddonot accumulate in the residential, office and industrial buildings to
environment, they are highly toxic to mammals reduce heat loss and as a consequence save
andaccountformosthumandeathsfrom fuel andreducecosts.Greaterattentionto
insecticide poisoning. Carbamates aregenerally insulationwouldhelptobringabout a
considered to be the least dangerous of the syn- decline in the demand for energy, reduce the
thetic insecticides, but they too are highly toxic directenvironmentalimpact of fossilfuel
for fish and beneficial insectssuch as honey bees. extraction and have a positive effect on the
emission of greenhouse gases and acid gases.
See also Insulation also refers to the prevention of the
Organochlorides, Pesticldes. flow of an electric current. Electrical insulators
are essentialforthesafe use of electricity.
Further reading They include non-metallic substances such as
Hodgson, E. andKuhr R.J. (eds) (1990) Safer glass, plastic and rubber.
Insecticides: Developmerzt and Use, New York: M.
Dekker.
Laird, M., Lacey, L.R. andDavidson, E.W. (eds) Table 1-1 Insulation efficiency
(1990) Safety of Microhm1 Irzsectlc-rdes, Boca
Raton, FL: CRC Press.
*R-VALUE
INSOLATION PER INCH
Loose fill insulation
A measure of the solar radiation arriving at
theearth’ssurface. 2.4-3.5
In detail,itsvaluemay glassfibre
representtheintensity of either
3.7direct fibre
or cellulose
global (direct plus diffuse) radiationon a unit
2.1-2.5 vermiculite
area at a specific time on a specific surface. It
3.0-3.3
varies according to such elements as the solarpolystyrene
loose
constant, the timeof year, latitude, slope and wood shavings 2.4
aspect of the receiving surface andthe Batt or blanket insulation
transparency of the atmosphere.
batts glassfibre 2.9-4.0
INSULATION Rigid board insulation
extrudedpolystyrene(blue) 5.0
The reductionof heat transfer by conduction.
expanded polystyrene (white) 3.4-4.2
Insulationcan be provided by a variety of
materials ranging from natural substances such phenolic
board
4.2
foam
as feathers or wood shavings to completely 5.0-6.0
polyurethane
slabs
synthetic products suchas polystyrene sheeting.
Foamed-in-place insulation
Since air is a poor conductor of heat,
insulating materials incorporate air spaces or4.3-4.9
ureaformaldehyde
are arranged in such a way as to produce and 4.7-5.0
polyurethane
foam
maintain air spaces. Natural goose or duck
down in clothing, for example, and fibreglass *R-value is a measure of the resistance of
batts in walls owe their efficiency to the air insulation to heat transfer
INTEGRATED 204
further reading variety of methods of solidwastedisposal
Argue, R. (1980) The Well-Tempered House: aimedatcausingtheleastdamage to the
Energy-Efficletzt
Building
for
Cold
Climates,
Toronto: Renewable Energy in Canada. environment. It includes all forms of disposal
- sanitary landfill, incineration, recycling and
INTEGRATED PEST composting - with the relative proportions
MANAGEMENT (IPM) varying from place to place and from time to
time.Ideally thewastestreamwould be
An ecological approach to pest management, managed in such a way that the proportionof
which involves a combination of biological, solidwastedisposed of inlandfill o r by
chemical and cultivation techniques of pest incinerationwould be minimal.In reality,
control. It is notaimedatthecomplete perhaps 20 to 40 per cent of waste would still
eradication of a specific pest population, but have to be buried or burned. Estimates in the
is designed t o maintain the pest population United States see the proportion remaining at
belowthe level at which it begins to cause about 75 per cent until the end of the twent-
economicallyunacceptable losses to plants ieth
century,but
individual
communities,
and animals. The methods used tend to rely through a combination of recycling and com-
on low-level technology and may include, for posting,mayalready be approachingthe
example,thephysicalremoval of certain lower rates.
bugs,thecultivation of cropsthatprovide
some mutual protection from pests or the use See also
of botanicalinsecticidesandnaturalpred- Compost.
ators. When used in the proper sequence and
with appropriate timing, IPM techniques can Further reading
I’feffer, J.T. (1992) Solid Waste Marzagemerrt
reduce pesticide use and pest control costs by Etzgitreervzg, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
50 to 90 per cent. With fewer pesticides being
used,therisks t o wildlife andtohuman
health are also reduced. Although IPM has INTERACTIVE MODELS
clear long-term benefits for the environment,
its widespread adoption has been hampered Generalcirculationmodelswhicharepro-
by certain short-term disadvantages. Initially grammed to deal with the progressive change
it tends to be costlier, more labour-intensive set in motionwhenoneormore of the
and slower to produce results than conven- components of the atmosphere is altered. In
tional pesticides, for example. In addition, it the
original
nuclear
winter
studies,
for
requires a better understanding of crop/pest example,themodel used assumedthatthe
relationships than other pest control systems smokeproduced by thenuclearexplosions
andinadequatetraininghasundoubtedly wouldremain a passive constituent of the
slowedtheimplementation of IPM tech- atmosphere, to be redistributed by the exist-
niques.Whereithasbeenintroduced - in ing
circulation
pattern.
However, further
Indonesia, China and Brazil - it has met with studies using an interactive model indicateda
considerable success. more complex situation. It showed that the
ability of the smoke to absorb solar radiation
Further reading would cause the temperature structure of the
Horn, D.J. (1988) Ecologrcul Approach to Pest atmosphere to change, and thisin turn would
Matzagemertt, New York: Guilford.
Van
den
Kosch, R. and Flint, M.L. (1981) eventually alter the circulation pattern. The
ftztrodrrctrort to futegruted Pest Matzagenzerrt,New smoke would then be dispersed by this new
York: Plenum. circulation which it had helped to produce.

Further reading
INTEGRATED SOLID WASTE Thompson, S.L. (1985) ‘Global intcractive
SYSTEM transport
simulations of nuclear
warsmoke’,
Nature 3 17: 3.5-9.
Asystembased onthecombination of a
205 TRANSFER INTERBASIN

Figure 1-3 Proposed interbasin transfer schemes in North America

Source: Mungal, C . and McLaren, D.J. (1990) Plunet under Stress, Don Mills, Ont: Oxford University
Press

INTERBASIN TRANSFER ation

rates
would likely
follow, stream
morphologywouldbealteredbecause of
The movement of water from one drainage changes in the rates of erosionand
basin to another, usually to meet the needs of deposition, and species transfer and habitat
irrigation
or
the
production of hydro- change would have a substantial impact on
electricity. Associated with the basic hydro- the aquatic community. In the 196Os, major
logical changes that this produces, there are geographical
engineering
schemeswere
impactson specificelements suchasthe proposed to improve thedistribution of
regional water balance, stream morphology continentalwatersuppliesthroughmassive
and aquatic biology of the basins involved. interbasintransfers.TheNorthAmerican
Existing environmental checks and balances WaterandPowerAlliance (NAWAPA), for
appear to beabletocopewithcurrent example,wasaschemethatenvisionedthe
relativelysmall-scaletransfers,but as the southward diversion of most of themajor
demand for water continues to increase, it is streamsflowingintotheArctic, to provide
expectedthat
the
need
for
larger
scale domesticandirrigationwaterforthe US
interbasintransfers will be greater.Should south-west, and to improve water supply for
thathappen,significantchanges in evapor- navigation and pollution control in the Great
INTERGLACIAL 206

Lakes basin. A similar scheme in what was ocean sediment evidence of past interglacials
then the USSR proposed the diversion of the suggests that the current conditions represent
northwardflowing rivers of Siberia south- the later stages of an interglacial cycle. There
wards into the Caspian and Aral Sea basins aresomeindications, however, thatglobal
and inAfrica thediversion of the River warming induced by human activities may be
Congo northwards into the Lake Chad basin sufficient to slow orperhapsreversethe
was seen as a means of dealingwiththe deterioration.
chronic water shortage in the central Sahara
Desert.Suchgrandioseschemeshavethe See also
potential for major environmental disruption Interstadial.
and,althoughnonecame to pass, future
demands for water maysee them resurrected. Further reading
Dawson, A. (1991) Ice AgeEarth, London/New
York: Routledge.
Further reading Deynoux, M. (ed.) (1994) Earth’s GIaclal Record
Griggs,N.S. (1996) WaterResourcesManage- (Internatzonal
Geological
Correlation
Prolect
ment: Pritzclples, Regulations and Cases, New 260), CambridgelNew York: Cambridge Universlty
York: McCraw-Hill. Press.
Simons,M.(1971)‘Long-termtrendsinwater Mannion, A.M. ( 1 9 91 ) Global Enviro?zmerztal
use’, in K.J. Chorley (ed.) Iutrodrrction to Change:ANatural ami CulturalE?lurronmnltal
Geographical Hydrology, London: Methuen. History, Harlow, Essex: Longman.

INTERGLACIAL
INTERGOVERNMENTAL
A warm phase between the glacials of an ice OCEANOGRAPHIC
age. Theimprovedclimatic
conditions COMMISSION (IOC)
supportedmajorenvironmentalchanges in
soils, vegetation and wildlife, which followed Established as part of the UN Educational,
a recognizable pattern through the duration Scientific Cultural
and
Organization
of theinterglacial. Of thesethevegetation (UNESCO) in the early 1960s to co-ordinate
changeswereprobablythemostobvious. global ocean science programmes,theIOC
Although complex in detail, varying in time promotes the studyof a wide range of elements
and place as the plant
communities in the oceanic environment, including ocean
assembled and disassembled,thechanges dynamics, marine pollution, ocean mapping
probably followed a similar sequence during andbiologicalresources. As a co-sponsor
eachinterglacial. In northernlatitudes,for of theWorldClimateProgram(WCP), it
example,thetundrawhichcolonizedthe supports investigation into oceadatmosphere
opengroundexposed by theretreating ice interactions with a view to improving know-
was replaced in sequence by grasslandand ledge of weather and climate processes.
woodland with the climax being represented
by temperatedeciduousforest.Subsequent See also
climatic deterioration and the return of the TOGA, WOCE.
ice reversedthese
improvements
and
ultimately brought the interglacial to an end. INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL
Although the
present
period of relative ON CLIMATE CHANGE (IPCC)
warmth - the Holocene - which began some
10,000 years ago, is oftenreferred to as group
A of eminent scientists
brought
postglacial, it can also be considered as an together in 1988 by theWorldMeteoro-
interglacial.
Peak
ecological
conditions logical Organization (WMO) and the United
occurredsome 5000 years ago duringthe NationsEnvironmentProgram(UNEP). It
Climatic Optimum, and since then there has was charged with assessing the overall state
been an overallgeneraldeteriorationwith of research on climate
change, so that
variations suchas the Little Optimum and the potentialenvironmentalandsocioeconomic
Little Ice Age. Comparison with ice core and impacts might be evaluated, and appropriate
207 A G E N C YE N E R G Y IANTTOEM
R INCA T I O N A L

response strategies developed. This involved Response Strategtes,Washington, DC: Island Press.
three
workinggroupschargedwith
the IPCC
(1992a) Climate Change 2992: The
SupplementaryReportto the IPCC Screntific
following: Assessment, Camhrldge: Cambridge Unlversity
Press.
WC1 - to assess available scientific II’CC (1992b) Climate Change 1992: The
information on climate change Strpplementary Report to theIPCC
lmpacts
Assessment, Canberra: Australian
Government
W G I I - to assess environmental and Publishing Service.
socio-economic impacts of IPCC (1995) Climate C h a q e 1994: Radiattve
Forctttg v / Climate Change and an Evuluatton of
climate change thelPCC IS92 Emtssron Scettarios, Cambridge:
W C 111 - to formulate response Cambridge University Press.
IPCC (1YY6a) Climate Change 1YY.Y: The Science
strategies of Climate Change, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Theirreports - scientific
a overview, an IPCC(1996b) Climate Change 2995: Impacts,
impact assessment and response strategies - Adaptattortsand Mitlgatiorr of Climate Change:
Scientific
and
TechwcalAnalysts, Cambridge:
wereproduced by 1991. A supplementary Cambridge University Press.
reportwas issued in 1992, generallycon- IPCC ( 1 9 9 6 ~ )ClimateChange 1995: Economrc
firmingthe
originalassessments,and by and Socral Dtmensrotts of Climate Chatzge,
mid-1994asecondsupplementaryreport, Camhrldge: Cambridge University Press.
focusing on radiative forcing of climate, had Kemp, D.D. (1997) ‘As the world warms: climate
change 1995’, Progress tn Physlcal Geography 21
been completed. Because of the rapid (2): 310-14.
accumulation of data in the field of climate Masood, E. (1996)‘Climatereportsublectto
change, a second comprehensive report was scientific cleansing’, Nature 381 (6583): 546.
considered necessary. Most of thecontrib-
utors to the second assessment were university INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
or government scientists, with limited numbers
fromprivateresearchagencies,companies A heatenginepowered by thecontrolled
and non governmental organizations (NGOs). combustion of a fuel in an enclosed cylinder.
Representatives from environmental advocacy The
thermal
energy is convertedinto
groups such as Greenpeace were among those mechanicalenergy by means of amoving
who reviewed the
original
documents. piston.Themostcommon fuelusedin the
Completed in December 1995, was
it internal combustion engine is petroleum, and
presented to the signatories of the UNCED at the high temperatures and pressures of the
Framework Convention on Climate Change combustion cycle, pollutants such as oxides
(FCCC)prior to publication in mid-1996. of nitrogen (NOx)
are
produced
and
Central to the report was the recognition of exhausted to the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide
thehumancontribution in currentclimate (CO,)andwaterarealsoproducedand
change. It alsorecommendedthataction inefficient combustion allows the formation
should be taken to halt global warming and of carbonmonoxide(CO)andunburned
because of the time-lags involvedit concluded hydrocarbons. In most urbanareas,
the
that action could no longer be delayed. The internalcombustionenginemakesamajor
1995 IPCC report also provided background contribution to atmospheric pollution.
scientific data for subsequent FCCC negoti-
ations on greenhouse gas emission targets. See also
Catalytic converter, Photochenwal smog.
Further reading
IPCC ( I 990a) Climate Cbattge: The IPCC INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC
Scteirtific Assessmettt, Cambridge: Cambridge ENERGYAGENCY(IAEA)
Unlversity Press.
IPCC ( 1 990b) Climate Change: The lPCC Impacts
Assessment, Canberra: Australian
Government A United Nations agency concerned with the
Publishing Service. commercialandscientific uses of atomic
II’CC ( 1 9 9 0 ~ ) Climate C h a qTe :h e lPCC energy and radioisotopes. It provides for the
INTERNATIONAL BANK F O R RECONSTRUCTION AND
DEVELOPMENT 208

exchange of information on
radioactive Group on GreenhouseGases(AGGG)and
materials, for example, and monitorslevels of comprehensive programmes suchas the Inter-
exposure to radioactivity. Recommendations national Geosphere-Biosphere Program (IGBP).
fortreatment of victims of theChernobyl
disasterwerebased in part on information INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
provided by the IAEA. ASSOCIATION (IDA)
INTERNATIONALBANKFOR An agency that, in association with the World
RECONSTRUCTION AND Bank, makes interest-free loans to theworld’s
DEVELOPMENT (WORLD BANK) poorest countries. Some seventy countries are
eligible, butarerequired to preparecom-
A financial institution founded in 1945 under prehensiveenvironmentalactionplans as a
the auspicesof the United Nations. The initial prerequisite for IDA assistance.
impetus for the organization arose from the
need to support reconstruction and develop- INTERNATIONAL
ment in war-torn Europe. Since then, it has GEOGRAPHICAL UNION (IGU)
expandeditsoperations to facilitatetrade
anddevelopmentworldwide,and is partic- Created in 1922 as an internationalgroup
ularly active in the Third World countries of withtheaim of promotingthestudy of
Africa, Asia and Latin America. It contracts geographical issues. It maintainsthataim
research and publishes technical papers on a through regular congresses, commissions and
widerange of monetaryanddevelopment study groups. Activities include the initiation
issues and sponsors other non-governmental and
co-ordination of international
geo-
agencies or institutes such as the Inter- graphical
research,
collection
the and
national
Institute for Applied
Systems dissemination of geographicalinformation
Analysis (IIASA).Through such activities, the andtheparticipation of its members in
World Bank has the potentialto contributeto international organizations.
the
understanding
and
amelioration of
environmental issues. INTERNATIONAL
GEOSPHERE-BIOSPHERE
Further reading PROGRAM (IGBP)
Nelson, R. (1990) Dryland Management: The
‘Desertification’Problem,World BankTechnrcal An interdisclplinary research programme ini-
Paper No. 16, Washington, DC: World Bank.
World Bank (1988) The World Bank’s Support for tiated by the ICSU in 1986, initially Intended
the AIIevratron of Poverty, Washlngton, DC: World to continue for ten years. Its objective is to
Rank. describe and understand thevarious processes -
physical, chemical, biological - which together
INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF regulate the whole earthhtmosphere system.
SCIENTIFIC UNIONS (ICSU) The IGBP is also concerned with the changes
that are taking place in the system and the
A non-governmental organization foundedin ways in which these
changes are
being
1931 with the aim of promoting all branches initiated and Influenced by human activities.
of science and encouraging the exchange of The programme integrates other activities of
scientific data through international scientific the ICSU, for example, through its Scientific
co-operation. It initiatesandco-ordinates Committee on Problems of the Environment
researchprojects attheinternational level, (SCOPE), and provides a framework for other
encouragesinterdisciplinary
research
and interdisciplinaryprogrammeswhichcontri-
monitorssuchelementsastherights, free- bute to thestudy of globalchange.These
doms and responsibilities of scientists. The include the International Global Atmospheric
ICSU is particularlyactive in theenviron- Chemistry Project (IGACP), Biological Aspects
mental field, having been instrumental in the of theHydrologic Cycle (BAHC)andthe
formation of groupssuch as theAdvisory Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS).
209 MC
IENO
TTE
NEO
GRRNO
EAS
LTO
SI OGNI C
AALL

INTERNATIONAL GLOBAL issues as

global
climate
change,
world
ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY agriculturalpotential,demographicchange
PROJECT (IGACP) and energy resources.

A core project of the IGBP concerned with Further reading

atmospheric chemistry and global pollution.
It is particularlyconcernedwithbiogeo-
chemicalinteractions in thebiosphereand
atmosphere and their impact on climate. The
research activities involved in the project will
ultimately provide a better understanding of
the processes that regulate the climatologically
active constituents of the atmosphere.
INTERNATIONAL
HYDROLOGICAL PROGRAM
(IHP)
An extension of the International Hydrologic
Decade which ended in 1974 after ten years
of internationalscientificco-operationon
water
problems. Under
the
auspices of
UNESCO, themandate of theIHP is to
develop the scientific and technical capacity
to permittherationalmanagement of the
world’s freshwater resources, in terms of both
quality and quantity.
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR
APPLIED SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
(NASA)
A non-governmental interdisciplinary research
instituteformed in 1972 as aresult of co-
operation between the United States and the
former USSR, and sponsored in part by the
World Bank. It is concerned mainly with the
assessment of the interactions
between
human activities and the environment, with
itsresearchfollowingthreemainthemes:
global
environmental
change,
global
economic and technological transitions, and
methods for the analysisof global issues. The
IIASA’s research activities
have
depended
heavily onthedevelopment of computer
models,suchastheRegionalAcidification
Information and Simulation Model (RAINS),
which is used for teaching,researchand
policy development on acid rainin more than
seventeen countries. Computer modelling has
alsobeendevelopedforthestudy of such
Flohn, H. (1980) Possible Clinzatrc Consequences
of a
Man-MadeGlobal Warmlrag RR-80-30,
Laxenburg, Austrla: International Institute for
Applied Systems Analysis.
INTERNATIONAL JOINT
COMMISSION (IJC)
A bi-national commission created in 1909 by
Canada and the United States to oversee the
provisions of the Boundary Water Treaty. The
original purpose was to prevent disputes over
use of the waters sharedby the two countries,
and to provide advlce to both federal
governments. Initial concerns involved changes
to the natural flows and levels of boundary
waters, but there was also provision for the
monitoringandprevention of pollution.
Despite the latter, in the first half-century of
the Commission’s existence, water pollution
became a major problem particularly in the
lower Great Lakes. This resulted in part from
limited public concern over pollution, but it
also reflected the fact that the Commission is
anadvisorybodywhoserecommendations
are not bindingon the governments involved.
More recently the advice of the Commission
hasbeenheeded.Waterquality is now a
majorconcern,particularly in theGreat
Lakes,and to thatendtheIJChas been
instrumental in settingupRemedialAction
Plans (RAPS) andLakewideManagement
Plans (LMPs) under the Great Lakes Water
Quality Agreement.
Further reading
Spencer, R., Kirton, J.J. and Nossal, K.M. (1981)
The ltztertzutionul lortzt Contnrrssrorz Seventy Years
On, Toronto:Centre for International Studies,
Unwerslty of Toronto.
INTERNATIONAL
METEOROLOGICAL CONGRESS
Held in Vienna in 1873, the Congress created
the International Meteorological Organization
(IMO).The IMO promotedthestandard-
~zation of meteorologicalinstrumentsand
ONETARYINTERNATIONAL FUND 210

observations,
thus
allowing
global
co- ation isinsufficient to producetheenvlron-
operation in meteorology and climatology. It mentalimprovementsexperiencedduring an
was
ultimately
superseded by the
World interglacial. The milder conditionsassociated
Meteorologial Organization (WMO). with the Bslling and Allersd interstadials, for
example,whichoccurredseparatelybetween
INTERNATIONAL MONETARY c.11,OOO and 13,000 BP, are recognized in the
FUND (IMF) European lateglacial sequence.

Founded in 1945atthesametime as the Further reading

International Bank for Reconstructionand Lowe, J.J. and Gray, M.J. (1980) ‘The stratigraphic
subdivision of theLateglaclal of N W Europe: a
Development(WorldBank),theIMFwas discusslon’, in J.J.Lowe,M.J.GrayandJ.E.
created to reform and stabilize international llobmson(eds) Studies in the Lateglactal of
currenciesfollowingthedisruption of the North-west Europe, Oxford: I’ergamon.
Second
World War. It is involved in
policy-based
lending
in
which loans are INTERTROPICAL CONVERGENCE
provided to individual nations only if IMF- ZONE (ITCZ)
approved economic reforms are put in place.
A thermal low-pressure belt that circles the
Further reading earth in equatoriallatitudes,betweenthe
Driscoll,
D. (1988) What 1s theZnternatlotd tropicalHadleyCellspositionednorthand
Monetary Fund?, Washington, DC: International
Monetary Fund. south of theequator. It owes its origin to
convectiveupliftcaused by strongsurface
INTERNATIONAL NICKEL heating,augmented by convergingairflows
COMPANY (INCO) fromthenorth-eastandsouth-eastTrade
Winds.TheITCZ movesnorthandsouth
withtheseasons,bringingtherainswhich
multinational
A nickel (Ni) mining and
relieve seasonal drought in areas such as the
smelting
company based in Canada. Its
Sahel,India andnorthernAustralia.This
Sudbury, Ontario smelter was identified as one
movement is completely
not reliable,
of the major sources of sulphur dioxide (SO,)
however. TheITCZmigratesat different
emissions in North America in the 1960s. These
rates and over different distances from one
acid gases caused extensive
damage to
year to the next, and this inherent variability
vegetationintheSudburyarea, and in an
contributes to the problem of drought.
attempt to reduce local ground-level pollution,
thecompany built a 400 m ‘tall-stack’ that
Figure 1-4 The seasonal changein location
released the pollutants
higher
into
the
of the ITCZ in Africa
atmosphere. Although this achieved a reduction
in local pollution, it allowed the acid gases to be
transported considerable distances downwind,
to causeacidrain in eastern Ontarioand
Quebec. Since thentheproblem of acid gas
emissions has been tackled by the introduction
of flue gas desulphurization.

See also
Scrubbers, Tall-stacks policy.

INTERSTADIAL

A shortperiod of climate amelioration duringa

major glacial. Ice sheets may cease to advance
or may even retreat somewhat,but the amelior- m Sahelian Nations
21 1 IONIZATION

See also sodium chloride. It is also usedinchemlcal

Monsoons. analysis and photography, and the radioiso-
tope”‘iodine is used in thediagnosisand
Further reading treatment of malfunctions of the thyroid gland.
Hamilton, R.A. and Archhold, J.W. (1945)
‘Meteorology over Nigeria and adjacent territory’,
Quarterlylournal of theRoyalMeteorologlcal
Society 71: 231-62.
Musk, L. (1983)‘Outlook - changeable’, Geo-
graphrcal Magazrtze 5 5 : 532-3. An atom or group of atoms that has become
Rlehl, H. (1979) Climate and Weather 112 the electrically charged by picking up or losing
Troprcs, New York: Academic Press. electrons.
Since
electrons
are
negatively
charged, the addition of an electron creates a
INVERSION negative charge, whereas the removal of an
electron creats a positive charge. Ions formed
See temperature inversion. from metals are generally positively charged
(cations);those from non-metals are negatively
INVISIBLE DROUGHT charged (anions). Many compounds undergo
dissociation into their component ions when
One of the four forms of drought identified in solution,andgasescan be ionized by
by C.W. Thornthwaite. The condition is not passing an electrical charge through them.
obvious and can often be identified only by
sophisicatedinstrumentationandstatistical Further reading
techniques. There may be no obvious lack of Boeker, E. and Van Grondelle, R. (1995)
Environmental
Physics, ChichesterMew
York:
precipitation, but moisture requirements are Wiley.
not being met, the crops are not growing at
their optimum rate and the potential yield is
therefore reduced. Invisible drought is easily
ION EXCHANGE
dealt with by irrigation.
Theremoval or replacement of ions in
See also solution, accomplished by using an exchange
Contingent drought, Permanent drought, Seasonal medium or filter thathastheability to
drought. capture the cations or anions in the solution.
In water softeners, for example, the water is
Further reading softened by removing the calcium ions and
Thornthwaite, C.W. (1947) ‘Climate and moisture replacing them with sodium ions. When the
conservation’, Atztrals of the
Assoclation of
capacity of the filter bed is full, it is flushed
Amerrcan Geographers 37: 87-100.
withbrinewhichreversestheprocessand
rechargesthesystem. Ion exchange is also
IODINE (I) used
in water
purification
and
sewage
treatment.
Agrey-blackcrystallinesolid - one of the
halogen group of elements - which is highly See also
volatile and readily gives off a violet vapour. Base exchange.
I t is present in seaweedandoccurs as an
impurity in crudesaltpetre(sodiumnitrate Further reading
NaNO,). Dissolvedin alcohol it produces Slater,M.J.(1991) Prrtzcrples of Ion Excharzge
tincture of iodine,widely
used as
an Technology, OxfordlBoston:Butterworth/Helne-
antiseptic. Iodine is essential for the proper mann.
functioning of the thyroid gland, which helps
to regulatemetabolism in humans,and to IONIZATION
help to maintain appropriate levels of iodine
in the body it may be consumed in the formof The process by which atoms obtain a positive
potassium iodide (KI) added to table salt - or negative charge and become ions.
IONIZING 21 2

IONIZING RADIATION IRON (FE)

Radiation that is capable of causingioniz- A silvery-grey magnetic metal. One of the most
ation,forexample, by dislodgingelectrons common elements in the earth’s crust, iron is
fromatoms.Fast-movingparticlessuchas sufficiently reactive that it is rarely found in
electrons,
alpha-
and
beta-particles
are its natural form - it is readily oxidized, for
particularly effective in causing ionization, as example.Iron
occurs
various
as ores,
is electromagneticradiation in theform of including magnetite and haematite, both iron
X-rays and gamma rays. Ionizing radiation oxides, from which the metal is extracted by
creates highlyreactive atomswhichhave smelting ina blastfurnace.Theresulting
significantbiologicalimpacts,includingthe product is pig iron which is converted into
alteration of DNA andtheinitiation of other forms such as wrought ironor steel, by
cancer. Natural sources of ionizing radiation alteringtheproportion of carbon (C) it
include cosmic rays, but currently the main contains.iron is alsoalloyedwithother
concern is with the radiation sources released metals when specific properties are required.
intotheenvironment by human activities Stainlesssteelcontainschromium (Cr), for
such as the improper disposal of radioactive example. The combined development of the
materials or by nuclear accidents. iron and coal industries provided the impetus
fortheIndustrialRevolution,and inits
See also variousformsironremainsanimportant
Irradiatmn. industrialmetal. It is alsoamicronutrient
essential for human health, being present in
Further reading haemoglobin, which facilitates the transferof
Turner, J.C. (1995) Atoms, Radiation and Radiatron oxygen (0)around the body.
Protectron (2nd edition), New York: Wiley.
See also
IONOSPHERE Alloy, Coke.

Thatpart of theupperatmosphereabove Further reading

c. 80 km inwhichfreeelectronsandions Trendall, A.F. and Morris, R.C. (eds) (1983) Iron
occur as a result of the ionization of atmos- Formatlott: Facts and Problems, Amsterdam/New
York: Elsevier.
pheric gases by ultraviolet radiation and by Lauffer, R.B. (ed.)(1992) Iron and Human
X-rays from the sun. The ionosphere is in a Disease, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
constant state of flux. ionization peaks during
the day, for example, when incoming solar IRRADIATION
radiation is a t a maximum, but at night the
free electrons recombine with the ions. Since Exposure to anyform of radiation,but
it reflects radio waves and allows them to be frequently used to refer to exposure to
transmitted around the curved surface of the ionizingradiation.Intenseirradiationcan
earth,theionospherecontributes to inter- alter the physical and chemical properties of
continental radio communications. materials. In nuclear reactors, for example,
transuranic elements such as plutonium (Pu)
See also are
created
through
the
irradiation of
Electromagnetic spectrum.
uranium (U). Irradiationatmuchsmaller
doseshaspotential usesin thefoodand
Further reading
Ratcliffe, J.A. (1972) An Zntroductron
to
the agriculturalindustries.Thesterilization of
Ionosphere and Magnetosphere, Cambridge: insects is possible by exposing them to low
Cambridge University Press. doses of ionizing radiation. The subsequent
release of sterilized males into the environ-
IPCC SUPPLEMENTARYREPORTS ment would allow the populations of some
insects to be controlledwithoutthe use of
See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. pesticides.
Experiments
with
food
have
21 3 ISOMERS

shown that the storage life of avariety of problemsassociatedwiththedisruption of

products, including fish and fruit, could be thehydrological cycle andthecreation of
extended by irradiation. Widespread accep- largereservoirs. Modernpumpingsystems
tance of such techniques
would require are so efficient that withdrawal of ground-
strongevidencethattheproductscould be water from aquifers easily exceeds recharge
safely consumed after irradiation. rates. The aquifers become depleted, leading
to theneedfordeeper wells and increased
IRRIGATION pumping time, with a consequent rise in costs.
The major environmental problem associated
Theprovision of waterforcropsinareas with irrigation is salinization, particularly in
where the natural precipitationis inadequate arid and semi-arid areas where evaporation
for crop growth. The water maybe obtained rates are high. The salts that areleft behind in
fromnaturalor artificialsurfacestorage the upper layers of the soil may be sufficient
systems (such as lakes or reservoirs) or from to render it unsuitable for cultivation.
the
groundwater system.Irrigation takes
many
forms,
from
the
total
flooding See also
associatedwithpaddy-riceproduction to Aral Sea.
sprinklersystemsthatattempt to emulate
Further reading
precipitation.Althoughirrigation is identified Kirkby, A.V. (1971) 'Primitiveirrigation',inR.J.
mainly with arid o r semi-arid areas, it is used Chorley
(ed.) Zntroduction to Geographrcal
increasingly in
morehumid areaswhere Hydrology, London: Methuen.
invisible drought can lead to soilmoisture Owen, O.S. andChiras, D.D. (199.5) Natural
deficits.
Although irrigation
can
literally Resource Conservation, EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
'make the desert bloom', it is not without its Reisner, M . (1986) Cudillac Desert: The Amerrcan
economicandenvironmentalconsequences. Westand Its Disappearing Water, New York:
Where the irrigation water is stored on the Penguin.
surface, it brings with it all the environmental
ISOMERS
Figure 1-5 The characteristics of selected
irrigation systems Compoundsthatsharethesame chemical
formula, but since the arrangement of atoms
r . / withinthemolecules is differenttheyhave
rivers. lakes, Figure 1-6 The chemical structure of octane
aquifers
and its isomer iso-octane

T'II SPRINKLERS DRIP SYSTEMS

octane
H H H H H H H H

I I I I I I I I
H H H H H H H H

H H H iso-octane
H'&/ H H H
I I I I I
promotes
efflclent;
water supplled
H-C-C- C-C-C-H
waterlcgglng, dlrectly to I I I I I
eroslon and lndlvidual H C H
sallnlzatlon; plants;
lnexpenslve
expensive
expenslve
/l'H
H H
 ISOPLETH 214

differentstructuralformulae.Isomerism deeper in the

is underlying material
until
common among the
hydrocarbons.
For equilibrium is regained. The relatively slow
example,iso-octane, a component of gaso- rates of continental erosion and deposition
line, is an isomer of octane. The two have themake itdifficult to recognize andmeasure
same formula (C8H,%), but in iso-octane the isostatic movements, but the situation is well
atomsarearrangedin a branchedchain illustrated by the response of the earth’s crust
rather than the straight chainof octane. They to glaciation. During theice ages the build-up
of land ice led to local depression of the crust.
also differ in their properties, with iso-octane
less likely thannormaloctane to produceOncethe ice meltedthecrustrebounded
engine
knock
(uncontrolled
explosive again,and even after 10,000 years that
combustion) m gasoline engines. rebound continues in areas such as the
Hudson Bay Lowlands in Canada and parts
Further reading of Northern Europe where the ice was
Zumdahl, S.S. (1993) Chenzrstry (3rdedition), thickestduringthelastglaciation.Some of
Lexington, MA: D.C. Hcath. thelandforms of formerlyglaciatedareas
owetheirexistence to isostaticrebound.
ISOPLETH When the ice melted, for example, sea-level
rosemorerapidlythanthedepressedland
A line on a map connecting points of equal surface could recover and many coastal areas
value.Perhapsthemostcommonisopleths wereflooded.
Once
the sea-level had
are the contour lines joining points of equal stabilized,however,isostaticrecovery took
altitude on a topographic map, but there are over, and the coastal areas rose outof the sea
many variations depending upon the type and to createthe raised shorelines common in
purpose of themap.Examples of other mid- to high latitudes in the northern
commonly usedisopleths andtheelements hemisphere.
they represent are provided in Table 1-2.
Further reading
Ritter, D.F., Kochel, R.C. and Miller, J.lL (1995)
Table 1-2 Types of isopleths Process Geomorphology, Dubuque, IA: WmC.
Rrown.
Sissons, J.B. (1983) ‘Shorelinesandisostasy In
TYPE OF ELEMENTS Scotland’, In D.E. Smlthand A.G. Dawson (eds)
ISOPLETH REPRESENTED Shorelirzes and Isostasy, 1,ondon: Academic Press.

Isobar Barometric pressure ISOTHERMAL LAY ER

Isobase Uplift or subsidence during
a specific time period An atmospheric layer in which the lapse rate
is neutral; that is, the temperature remains
Isobath
Depth of water constantwithincreasingaltitude, in com-
Rainfall
Isohyet amount parison with the normal situation in which
temperature declines with altitude. The lower
Isotach Velocity of wind or sound part of the stratosphere is isothermal.
Temperature
Isotherm
See also
Environmental lapse ratc.
ISOSTASY
ISOTOPES
The concept of balance in the earth’s crust.
Lighter,rigidblocks of crustal material are Atomsthathavethesameatomicnumber,
seen to float on the denser, more plastic rock but different mass numbers. All the isotopes
of the underlying mantle. Erosion or depos- of a given element will have the same number
ition of the crustal
blocks
disturbs
the of protons in their nuclei, butwill differ in the
balance,causingthem tofloat higher or number of neutrons. Carbon (C), for example,
215
has an atomic number of 6 (i.e. six protons),
but its three isotopes have mass numbers of
12, 13 and 14, reflecting the differencesin the
number of neutrons. Most elements consist of
a mixture of differentisotopeswhichare
identical m chemicalproperties.Sometimes
they differ in physical characteristics, however.
The two isotopesof oxygen (IhOand ' # O )for ,
example, respond slightly differentlyto temp-
erature changes. This can lead to variations in
theisotopiccomposition of waterandthe
"OPO ratio in glacier ice has been used to
provide information on past temperatures.
ITAI-ITA1
Further reading
Choppm, G.R. and Rydberg, J. (1980) Nuclear
Chemrstry: Theory and Applicatron, Oxfordmew
York: Pergamon Press.
Johnson, S.J., Dansgaard, W., Clausen, H.B. and
Langway, C.C. (1972) 'Oxygen isotopc profiles
throughthe Antarctic andGreenland Ice sheets',
Nature 235: 429-34.
A diseasecharacterized by bonedeterior-
ation, caused by cadmium poisoning. It was
first noted in Japan.
JET PROPULSION JET STREAM

Movement or locomotion produced when a Afast-flowingstream of air in theupper

fluid under pressure is released in a high-speed
stream from a controlled nozzle. The reaction
to the resulting thrust propels theobject releas-
ing the fluid, in a direction opposite to the
discharge. Although present in nature - for
example, used by squid for
propulsion
through water- its most common current use
is in jet engines. Hot gases produced by the
combustion of kerosene in air are exhausted
at a sufficient rateto drive jet aircraft through
the atmosphere at more thantwice the speed
of sound. In so doing,theyreleasecom-
bustionproductssuchas water, oxides of
nitrogen (NOx) and unburned hydrocarbons
to contribute to atmospheric turbidity, and
provide a potential threat to the ozone layer.
See also
Supersonic transports.
atmosphere at about the level of the tropo-
pause, associated with zones in which steep
temperaturegradientsexistandwhere,in
consequence, the pressure gradients are also
steep. Well-defined jet streams are located in
sub-tropicallatitudes(theSubtropicaljet)
and in mid- to high latitudes (the Polar Front
jet). Both flow from west to east in a sinuous
path around the earth, changing position and
path with the seasons. Speeds change with the
season also, being greatest in the winter when
maximum speeds in excess of 300 km/hr have
been recorded. The Subtropical jet is much
morepersistentthanthePolarFrontjet,
which is associated with migratory weather
systems and tends to be seasonally irregular
and discontinuous. An Easterly Tropical jet
streamflowingfromeast to westhas been
identified in equatorial regions. It is a summer

Figure]-l The location of jet streams in the atmosphere

mid-latitude
horizontal
mixing
I I
90O N 60' 30 O0
21 7 JOULE

phenomenon produced by the regional reversal
of the latitudinal temperature gradient over
Africa and India. Theeffect of the jet streams
extends into the lower atmosphere through
their influence on the movement of the systems
that produce the surface weather conditions,
but their importance from an environmental
point of view lies in their ability to transport
pollutants over great distances in the upper
atmosphere. Smoke, volcanic debris and acid
particles are all spread by such transportation.
See also
Rossby waves.
phere m Action, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Harmon, J.R. (1967) TroposphericWaves, Jet
Streams
and
United
States
Weather Patterrzs,
Washmgton, DC: Association o f American
Geographers.
The fundamentalSI unit of work and energy.
It represents the work done whena force of 1
newton acts through 1 metre. In the consider-
ation of electrical energy, it is also the work
done persecond by a current of 1 ampere
flowing through a resistance of 1 ohm.

Further reading See also

Eagleman, J.R. (1985) Meteorology: The Atmos- Watt.
 K
K-STRATEGISTS KEROSENE

Organisms that
are
usually
large,
have Also called paraffin oil, kerosene is a mixture
relatively long lives andproduceonlya of hydrocarbons in theform of medium,
limited number of offspring. Most common lightoilsobtainedthroughthefractional
in stable environments, they invest consider- distillation of petroleum. It is used as a fuel
able
time
and
energyprovidingfor
the for lighting and space heating and is also used
survival of theseoffspring, so that theyin for cooking in many Third World countries.
turn can reproduce and ensure the continu- Large volumes of kerosene are consumed as
ation of the species. Larger animals such as jet fuel in airliners and military jets. Like all
deer, lions,bears
and
elephantsare all hydrocarbons, kerosene emits pollutants into
K-strategists, as are humans. Although most the atmosphere when burned. Exhaust gases
obviously applied to animals, large, long-living from jet engines are emitted at alllevels in the
plants such as trees also fit the concept. atmosphere, contributing to atmospheric tur-
bidity and ozone depletion. The combustionof
See also kerosene in unvented spaceheaters
also
Carrying capacity, Demography, r-strategists. contributes to indoorairpollution. Even
when functioning efficiently, these heaters emit
Further reading carbonmonoxide(CO),nitrogendioxide
Pianka, E.K. (1970) ‘On r- and K-selection’, (NO,) and somesulphur
dioxide (SO,),
American Naturalist 104: 592-7.
which in an enclosed space can lead to health
problems such as headaches and respiratory
KATABOLISM ailments.

See catabolism. See also

Jet propulsion.
KELVIN
KILOWATT (KW)
The SI unit o f thermodynamic temperature.
The kelvin is identical to the Celsius degree, A unit of powerequivalent to 1000 watts.
but the Kelvin scale is based on the theoret- Used mainly to measure electrical power, the
ically lowest temperature possible - absolute unitforelectricalenergy(kilowatthour -
zero - which is equivalent to -273.15‘C. kWhr) is derived from it as follows:
Thus,therangebetweenthefreezingand
power X time = energy
boiling points o f water on the Kelvin scale is
between 273 K and 373 K. The relationship (kilowatt)
(hour) (kilowatt hour)
betweenthe Kelvin andCelsiusscales is
represented b y the following formula: KINETIC ENERGY
T, = T , + 273 The energy an object possesses as a result of
219 K U W A I T OIL F I R E S

its motion. It dependsuponthemassand Figure K - I The vertical distribution of

velocity of the moving object as indicated in smoke and sulphur dioxide as a resultof the
the
formulaKE=1/2mvZ with
the
result Kuwait oil fires
expressed in joules. KE is often produced by
the conversion of other forms of energy. For
example,thethermalenergyobtained by I

burning coal can be used to produce steam

that in turn provides kinetic energy through a
mechanical device such as a piston engine or
turbine.Thekineticenergy in moving
a

s
hammer can be traced back to the chemical
energy consumed in the form of food by the
person wielding the hammer. Moving fluids
such as wind and water also possess kinetic
energy that can be used to drive windmills or
hydroelectric generators.

Further reading
Reynolds, W.C. (1974) E k r g y : FromNature to
Man, New York: McCraw-Hill.

KRAKATOA

A volcanic island in the Sunda Strait, Indonesia,

which erupted explosivelyin 1883, sending at
least 6 cubic km (and perhaps as much as 18
cubic km)of volcanic debris as high asSO km
into
the
atmosphere. Thevolcanic
dust
circledtheearth,remaining in theupper Source: After Jenkins, C.J., Johnson,D.W.,
atmosphereforseveralyears.Theresulting IMcKennn, D.S. and Saunders, R.W. (1992)
'Aircraft measurements of the Gulf smoke plume',
increasein
atmospheric turbidity
caused Weather 4 7 ( 6 ) :212-19
spectacularsunsets
and
lowered
world
temperatures - 1884wasthecoolest year several months, kept alight by oil and natural
between 1880 and
the
mid-1990s. H.H. gasbrought to thesurfaceunderpressure
Lamb used the eruption of Krakatoa as the fromtheunderlying oilfields. Duringthat
bench-markagainstwhichothereruptions timetheyintroducedintotheatmosphere
were measured when he developed his dust probablythegreatestamount of anthro-
veil index (DVI). pogenically generated aerosols ever produced
by a single event. Massive amountsof smoke,
Further reading sulphur dioxide (SO,), carbon dioxide (CO,),
Austin, J. (1983) 'Krakatoa sunsets', Weather 38:
226-3 1.
unburnedhydrocarbonsand
oxides of
L a n h , H.H. (1970) 'Volcanic dust In the atmos- nitrogen (NOy) werealsoemitted,mainly
phere;with a chronologyandassessment of Its into the lowerhalf of the troposphere. At the
meteorological slgnificance', Philosophrcal Trans- height of the fires, it wasestimatedthat
actrotzs of the Royal Socrety, A 266: 435-533.
sulphur dioxide (SO,) was being added to the
atmosphereatanequivalentrate of 6.1
KUWAIT OIL FIRES million tonnes per year and soot at 6.4 million
tonnes per year. Most of the pollutants were
Major fires produced in the final stagesof the retained close to the surface and the resulting
GulfWarin1991,whenbetween SO0 and reduction In incomingsolarradiationwas
600 oil wells were set alight by the retreating spectacular. Beneath the centre o f the plume,
Iraqi army. Thesewells continued to burn for short-waveradiationfluxwasmeasuredat
KWASHIORKOR
zero, leadingto daytime temperature reductions
of as much as S.S"C. Mean monthly temp-
eratures between March and September were
reduced by 0.8 to 2.4C andrecordlow
monthlytemperatureswereestablished in
Julyand August. Thelowaltitude of the
initial plume, plus the rapidity with which the
fires were extinguished, prevented them from
having major impacts beyond the immediate
region, although acid rain which fell in Iran,
black snow observedinthemountains of
Pakistan andunexpectedly high levelsof carbon
soot in the upper troposphere above Japan
were all identified as products of the oil fires.
Further reading
Johnson, D.W., Kilsby, C.G., McKenna, D.S.,
Saunders, R.W., Jenkins, G.J., Smit, F.B. and Foot,
J.S. (1991) 'Airborne observations of the physical
and chemicalcharacteristics of theKuwaitoil
smoke plume', Nature 353: 617-21.
Seager, J. (1991) 'Operation Desert Disaster',
Ecodecision September: 42-6.
Shaw,W.S. (1992) 'Smoke at Bahrain during the
Kuwaiti oil fires', Weather 43: 208-10.
220
KWASHIORKOR
A form of malnutrition common in developing
countries. Itis the result of a low proteidhigh
carbohydrate diet, and is particularlyprev-
alent among young children between the ages
of 1 and 3 . Kwashiorkor is associated with
poverty. It generally begins when the children
areweanedandtheprotein-richmother's
milk is replaced by a diet of starchyfoods
such as plantainsor cassava. The children suffer
fromanaemia,swelling of theabdomen,
muscle wasting and exhibit general apathy.
Kwashiorkor is oftenfatal,buteventhose
who survive may suffer continued mental and
physical disorders.
Further reading
Cheraskin, E., Ringsdorf, W.M. and Clark, J.W.
(1968) Diet and Disease, Emmaus,PA: Rodale
Books.
United Nations WorldFoodCommission (1989)
TheGlobalState of Hunger andMalnutritron,
New York: United Natlons.
 L
Further reading
LA NINA Pearce, F. (1991) ‘A sea change in the Sahel’, New
Screntrst 130 (1757):31-2.
Philander, G. (1989) El Nilio, La Nilia a72d the
An intermittentcoldcurrentflowingfrom Southern Oscillatron, Orlando, FL: Academic
east to westacrosstheequatorial Pacific Press.
Ocean, in those years whenEl Niiio is absent.
It is caused by strongequatorialeasterly
LAG TIME
winds that push cold water, upwelling off the
South American coast, far out into the ocean.
Like El Niiio, its influence appears to extend The time betweenthe
occurrence of a
beyondthe Pacific,being associatedwith phenomenonanditsresulting effect.For
increased
precipitation in the
Saheland example,peakstreamdischarge in a river
India,andbelownormaltemperaturesin basin may occur several hours after the peak
central Canada. storm rainfall which produced it. On a larger
scale,
manyglobal
teleconnections
are
See also time-lagged.There is a lagtime of several
ENSO. months, for example, between the occurrence

Figure L-I The lag time concept applied to precipitation and stream discharge

peak
charge rainfall

I I I I I I

ELAPSED TIME *
L A M A R C K , J.B. de 222

of an E N S 0 event and drought in Australia primary historical sources such as the Domes-
or India.Whenevercauseand effect are day Book. In additionto undertaking his own
separated by a period of lag time, there is the investigations,Lambhas also assessedthe
potential for theprediction of theeffect. work of other researchers, and through his
Knowing that a major stornl has taken place publicationshasmadethemavailableto a
in a river basin, the timing of the subsequent wider audience.
high
water levels can be predicted and
appropriate
precautions
taken.
Modern Further reading
developments aimed a t predicting the timing Lamb, H.H. (1970) ‘Volcanic dust ~n the atn~os-
and extent of droughts involvetime-lagged pherewith R chronologyandassessment of its
meteorological significance’, Philosophical Trans-
teleconnections that would provide time to actions of the Royal Society A266: 435-533.
prepare a planned response to drought and Lamb,H.H.(1972) Climate:Present,Pastand
therefore reduce its consequences. Future; Volume l , Fundamentals and Climate Now,
London: Methuen.
Lamb,H.H.(1977) Climate:Present, Pastand
LAMARCK, J.B. de (1 744-1829) Future; Vo[trme2, Climatrc Historyand the Future,
London: Methuen.
A Frenchbiologist whopublishedthefirst Lamb,H.H.(1996) Climate,History and the
Modern World (2nd edition), London: Routledge.
theory of evolution or ‘transformism’, based,
in
part,
on
the
inheritance of acquired
characteristics
and
habits.
According to
LAMINAR FLOW
Lamarck’stheory,
modern
giraffes,
for
example, have
long
necks
becausetheir Non-turbulent,steadyflow in a fluid. The
ancestorsstretchedtoreachthe leaves on flowtakestheform of parallellayers that
trees. The longer necks they acquired in this closely followtheshape of theunderlying
waywerepassed
on to their
offspring, surface,and is bestdevelopedwherethe
creating a cumulative effect over many surface is smooth and flat or streamlined. If
generationsuntilcurrentproportionswere the
surface is rough, however, the flow
attained.
Such
modifications
during
the becomes turbulent or irregular. The nature of
lifetime of an organism cannot be inherited. the flow is also related to its viscosity. Where
Lamarck’s theories were superseded by those the viscosity is low, as with water and air,
of Charles Darwin in the second half of the laminar flow is uncon~mon.
nineteenth century.
See also
Further reading Turbulent flow.
Grant, V. (198.5) TheEhlutronary Process, a
Critrcrd Reutew of EvolutronaryTheory, New Further reading
York: Columbia University Press. Rogers, D.F. (1992) Lamrnar Flow Analysis, New
Stiling, l? (1992) Introductory Ecology, Englewood York: Cambridge Untverslty Press.
Cliffs, NJ: I’rentice Hall.
L A N D CAPABILITY
LAMB, H.H.
A measure of the potential productive capacity
British climatologist who had a major role in of land for agricultural purposes. It is based
developing the investigation of climate change, mainly on the physical characteristics of the
particularyfromthe 1950s onwards.His soil - forexample, as revealedinthesoil
interestsarewide-rangingandincludethe profile - andmayincludemorphological
physicalaspects of changeas well as the elementssuch as gradient,susceptibility to
human impacts. Lamb developed the dustveil erosionordrainageproblems.Mostland
index (DVI), as a means of estimatingthe capabilityclassificationsrangefromatop
impact of increased atmospheric turbidity on category, that includes land
with
few
climate,andwasone of thefirst c h a t - limitationsonitsagricultural use, to the
ologists toappreciatetheimportance of lowest, in whichtheland is bestleftinits
223 LANDSCAPE

Figure L-2 A map showing the capabilityof LANDFILL

land to support agriculture
See sanitary landfill.

LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE

Theconsciousmodification of anareato
provide a more aesthetically pleasing, useful
or enjoyable landscape.It has a long tradition
stretchingfromthesymbolictranquility of
China and Japan to the geometric formality
of Renaissance Europeand
the
natural,
picturesque parklands of eighteenth-century
England. Modern landscaping is an integral
part of the designand
development of
In thls map the capability class IS Indicated by the first number,
the subclass by letter and the proportion of the classes by the
residential
properties,
public
buildings,
numbers located above the letters recreation areas and highways, although the
6 4
e.g. 3F6T results
are
not
always
environmentally
MS appropriate.Forexample,theprovision of
means that 60% of the area IS class 3 because of low fertility and
lack of motsture and 40% IS class 6 because of topography and lawnsand golf courses, requiring
large
soil conditions such as poor structure. low fertility and lack of amounts of irrigationwater in aridareas,
molsture
creates a completely artificial landscape that
is out of balance with the local environment.
Source: After Hoffman, D.W. ( 1976) ‘Soil
capability analysis and land resource development
In Canada’, In G.K. McBoyle and E. Sommervillc LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY
(cds), Gzmda’s Nrztrtral Emrromzetrt, Toronto:
Methuen The studyof the patterns of ecosystems in the
landscape and the waysin which the relation-
shipsamongadjacentlandscapesinfluences
naturalstate or has been so alteredthat the functioning of individual units and of the
rehabilitation
make
to it suitable
for landscape as a whole. Runoff and erosionin a
agriculture is not feasible. Althoughland mountainouslandscape will impactonthe
capability classifications were developed for landscapes in adjacent low
ground,
for
agricultural purposes, theyalso have environ- example.Theconceptincludesculturalas
mental implications. Land developed beyond well asnaturallandscapes,and in many
its capability to support specific agricultural areas,suchhumanactivitiesasagriculture,
actwities might suffer from soil erosion, for forestry o r urban development have a major
example. In theory, attention to the elements impact on landscape ecology.
that determine land capability should prevent
such problems, but in practice classifications Further reading
Naveh, Z. and Llebcrman, A.S. (1984) Lrzndscnpe
may be too generalfordetaileddecision
E c o l ( ~ g y :Theory a d Appliratrom, New York:
making, or social and economic factors may Sprlnger-Verlag.
override the suggested restrictions. Vink, A.P.A. (1983) Landscape Ecology and L m d
Use, London: Longman.
See also
Land use planning. LANDSCAPE MOSAIC
Further reading Thecombination of individualecosystems
Cutter, S.L., Kenwick, H.1.. andRenwick, W.H.
( 1991) Exploltatron, Conservatton, Preserlcztrorr:
acrossthelandscape.Includinghumanas
AGeogrrzphicPcrspectrzv 011 Natrrral Resource well as natural landscapes, the study of these
Use, New York: Wiley. mosaicsandtheinteractionsamongtheir
L A N D USE PLANNING 224

Figure L-3 A formal landscaped garden designed originally in the seventeenth century and
restored in the 1950s

Photograph: The author

individual units is central to the concept of ment of the best use for thousands of square
landscape ecology. kilometres of land.

See also
LAND USE PLANNING Land capability.

The practice of assessing the best use for a Further reading

piece of land, taking into account the widest
range of elements possible. These may range
from socioeconomic factorsto environmental
issues, and although all should receive equal
treatment, the assessment on which the final
land use is based is commonly the result of
compromise with one or two elements receiving
greaterconsiderationthantheothers.The
concept can be applied at different scales and
in a variety of environments. In urban areas,
land use planning, through zoning by-laws,
allows an appropriate combination of resi-
dential, commercial and industrialuses. O n a
larger scale, in the natural environment, land
use planning may require the consideration of
land for wilderness,recreation or forestry,
with the final decisions involving the assess-
Lounsbury, J.F., Sommers, L.M. and Fernald, E.A.
(eds) (1981) Land Use: ASpatialApproach,
Dubuque, IA: KendalVHunt.
LAPSE RATE
See environmental
lapse
rate,
adiabatic
processes.
LATENT HEAT
The quantity of heat absorbed or released by
a substance during a change of state. Latent
heat of fusion is absorbed from the environ-
ment in the transformation of a solid into a
liquid and is retained in the liquid until it is
transformed into a solid again, at which time
225
Figure L-4 Energy transfer during the
change in stateof water
SUBLIMATION
aasoraed
m-
MELTINQ
CONDENSATION A precipitationwhichencourageslaterization
DEPOSITION
it is released. Similarly, latent heat of vapor- Earth Scrences 40 (4): 387401.
ization is absorbed when a liquid is converted MacFarlane, M. (1983) ‘Laterites’, in A.S. Goudie
intoagas,andretained in thegasuntil
reconversion into a liquid. The latent heat
redistribution during the change in the state
of water has important implications for the
earth’s energy budget. For example, energy
absorbedduringtheconversion of liquid
water to water vapouris retained by the latter
in the form of latent heat until the process is
reversed. The water vapour may travel over
greatdistancesintheatmosphereinthe
period between the absorption and re-release
of the energy, and in this wayenergy
absorbed in one location is transported else-
where in the eartldatmosphere system. The
release of latent heat during condensation in
rising air contributes to the continued buoy-
ancy of that air, allowing cloud development
a t higher levels in the atmosphere.
Further reading
Lock, G.S.H. (1994) LatentHeatTransfer:An
lntroductron to Fundamentals,OxfordNew York:
Oxford University Press.
A surface accumulation, consisting mainly of
iron and aluminum oxides and hydroxides,
common in humid tropical regions. The high
temperatures and abundant precipitation of
theseregionscontributestoveryeffective
chemical weathering and the rapid leaching
of silica(desilication)andvariousalkaline
minerals from the upper layers of the soil,
leavingtheiron(Fe)andaluminum(AI)
behind. The thickness of the accumulation
variesfromafewcentimetres to tens of
LEACHATE
metres. If sufficientlythickandwithhigh
levels of aluminum, it canbe mined as bauxite,
the ore of aluminum. Laterite usually develops
as a hard, impermeable layer, or duricrust,
with few nutrients, and the latosols that form
on it aregenerallyoflowquality.The
removal of surfacevegetation in tropical
regions exposes the surface to heat and heavy
and leads to reduced soilfertility.
Further reading
Bowman, R.P. (1993) ‘Perennial problems in the
study of laterite; a review’, Australian Journal of
and K. Pye (eds) C h e m m l Sediments and Geomor-
phology, London: Academic Press.
LAVA
Moltenrockmaterial or magmaextruded
from volcanoes or fissures in theearth‘s surface.
Lavaconsistsmainly of silicates,butalso
contains other minerals, such as quartz, and a
variety of gases.Acidlavashaveahigher
proportionofsilicathanbasiclavas.The
former tend to be more viscous and solidify
more readily than basic lavas. As aresult,
they may block the volcanic vents before an
eruption is complete, leading to a build-up of
pressure
in
the
crust
and
subsequent
a
explosion.Basiclavastend toflowmore
freelyandcoverhundreds of squarekilo-
metres before solidifying. The basaltic rocks
of the Columbia-Snake Plateau of the Pacific
North-west in the United States and partsof
the Deccan Plateau in India represent flows of
basic lava that occurred millions of years ago.
See also
Igneous rocks.
Further reading
Hyndman, D.W. (1985) Petrology oflgneous and
MetamorphicRocks (2ndedition), New York:
McGraw-Hill.
LEACHATE
Liquid containing dissolved solids produced
by the process of leaching. Although leachate
is produced by natural processes, the term is
LEACHING 226

commonly used to refer to polluted liquids Soils (10th

editlon),
New
YorklLondon:
released into the environment as a result of MacmillanlCollier Macmillan.
Rowe, R.K., Quigley, R.M.and Booker,
J.R.
humanactlvities.
Leachateseeping
from (1995) Clayey Barrrer Systems for Waste Drsposal
waste disposal sites, for example, is character- Facilitres, London: Spon.
ized by a high BOD and high acidity and may
contain toxic chemicals capable of contam- LEAD (Pb)
inating local surface and groundwatersupplies.

See also
A
soft, grey, heavy metalproduced by
Sanitary landfill. roasting the ore galena (lead sulphide (PbS)).
Leadhasfournaturalisotopes,three of
Further reading which are the end productsof the radioactive
McArdle,J.L.,Arozarena,M.M.andGallagher, decay of uranium (U) and thorium (Th). It
W.E. (1988) Treatnzetzt of Hazardous Waste hasthehighestdensity of all metals in
Leachate, Park Ridge,
NJ:
Noyes Data Cor- common use and, because of this, it provides
poration.
Qaslm,S.R.
andChiang, W. (1994) Sanrtary a very effectiveshield againstX-raysand
Landfill
Leachate:Generatror~, Cotrtrol arzd gamma rays. Lead is therefore widely used in
Treattrzetzt, Lancaster, PA: Technome Publishing. protective shielding for X-ray machines and
nuclear reactors. Being malleable and there-
LEACHING fore easily worked, lead has a long tradition
of use in areas suchas plumbing, printing and
The process by whichsolublesolidsare ceramics. Alloyed with tin (Sn), it produces a
removed from soils or waste disposal sitesby solderwhich is resistant to corrosionand
percolatingwater. In theenvironment, stronger than the lead alone. I t has also been
leaching is a common process in most soils, used in lead-acid batteries, in paint and a s a n
withthemineralsremovedfromtheupper anti-knockadditive ingasoline.Sincelead
layers of the soil eitherbeingredeposited compoundsarepoisonous,some,such as
lowerdown in theprofile o r removed lead arsenate,have beenused as pesticides.
completely. Human activities thatremove However, as thetoxicity of leadbecomes
organicmatterfromthe soil or exposethe increasingly apparent, many of its traditional
soil togreaterrates of infiltration
(for uses have been banned or severely restricted.
example, by removing vegetation) encourage
more effective leaching and lead to reduced See also
soil fertility. Chemical fertilizer applied to the Lead poisonlng.
soil at rates that exceed the soil’s absorption
Further reading
capacity will also be leached out. Thishas Blaskett, D . I i . and Boxall, D. (1990) Lead arzd rts
created a pollutionproblem in someagri- Alloys, New York: Ellis Horwood.
cultural areas where the over-application of
fertilizershasled tothecontamination of
LEAD POISONING
watersupplieswithnitrates.
Accelerated
leaching,particularly o f calciumions, also
takesplace in areassubjecttoacidrain. Lead (Pb)and leadcompoundsare highly
Modern sanitary landfill systems include an toxic when consumed and the symptoms of
impermeable barrier such as a layer of clay, lead poisoning have long been recognized in
rubberorplastictopreventcontaminants miners and workers employed in industries
from being carried into the natural environ- using lead o r Icad-based products. It is only
ment. within the last several decades, however, that
the true extent of lead poisoning has become
See also
apparent.
According to
the
Centers
for
Base exchange. DiseaseControlandPrevention, it is the
number one environmental health threat to
Further reading children in the United States. The ingestionof
Brady, N.C. ( 1 9 9 0 ) The Nature and Propertres of small amounts of lead causes loss of appetite,
227 LEOPOLD, A .

headaches, tiredness and a variety of behav- plants

(Leguminosae)that
includestrees
ioural changes. The effects are usually much (acacia, carob), shrubs (whin or gorse) and a
greater in children than in adults, and preg- variety of commerciallyimportant species,
nant women and their unborn children are such as peas, beans, alfalfa, clover, lentils and
also particularly vulnerable. However, because soybeans.Nodulesontheroots of legum-
the symptoms of low-level lead poisoning are inous plants contain nitrogen-fixing bacteria
shared with other ailments, the problem can (Rhizobrum)which have an important rolein
remain undiagnosed. Since lead accumulates theearth/atmospherenitrogen cycle. They
in the body, thecontinuedconsumption of absorb atmospheric nitrogen (N) and convert
even small amounts mayultimatelylead to it into amino acids, a form in which it can be
much greater problems suchas brain damage, used by the plants. Leguminous fodder crops,
paralysisandeventuallydeath.Themain such as clover and alfalfa, are often grownas
sources of lead in the environment include, or green manures, being ploughed back into the
have included, emissions from industries pro- soil to improve its nitrogen level and organic
ducing leador lead-based products, emissions content.
fromautomobile enginesburningleaded
gasoline,emissionsfromincinerators,lead Further reading
piping used in water supply, lead-based paints Dilworth, M.J. and Glenn,
A.R.
(eds)
(1991)
and glazes and leachate from landfill sites. In Biology a d Biochemistry of Nitrogen F ~ X U ~ J O ~ Z ,
New York: Elsevier.
the developed nations of North America and Nutman, P.S. (ed.)(1976) Symbiotrc Nitrogen
Europe,legislationhas been introduced to Fixatton 111 Plants, CambridgelNewYork:Cam-
deal
with these
sources, by controlling bridge Unlversity Press.
emissions, banning the use of leaded gasoline
and lead-based paints or prohibiting the use LEOPOLD, A. (1887-1 962)
of lead piping, but large quantitiesof the lead
compounds produced in thepastremain in AldoLeopold trained as a foresterand
the environment and thousandsof houses still worked for the United States Forest Service,
haveleadpipingin theirplumbingsystems before
becomingprofessor
a of game
and lead-based paints on their walls and even management a t the University of Wisconsin..
furniture. Thus, lead poisoning will remain a His interests became focused on the ecology
recognizableenvironmentalhealthproblem of large game populations and in the United
even in those countries where attempts are States he is regarded as the father of scientific
being made to deal with it, and is likely to wildlife
management. H e appreciatedthe
grow in the less developednationswhere interrelationshipsamongthevariouscom-
regulations are not yet
in
place or are ponents of theenvironmentandsawthe
inadequately enforced. concept of theecosystem as theessential
element in the management of nature. In his
further reading work, he also examinedtheethicalfactors
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1991) involvedinthehumanrelationshipwith
I’revetzftng Lead Porsonrng t n Yorrng Childretr,
Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. nature. Practising what he preached, Leopold
Wallace, B. andCooper, K. (1986) The Citrzen’s supportedtheestablishment of wilderness
Gtude to Lead: Uttcouerrng a Hidden Health reserves and was a founding member of the
Hazard, Toronto: N C Press. Wilderness Society. Although now more than
half-a-century old,
his
writings
are still
LEGUME considered as basic references for students of
wildlife ecology.
See leguminous plants.
further reading
Leopold, A. (1933) Game Managenlent, New
LEGUMINOUS PLANTS York: Scribner & Sons.
Leopold, A. (1 949)A Sand County Alntanac, New
York: Oxford University Press.
A large groupofpod(orlegume)bearing
LEV~ES 228

LEVEES life cycle cost, which considers not only the

initialcost of acommodity, but also its
Natural ridges of alluviumthatbuildup lifetime operating costs. Applied t o environ-
along the banks of a river as a result of the mental issues, it involves an assessment of the
deposition of sediments when the river over- environmental impactsexpected
from a
flows its banks during a flood. As a result of product and
the
activities or processes
this deposition natural levees are higher than associated with its manufacture,use and final
the adjacent floodplain, and under conditions disposal. The concept takes into account the
of normal flow the river remains within them. environmental costs of raw material extrac-
Alongmanyrivers,particularlywherethe tion, energy costsat all stages in thelife of the
floodplainhasbeendevelopedforhuman product andthe
costswhichfor
some
use, the lev& are raised artificially to protect productsremainevenafterdisposal. In the
against flooding. nuclearindustry,forexample,wherepro-
ducts retain their potential to cause environ-
Further reading mental damage for thousands of years, costs
Pavel, P. (1982) Canaland Raver Levies, may continue to accrue long after the product
Arnsterdarnmew York: Elsevier. has been scrapped. In
theory, life cycle
analysisleads to more efficient use of
LICHENS resources with less environmental impact.

Compoundorganismsbasedontheassoc- LIGHT
iation of algaeandfungiin a symbiotic
relationship.Theygrowonvariety
a of See visible light.
surfacesfromtrees to barerock,obtaining
theirnutrientsfromthesesurfaces.Lichens LIGHTNING
are usually the primary colonizers of newly
exposedsurfaces,and begin theseries of Luminous
electric
discharges
usually
processes that break down the rock surface associatedwith
thunderstorms,
but also
and ultimately lead to the formation of soil. occurring in volcanic clouds and snowstorms.
TheydominateArcticandhighmountain Therapidexpansion of thegasesinthe
environments, whereconditions
are too atmosphere caused by the lightning produces
harshforplants to grow. Being primary the sound of thunder. For lightning to occur,
colonizers and growing progressively larger chargeseparationmusttakeplace,either
withtime,lichenscan be usedin a dating within a cloud, between clouds or between a
technique called lichenometry. Measurements cloud and the earth’s surface. The origin of
of the largest lichens present in an area can thechargeseparation is complexandnot
provide an estimate of the date at which a fully understood, but
appears
it to be
rock surface was exposed or a deposit stab- associated with rapid vertical movement and
ilized. Lichens are also sensitive to pollution the
formation of precipitation within a
and can be used as biologicalindicators of mature cumulonimbus cloud. With time, the
pollution levels in an area. upper part of thecloudbecomes positively
charged and the base negatively charged. The
See also negativecharge atthecloud baseinturn
Syrnblosis. induces a positive charge atthe earth’s
surface. Since air is a poorconductor of
Further reading electricity, thepotentialgradientsproduced
Hale, M.E. (1983) TheBiology of L~chens(3rd may exceed 1 million volts, and it is the rapid
edition), London: Edward Arnold.
flow of electronsrequired to resolvethese
differences in the charges that produces the
LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS lightning
flash.
Lightning
causes
major
economic losses and several hundred deaths
A development of the economic concept of around the worldevery year. In grassland and
229 LIMESTONE

forest areas, it has an important role as an the burning coal to produce a sulphate-rich
ecological agent becauseof the firesit causes. lime ash. LIMB can reduce sulphur dioxide
(SO,) emissions by 35-50 per cent and oxides
Further reading of nitrogen (NOx) emissionsby 30 per cent.
Golde, R.H. (ed.) (1977)Lrghtning, London/New
York: Academic Press. See also
Lutgens, F.K. and Tarbuck, E.J. (1989) The Fluidized bed combustion.
Atmosphere, Englewood Cliffs,N J Prentice-Hall.
Further reading
LIGNIN Burdett, N.A., Cooper, J.R.P., Dearnley, S., Kyte,
W.S. and Turnicliffe, M.F. (1985) ‘The application
A complex polymer which provides strength of direct lime injection to U.K. power stations’,
Iournal ofthe Instrhtte ofEngmeenng, 58: 64-9.
and rigidity to the cell walls in woody plants.
It constitutes as much as 40 per cent of the
wood in some trees and must be separated
LIMESTONE
chemicallyfromthecelluloserequiredto
produce pulp
for
the
paper
andrayon A sedimentaryrockconsistingmainly of
industries. calcium carbonate (CaCO,). It is formed by
evaporationfromcarbonate-richsolutions,
by the accumulation of the skeletons of dead
LIKENS, G. marineorganisms, by theaccumulation of
existing
limestone
fragments
some
or
A pioneer in the study of acid rain in North combination of two or more of these
America,
GeneLikens
along
with
his processes.
Being
porous,
limestones
are
colleague Herbert Bormann set up a multi-
disciplinary studyof a small New Hampshire Figure L-5 The limestonecliffs of the
watershed in 1963. The chemistry of the local Cheddar Gorge in south-west England
rainwater,whichwaspart of thestudy,
indicated
the
presence of highly acidic
precipitation in the area despite its remote-
nessfromsources of acidgasemissions.
When the results were reported in the journal
Science in 1974,
theyled
to
increased
scientific interest in the problem and, when
followed up by the national media, initiated
publicawarness of thepresence of the
problem in the United States.

Further reading
Likens, G.E. (1976) ‘Acid precipitation’, Chemrcal
and Engineering News 54: 29-37.
Likens, G.E. and Bormann, EH. (1974)‘Acid rain
- a serious regional environmental problem’,
Science 184: 1176-9.
Park, C.C. (1987)Acid Rain: Rhetoricand Reality,
London: Methuen.

LIME INJECTION MULTI-STAGE

BURNING (LIMB)

A techniquedevelopedtoreduceacidgas
emissionsfromcoal-burningfurnaces.Fine
lime is injected into the combustion chamber
where it fixes the sulphur (S) released from Photograph: Courtesy of Heather Kemp
LIMITING FACTORS
important aquifers and can act as reservoirs
for
petroleum hydrocarbons. Limestones
have been widely used as building stones and
can be combined withclay to produce
cement.Whenlimestone is heated,carbon
dioxide (CO,) is driven off and calcium oxide
( C a O ) or lime is left. Lime has been used for
centuries to sweeten acid soils, and as a base
it is widelyused to neutralizetheacidgas
emissions responsible for acid rain.
230
Figure L-6 Potential trends in population,
pollution and world resource use identified
in the 'Club of Rome' project on the
predicament of mankind. This standard
model run assumes no major changesin the
relationships that have historically governed
the development of the world system

Further reading
Selley, R.C. (1996) Ancient Sedimetztary Enuiron-
ments
and
thew Sub-Surface D~agnosrs (4th
edition), London: Chapman and Hall.

LIMITING FACTORS

Environmentalfactors
that
restrict
the
growthanddistribution of an organism or
group of organisms. They may be physical in
natureincluding,forexample,temperature .
d"" - L.""

andprecipitation,orchemicalsuch as the
Source: After Meadows, D.H., Meadows, D.L.
absence of specific nutrients in the soil. They Randers, J. and Behrens, W.W. ( 1 974) The
help to determine the nature of a particular Limits to Growth, London: Pan Rooks
ecosystem,but in addition,successfulagri-
cultural development often depends upon the pollution control, recycling programmes and
identification of these limits and the adoption appropriatesoilandresourcemanagement,
of techniques to accommodate them. all of which are now accepted in some form
or other as integral to the concept of sustain-
Further reading
Cox, R.C. and Moore, P.D. (1993) Biogeography:
able development.
An Ecologrcal and Euolutronary Approach,
Oxford: Blackwell. See also
Park,C.C.(1980) Ecology ar7d Enurronmental Club o f Rome.
Management, Folkestone: Dawson.
Further reading
LIMITS TO GROWTH Cole, H.S.D. ( 1973) Thrnkrng About the Future: A
Crrtrqrre of 'The Ltnzrts toGrowth', London:
Chatto ik Windus/Sussex University Press.
A report commissioned by the Club of Rome Meadows, D.H., Meadows, D.L.., Randers, J. and
as part of its project to examine the Predica- Rehrens, W.W. (1972)The Lrtnrts to Growth, New
York: Universe Books.
ment of Mankind. Published in 1972, it
contained the resultsof the computer analysis
of world population growth, resources, food LIMNOLOGY
supply,
pollution
and
industrial
output,
carried out by a group of scientists atthe The study of the physical, chemical and bio-
Massachusetts
Institute of Technology logical components of theenvironment of
(MIT). indicated
It that
human
the frcshwater ponds, lakes and reservoirs.
population of theearthwouldexceedthe
carryingcapacity of theplanetwithin a LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS (LNG)
century if thegrowthratescurrent in the
1960s
and
1970s
continued.
Proposed Natural gas,mainlymethane(CH,),which
solutionsincludedzeropopulationgrowth, has beenliquefied by coolingbelow 150K.
23 1 LITTLE ( C L I M A T I C ) OPTIMUM

Undermostcircumstances,natural gas is LITHOSPHERE

transported via pipeline (c. 75 per cent), butif
that option is not available it is most easily Theoutermostlayer of thesolidearth. It
transported in its liquid state, in insulated or consists of the crust and the upper, rigid part
refrigerated containers. LNG tanker traffic is of the mantle. Thelithosphere is thinnest
dominated by Algeria andIndonesia,and undertheoceanbasins,beingonly a few
Japan is the main consumer of LNG with its kilometres
thick
in
the vicinity of the
supplies coming mainly from south-east Asia mid-oceanicridges, and thickestunderthe
and Australia. continents, where it may reach thicknesses of
300 km o r more.
LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS
(LPG) See also
Plate tectonlcs.
Amixture of petroleumgases - butane
LITTLE (CLIMATIC) OPTIMUM
(C4H,,J,propane (C&) and pentane ( W , ? )
- liquefied under pressure and storedin metal
containers. It can be used as an engine fuel A phase in early medieval times from about
and, when available in portable pressurized AD 750 to 1200, sometimes called
the
containers,it is widelyusedforcooking,
heating and lighting.It is a clean-burning fuel Figure L-7 The Little Optimum (Medieval
producing little or no atmospheric pollution. Warm Period) and the Little Ice Age in the
long-term temperature record
LIQUID

Intermediate between a solid and a gas, it is a

substance in which the molecules are relatively
free to move, but within limits imposed by
cohesive
forces
between
them.
Liquids
maintain a fixed volume, but
offer no
resistance to a change of shape, and therefore
assume the shape of the vessel in which they
are
contained.
Liquidsare
only
slightly
compressible, which makes them suitable for
use in hydraulic control systems.

LIQUID PHASE REACTION

The conversionof acid gases into liquid acids,

thereactionstakingplace in solution.The
process is very efficient, with the conversion
of sulphur dioxide (SOz)into sulphuric acid
(H,SO,) over Britain being measured at rates
as high as 100 per cent per hour in the summer
and 20 per cent per hour in the winter.

See also
A c d precipitation, Gas phase reaction. Years before prerent

Further reading Source: IPCC ( 1 990) Climate Change: Thc IPCC

Mason, B.J. (1990) 'Acid raln - cause
and Scretztific Assessntent, Cambridge: Cambridge
consequcncc', Weother 45: 70-9. University Press
LITTLEICEAGE 232
medieval warm spell,whenclimaticcon- volcaniceventsandparticularlycoolyears,
ditionsamelioratedinEuropeandNorth such as the eruption of Mount Tambora in
America and probablyelsewhere. The improve- 1815andthe ‘yearwithoutasummer’ in
ment was sufficient to reduce the amount of 1816, but in general the degree of contemp-
seaice intheNorthAtlanticallowingthe oraneity between increased volcanic activity
colonization of Iceland andGreenland by and climatic deterioration is limited.
settlers
from
the
Nordic
countries.
The
Greenlandsettlements
were
subsequently Further reading
abandoned during the Little Ice Age. During Grove, J.M. (1988) The Lrttle Ice Age, London:
the warm spell, however, crop yields improved Routledge.
Lamb, H.H. (1996) Climate,Historyand the
in marginal areas such as Scotland, andvines Modern World (2nd edition), London: Routledge.
werecultivated inBritainseveralhundred Mannion, A.M. (1991) Glohal Environmental
kilometres beyond the current northern limit Char~ge:A Naturaland Crtltoral Enviro~zme?~tal
of the vine. History, London: Longman.
Moore, P.D. (1995) ‘Back tvtheLittle Ice Age’,
Nature: 684-5.
Further reading
Grove,
J.M.
and Switsur, R.
(1994)
‘Glacial
geologlcal
evidence for the
Medieval
Warm LITTORAL ZONE
Period’, Climatrc Change 26: 143-69.
Lamb, H.H. (1996) Climate, Htstory and the Thezonealongthelandwardmargins of
Modern World (2nd edition), London: Routledge. lakes and seas. O n lakes, it extends from the
Zhang, D. (1994) ‘Evidence for the existence of a
Medieval Warm Period in China’, Climatrc Change shoreline to thelimit of rootedvegetation.
26: 289-97. Along the edgesof the oceans, it is equivalent
to theintertidalzone.Thelittoralenviron-
ment frequently suffers major disruption as a
LITTLE ICE AGE result of pollution following oil spills.
Alsoreferred to astheneoglacialandthe
Fernau glaciation, the Little IceAge was a
LIVE AID
period of globalcoolinglastingforabout
300 yearsfromthemid-sixteenth to the An organization set up in 1985 to help the
mid-nineteenthcentury.There is evidence, victims of drought and famine in Ethiopia. It
however, that the cooling started as early as raised money through two major concerts in
the mid-fourteenth century in some areas. It England and the United States at which the
includedprolongedperiods of particularly leadingpopular
entertainers of the
day
cool and wet conditions -as in the 1690s, for performed.
Extensive television coverage
example - but it was also characterized by raisedworldwidepublicconcern to new
considerablevariabilitywithsomeperiods heights, and helped to make the event a most
that were warm and dry - for example, the effective fund-raiser for famine relief.
1730s. Most of the information available is
from the northern hemisphere, but the Little LIVESTOCK WASTE
Ice Age was a global event, although specific
elementswerenotalwayscompletelysyn- Sewageproduced by farmanimals.Under
chronous. The shorter andless intense growing traditional agricultural operations, the waste
seasons,alongwiththecoolsummersand productswere
collectedand recycled as
longerwinters,hadasignificant effect on organic fertilizers. Modern agribusiness tech-
socioeconomicconditions in North-west niques in which animals, particularly cattle,
Europe,
Iceland,
Greenlandand
eastern are prepared for market in feedlots that may
North America. Although the causes are not cover several square kilometres, involve the
known, some researchers have suggested that concentration of large quantities of livestock
greater
atmospheric
turbidity
following waste.Thispresentsseriousdisposalprob-
increased volcanic activitywas a contributory lems, which if handled inappropriately can lead
factor.Theremay be linkswithindividual to groundwater and surface water pollution.
233 LONDON SMOG

LOESS Figure L 8 Pollution levels and deaths during

the London Smog of 1952
A sedimentary deposit formed towards the
end of iceages, whenfine,silt-sizedrock deaths
per day
flour produced by glacial erosion is carried
away by strong windsto be deposited
sometimesasfarasseveralhundredkilo-
metres from the source. Some loess may have
beenderived
fromdesert
sources. Loess
deposits are located mainly in the northern
hemisphere, in North America, Europe and
Asia.Soils formed on loess are very fertile
because they are fine-grained and contain a
mixture of all of the minerals derived from
thebedrockeroded by theglaciers.The
thickest deposits, averaging 75 m and up to
180 m in places are found in northern China,
where agricultural production from the fertile
soils supports a dense population, living in
dwellings tunnelled outof the loess.

Further reading
Pye, K. (1987) Aeolian Dust and Dust Deposrts,
London: Academic Press.
Smalley, I.J. (ed.)(1975) Loess: Lttbology and
Genesis, Stroudsberg, PA: Dowden, Hutchinson
and Ross.

LONDON MINISTERIAL DECEMBER 1952

CONFERENCE ON OZONE (1990)
A follow-up to the Montreal Protocol, the
London Ministerial Conference was success-
fulinstrengtheningtherestrictions on the
production of CFCs first proposed
in
Montreal. It also set up a fund of US$240
million as a means of helping Third World
countries to obtain the technology necessary
to develop alternatives to CFCs.
See also
Ozone depletlon.
LONDON SMOG (1952)
A major pollution event in London, England
caused by a combination of meteorological
conditions(lowtemperatures,highatmos-
pheric pressure, poor ventilation) and energy
use. Theburning of high-sulphurcoal
released sulphur dioxide(SO,) into the urban
atmospherewhereitwasconvertedinto
Source: Derived from data in Bates, D.W. (1972)
A Cittzen’s Guide to Pollutton, Montreal: McGill-
Queen’s Unwerslty Press
droplets of sulphuric acid (H,SO,). In com-
bination with smoke and soot particles, this
reduced visibility, and created a health risk.
An estimated 4000 extra deaths
were
attributed to the smog, and the event was
credited with encouraging the passage of the
clean air legislation that followed in the late
1950s. A similar episode occurred in 1962,
with a death-toll of some 700, mainly elderly
people or those suffering
from
chronic
respiratory ailments.
See also
Acid precipltation, Atmospheric turbidity.
Further reading
Brimblecombe, P. (1987) The Big Smoke:A
History of Atr Pollutron m London stnce Medieval
Times, LondodNew York: Methuen.
LONG RANGE TRANSPORTATION O F AIRPOLLUTION
LONG RANGE TRANSPORTATION
OF AIR POLLUTION (LRTAP)
The transportation of air pollution over great
distances - usually in excess of 500 km - by
the
prevailingwinds in
the
atmosphere.
Pollutantsreleasedintotheupperatmos-
phere,wherethewindstend to be more
persistent,areparticularlypronetolong
range transportation. The introductionof the
tall stacks policy, which increased the height
of emissions,encouraged LRTAP andcon-
tributed to the spread of acid rain damage.
Acid gas emissions from British industry, for
example, were carried eastwards, being con-
verted into sulphuric acid (H,SO,) during the
journey, to fall as acid rain in Scandinavia.
See also
Acld precipitatlon, INCO.
Further reading
Ottar, B. (1976) ‘Monitoring long range transport
of airpollutlon:theOECD study’, Ambro S:
203-6.
LONG-WAVE RADIATION
Relatively
low-energy radiation
from
the
infrared sectorof the electromagnetic spectrum.
Terrestrial radiation is long wave.
See also
Infrared radiation.
LOVE CANAL
A name now synonymous in North America
with the dangers associated with the uncon-
trolleddumping of toxicandhazardous
wastes. In the 1940s and early 1950s, near
Niagara Falls, New York, wastematerials
from a pesticides and plastics operation were
dumped in an area excavated for a canal but
neverdeveloped.Some 20,000 tonnes of
hazardous chemicals, sealed in drums, were
dumped in the canal and whenfull the dump
was backfilledwithclayandcoveredwith
topsoil. Some time latera school was built on
thepropertyandtheadjacentareawas
developed for residential use. By the 1970s it
became clear to the residents that there were
234
problems with the site. The area smelled of
chemicals, toxic waste began to migrate into
basements, storm sewers,gardensandthe
schoolplayground.Childrenplaying In the
areasufferedchemicalburns,andadverse
health effects such as eye and nose irritation,
rashes and headaches became commonplace.
There wasalso some indicationof an increase
in moreseriousdisorders,such as various
forms of cancer, nerve and kidney disease and
birth
defects. After twenty years
under-
ground,thebarrelscontainingthewaste
chemicalshad
corroded,
allowing
the
contents to escape into the local environment.
Therewaslittleimmediateresponsetothe
problems,butpersistentlobbying by the
residents
plus
intense
and
unfavourable
coverage by the media eventually forced the
state governmentof New York to take action.
Environmental tests indicated the presence of
morethaneightydifferentchemicals,and
health surveys revealed that the incidence of
birth defects, miscarriages, respiratory disease,
nasal and sinus infections and urinary tract
disorders was well above the national average.
Somedoubtshave beenraised aboutthe
statistical significance of these tests, but as a
result of such evidence the site was declared a
disaster areaby the federal government in1980,
theschoolwasclosedandtheresidents
evacuated. After twelve years and someUS$250
million spent on clean-up and rehabilitation
of the site, abouttwo-thirds of thearea
originally contaminated was declared fit for
habitationand by 1993 houseswereagain
being built and soldin the area. Following the
Love Canal incident, it became clear that the
dump was only oneof many. At a minimum,
tens of thousands of similar sites exist in the
United States alone and a comparable number
is likely for Europe, where the situationin the
former Eastern Bloc nations and the republics
that were once part of the USSR is particu-
larly serious.To escape the restraintsof modern
environmental controls, some companies have
contracted to dump waste productsin Third
Worldcountries,creatingthepotentialfor
future problems in these areas.
Further reading
Chlras, D.D. (1994) Etzvtronntental Saer~ce:Actrorz
for a Sustartzable Future, RedwoodCity, CA:
235 LYSIMETER

RenjamlnlCummings. have taken some steps to reduce dependency

Gibbs, L. (1982) The Love Canal: M y Story, onagriculturalchemicals.Theprogramme
Albany: State University of New York Press.
Kolata, G.B. (1980) ‘Love Canal:
false
alarm
also encouragesthemovementawayfrom
caused by botched study’, Screrrce 208: 1239-42. monoculture, and has the overall aim of all
sustainable
agricultural
practices of
LOVELOCK, I.E. maintaining soil fertility and productivity.

Further reading
British scientist and inventor. His detectionof Kaufman, D.G. and Franz, C.M. (1993) Biosphere
CFCs in the upper atmosphere helped to pave 2000: Protecting Our Global Enurronmerrt, New
the way towards an understanding of ozone York: HarperCollins.
depletion. James Lovelock is probably most
widely recognized, however, for his develop- LULU
ment of the Gaia hypothesis, which viewed
the earth as a single integrated organism. Locally unwanted land use.

Further reading LYSIMETER

Lovelock, J.E. (1972)‘Gaiaas seenthroughthe
atmosphere’, Atmospheric Envrrorrmeni 6: 579-
80. A deviceformeasuringevapotranspiration
Lovelock, J.E. (1986) ‘Gala:theworldasliving from a vegetated soil column. A column of
organism’, N e w Screntrst 112 (1539):2.5-8. soil withthe
vegetationgrowing on
its
Lovelock, J.E. (1988) The Ages of Gum, New
York: Norton. surface is isolated from its surroundings in a
Lovelock, J.E. (1995) Gala: A N e w Look a i Life on container. By comparing the
input of
Earth (2ndedition),Oxford: Oxford University precipitation with the drainage through the
Press. base of thesystem,and by weighingthe
column to estimate soil moisture storage, itis
LOW-INPUT SUSTAINABLE possible to calculate a water budget for the
AGRICULTURE (LISA) wholecolumn. Since the environment is
controlled, the input of moisture measured in
An acronym for low-input sustainable agri- a rain gauge minus the sum of the drainage
culture,aprogrammedeveloped by the US and storage elements provides an estimate of
Department of Agriculture in the mid-1980s the
moisture
lost
from
the
column by
to encourage natural
farmingwith less evaporation and transpiration.
syntheticinputs.Farmerspractising LISA
continue to use synthetic fertilizers
and Further reading
Forsgate,J.A.,Hosegood, P.H. andMcCulloch,
pesticides, but in limited amounts and where J.S.C. (1965) ‘Deslgn installation
and of
possible only as a last resort. It is estimated semi-enclosedhydrauliclysimeters’, Agrrcultural
that some 30-40per cent of farmers in the US Meteorology 2: 43-52.
 M
MAGMA
Moltenrockmaterialconsistingmainly of
silicates with included gases and some solids.
It originates in the lower part of the earth’s
crust or mantle, where it reaches temperatures
as high as 1000°C. When it solidifies, it forms
igneousrock.Magmamayextrudeatthe
earth’s surfacethroughvolcanicvents or
fissures in the form of lava or it may remain
intrusive,
solidifying
within or between
existing rocks.
Further reading
Hyndman, D.W. (1985) Petrology of Igneous and
Metamorphrc Rocks (2ndeditlon), New York:
McCraw-Hill.
MAGNESIUM (ME)
A light, silver-white metal which tarnishes on
exposure to air and burns intensely to form
magnesium oxide(MgO). In thenatural
environment, it is a constituent of a number
of carbonatemineralssuchasmagnesite
(MgCO,) and dolomite (MgCO,.CaCO,) and
is presentinchlorophyll.Magnesiumcom-
pounds also cause hard water. It is usedin
industry in theproduction of lightweight
alloys, in photography and in medicine.
MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMIC
GENERATOR (MHD)
A direct
energy-conversionsystemwhich
produceselectricity by passingastream of
very high temperature ionized gas through a
magnetic field. The gas is produced by
burning finely crushedcoal,seededwith
potassium (K) and caesium (CS)to encourage
ionization,at veryhigh temperature.The
electricity is drawn off by means of electrodes
inserted into the gas flow.Since it involves
high
combustion temperaturesand no
movingsteamturbines or generators,an
M H D system has a conversion efficiency of
about 60 per cent compared to the 30-40 per
cent of aconventionalthermalgenerating
system. The MHD system also produces less
acidgases thantheconventionalsystem.
Once the gas has passed through the system,
it is still very hot and can be used to generate
steam in a normal generator coupled to the
downstream end of the M H D system.
See also
Cogeneration.
Further reading
Klelnbach, M.H. and Salvagin, C.E. (1986) Energy
Techrrologres and Conversion Systems, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
MAGNETOSPHERE
The space around the earth and other planets
in which there is an external magnetic field.
Unlike the field around a common magnet,
the
magnetosphere is not symmetrically
distributed around the earth. As a result of
interactions
with
the
solar
wind, it is
distorted into the shape of a comet with the
tail stretching away from the sun.On theside
of the earth closest to the sun the magnet-
osphereextendssome 60,000 km outinto
space, but on the opposite side the tail carries
the magnetic field much further out, perhaps
as far as 6 millionkm. The entrapment of
radiation particles within the magnetosphere
is responsibleforsuchphenomenaasthe
aurora.
237 MALNUTRITION

Further reading Further reading

Ratcliffe, J.A. (1972) A n Zntroductron tothe Harrison, G.A. (1978) Mosqurtoes,Malariaand
Ionosphere
and
Magnetosphere, Carnbrldge: Man, New York: Dutton.
Cambridge University Press. NationalAcademy of Sciences (1991) Malaria;
ObstaclesandOpportunities, Washington,DC:
National Academy Press.
MALARIA

A parasitic disease endemic to many parts of

thetropicsinAfrica,south-east Asia and
Latin America. It is spread when the Anopheles
mosquito injects the parasite into the blood
of itsvictims
duringfeeding.
Symptoms
include general malaise, fever and sweating,
thatrecurwithsomeregularityoftenover
many years as the parasite passes through its
life cycle. Malarial infection of the brain can
lead to coma and
death.
Malaria
has
traditionally been treated with quinine-based
drugs, but in a number of areas the parasite
has developed an immunity to them and even
to some of the new drugs designed to replace
them.Thebestmethod of attackingthe
disease is to treat the causes rather than the
symptoms. Mosquito breeding areas such as
swamps and pools can be drained, or treated
with pesticides, for example.
See also
DDT, Insecticides.
MALNUTRITION
Aresult of theconsumption of essential
nutrients a t levels inadequate to maintain
goodhealth.Malnutritioncanoccureven
whentotalcalorierequirementsarebeing
met. People forced to live o n a low protein,
highstarchdiet,forexample,maysuffer
from malnutrition as a result of deficiencies
in proteins or othernutrients.Individuals
suffering from malnutrition are usually prone
to disease, too weak to work effectively and
too tired to think clearly. Children may have
their
physical and
mental
development
retarded by malnourishment in their growing
years. Many die prematurely as a direct result
of themalnutrition or because of diseases
whichthey
cannot resist
in their
mal-
nourished state. In the past, malnutrition was
common in marginal areas such as the Sahel,
where drought and harvest failure regularly
led to famine.Despitemodernworldwide

Figure M-I The global distribution of malaria

Source: Various
MALTHUS, T.R. 238

food distribution systems, that situation still productionlater in thenineteenthcentury

prevails to some extent, but with the growth
of world population the problem has become
moredispersed.Life-threateningmalnutrition
is nowendemicamongtheThird World’s
landlessrurallabourersandurban poor.
More than a billion people around the world
suffer malnutrition and some 40 ndlion die
prematurely every year as a direct or indirect
result.
See also
Kwashiorkor.
Further reading
Brown,L.R. (1994) ‘Faclngfoodinsecurity’, In
L.R.Brown(ed.) State of the World 1994, N K W
York: W.W. Norton.
confounded his predictions, and the develop-
ment of birth control and other family planning
techniques showed that ‘moral restraint’ was
possible. Continuing high productivity levels
inagricultureintothetwentiethcentury,
coupled with a significant
reduction in
fertility in developed nations seemed to show
that Malthus’s fears were unfounded. In the
latter half of the century, however, rapidly
expanding populations in ThirdWorld
regions, unable to produce enough food for
their own survival, and too numerous to be
supplied with surpluses from elsewhere, are
again experiencing the starvation, disease and
war foreseen by Malthus as the main natural
checks on population growth.

MALTHUS, T.R. (1766-1 834) See also

Carrying
capacity,
Darwin, C R . , Exponential
growth.
Thomas Robert Malthus, an English clergy-
man and economist, was one of the first to further reading
addressthe
problems associated
with
a Ehrlich, P.R. and
Ehrlich, A.H. (1990) The
rapidlygrowing population.
In
1789 he Populut~on Exploszorz, New York: Simon &
Schuster.
published a short book entitled An Essay on Lloyd, W.F. (1977) ‘On the checks to population’,
the Principle of Population as it Affects the in G. Hardinand J. Baden(eds) Marzagirzg the
Future Improvementof Society, followed by a Commons, San Francisco, CA: Freeman.
second edition in 1803, in which he set o u t
his concerns andhis conclusions. He recognized M A N A N DBIOSPHERE
thatwhereaspopulationgrowthtendedto PROGRAM (MA6 UNESCO)
follow a geometric progression (1,2,4, 8, 16,
32, 6 4 . . .), the growth in food production, An internationalscientific
programme,
on whichthepopulationdepended,was launched in 1971 under the sponsorship of
arithmetic (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 . . .) and theUnitedNationsEducational, Scientific
concludedthatpopulationgrowthwould andCulturalOrganization(UNESCO),to
ultimately exceed the available food supply. studytheextentandnature of thehuman
At that stage,famine,diseaseandwarfare impacton
the
biosphere.
Involving 110
would reduce the population until it was once national committees, its main achievementin
againwithinthebounds of theavailable the first two decades of its existence was the
subsistence. As an alternative, Malthus creation of a network of biosphere reserves to
suggested that the practiceof ‘moral restraint’ be examinedandresearched by scientists
- continence and delayed marriage - could from a wide range of disciplines in an attempt
reducepopulationgrowthtomanageable to establish the scientific basisfor sustainable
rates.Althoughthisseemedpreferable to development. From the preliminary work on
alternatives such as poverty, vice and misery, the reserves, a number of priority areas were
Malthus seemed to have little confidence that recognized as havingpotentialforfuture
the population would exercise the necessary development. These included continuing work
restraint and foresaw that the more drastic onapproaches to sustainabledevelopment,
eventswouldprovidethemainchecks on the
conservationand
sustainable use of
population growth. The opening up of new biodiversity, the effective communication of
lands for European migration and improved information on environmental and develop-
agriculturaltechnologythatboostedfood ment issues and the setting upof institutional
239 MARSH

functionsandcapacitiestodealwiththe information on world population growth and

emerging problems. the availability o f resources. Unlike Limits to
Growth, however, did it not
present a
MAN’S ROLE IN CHANGING THE doomsday prophecy, but suggested a number
FACE OF THE EARTH (MRCFE) of scenarios, obtained from a computerized
world development model, that the authors
Thefirstmajorinternationalconferenceto claim can avert potential catastrophe.
address the impact of human activities on the
environment, heldin Chicagoin 1956 and Further reading
Mesarovic, M. and Pestel, E. ( 1975) Manklrzd at
attended by a variety of academics including the Turntng Pomt, London: Hutchinson.
geographers,
biologists,
economists
and
historians. Although in large part a review of MANTLE
the historical development of environmental
issues to that time, it also drew attention to That part of the interior of the earth lying
suchproblems as airandwaterpollution, betweenthecrustandthecore.Itextends
resourcedepletion,wastedisposalandsoil between 50-70 km and 2900 km below the
erosion,whichwere to become of major
surface. Part of the upper mantle is rigid and
concern in the decades that followed.
with the crust forms the lithosphere, whereas
the asthenosphere immediately below it is at
Further reading
least partially molten. Convective activity in
Thomas, W.L. (1956) Man’s Role t n Changrrzg the
Face of theEarth, Chicago, 1L: Unlversity of the lower mantle in combination with active
Chicago Press. subduction is thought to beresponsiblefor
the movement of crustal plates. Magma from
MANKIND AT THE TURNING the mantle may escape to the surface during
POINT volcanic activity.

The second report sponsored by the Club of See also

Rome,publishedin 1975. Liketheearlier Plate tectonlcs.
reportLimits to Growth, it wasbased on
Further reading
computer
analysis
designed provide
to Poirier, J.P. (1991) IntroductrontothePhysics
of the Earth’s Interior, CambrldgelNew York:
Figure M-2 Projected population growth and Cambridge Universlty Press.
protein requirements in south-east Asia
according to The Second Report of the Club MARITIME TROPICAL AIR MASS
of Rome 0
An air mass originating over the oceans in
tropicallatitudes,andthereforehotand
4 - 4000 - moist. Maritime tropical airis also inherently
unstableandcapable of producing large
amounts of precipitation. The rainy season in
monsoon climates, for example, is associated
with the arrival of maritime tropical air.

Further reading
Nieuwolt, S. ( 1 977) TroplcalClimzatology: An
Introductrorz totheClimates of LOWLatitudes,
LondonRoronto: Wiley.
1985 1875 1895 m5 2015 2025

MARSH
Source: After Mesarovic, M. and Pestel, E. (1975)
Manklrzd at the Turrzrng Porrzt, London: Hutchinson See wetlands.
M A R S H , C.P. 240

MARSH, GP. (1 801 -1 882) generallydependsuponsuchfactors as the

nature of the material involved, the steepness
One of a group of nineteenth-century environ- of theslope
andthe
amount of water
mental
pioneers,
includingEmerson and available to provide lubrication. All the
Thoreau, who drew attentionto the dynamic processes involved are natural features of the
character of nature and
through their environment,
but
humanactivities
can
writingsstimulatedpublicinterestinthe increase the frequency with which they occur
naturalenvironment. Marsh’s maincontri- andtheimpactthatthey have,sometimes
butionwashisappreciation of thehuman with disastrous consequences.
impact on nature and natural resources, and
his ideas, as expressed in his book Man and Further reading
Turner, A.K. and Schuster, R.L. (eds)(1996)
Nature, were carried
throughinto
the Landslides:
Investigation
Mitigation,
and
mid-twentieth century through such events as Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
the 1956 Chicago Conferenceon Man’s Role
in Changing the Faceof the Earth. MASS NUMBER
Further reading The number of protons and neutrons in the
Marsh, G.P. (1864) Man and Nature, New York:
Scribner. nucleus of an atom.
Thomas, W.L. (1956) Man’s Role t n Changing the
Face of the Earth, Chicago: University of Chicago MAUNDER MINIMUM
Press.

A prolonged period of low sunspot activity

MASS
The quantityof matter in a body. The massof
a body is defined in terms of itsinertiaor
resistance to a change in motion. An object
with a large mass, for example, will be more
difficult to setinmotionthanonewith
small mass. Similarly, once in motion,a body
with a large mass will be more difficult to stop.
between 1645 and 1715, firstidentified by
theastronomer E.W. Maunder.Thatsame
time period included someof the worst years
of the Little IceAge. The cold, wet weatherof
the 1690s, for example, which caused havoc
in Northern Europe, is well documented. A
a similar period of low sunspot activity, named
the
‘Sporer
Minimum’, occurred
between
1460 and 1550.

MASS BURNINCINERATOR Further reading

Eddy, J.A. (1976) ‘The
Maunder Minimum’,
Science 192: 1189-202.
An incinerator that burns mixed garbage or Parry,M.L. (1978) ClimatrcChatzge,Agrrcultrtre
unsortedmunicipalwaste.Thepresence of and Settlement, Folkcstone: Dawson.
non-combustible material in such waste may
reduce
the
combustion efficiency of the MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE
incinerator and raise Its air pollution potential. CONCENTRATION (MAC) OR
Municipal waste often includes products that MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE
containhazardousmaterial - forexample, CONCENTRATION (MPC)
mercury batteries - which is released into the
atmosphere as a result of incineration. Theupperlimitfortheconcentration of
pollutants in theworkplace.Exposure to
MASS MOVEMENT noxious or toxic pollutants up to the level of
the MAClMPC shouldbe harmless to healthy
The downslope movement of material under adults.
the force of gravity. Movement may be slow-
forexample, soil creep - andnotreadily Further reading
apparent, or it may be very rapid, as in the Wilson, C:. ( 1 993) Chernrcal Exposure and Hutnan
case of a mud flow. The speed of the flow Health, Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co.
24 1 MELANIN

MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE DOSE Table M - l Maximum permissible doses for

occupational exposure in Canada
The maximum amount of ionizing radiation
thatanindividualshould be allowed to
absorb over a given period of time. The dose Gonads and red bone
is sufficiently low that no injury will occur marrow (whole body
duringthelifetime of theindividual as a in the case of uniform
result of the exposure and no genetic damage irradiation) 5inrems a year
will be carried over to theindividual’s
offspring.
most
In countries,
maximum Skin; thyroid;
bone 30 rems in a year
permissible doses for occupational exposures Hands and forearms;
are set by law, andare usuallybased on feet and
ankles 75 rems
in a year
recommendations from
the
International
Commission Radiological
on Protection All other
organs 15 rems in a year
(ICRP). Maximum permissible dose limits are
calculatedaccording to thebestavailable Source: Atomic Energy of Canada Limited
knowledgeandaresubject to change as
researchcontinues. To allow for unknown MAXIMUM SUSTAINABLEYIELD
elements, the ICRP emphasizes the need to
keep all doses as low as readily achievable. See sustainable yield.

See also MELANIN

Rem, Sievert.

Further reading
A dark-brown pigment, produced in certain
Turner, J.E. (1995) Atoms, Radiattorr and skin cellscalledmelanocytes,whichcontri-
Radiatrotz Protection, New York: Wiley. butes to the colour of skin and hair in many

Figure M-3 Incidence of melanoma in Scotland, 1979-89

1 male female

Source: After Mackie, R., Huntcr, J.A.A., Aitchlson, T.C., Hole, D., McLaren, K., Rankin, R.,
Blessing, K., Evans, A.T., Hutcheon, A.W., Jones, D.H., Soutar, D.S., Watson, A.C.H., Cornbleet,
M.A. and Smith, J.F. (1992) ‘Cutaneous malignant melanoma, Scotland 1979-89’,The Lancet 339:
971-S
MELANOMA 242

animalsincludinghuman beings.Its main

speculative. In theory the
moltenmass,
function is to protect the skin from burning containing thefuel and incorporating partsof
by absorbingsolarradiation,particularly the reactor, could melt its way through the
that from the ultraviolet end concrete floor of the containment structure
of the spectrum.
Initial exposure to solar radiation stimulates into the ground beneath. This gave rise to the
the melanocytes to produce melanin, which idea of theChinaSyndromethatsawthe
provides
protection
against
subsequent molten material working its way through the
exposure. The number of melanocytes, and earth to appear through the crust o n the other
thereforetheability to producemelanin, is side.
Amore likely scenario is a steam
genetically determined and, as a result, some explosion caused when the hot fuel encoun-
individuals have more protection than others. tersgroundwaterbeneaththestructure. In
Dermatological studiesindicatethat practice, the process is probably self-limiting.
few
peoplecanproducesufficientmelaninto As the fuel becomes dispersed, the efficiency
provide complete protection from the of the
sun’s fissionprocess
declines
and
the
rays and increasingly artificial protection in temperature of the mass falls.
However,
the
form of sun screen lotion before that stage is reached, a complete melt-
is being
recommended. down in a nuclear reactor has the potential to
causemajor environmental damage. The
See also odds against such an event are often quoted
Melanoma, Ozone deplet~on, Ultrav~olet radiation.as several million to one, but as the existing
reactorsage,
the
odds will
decline and
MELANOMA whatever the calculated odds, even one minor
human error can set the meltdown sequence
Amalignant,normallyfatalform of skin in motion.
cancer,
associated
with
over-exposure to
ultraviolet-B radiation (UVB). The increased See also
occurrence of melanoma has been linked to Chernobyl.
thethinning of theozonelayerandthe
subsequentincrease in ultravioletradiation Further reading
reaching the earth’s surface, but it may also Flavin, C. (1987) Russessrtzg Nlcclear Power: The
Fallout f r o m CherrZobyl, Washington, DC:
be associatedwith lifestylefactors, such as Worldwatch Institute.
increased sunbathing.
MERCAPTANS
Further reading
Concar, D. (1992)‘Theres~stible rise of skin
cancer’, N e w Sclerrtist 134 ( 1 8 2 1 ): 23-8.
A group o f organic compounds that contain
Schwartz, K.A. (ed.) (1988) Skrn ( h c e r : sulphur (S) andarecharacterized by an
Recognrtiorr arrd Mnrzagenrent, Ncw York: offensive odour, sometimes likened to rotting
Springer-Vcrlag. cabbage.Produced naturally by decaying
organic matter, they are also by-products of
MELTDOWN various industrial activities. The residents of
petroleumrefiningcentresortownswhich
The melting of the fuel elements in a nuclear support a pulp and paper industry are well
reactor as a result of the overheating of the aware of theobnoxiousodoursassociated
reactor core. Overheating maybe caused by a with the emission of mercaptans. Although
loss of coolantor a malfunction in the they can be removed by installing scrubbers
mechanical systems, such as the control rod in the industrial plants, they are recognizable
mechanisms, necessary
for
the
safe
and at very low concentrations.The
most
efficient
operation of the facility.
Partial commonmercaptans - methylmercaptan
meltdownshaveoccurred,suchasthatat (CH,SH)andethylmercaptan(C,H,SH) -
Three MileIsland in theUnitedStates in have odour thresholds of only a few parts per
1979, but the sequence that would occur in billion.Thus,onlysmallamountsneed to
theevent of acompletemeltdownremains escape before they become a nuisance.
243 MESOPAUSE

Further reading sufficientlyhigh to causethesymptoms of

Patai, S. ( 1974) The Chetnrstry ofthe Throl Group, mercurypoisoning.Predators attheupper
LondonlNew York: Wiley. levels of the chains suffer most as a result of
this bioaccumulation. Humans areparticularly
MERCURY (Hg) vulnerable, but there is evidence that fish and
birds also exhibit signs of mercury poisoning.
Aheavymetalthatexistsas a silvery-grey A series of eventsinthe 1960s and 1970s
liquid (quicksilver) at normal temperature and which included the identification of Minamata
pressure. It is extracted from its ore, cinnabar disease, the discovery of extraordinarily high
(HgS), by roasting in air. Aswell as its levels of mercury in fishin locations as far
traditional uses in scientific instruments such apart as the Great Lakes and the IrishSea,
as thermometers and barometers, mercury is and in species ranging from lake troutto tuna
widely used as a catalyst in the chemical and and
swordfish,
plus
several
accidents
plastics industry. Mercury alloys (amalgams) involvingtheconsumption of seed grain
remainthemostcommonly used form of treated with mercury-based fungicides, led to
dental fillings, although their safety is being the reconsideration of the role of mercury in
questioned. Mercury compounds are poison- the environment. Permissible levels of mercury
ous, butsomehave a useinmedicine as in foodstuffswereestablished by national
antiseptics and fungicides. healthbodiesand by theWorldHealth
Organization (WHO), restrictions were placed
See also ontheconsumption of fish,particularly in
Mercury poisoning. North America,the use of mercurycom-
poundsforagriculturalpurposeswas re-
Further reading examined, and strict controls were instituted
Hammond, A.L. (1971) ‘Mercury in the environ-
ment:naturalandhumanfactors’, Srretzce 171
for
the
disposal of wastes
containing
(3973): 788-9. mercury.Despitethis,mercury levelsin the
environment remain high, particularly in the
MERCURY POISONING aquatic
environment,
and
with
several
thousandtonnesbeingproducedannually,
Poisoning caused by the ingestion, inhalation there is a need for continued vigilance.
o r absorption of mercury or its compounds.
Organic mercury compounds, such as methyl Further reading
mercury,are
particularly
toxic.
Mercury Borg, K., Wanntrop, H., Erne, K. and Hanko, E.
(1966) ‘Mercury poisoning In Swedishwildlife’,
poisoning affects the brain, kidneys and bowel, jourtral of Applied Ecology 3: 171.
producingsymptomsthatincludeamnesia, Hutchinson, T.C. (ed.)(1987) Lead,
Mercury,
insomnia, fatigue, blindness and emotionalor Cadmrum and Arsetzic rtr the Etwironmetzt, New
mentaldisorientation.Thedirect effects of York: Wiley.
Nriagu, J.O. (1990) ‘Global
metal
pollutlon:
mercury on humans have been known since poisoning the biosphere’, Ettvironmwt 32: 7-32.
a t least
the
nineteenth
centurythrough
observations of those who mined the ore and
thosewho used mercury in manufacturing. MERIDIONAL CIRCULATION
(The Mad Hatter in Alice in Wonderland is
considered a good example of an individual The movement of air in the atmosphere in a
who is mentallyderanged by exposureto north-south o r south-northdirection, i.e.
mercury used in making felt hats.) However, parallel to the meridians orlines of longitude.
theimpact of thewiderdistribution of
mercury in the environment has onlyreceived See also
Zonal circulation, Zonal Index.
attention
much more recently. Mercury
released intotheenvironment,whether by
natural or human activities,mayultimately MESOPAUSE
become part of the food chain, accumulating
in thebody tissues of organisms t o levels The boundary between the mesosphere and
MESOSPHERE
thermospherelyingsome 80 km above the
earth’s surface.
MESOSPHERE
The layer of the atmosphere lying above the
stratosphere.
Temperaturedeclines
with
increasing altitude, from close to 0°C at the
stratopause to -80°C at the mesopause, the
upper limit of the mesosphere.
MESOTROPHIC (LAKES)
Lakesthataremoderatelyproductive in
terms of their output of organic matter. They
contain levels of nutrientsthatplacethem
somewhere between nutrient-poor oligotrophic
lakes and nutrient-rich eutrophic lakes.
METABOLISM
The sum of the chemical processes that take
place in aliving organism.Includingboth
anabolismandcatabolism,itprovidesnot
only the raw materials for maintenance and
growth,but also theenergy
neededfor
growth,developmentandotheractivities.
The various reactions involved in metabolic
processes are generally controlled by enzymes.
Further reading
Pandian, T.J. and Vernberg, F.J. (eds) (1987)
Atzrmnl Emrgetrcs, San Dlego: Academic Press.
METAL
An element which is malleable, ductile, has a
high relative density (specific gravity)and is a
goodconductor of heatand electricity.
Metals are also characterized by their ability
totake on ashine,theso-called‘metallic
lustre’, and most have a high melting point
whichmakesthemsolid atnormaltemp-
eratures.Metalshave been importantto
society for thousands of years, as reflected in
terms such as the ‘Bronze Age’ and the ‘Iron
Age’, and modern society could not function
as it does without metals. Their malleability
allows them tobe hammered or pressed into a
variety of forms; their ductility allows them
to be drawn out into fine and flexible wires;
244
their conductivity makes them indispensable
in the energy and communications industries;
their ability to form alloys with each other
allows specific combinations of metals to be
developed to meetspecialneeds. The many
advantages of metals come with an environ-
mentalcost, however. Modernextraction
methods are usuallylargescale,creating
major landscape change through strip mining
or the excavation of pits and causing
disruption to the ecology and hydrology of
the area. Through such elements as acid mine
drainage and the escapeof dust particles into
the atmosphere, the impact of the activity is
carriedbeyondtheboundaries of themine
siteitself.Few metals occur in their free o r
elemental statein nature. They existas ores in
combination with other elements, and to be
used they must be released using some form
of smelting process. The unwanted products
are released to contaminate the environment.
In thesmelting of non-ferrousores,for
example, the sulphur (S) driven off contributes
t o acid precipitation, while more direct health
effects are associated with poorly controlled
mercury and lead smelting.
Since the proportion of a given metal in
any ore is usually small, the smelting process
produces substantial amountsof waste which
requiredisposal. In the
extraction and
refining of metalssuch as uranium,the
problems are complicated by the presence of
radioactivity.Onthe
positive
side,
most
metals can be recycled, without losing any of
their properties. Precious metals such as gold
have beenrecycled forthousands of years,
andthere is aregularscrapmetaltrade in
metals such as iron, copper and aluminum.
Most metal recycling is cost driven, however,
and because of fluctuating metal prices, the
environmentalbenefits of recyclingarenot
always fullyrealized. Thecontinuedhigh
demand for metals has led to the exploitation
of lowerqualityores.This in turncreates
greater stress on the environment. More ore
has to be extracted and smelted to produce
the same amount of metal,moreenergy is
usedin theprocessand a largervolume of
waste remains for disposal. The dependence
of modernsociety onmetals is likely to
continue and,despite environmental legislation,
the threat to the environment from extraction
245 METEOR/METEOROID

Figure M - 4 Changing metal production in structure and texture of existing igneous or

Japan sedimentaryrock is altered
through
the
‘000 action of heat and/or
pressure. Local
tonnes metamorphism is caused by heat alone - for

I5O0 r example, the alteration of rocks adjacent to

an igneous intrusion - o r by pressure alone -
for example, the alteration of rocks along a
fault
or
thrust line. Heatand
pressure
combined are responsible for the large-scale
development of metamorphlc rocks produced
in mountain belts during orogenesis.
Sedimentary rocks
such as limestoneor
mudstone,subjected to heatandpressure,
maybetransformedintomarbleandslate
respectively, whileigneousrock
such as
I , , , aluminum granite may be metamorphosed into gneiss, a
1995 1985 1975 coarse-grained, banded or foliated rock.

tonnes See also

Lava, Magma.
2000 -
Further reading
1500 - Turner, F.J. (1981) Metamorphrc
Petrology:
Mineralogrcal, Field and Tectomc Aspects,
1000 - Washington,
DCMew Hemisphere
York:
Publishing/McCraw-Hill.
500 -
METEOR/METEOROID
I, 1975
’-antimony

1985
gold
1995 A solidextraterrestrial body. Meteorsor
meteoroids
regularly
enter
the earth’s
Source: Derived from data in The Japan Alnzarzac
1995, Tokyo: Asahi Shimbun atmosphere, where most burn up as a result
of the heat generated by friction, and appear
to final disposal will remain. The situation is in the sky as ‘shooting stars’. Larger meteors
particularlyserious in many less developed that reach the surface are called meteorites.
nationswhereenvironmentalconcerns in They are composed mainly of iron (Fe) and
mineral production are forced to take second nickel (Ni) or silicate minerals, but some have
place to economic issues. been found to contain complex organic
molecules such as hydrocarbons and amino
See also acids. Since mostmeteoritesappear to be
Beneficiatlon,
Heavymetals,
INCO,Industr~al between four and five billion years old, they
Revolution,Leadpoisoning,Mercurypoisoning, have been studied as a source of information
Open-plt mining. on the origins of the solar system which is
considered to be of a similar age. Few large
Further reading
McLaren, D.J. and Skinner, B.J. (eds) (1987) meteoriteshavestrucktheearth inrecent
Resources arzd World Deuelopmertt, New York: times, but there is speculation that a massive
Wiley. meteoritewhichstrucktheearth’ssurface
Tilton, J.E. (ed.) (1990) WorldMetalDemand, some 6 5 million years ago at the end of the
Washington, DC: Resources for the Future. Cretaceousperiodwasresponsibleforthe
massextinction of dinosaurs. The
great
METAMORPHIC ROCK volume of dust and debris which was injected
into the atmosphere by the collision reduced
Rock
formed
when
composition,
the incoming solar radiation sufficiently to slow
METEOROLOGY 246

or even halt photosynthesis, and the resulting Figure M-5 Sources, control and
loss of theirplantfoodsupply led tothe management of methane in the environment
demise of the dinosaurs.

See also
Extinction, Silica.

Further reading
Alvarez, L.W., Alvarez, W., Asaro, F. and Michel,
H.V. (1980)‘Extraterrestrial cause forthe
Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction', Screrzce 221:
r
FOSSIL
i
NON-FOSSIL
12.56-64. coal mines wetlands
natural gas wells rice paddies
METEOROLOGY and pipeline reservoirs
termites methane hydra
destabilization domestic ruminants
Thestudy of theatmosphereincluding its (deep oceans) biomass burning
structure,
composition
and
the
physical (pennabst) landfill
processes that produce the weather. In theory, I I
I
thetermapplies to all atmospheres,but (atmospheric concentration]
usually refers to the earth’s atmosphere.

See also
Agrometeorology, Climate.

Further reading
Ahrens, C.D. (1994) Meteorology Today (-5th
l NATURAL CONTROL
destruction by OH radical
removal by soil

edition), St Paul, MN: West Publishing.

METHANE MANAGEMENT REQUIRED

change in industrial and
agricultural practices
A simplehydrocarbon gas (CH,) produced collection and burning
during the decompositionof organic material
underanaerobicconditions. It is themain
L as a fuel

constituent of natural gas and therefore an

important fuel. A powerful greenhouse gas,it and as a resultanyreduction in OH will
is about twenty-one times moreeffective than contribute to thepotential risein methane
carbon dioxide(COz),molecule for molecule,
levels.
and its atmospheric concentration is growing
at a rate of about 0.9 per cent per year, almost Further reading
twice the rate of carbon dioxide. The main Blake, D.R. and Rowland, F.S. (1988) ‘Continuing
causes of increasingmethane levels in the worldwide increase 111 tropospheric methanc’,
atmosphere are to be foundinagricultural Scrence 239: 1129-31.
development, including land clearing, rising Nisbct, E.G. (199 1) Leavrtrg Eden: To Protect and
Manage Earth,
the Cambrldge:
Cambrldge
populations of domesticcattle,sheepand University Press.
pigs, and increases in rice cultivation. Some Smith, A.T. (1995) ‘Environmental factors affecting
18 per cent of the world’s methane production thc global atmospherlcmethaneconcentratlons’,
is contributed by theanimalsalone.The Progress i n Physical Geography 19: 322-3.5.
escape of methane during natural gas extrac-
tion, transportation and use may account for METHANE SULPHONIC ACID
as much as 15 percent of globalmethane (MSA)
emissions. Methane has an atmospheric life-
time of about ten years. It is removed from A gas produced by the oxidation of dimethyl
the atmosphere by the hydroxyl radical(OH) sulphide (DMS) released by phytoplankton
247 M I L A N K O V I T C H HYPOTHESIS

during its seasonal bloom. MSA is ultimately Further reading

convertedintosulphate in theatmosphere, MacKenzie, D. ( 1 992) ‘Agreement reduces damage
to ozone layer’, New Screrztrst 136 (1850): 10.
therefore addingto natural atmospheric acidity.
METHYL CHLOROFORM
METHANOL
Methyl alcohol (CH,OH). Formerly produced See chloroform.
by the destructive distillationof wood, hence
itspopularnamewoodalcohol or wood MICROBES
spirit, it is now commonly obtained by the
catalyticoxidation of methane(CH,). I t is Microscopic organisms. See bacteria.
used as a denaturing agent and as a solvent
and is important in the chemical industry as a MID-LATITUDE FRONTAL MODEL
raw material for the production of synthetic
resins. It has beenactivelypromoted as a n A model of mid-latitude cyclonic circulation
engine fuel, either on its own or mixed with that identifies the interactions between the air
gasoline. This would reduce the emission of masses in a cycloneand explains the resulting
carbon monoxide (CO) from internal com- weatherpatterns.Developedbetween1915
bustion engines, and if used on a large scale it and 1920 by Norwegian weather forecasters,
would
help
conserve
to supplies.
oil it remained an important forecasting tool in
Methanolhasonlyabout half theenergy mid-latitudes for at least fifty years and the
content of gasoline, however, and unless there elements of the model - such as cold front,
is a majorsupplycrisis or radicalpricing warm front, warm sector- remain very much
change, methanol is unlikely to replace part of the current
weatherforecasting
existing motor fuels. vocabulary. See Figure M-6 overleaf.

Further reading Further reading

Heath, M. (1989) Towards a Conrmercral Future: Carlson, T.N. (1991) Mid-latrttrde
Weather
Ethanol atzd Methatzol as
Alterrratrue
Tratzs- Systetrzs, London: Routledge.
portatrottFuels, Calgary:University of Calgary
Press.
Supp, E. (1990) How to Produce Methanol from MILANKOVITCH HYPOTHESIS
Coal, Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
model
A developed by a Yugoslavian
METHYL BROMIDE mathematicianand physicist
Milutin
Milankovitch in the 1920s. Based in part on
Afumigant used as a pesticidesincethe the work of James Croll in the nineteenth
1960s in the fruit and vegetable industry. Its century, it used changing
astronomical
role in destroying ozonehas
only been relationships between the earth and the sun
appreciatedsince1991,butwith an ozone in an attempt to explain the iceages. The
depletionpotential(ODP)similar to most hypothesis is based o n the observation that
CFCs, it is now realized that it may be the earth’s orbital path around the sun and
responsible for asmuchas 10 per cent of itsattitude in relation to thesunarenot
existing ozone depletion. At a meeting of the constant,but
change
with
measurable
world’s
environment ministers in Copen- perlodicity. This in turn produces changes in
hagenin 1992, it wasadded to the list of the
amountand
distribution of solar
banned,
ozone-destroying
gases,
with radiation received atthe earth’ssurface.
emissions to be frozen at the 1991 levelby Three cyclical phenomena are
involved:
1995. When the situation was reviewed again changes in theeccentricity of theorbit -
in 1995 in Vienna, it was agreed that the year rangingbetweenacircleand anextended
2010 would be the target
date
for
the ellipse (periodicity of 96,000 years); changes
complete phase-outo f the production anduse in the obliquity of the ecliptic - o r tilt of the
of methyl bromide. earth’s axis (periodicityof 40,000 years); the
M I L A N K O V I T C H HYPOTHESIS 248

Figure M-6 The development of a mid-latitude cyclone, according to the mid-latitude

frontal model

-r((( front Warm front

precession of theequinoxes - thetime of Figure M - 7 The elements of the

yearwhentheearth is closest to the sun Milankovitch Hypothesis
(periodicity of 21,000 years). The changing
A l m t Owptlcal Almost c l r ~ u l a r
eccentricity of theearth'sorbitaffectsthe
total solar radiationreceivedbytheearth
whereastheothertwoproduceseasonal
variations in insolation. For example,the
total solar radiation receipt will be greatest (8) Pewcity 96,000 yrs..
whentheorbit is completelycircular,and
will be reduced as theorbitbecomesan
extended ellipse. The earth is closest to the
sunat
perihelionwhich is currently in
January. In 10,500 years, however,
perihelion will occur in June, placing it in
the northern summer. The changing tilt of
the earth's axis - between 21.8" and 24.4" -
will also modify the seasonal summedwinter
contrast in bothhemispheres.Reconciling
the three different rhythms is not easy, and (ii9 In c. 10,500yrs.
(4 Summer @&@Winter
when originally put forward the variability
involved appeared to be insufficient to cause
changes as great as the ice ages. As a result, Source: Moore, P.D., Chaloner, B. and Stott, P.
the
hypothesis
wasgenerally
dismissed. ( 1 996) Global E~rvrrormrerrtdCbatlge, Oxford:
Morerecentinvestigations of deepocean Blackwell Science
coressuggestsomedegree of correlation
between the timing of heating and cooling the orbit. Despite this, the general consensus
during the Pleistocene and the periodicity of is that
themselves
in the
changes
in
Milankovitch
the cycles.
most
The insolationareinsufficient to explainthe
important of the cycles wasthelongest, climatic events in the Pleistocene. They may
associated with the changing eccentricity of have initiated changeor contributed to it, but
249 P O P U L A T I OMINIMUM
N VIABLE

the
magnitude of the
changes
required Reinhold.
contributions from other sources. Kurland, L.T., Faro, S.N. and Seidler, H. (1960)
‘Minamata disease: the outbreak of a neurological
disorder In Minamata, Japan and its relationship
Further reading to the
ingestion of seafoodcontaminated by
Calder, N. (1974) The Weather Machine and the mercury’, World Neurology 1 (5):370-91.
Threat of Ice, London: BBC Publications.
Dawson, A.G. (1992) Ice Age Earth: Late
QuaternaryGeology
and
Climate, London: MINIMUM ACCEPTABLE FLOW
Routledge.
Graves, andJ. Reavey, D. (1996) Global A concept developed in the 1962 UK Water
Etzvrronmental Change, London: Longman.
Resources
Imbrie, J. and Imbrie, K.P. (1979)Ice Ages: Solving Act that
requiredlocal
river
the Mystery, London: Macmillan. authorities to work towards determining the
flow that would allow the normal uses of a
MINAMATA DISEASE river to be maintained.Itincludedcon-
sideration of suchfactorsaspublichealth
Adisease of thecentralnervoussystem, requirements, industrial,
agriculturaland
caused by mercurypoisoningandnamed domestic water use, in addition to the needs
after the townof Minamata on the west coast of navigation, fisheries
anddrainage.A
of Kyushu in Japan, whereit was identified in minimumacceptableflow willvary from
the 1950s. The poisoning was caused by the river to river and perhaps from year to year
consumption of fish and shellfish con- or season to season on any one river, because
taminated with methyl mercury contained in of changinglocalconditions. For example,
effluentreleasedintoMinamata Bayby a physicalfactorssuchastemperatureand
plastics manufacturing plant. The symptoms precipitationintroducevariabilityintothe
of thediseaseincludednumbness of the concept, as do human factorssuch as
hands and lips, slurred speech and deafness, population growth and changing landuse.
followed in severe cases by seizures, paralysis
and death. The old and very young suffered MINIMUM VIABLE POPULATION
mostand
even
unborn
children
were (MVP)
poisoned when
their
mothersconsumed
contaminated fish. Between 1953 and 1960, The criticalpopulation size belowwhich
forty-three people died from the disease and survival as a species may not be possible. The
more than sixty suffered permanent damage. actual numbers involved vary from speciesto
Total deaths may have been as high as 800 species. Somemaysurvivewithonly a few
and, although the real figure may never be breeding pairs, whereas others require large
known, it seems likely that several thousand numbers remain
to viable. The classic
people wereaffected.
Thesehighfigures example is the passenger pigeon, which was
reflect the importance of fish and shellfish in on the path to ultimate extinction when its
the diet of the inhabitants of Minamata. At numbersfellbelow2000.Largecolonies
about the
same time,
north-western
in were needed to provide the appropriate inter-
Ontario in Canada,theconsumption of action necessary to propagate thespecies. For
fish contaminatedwithmercuryfrompulp many endangered species the minimum viable
milleffluentcausedsimilarproblems on population size is not known. Without that
twoIndian reserves, wherefishwasalso knowledge, even the most strenuous efforts
an important part of the diet. In both cases, to save a species might be unsuccessful.
it took more than twenty years before blame
was assessed, responsibility for the problem See also
acknowledged and compensation arranged. Extinction.

Further reading Further reading

Hutchison, G . and Wallace, D. ( 1977) Grassy Chiras, D.D. (1994) Environmental Science,
Narrows, Scarborough,
Ont:
Van
Nostrand Redwood City, CA: BenjaminlCummings.
MINOR G A S E S 250

MINOR GASES However, all soilshavetheability to store

moisturethat willoffsetthe effects of any
The gases that occupy the 1 per cent of the deficit. As a result, a true deficit may not exist
volume of the atmosphere not occupied by until the soil water storage has been used up,
oxygen (0)andnitrogen (N). Themost andformostpracticalpurposes - drought
common is argon (Ar), but being inert it plays evaluation, for example - the focus is on soil
little part in earth/atmosphere processes. In moisture deficit (SMD) rather than the simple
contrast, the greenhouse gases, which are all relationship between precipitation and evapo-
minor gases, have a role out of all proportion transpiration.
to their low volume.
See also
Potential evapotranspiration.
MODEL EVALUATION
CONSORTIUM FOR CLIMATE MOISTURE INDEX
ASSESSMENT (MECCA)
A representation of moistureavailability in
An international consortium involving indus- anarea,often usedin droughtandaridity
trial,
governmental and
academic
groups studies. Most indices incorporate a combi-
from the US, Japan, France and Italy, created nation of meteorological elements including
to modelgreenhousegas-inducedclimate precipitation, evapotranspiration, solar radi-
change. It is based at the National Center for ation,temperatureandwindspeed.The
Atmospheric Research (NCAR) in the United concept of a moistureindex,based onthe
States,using
its
computing facilities to comparison of incoming moisture
(preci-
quantify the
uncertainty
associated
with pitation)andoutgoingmoisture(potential
many models, and thus making it easier for evapotranspiration)can be used in climate
policy makers to co-ordinate policy with the classification.
findings of the scientific community.
Further reading
MODELS Thornthwaite, C.W. (1948) ‘An approach towards
a rational classification of climate’, Geogruphrcul
Review 38: 55-94,
Idealized, and usually simplified, mathematical
or physical representations of complex phe-
nomena,modelsare used to describeand
MOLECULE
explainas well as forecasttheeffects of
change. Models havebeen used extensively in The smallest part of an element or compound
which retains the composition and chemical
attempts to unravelthecomplexity of the
properties of theelementorcompound.
earth/atmosphere system.
Molecules may consist of single atoms or as
many as 10,000 bonded together chemically
See also
Carhon cycle models,Climatemodels,Coupled into a single unit.
models, General circulatlon models.
MONSOON
Further reading
Schneider, S.H. (1987) ‘Climatic
modelling’,
Derived from the Arabic word n1ausin mean-
Scretrtific Avrerrcun 2.56: 72-89.
Washington, W.M. and l’arklnson, C L . (1986) At1 ing season, the term monsoon has come to
ltttrodrrrtrott to Three Drmettstotrcll Modellirtg, refer totheseasonal reversal o f winds and
Mill Vallcy, CA: Universlty Science Books. associated
air
masses. Originally it was
applied to the situation in the Indian Ocean
MOISTURE DEFICIT between
East
Africa
Indian
and
the
subcontinent, where in the winter months the
I n theory, a moisture deficit exists in a region winds blow from the north-east and in the
when evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation. summer from the south-west. Traditionally in
25 1 MOUNT ACUNC

India,thesummer monsoon broughtthe London (1990)

rains and the winter monsoon the dry season.
When extended over eastern Asia, however,
the direction of the winds and timing of the
precipitationvaries.Thesummer monsoon
over China, for example, may blow from the
south-east or
south,
and in areas like
Indochina, the east coast of Vietnam recelves
its main precipitation
from
the
winter,
north-east monsoon. The monsoon concept
also appliedtoareas in West A f r ma n d
northern Australia where wind reversals are
an integral part of the climate of the area.
Most monsoon areas have distinct wet and
dry seasons, causing seasonal drought. The
failure of therain-bearingmonsoonwinds
can extend the dry season and cause serious
water supply problems for the inhabitants of
the region.
See also
Atmospheric circulation, Drought, ITCZ, Sahel.
Further reading
Chang, C.P. (1987) Morzsoon Meteorology,
Oxford: Oxford Unlverslty Press.
Das, K.P. (1 972)The Monsoorzs, London: Edward
Arnold.
andCopenhagen (1992)
produced agreement among the signatories -
nownumbering 112 - tobringaboutthe
complete elimination of the production and
use of CFCs by the year 2000.In most cases -
CFCs, carbon tetrachloride
and
methyl
chloroform - production bans were brought
forward from 2000 to 1996, but in the case of
halonsthebanwasimplemented in 1994.
is Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), widely
used as substitutesforCFCs,have been
bannedprogressivelyover a 35-year period
ending in 2030. Methyl bromide was added
to the list of banned substances,
with
emissions frozen at the 1991 level in 1995.
Further reading
Environment Canada (1993) A Pruner on Ozone
Depletzou, Ottawa: Atmospheric Environment
Service.
Kemp, D.D. (1994) Global Environrnental Issues:
A Clzrtzatologrcal Approach (2nd edition), London/
New York: Routledge.
MacKenzie, D. (1992) ‘Agreement reduces damage
to ozone layer’, N e w Scretztlst 136 (18.50): 10.
United
NationsEnvironment Program (1991)
Handbook for theMontrealProtocol on Sub-
stances thst Deplete the Ozorw Layer, Nairobi:
UNEI?

MONTREAL PROTOCOL MOUNT AGUNG

An agreement reached in Montreal, Canada An Indonesian volcano that erupted in 1963,

in 1987 aimed at reducing the destructionof sending an estimated 10 milliontonnes of
the ozone layer. It was the culmination of a particulate matter and gases to an altitude of
series of events which had been initiated two at least 20 km and perhaps as high as 50 km.
yearspreviously at the ViennaConvention One of the first
major eruptions to be
for
the
Protection of theOzone Layer. intensely monitored, over a period of several
Signatories from thirty-one countries agreed months debris
fromtheeruptionspread
to a 50 percentcut in theproduction of aroundtheearth, ultimatelyreducingnet
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)by the endof the radiation by 6 per cent. Despite this, its impact
century. That figure is deceptive,however, on global temperatures was limited - possibly
since Third Worldcountrieswere to be because of lowsulphateemissions - being
allowed to increase their use of CFCs for a measuredatonly a few tenths of a degree
decade to allow technological improvements Celsius for a year or two, and therefore well
in such areas as refrigeration. The net result withinthenormalrange of annual temp-
turned out to be only a 3.5 per cent reduction erature variation.
in totalCFCproduction by the end of the
century, based on 1986 totals. To deal with See also
thatproblem,theProtocolincluded a pro- Atmospheric turh~dity, Dust veil index, Krakatoa,
Mount
Pinatubo,
Mount St Helens,Mount
vision for a n InterimMultilateralFundto Tamhora.
assist developing countries in reducing their
dependence on ozone-depletingchemicals. Further reading
Subsequentmeetings in Helsinki (1989), Dyer, A.J. andHicks, B.B. (196.5)‘Stratospheric
MOUNT PINATUBO 252
transport of volcanicdustInferredfromsolar that year, it was linkedwith
global
a
radiation measurements’, Nature 94: 545-54. temperature decline of 0.5”C. Heterogeneous
Lamb,
H.H. (1970) ‘Volcanicdust I n the
atmosphere; with a chronology and assessment of chemicalreactions onthesurface of the
its meteorological
significance’, Philosophical sulphate
particles
produced by Mount
Transactions of the Royal Soctety A266: 435-533. Pinatubowereimplicatedin
the
major
thinning of the ozone layer which took place
MOUNT PINATUBO in1992.Thinningwasparticularlywell
marked over the Antarctic, but global ozone
AvolcanointhePhilippinesthaterupted (0,)levels were also more than 4 per cent
spectacularly in June1991. Itreleasedan below normal thatyear.
estimated 30 milliontonnes of particulate
matter,most of it intheform of sulphur See also
dioxide (SO,), whichultimatelyproduced Atmospheric turbidity, Dust veil index, Krakatoa,
Mount Agung, Mount St Helens,Mount Tambora.
sulphuric acid aerosols. A large proportion of
the
debris
was
pushed
into
up
the Further reading
stratosphere, to heights as great 25-30 as km, Brasseur,
G. and Gramer, C. (1992) ‘Mount
and over a period of several months spread Pinatubo aerosols, chlorofluorocarbons and ozone
polewardstocreatea veil overtheentire depletion’, Science 257: 1239-42.
earth. As a result, net radiation in the ten Gobbi, G.P., Congedutl, F. and Adrianl, A. (1992)
‘Early
stratospheric
effects of the
Pinatubo
months following the eruption declined by an eruption’, Geophysical Research Letters 19: 997-
average of 2.7 percent,withindividual 1000.
monthly values reaching as much as 5 per Hansen, J., Lacis, A., Ruedy,R. and Sato,M.
cent. The eruption of Mount Pinatubo was (1992) ‘Potentialclimatic
impact of Mount
blamedforthecoolsummer of 1992in Pinatubo eruption’, Geophysrcal Research Letters
15: 323-6.
eastern North America and, by September of Kiernan, V. (1993) ‘Atmospherlc ozonehits a new
low’, New Screntist 138 (1871):8.
Figure M-8 Spread of the ash cloud from MOUNT ST HELENS
Mount Pinatubo
Avolcanothateruptedexplosively in the
western United States in May 1980, after a
Pinatubo
Volcano \ series of minor eruptions, releasing about 5
million tonnesof debris into the stratosphere.
Since the debris was mainly in the form of ash
and
dust
particles
rather
than
sulphate
particles, it returned to the surface relatively
quickly and, in comparison to other major
eruptions,Mount St Helenswasrelatively
insignificant in climatological terms. It did,
however,causemajorlandscapechanges,
brought about by landslides, mudflows and
floods, which devastated a large area in the
0 400
U state of Washington, in theUS north-west.
, KM
See also
Atmospheric turbidity, Dust veil index, Krakatoa,
Mount Agung, Mount Pinatubo, Mount Tambora.

Thinner, high altiide ash cloud Further reading

Burroughs, W.J. (1981) ‘Mount St.Helens: a
Source: After Park, C.C.(1997) The revlew’, Weather 36: 238-40.
Environment: Prtncrples and Applicatrons, Findley, R. (1981) ‘The day the sky fell’, Natronal
London: Routledge Geographic 159: 50-65.
25 3 MUTATION

M O U N T TAMBORA Further reading

Fleck, R.F. (1985) Herzry Thoreau and Johrr Murr
among the Indium, Hamden, CT: Archon Books.
When Mount Tambora in Indonesia erupted Mulr, J. (1894) The Morrntarns of Califorma, New
in 1815, it produced what was probably the York: Century.
most violent volcanic eruption on historical IMuir, J. (1901) O w Natronal Parks, Boston, MA:
record. It sent an estimated 80 cubic km of Houghton Mifflin.
ejecta (equivalent to 150 million tonnes) into
the atmosphere, producing a DV1 of 3000. MULTIPLE CHEMICAL
The net result was a major disruption of the SENSITIVITY (MCS)
earth’s energy budget, that in 1816 produced
the ‘year without a summer’. In Europe and An illness characterized by a variety of symp-
North America, the year 1816is remembered toms associated with the central nervous sys-
for its summer snowstorms and unseasonable tem, the gastrointestinal tract and the respir-
frosts.Itsneteffectwas a reduction of the atory system, and brought on by exposure to
meanannualglobaltemperature by 0.7”C, chemical sensitizers, such as resins, mercury
but the impact in mid-latitudes in the north- compounds, pesticides
and
solvents. The
ern hemisphere was greater. There, the mean specific sensitizers will vary from individual
annual temperature was reduced by 1°C and to individual, but those who suffer from MCS
the average summer temperatures in parts of find it impossible to tolerate even very low
Englandwere 2-3°Cbelow normal.The levels of thechemicals to whichtheyare
eruption of Tambora was the worstof several sensitive.
between 1811 and 18 18, and together they may
havecontributed to thecoolingassociated MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
with the later stagesof the Little Ice Age.
See garbage.
See also
Atmosphericturbidity,Krakatoa,MountAgung, MUTAGEN
Mount St Helens.
A
substance
capable of causing
genetic
Further reading
change or mutation in an organism, that may
Lamb,
H.H. (1970) 'Volcanic dust in the
atmosphere; with a chronology and assessment of be passed on to succeeding generations.
meteorological
its significance’, Philosophical Many mutagens are also carcinogens.
Tramactionsofthe Royal Socrety, A 266: 435-
533. See also
Cancer, DNA, Genes.
MUIR, J.( 1 838-1 91 4)
MUTATION
Born in Scotland, John Muir spent most of his
life in the United States, where his thoughts A change in thegeneticmake-up of an
on nature and wilderness were influenced by organism resulting from a change in its DNA.
the writings of Emerson and Thoreau. As a Changesareusuallyrestricted to individual
naturalist,
he
was
particularlyconcerned genes, but they
may also involve entire
aboutthe
damage being done the
to chromosomes. In humans, mutation is often
mountainandforestenvironments of the associatedwiththeaction of mutagens, that
American West, and towards the end of the lead to cancer and birthdefects, but mutation is
nineteenthcentury
turned to writing to common in the natural environment. Mutation
promotetheirconservation. He advocated is usually harmful to a species, but if it produces
strong
government
participation - for a change that is beneficial it may improve the
example,throughtheNationalParksand reproductive capability of a species and
Monuments system - but was also a popular therefore its chance of survival. This is a form
activistwhoseeffortshelped to createthe of adaptationwhichprovidesanorganism
Sierra Club. with an advantage overits competitors.
MYCENAEAN 254
Further reading MYXOMATOSIS
Klekowski, E.J. (1988) Mtrtatron, Deve/opnle?tta/
Selectron and Plant Evolution, New York:
Columbla University Press. A viral disease of rabbits endemic to South
America,thatwasdeliberatelyintroduced
MYCENAEAN CIVILIZATION into Australia in
the
early 1950s in a n
attempt to deal with the overpopulation of
Acivilizationwhichflourished in southern rabbits on the continent. It also appeared in
Greece up to some 3000 years ago. At that Britain
shortly
after
its
introduction to
timeitwentintoirreversibledecline.The Australia, perhaps accidentally but probably
rapidity
and
extent of the
declineand deliberately. Almost all the rabbits in many
archaeological evidence suggested that it was parts of Britainwere killed off, causing
the result of invasion by Greeks from regions obviouschanges in vegetation and forcing
to thenorth.Reassessment of theevidence predators to look for alternative prey. In both
has raisedthe possibility that drought,followed Britain and Australia, the rabbit population
by famine, social unrest and migration,led to has
rebounded gradually,
and
there is
the downfall of the Mycenaeans. evidence that some communities are building
up an immunity to the virus, sincerecent
See also outbreakshave been much less damaging
Harappan Civilization. than earlier ones.

Further reading See also

Bryson, R.A., Lamb,H.H.and Donley, D.I.. Ecological introductions.
(1974) ‘Drought and the decline of the Mycenae’,
Antrquity 48: 46-50. Further reading
Carpenter, R. (1968) Drscontrnurty in Greek Fenner, F. and Ratcliffe, EN. (1965) Myxomatosrs,
Civi/izatron, Ncw York: W.W. Norton. Cambridge: Cambridge Unlversity Press.
Parry, M.L. (1978) Climate Change, Agrrcrrltrrre
and Settlement, Folkstonc: Dawson.
 N
NAIROBI DECLARATIONON acidification of a significant number of lakes
CLIMATE CHANGE and streams in the north-eastern part of the
United States.
A statement released at the conclusion of an
International Conference on Global Warming NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR
and Climate Change held in Nairobi, Kenya QUALITY STANDARDS (NAAQS)
in 1990. It contained a ‘Call for Action’ to
deal
with
the
majorproblems that
the Maximum allowable levels of pollutants in
projectedglobalwarmingwouldbringto ambientairmeasuredover a specific time
Africa. Althoughmostresponses to climate period. Established under the US Clean Air
change are reactive, the Declaration called for Act (1970), they are based on the levels that
a newapproachwhichwouldemphasize can
be
permitted
withoutcompromising
anticipation and prevention.It recognized the public health and welfare. See Table N - l .
reluctance of governments to respond to
globalwarming in theabsence o f a clear See also
timeframeandconvincingevidence of its Maximum allowable concentration or M a x m u m
potential impact, but pointed out that,even if permissible concentration.
theprojectedwarmingdidnot occur, the
proposed preventive measures would still be NATIONAL AUDUBON SOCIETY
required to allowthedevelopment of the
African economies along sustainable lines. Asocietyfounded in theUnitedStates in
1905 to protect the nation’s bird species. It
NATIONAL ACID PRECIPITATION was named after the naturalist and artist John
ASSESSMENT PROGRAM James Audubon (1785-1851), who, through
(NAPAP) his paintings, recorded the bird populationof
the United States as it was in the early part of
A programme set up by the Environmental thenineteenthcentury.Thesociety is still
Protection Agency (EPA) in the 1980s in primarily concerned withtheprotection of
which US$600 million was spent toassess the birds, but IS also involved in the much wider

extent o f the acid precipitation problem in issues of wildlife conservation.

theUnitedStates. It involvedtheestab-
lishment of essential factors such as emission
densities as well as studies of the impact of
acid precipitation in different environments.
Theprogrammeincluded a surfacewater
survey, for example, which assessed the level
of acidification in several thousand lakes and
streams. As a result of this survey, it became
apparent that acid deposition had caused the
NATIONAL CENTER FOR
ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH
(NCAR)
Located in Boulder, Colorado,NCARwas
established in 1961 as the major United States
atmospheric research facility. Since then it has
gainedwidespreadinternationalrecognition
 EP
NOVL
I RIN
C
OAYNTMI O
ENT
AALL
~~~~ ~ ~ ~~
256

Table N - l National Ambient Air Quality Standards

STANDARD
POLLUTANT VALUE TYPE
STANDARD
Carbon monoxide
average8-hour 9 PPm 1omgm3 Primary
averagel-hour 35 PPm 40 mg/m' Primary
Nitrogen dioxide
Annual
arithmetic
mean
0.053
ppm 100 &m3 Primary and Secondary
Ozone
average
l-hour 0.12 pprn 235 pg/m3 Primary and Secondary
Lead
Quarterly average 1.5 @m3 Primary and Secondary
Particulates < 10 pm
Annual arithmetic mean Primary and Secondary
24-hour average Primary and Secondary
Sulphur dioxide
Annual
arithmetic
mean
ppm
0.03 80 &m' Primary
m 0.14average
24-hour 365 &m' Primary
average
3-hour 0.50 ppm 1300 pg/m' Secondary

Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Web Page

Note: Primary standards apply to humans, Secondary standards
to plants and anlmals.

for the quality of the work carried out by its mostsignificantenvironmentallaws in the
scientists. NCAR scientists are involved in both country. It recognized the importance of the
the traditional and interdisciplinary aspects of relationships that existed between society and
atmospheric research.Of particular importance environmentandhadtheoverallaim of
is their development and use of computerized restoringandmaintainingtheserelation-
modelling techniques that have been applied to ships. To dealwiththatsituation NEPA
a wide range of topics from ice age climates includedtherequirementthat all actions
through nuclear winter to global warming and (includingthoseinvolvingfederalagencies)
other aspects of global change. withenvironmentalimplicationsneededan
environmentalimpactstatement(EIS)and
See also established theCouncilonEnvironmental
General circulation models (GCMs). Quality (CEQ) which developed the regula-
tionsgoverningthe EIS process. The CEQ
Further reading also had the important role of advising the
Levenson, T. (1989) Ice Time: Climate, Scienceand
President onenvironmental issues.Imple-
Life on Earth, New York: Harper & Row.
mentation of the provisionsof the act was not
always easy. As an early attempt at compre-
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL hensive
environmental
legislation,
for
POLICY ACT (NEPA) example, its language was not alwaysprecise,
andthecourtshad to determinethereal
An act passed by the US Congress in 1969 meaning of suchphrases as 'fullest extent
and considered at the time to be one of the possible'
and
'significant
environmental
2.57 N A T U R A L HAZARD

impact’.Inaddition,since it included no NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

provision for enforcement, the courts had to
provide the mechanisms required to ensure See environment.
that the agencies involved took appropriate
action. In practice, NEPA has been used in a
wide range of situations involving both the NATURALGAS
natural and built environments.
A mixture of hydrocarbons in gaseous form,
See also found in pockets beneath the earth’s surface,
Envlronmental impact assessment. usually in association with liquid petroleum
products. It consists largelyof methane (CH,)
Further reading (c. 85 percent),butcontainsotherhydro-
Brown, R.D., Ouellette, R.P. and Cheremisinoff, P. carbons such as ethane (C,H,) and propane
(1983) National Envlronmental Policzes and
(C,H,), and was formed as the result of the
ResearchPrograms, Lancaster, PA: Technomic
Publishing. anaerobic decay of organic matter. As a high
Smlth, Z. A. (1992) TheEnvrronmentalPolicy energy, clean burning product it is much in
Paradox, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. demandasafuel,and is also used as a
feedstockinthechemicalindustry.Inthe
NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE past,naturalgaswasflared off in some
SYSTEM oilfields, particularly in theMiddleEast,
because of distancefrommarketsandlow
A
systemset up
for
the
protection of prices. With the general rise in energy prices
migratorybirds.Itsprimarypurpose is to since the 1970s, however, andthedevelop-
protect breeding, resting or wintering areas ment of technologythatallows it to be
used by waterfowl and other migratory birds, transported in its liquid form, the gas is no
buttherefugesmayalso be safeareasfor longer wasted.
otheranimals.Suchareascoversome 13
millionhectares
in
the US aloneanda See also
Coal gas, Liquefied natural gas.
comparablesystem
exists in Canada.
Protection is notcomplete, however. Some further reading
refuges are used for timber cutting, grazing, Hay,N.E.(ed.) (1992) GuidetoNaturalGas
farming, oil and natural gas development and Cogeneration, Lilburn, GAlEnglewood Cliffs, NJ:
mining, which has brought major opposition Fairmont PressPrentice-Hall.
from environmentalists. Since 1985, oil and Selley, R.C. (1985) Elements of Petroleum
Geology, New York: W.H. Freeman.
gascompanieshave been lobbying to have
the Arctic NationalWildlife Refuge in Alaska
opened for petroleum exploration. Although NATURAL HAZARD
the refuge contains nearly one-fifth of all the
land in the US wildlife refuge system,it seems Anelement or circumstance in thenatural
likely thatonly
strongand
continued environment which has the potentialto cause
oppositionfromenvironmentalgroupshas harm to persons or property. Natural hazards
prevented it beingopenedfor oil andgas maybeextremephysicaleventssuchas
development. earthquakesandtornadoes or theymay
involve less violentbiologicalphenomena
See also such as insect infestations or viral infections.
Flyways. Sucheventsaretheresult of naturalbio-
physicalprocessesintheearth/atmosphere
further reading system. They only become hazardous when
Natlonal WildlifeFederation (1987) The Arctrc
humans are involved. For example, in some
Natronal
Wildlife
Refuge
Coastal Plarn: A
Perspective forthe
Future, Washington,
DC: areas landslides are geomorphological agents
National Wildlife Federatlon. with
an
importantrole in shaping the
landscape.Elsewhere,similar
eventsare
ENSE
RESOURCES
NATURAL COUNCIL 258

Figure N-I Natural hazards: origin and type in developingnationsoftenproducemajor

loss of life and widespread property damage,
whereas in developed nations a similar event
might be characterized by little loss of life but
HAZARDS involve property damage far more costly than
I that in the developing nations. Some success
ORIGINS has been achieved
in
controlling
natural
hazards such as floods and avalanches, but
. blizzards more extreme events suchas earthquakes and
thunderstorms hurricanescontinuetocausedisasterwith
tornadoes some regularity. There is some evidence that
tropical cyclones the impact of natural disasters produced by
drought hazardous events is increasing, but that may
floods be a reflection of growing population
hail pressure necessitating theuse of hazard lands.
frosts Work continues to mitigatethe effects of
- heatwaves naturalhazards.Prevention is notalways
possible,
but
appropriate
planning
and
earthquakes forecasting can allow precautions tobe taken
olcanic eruptions and perhaps reduceloss of life and damage to
landslides property.
avalanches
subsidence
Further reading
Blaikie, P,, Cannon, T., Daws, I. and Wisncr, B.
floods (1994) A t Rlsk: Natural Hazards, People’s
storm surges Vulnerability and Dlsasters, London: Routledge.
tsunamis Burton, I., Katcs, R.W. and Whlte, G.F. (1993) The
Enurrotrment as
Hazard, New York: Guilford

r plant, animal
and
insect
infestations
Press.
NationalAcademy of Sciences (1991) A Safer
Futrrre: Redrrcrtrg the Impacts of Natrrral Dlsasters,
fungal, bacterial Washington, DC: Natlonal Academy Press.
Smith, K . ( 1 992) Ewrrommwtal Hazards, London:
and viral
L diseases
Routledge.

considered natural hazards because they cut NATURALRESOURCESDEFENSE

highways or overwhelm settlements. Because
of thishumanelement,theimpact of a
natural hazard is normally measured in terms
of thepropertydamage or loss of life it
causes, which is ultimately a function of the
nature of the hazard and the human use of the
area involved. Features such as the nature of
the
hazardousevent,
its
magnitude, fre-
quencyandrate of developmentcombine
with such elements of the human component
as population density, culturalandtechno-
logical characteristics,andthedegree of
adaptation to thehazard, to determinethe
final impact of the event. As a result of the
interplay of thesevariables,asimilarevent
may have completely different consequences
depending upon its location. Natural hazards
COUNCIL (NRDC)
A non-governmental environmental organiz-
ationestablished in theUnitedStatesin
response to decliningpublicconcernabout
theenvironment in the 1970s. Itmonitors
resource use andpollutionproblems,and
over the years hasbeen involved in a range of
issues from water pollution and pesticide use
to ozone depletion. The NRDC is particularly
concernedwiththeregulatoryenvironment
and legislation as it is appliedtoresource
issues.
Further reading
Smith, Z. A. (1992) The Enorromret~tal Policy
Paradox, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentlce-Hall.
259 NERITIC ZONE

NATURAL SELECTION this throughtheestablishment of nature

reserves at both the local and national level
See Darwin. C.R. andthroughthedesignation of Sites of
Special
Scientific
Interest. The
latter
are
established in co-operation with landowners,
NATURAL VEGETATION occupiers and local planning authorities and
have statutory protection. The NCC is also
Thecombination of plantsproduced in an active in education and research. In the early
area as a result of the interactions of climatic 1990s it wasreorganizedintotheregional
and
edaphic factors.
When the
various units, English Nature, Scottish
Natural
environmental elements are in equilibrium a Heritage
and
the
NationalCountryside
climaxcommunity willexist. In popular Council for Wales.
usage,theterm is applied to a vegetation
cover that has not been modified by human
activity.
NECROSIS
See also
Biome, Ecosystem. Death of a cell or piece of tissue that is still
attached to a living organism. An example is
Further reading the disintegration of leaf tissue caused by the
Scott, G.A.J. (1995) Catzada's Vegetattott: A World degeneration of cellsindirect contact with
Perspecttve, Montreal: McCill-Queen's University acid precipitation.
Press.
Woodward, F. (1987) Clinlate and Plartt
Dtstribrrtiotz, CambridgelNew York: Cambridge NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
Unlversity Press.
See feedback.
NATURE CONSERVANCY (THE)
(TNC) NEPHANALYSIS

An environmentaladvocacygroup in the The analysis of cloudsusuallyfromdata

UnitedStates,involved in theconservation provided by weathersatellites,although in
and restoration of natural areas that are in pre-satellite days synoptic charts were used.
dangerfrom
development. Theseinclude Bothvisible andinfraredimagerymaybe
areas in the Tall Grass prairies of the Great used.Cloudpatterns,colourandthickness
Plains and in the Florida Everglades, where can supply information on the characteristics
landhasbeenpurchasedandsetaside to of weather systems, including flow patterns,
protect wildlife and plantspecies. Founded in temperatures and precipitation intensity and
1951, The Nature Conservancy has had an distribution.
international
programmesince
1980, in
which it is working towards the building of NERITIC ZONE
inventories of natural diversity in individual
countries and the setting up of conservation Thatpart of theoceanthat lies overthe
areas to protect that diversity. continentalshelf,inwhichthewatersare
usually less than 200 m deep. Because light
NATURE CONSERVANCY penetrates most of this zone and adjacent rivers
COUNCIL (NCC) supply nutrients, it supports an abundance of
plant and animal life. Environmental problems
An organizationestablished by Act of arise because its productivity, relatively shallow
Parliament in Britain in 1973 to deal with the waterandproximity to thecoastattracta
conservation of all aspects of thenatural variety of users. Overfishing can become a
environment,includingflora,fauna,geo- problem,but conflictsbetweenthe fisheries
logical and physiographical features. I t does and
other users are also
common. Oil
C T I V I T Y NET P R I M A R Y 260

exploration and production is common in the exceeds the outgoing terrestrial radiation and
neriticzone andthesame rivers thatbring negative when the terrestrial radiation is in
down nutrients also bring in pollutants. excess. Thus, the balance is usually positive
during the day andnegative at night.
NET PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY
(NPP) NEUTRON

The net gain in plant material or biomass per An elementary or subatomicparticlethat

unit of area per unit of time, either in termsof
energy (kcal m-z year-') or more commonly in
terms of mass (g m-2year"). It may also be
considered the amount of stored cell energy
produced by photosynthesis,and is repre-
sented by the amount of atmospheric carbon
(C)sequestered by green plants. NPPis always
less thanthetheoreticalproductivity of an
area since some energy is lost through plant
respiration during metabolism. The relation-
ship can be expressed as follows:
carriesnoelectricalcharge.Neutronsare
constituents of the nuclei of all atoms except
hydrogen (H).They have a mass only slightly
greaterthantheprotonswithwhichthey
share an atomic nucleus.
Further reading
Das, A. andFerbel, T. (1994) Introductron to
Nuclear and Partrcle Physics, New York: Wiley.
NICHE

NPP = Gross primary productivity - The positionof an organism withina habitat,

Respiration asdefined by itsrole in thathabitat. It
includes not only physical location, but also
O n land, NPP ranges from < 250 g m-2 year" thefunctionalrole of theorganism in the
in desert and tundra to as much as 5000 g community as determined by its needs and its
m-z year" in the equatorial rainforest, where- interrelationships with other components of
as in theoceansthegreatest NPP values theenvironment. In occupying a specific
seldom reach 1000 g m-2year" in the open niche an organism is making use of the set of
ocean andfall as low as 2 g m-2 year" beneath conditions that are best suited to its survival.
the Arctic ice cap. Only in special locations, If something happens to change
these
such as coral reefs or mangrove swamps, d o conditions then the survival of the organism
the marine NPP figures approach those of the may be threatened.
rainforest.Maximumvaluesforcultivated
cropsusingmoderntechniquesrangefrom Further reading
750 - 1,500 g m-2 year". Giller, P.S. (1984) CommutrrtyStructureandthe
Niche, London/Ncw York: Chapman and Hall.
Odum, E.P. ( 1971) Fundamentuls of Ecology (3rd
Further reading edition), Philadelphia, PA: Saunders.
Leith,
H. (ed.) (1978) Patterns of Prrnzary Whittaker,R.H.and Levin, S.A. (eds) (1975)
Production in the Biosphere,Stroudsburg, PAlNew Niche: Theory and Application, Stroudsberg, PA:
York:Dowden,HutchinsonandRosdAcademic Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross.
Press.
Kershaw,H.M.,Jeglum,J.K.andMorris,D.M.
(1996) Long-termProductivrty of BorealForest NICKEL (Ni)
Ecosystems, SaultSteMarie,Ont:GreatLakes
Forestry Centre. A silvery-white corrosion-resistant
metal,
resembling iron (Fe) and, like iron, magnetic.
NET RADIATION It is used in nickel plating - for example, for
coins - is alloyed with other metals such as
Also referred to as the radiation balance, net steel and silver (Ag)andcan be used as a
radiation is the differencebetweensolar catalyst.
Ores of nickelusually
contain
radiationandterrestrialradiationpassing sulphur (S) and arsenic (As), and during the
through the atmosphere. The flow is considered initial
smelting
process,
which
involves
positivewhentheincomingsolarradiation roasting the ore, these are released into the
26 1 NITRIFICATION

atmosphere. In the past, the resulting increase water supplies. Most adults can cope with
in environmental acidity
caused
major the presence of nitrates in food or drinking-
damage to the adjacent
vegetation
and water, but infants are less tolerant and may
increased the acidityof local lakes and water- contract methaemoglobinaemia by consum-
ways. The tall stacks policy was introduced ingevensmallamounts of nitrate - for
to dealwiththatproblem,butwhile it example, >45-S0 ppm in drinking-water.
reduced local acidity, it caused an increase in Methaemoglobinaemia disrupts the transfer
acid
precipitation
downwindfrom
the and
distribution of oxygen (0) by the
smelter. Nickel processing has been linked to circulatory system, causing asphyxiation in
the development of asthma as well as lung themostseriouscases.Mostjurisdictions
and sino-nasal cancers. now restrict the level of nitrates in drinking-
water,
the
European
Union
having
a
See also maximumpermitted level of SO ppm,for
Alloy, INCO, LRTAP. example.
Further reading See also
Environment
CanadalHealth
Canada (1994)
Eutrophication, Leaching, Nitrification.
Nickel and rts Compounds, Ottawa: Envlronment
Canada.
Further reading
Keleti,
C. (1985) Nitrrc
Acid
and
Fertilizer
NIMBY Nitrates, New York: M. Dekker.

Anacronymfor Not In My BackYard, a NITRIC OXIDE (NO)

phrasewhich
indicates
opposition to a
proposeddevelopment likely to lowerthe One of the oxidesof nitrogen (NOs),in which
quality of life or reduce property values in an each
molecule consists of one atom of
area.Theremay also be theunderlying
nitrogen (N) and one of oxygen (0).It is an
implicationthatsuch a development in a important natural destroyerof ozone (03), as
back yard belonging to someone else would participant
a in a long catalytic
chain
beless of a problem. The opposition is not
reaction,andresponsibleforperhapsas
necessarily raised as a matter of principle, but
much as 50 to 70 percent of thenatural
rather is rooted in the personal impact of the
destruction of stratospheric ozone.
development. For example,itreflectsthe
desire of people to have the products of an
industry, but not the wastes generated in their
NITRIFICATION
manufacture.
The
conversion of organicnitrogen (N)
Further reading compounds into
nitrates by nitrifying
Portnoy, K.E. (1992) Sitrtzg Hazardous Waste bacteria in thesoil.Thenitrates are then
Treatmetrt Facilities: The N I M B Y Sytzdrorne, New available to providenitrogen to growing
York: Auban House. plants.
Nitrogenous waste
products
are
broken
downinto
various
components
NITRATE includingammonia(NH,),andthenitrates
are
produced from
that
ammonia.The
A salt or ester of nitric acid (HNO,). Nitrates, process involves two stages, with the initial
formednaturally in the soil by micro- production of nitrites being followed by the
organisms, are thechief source of nitrogen (N) conversion of the nitrites into nitrates.
available to plants. Nitrogen-based fertilizers
are also a major sourceof nitrates in cultivated Oxidation of ammonia:(performed by the
soil, but excessive or improper use has led to bacterium Nitrosomonas)
nitrate pollution. Nitrates arehighly soluble in
water and,as a result, can be easily leachedout NH3 , + 0, -+ NO; + H,O
of the soil to pollute groundwater and surface ammonia
oxygen
nitrite
water
ion
NITRIFYING B A C T E R I A 262

Nitrification:(performed by thebacterium Bacon, P.E. (ed.) ( 1995) Nitrogerz Fertilizutrort zrz

Nitrobacter) the Envzrorrmer~t,New York: M. Dekker.

NO, - + 0, -+ 0, NITROGEN CYCLE

nitrite
oxygen
ionnitrate
ion
The circulation of nitrogen ( N ) through the
See also earthhtmosphere system. Since
gaseous
Denitrificatmn, Nitrogen cycle. nitrogen is relatively Inactive, the bulk of the
nitrogen in the cycle is that in organic and
Further reading inorganic nitrogen compounds present in the
Haynes, R.J. (1986) Mirzeral Nitrogerz irz the
Plant-Soil System, Orlando, FL: Academic Press. soil and in living
organisms.
Inorganic
nitrogencompoundssuch as nitratesare
NITRIFYING BACTERIA absorbed by plants and converted into more
complex compounds such as amino acids or
proteins.When the
plants
die,
bacteria
See nitrification.
convertthe
organiccompounds in the
vegetable matter back into nitrates that can
NITRITE entertheloopagain.Some of thenitrates,
however, may be subject to denitrification,
A salt or ester of nitrous acid (HNO,). resulting in the release of nitrogengasor
nitrousoxide (N,O) intotheatmosphere.
NITROGEN (N) When plants
are
eaten by animals, the
nitrogencompoundsareabsorbedintothe
A colourless,odourlessgasthatmakesup bodies of the animals and remain there until
about 78 per cent of thevolume of the the animals die. They are then released into
atmosphere. It is an essential element for all the environment again to be converted into
livingorganisms,beingpresent in proteins inorganicproducts such as nitratesand
and nucleic acids. Molecular nitrogen is inert nitritesorperhapsreturnedtotheatmos-
and may be considered as a dilutant for the phere as nitrogen. Nitrogenous
waste,
oxygen (0)with which it shares most of the containing
ammonia (NH,)
and urea
atmosphere. It seldom becomes directly (CO(NH,),)excreted by animals, is also
involvedinatmosphericchemical o r bio- involvedinthe cycle. Gaseousnitrogen is
logical processes, except under extraordinary
circumstances. Duringthunderstorms, for
example,theenormousenergyflow in a
Figure N-2 The nitrogen cycle
lightning strike may cause itto combine with
oxygen (0)to form oxidesof nitrogen (NOx),
a group of gasesinvolvedinanumber of
currentenvironmentalproblems.On a less
spectacularbutultimatelymoreimportant
level, certain soil bacteria are able to fix the
atmosphericnitrogen(N) necessary for the
synthesis of the complex nitrogen compounds
found in all forms of life on earth.

See also
Nitric oxide, Nitrifying bacterla, Nitrogen dioxlde,
Nitrous oxide.

Further reading
Bailey, P.D. andMorgan,K.M.(1996) Orgurzo-
mrrogerz Chemistry, OxfordlNew York: Oxford
University Press.
263 NOISE

reintroduced into the main part of the cycle Further reading

throughthe
activities of nitrogen fixing Dilworth, M.J. andGlenn, A.R. (eds)(1991)
Biology atrd Biochetnrstry of Nitrogerr Fixatton,
bacteria.Thus,thenitrogen cycle is nota New York: Elsevier.
simple cycle but rather a complex group of Sprent, J.l. and Sprent, P. (1990) Nitrogetr Fixrng
integrated
loops.
Human
activity
has Orgattrsnzs: Pure and
Applied Aspects (2nd
disrupted the volumes involved in the cycle edition), LondonNew York: Chapman and Hall.
through agricultural and industrial practices.
Nitrogen fertilizers, for example, add to the NITROGEN OXIDES
quantities of nitrate available in the soil; the
growing number of people andanimals See oxides of nitrogen.
increasesthevolume of nitrogenouswaste;
industrialactivitiescausetheformation of NITROUS OXIDE (N,O)
oxides of nitrogen(NOy),thatbringad-
ditional
atmosphericnitrogen
into
the One of the oxides of nitrogen (NOy)in which
system. This has resulted in the creation or eachmoleculeconsists of twoatoms of
augmentation of arange of environmental nitrogen ( N ) and one of oxygen (0). Nitrous
problems - fromeutrophication to ozone oxide is a naturally produced greenhousegas,
depletion - involving nitrogen compounds. but owes its current growth to the increased
use of agricultural fertilizers and the burning
See also
of fossil fuels.
Nitrogen fixatlon

Further reading
Further reading
Bouwman, A.F., Van der Hoek, K.W. and Olivier,
Bolin, B. and Cook, K.B. (1983) The Major
Biogeochemrcal Cycles andtherr I?rteractrorrs, New
J.C. (1995) ‘Uncertaintiesintheglobal source
distribution of nitrousoxide’, Jourrral of Geo-
York: Wiley.
physrcal Research 100: 278.5-800.
Delwiche, C.C. ( l 970) ‘The
nitrogen cycle’,
Screntific Arnerrcarr 223 (3): 148-58.
Sprent, J.I. (1987) The Ecology of the Nitrogerz NOBLE GASES
Cycle, CarnbridgeMew York: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press.
The gaseshelium,neon,argon,krypton,
xenonandradon,
once
thought to be
NITROGEN DIOXIDE (NO,)
chemically inert. Compounds of krypton and
xenon
have been
synthesized,
however,
A red-brown toxicgas, in which each molecule althoughtheyaregenerallyunstable. As a
consists of one atom of nitrogen (N) and two result,theterm‘inert gases’ is nolonger
of oxygen ( 0 ) .It IS amajorconstituent of commonly used for this group.
automobileexhaust gases andacommon
component of urban photochemical smog. NOISE
NITROGEN FIXATION As an environmental issue, noise is sometimes
definedasunwantedsound,soundwithout
Theformation of nitrogen (N) compounds value or sound that
causes
sufficient
from the free nitrogen in the air. The nitrogen disturbance and annoyance that it has social
is converted first into ammonia (NH,),then andmedicalimplications.Theintensity of
subsequently into more complex compounds. sound is expressed in decibels (dB) obtained
The process is made possible by the activities by comparing the power of a specific sound
of bacteria which live I n the soil (for example, with a referencelevel. On the decibel (A) scale
Azotobacter and Clostridium) and have the (dB(A)), most commonly used when dealing
ability to fix atmosphericnitrogen.Other withhumanhearing,thereference level is
bacteria (for example, Rhrzobizrm) livingin based o n the threshold of hearing. The scaleis
the root nodules of leguminous plants also logarithmic, so that a sound with a dB rating
have this ability. o f 20 is ten times as intense as one with a dB
 NOISE A B A T E M E N T 264

Table N-2 Noise pollution: sources and impact

URCE SOUND
LEVEL
(dB)
ge
njurious
Painful
take-off
150plane Jet
130 music
Rock PainfuI/uncomfortably Danger zonelprogressive
loud hearing loss
90 Diesel truck at 80 k d h r Very loud Damage after long
exposure
50 Light
traffic 30away
mModerately
loud
Little
chance of damage
40 Living room/Bedroom
Quiet damage No
20 Broadcasting
studio Very quiet No damage
0 Threshold of hearing

rating of 10 and 100 times the intensity of a NOISE ABATEMENT

sound with a dB rating of 0. The impact of
noise on peopledependsnotonlyonthe The reduction or control of noise levels. This
intensity of the sound produced, but also on can be achieved in three ways: reduction at
suchfactors as itsfrequencyandduration. source,transmissioncontrol, receiver con-
The most obviouseffect of noise is its impact trol.
Reductionsource
at may include
on hearing. This is usually progressive, with modifying or changing a specificpiece of
individualsexposed to loudnoises in the equipment or it may deal with the locationor
workplace,forexample,graduallylosing timing of the use of unaltered machinery or
theirhearing,but it can be catastrophic equipment. Jack hammersor pneumatic drills
when, for example, an explosion causes an can be provided with
some
degree of
ear-drum to rupture. Other effects of noise silencing, for example, and exhaust systems
include
fatigue,
headaches,
nausea
and on cars or trucksaredesigned to muffle
general irritability. The main sourcesof noise sound. Similarly, the replacement of conven-
in urbanareasareindustrialactivitiesplus tional turbo-jet aircraft engines with turbo-
road, rail andair traffic. In rural areas, fan bypass jets helps reduce noise production.
agriculturalactivitieswereoncethemain On the
larger scale
most
airports
have
sources of noise, but in some areas at least restrictions on times of operation and those
noise levels have increased significantly with in urban areas may require noise abatement
the advent of all terrain vehicles (ATVs), dirt procedures that include power reduction or
bikes and snow machines. routing changes following take-off. Once the
sound has been generated, its effects can be
See also reduced by interrupting its transmission path.
Noise abatement, Noise exposure forecast. Inbuildingsthiscanbeaccomplished by
using acoustical
materials to absorb the
sound. In the natural environment it is more
Further reading
Kryter, K.L. (1985) The Effects of Norse (2nd difficult,
but
artificial
ridges or berms,
edition), New York: Academic Press. sometimes in combinationwithvegetation
Lipscomb, D.M. (1974) Norse: The Unwanted canabsorb or deflect noise.
Engineering
Sourzds, Chicago: Nelson-Hall. techniquessuch as therouting of urban
motorways through
cuttings or along
265 FORECAST EXPOSURE NOISE

embankments are used to restrictthe sented in theform of a noisefootprint or

transmission of noise or toallow it to isoline map in which the lines join points of
disperse easily. If the noise cannot be reduced equal NEEForsinglerunwayairportsthe
or diverted, then individuals exposed to high noisefootprint is relativelysimple,being
noiselevels cantakepersonalprecautions. elongated in the samedirection as the
Operators of industrial machinery,
for runway, but a t large international airports the
example,
can
protect
their
hearing by footprintbecomes very complex.TheNEF
wearingear-plugs,earmuffs or a combin- indexhas beendeveloped as a land use
ation of the two. Such protection is essential planning tool. Since different activities have
forchain-sawoperators or aircraft service different tolerances for noise, the knowledge
personnel, but it can also benefit individuals of the distribution of noise around an airport
in gun clubs or even the homeowner using a as indicated by itsnoisefootprintallows
powered lawn-mower. specific land use to be encouraged in one area
and
discouraged
elsewhere.
Residential
See also development,forexample,which is parti-
Noise and number Index, Noise exposure forecast. cularly sensitiveto noise, would not normally
be allowed within the35 dB(A) contourin the
Further reading footprint, whereas railyards, water treatment
Bell. L.H. and Bell, D.H. (1994) Industrial Notse
Control: Furtdarnentalsand Applicatlons (2nd plants, sanitary landfill sites and warehouses
edition), New York: M . Dekker. are commonly found in such noisy areas. In
Foreman, J.E.K. (1990) Sound Analysts and Norse many cases, landusepatternshadalready
Control, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. been established by the time the NEF system
came into common use. It can still be used,
NOISE AND NUMBER INDEX however, in property re-zoning plans and for
(NNI) providing information on areas that include
buildings thatrequirerenovation to meet
Anindexwhichcombinesperceivednoise noise standards. Around many older airports,
levels atanairportwiththenumber of for example, residential buildings have been
aircraft using the airport to provide a value retrofitted with double glazing or acoustical
for
daily
air
traffic
noise levels. It was insulation to levelsbased on the local NEF
developed at Heathrow Airport in London, index.
based on a survey of human disturbance by
aircraft noise in the vicinity of the airport. Figure N-3 A noise footprint at an airport
with a single runway and taxiway
See also
Noise exposure forecast.

NOISEEXPOSUREFORECAST
(NEF)

Similar to the NNI in that it reflects certain

aspects of human sensitivity to airport noise,
the noise exposure forecast system provides
an index of thenuisancevalue of noise to
human beings living or working in the
vicinity of an airport. It includes information
on perceived noise levels and the number of
flights, but also considersadditionalinfor-
mationonthetiming of flights,overhead
flightprofiles and the frequency of specific
W NEF

Source: After Environment Canada (1983) Stress

sound tones. The results of NEF calculations on Land tn Canada, Ottawa: Ministry of Supply
for a particularairportareusuallyrepre- and Servlces
NOMADISM 266
Further reading be used once,butit also describesother
Rujigrok,
G.J.J.
(1993) Elentents of Avratrorr mineralresourcesthatarepresent in only
Acoustrcs, Delft: Delft Unlversity Press.
Stevenson, G.M. (1972) The Politrcs of Atrport fixed quantities in the earth’s crust, although
Noise, Belmont, CA: Duxbury Press. metals
can
be
reusedthrough recycling.
Central to theconcept is thehumantime
NOMADISM frame. Oil and natural gas are being formed
beneaththeearth’ssurface atpresentand
A way of life in which groups of people move newmineraloresare also beingcreated.
from place to placeinsearch of foodfor However, replacement may take millions of
themselves or their animals.
Before
the years, and society can consume them much
development of agriculture nomadic hunting more rapidly than they canbe replaced. Thus
groups
were
the
norm,
and
with
the in humanterms
they
are effectively
domestication of animalspastoralfarmers non-renewable.
migrated in accordance with the availability
See also
of foragefortheirflocksandherds.The Renewable resources.
inhabitants of the Sahel,
for
example,
followed a typical nomadic existence, travell- Further reading
ing north and south seasonally so that their Rees, J. ( 1990) Natural Resources:Allocntiorz,
herdscouldgrazeonthegrassesproduced Eco~~omrcsa d Policy (2ndedition),London:
during the rainy season. Transhumance, the Routledge.
seasonal
movement of animals the
in
mountain areas of Europe to
the high NOORDWIJK DECLARATION
pastures in the spring and back to the valley
in the autumn, is another form of nomadism. The closing declaration from a conference on
atmosphericpollutionandclimatechange
Further reading held atNoordwjik in theNetherlands in
Johnson. D.L. (1969) The Nature of Nomadism, 1989. Recognizing thatmanyuncertainties
Chicago: Department of Geography, Universlty of
Chicago.
remainedin
the
scientific
knowledge of
global
change, the
participantsidentified
certain areas that needed immediate attention
NON-CONSUMPTIVE USE
and urged individualnationsand
inter-
national
organizationsincrease
to their
Anactivity that
does
not
result in the
activities in climate change research, paying
consumption or depletion of resources. The
particular attention to the role of greenhouse
use of a forested area for hiking, camping o r
gases other than carbon dioxide (CO,).
bird-watching is a non-consumptive use, for
example, compared to most forestry practices
involving the removal of timber. The use of NORMALS (CLIMATE)
water to produce hydroelectricity or the use
of lakes and riversfornavigationare also Datarepresentingaverageclimatlccondi-
non-consumptive uses.In most cases, the tions,usuallycalculatedover a thirty-year
environmental impact of the non-consumptive period. The period is adjusted every decade
use of resources is low, although well- (for example, 1950-1979; 1960-1989).
travelled
navigable
waterways
are
often
polluted and theheavy use of hiking trails can NORTH AMERICAN WATER AND
lead to erosion. POWERALLIANCE(NAWPA)
NON-RENEWABLERESOURCE A scheme,firstproposed in 1964, to divert
Canadian rivers, flowing into theArctic Ocean,
A natural resource that cannot be replaced southwards into theUnited States, by means of
after it has been consumed. It applies a continental-scale
network of reservoirs,
particularly to the fossil fuels, which can only canals, aqueducts and pumping stations. The
267 N U C L E A R FISSION

diverted water would help to flush pollution Further reading

out of the GreatLakes-St Lawrence system and Ahearne, J.F. (1993) ‘The future of nuclear power’,
Amerrcan Screntrst 81: 24-35.
the Mississippi River, but the main purpose of Burton, B. (1990) Nuclear Power, Pollutmn a d
the scheme wastheprovision ofwaterfor Politrcs, London: Routledge.
irrigation andmunicipal supply in the aridwest NationalAcademy of Sciences ( 1 9 9 1 ) Nuclear
and south-west of the United States. Power: Technrcal and Irrstrtrrtional Optrorls for
the Future, Washington, DC: National Academy
Press.
See also
Interbasin transfer.
NUCLEAR FISSION
Further reading
Bryan, R. (1973) Much Is Taken, Much Rernaitrs, A reaction in which the nucleus of a n atom of
North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press. a heavy metal such as uranium (U) splits into
Schindler, D.W. and Bailey, S.E. (1990) ‘Fresh
waters in cycle’, in C. Mungall and D.J. McLaren two relatively equal parts, emitting neutrons
(eds) Planet under Stress, Toronto:
Oxford as it does so and releasing large amounts of
University Press. energy. The fission process
may be
spontaneous or it may be initiated by
NUCLEAR AUTUMN (FALL) bombarding the
atomicnucleus
with a
neutron. The release of additional neutrons
Sec nuclear winter. sets up a chain reaction whichis accompanied
by the continued generation of thermal
NUCLEARENERGY energy. The development of thisprocess
allowed the creation of the atomic bomb in
The energy released during nuclear fission. If which an uncontrolled chain reaction releases
released in an uncontrolledmanner it can energy so rapidly that it causes an explosion
cause an explosion, but under the controlled equivalent to thousands of tonnes of TNT.
conditions of a nuclear reactor can be used to When controlled within a nuclear reactor, the
generate electricity. Energy is also produced by fissionprocessprovidesthebasisforthe
nuclear fusion, although, as yet, it cannot be commercial production of nuclearenergy.
made available in a commercial form. In the The energyavailable in one tonne of
early 1990s, some 17 per cent of the world’s ’”uranium is equivalent to that in about
electricity was being produced from about 420 3,500 tonnes of coal.
nuclear reactors
in
twenty-fivecountries.
France leads with 73 per cent of its electricity Figure A!-4 The fission of the nucleus of a
generated by nuclearreactors,followed by uranium atom
Belgium at 66 per cent. In Britain the figure is
20 per cent, and for Europeas a whole 30 per
cent. In Canada and the United States about
20 per cent of theelectricity is produced in
nuclearstations, and in parts of Asia the
amounts are about double that figure, with 4 9
per cent in Korea and 41 per cent in Taiwan.
The nuclear energy industry has been stagnant
sincethe 1980s, in part because of costs, in fission product
part because of reduced demand and in part
because of safety concerns. Although tonnefor Further reading
tonne, nuclear fuels contain much moreenergy Murray,
R.L.
(1988) Nuclear
Energy: An
Ifztroductron to the Concepts,
Systems and
thanconventional fuels, whentheconstruc- Applicatrons o f Nuclear Processes (3rd edition),
tion, operating and decommissioning costs of Oxford/New York: Pergamon Press.
nuclear plants are taken into account, nuclear Vandenbosch, R. and Huizenga, J.R. (1973)
fission
is arguablythe least
cost-effective Nuclear Fissrotz, New York: Academic Press.
method of producing electricity.
NUCLEAR FUSION 268

NUCLEAR FUSION energy. Nuclear reactorsdiffer in their

detailedengineeringbutalldesignshave
A nuclear reaction in which the nuclei of light essentialelements in common.Thenuclear
atoms are fused to forma heavier nucleus. In fuel is the core of thereactorsystem.It is
theprocess,largeamounts of energy are usually23Suranium in naturalorenriched
released.
Such
system
a produces
the uranium oxide (UO,), housed in a shielded
tremendous destructive power of a thermo- reactor vessel. A moderatorsuchaslight
nuclear device
or
hydrogen bomb,and water,heavy water or graphite, isused to
supplies the energyof the sun and other stars. slow the neutrons and increase the efficiency
In thesun,forexample,thefusion of the of the fission process, and control rods are
nuclei of hydrogen (H) atoms creates helium used to manage the rateof the reaction. Some
(He) atoms, producingin the process enough form of coolant is requiredtopreventthe
energy to maintain the surface temperature of systemfromoverheating. In light o r heavy
the sun atc. 6000°C. Nuclear fusion hasbeen watermoderatedreactors,themoderator
seen by some scientists as the solution to all may also act as a coolant, but carbon dioxide
society'senergy problems. The
hydrogen (CO,), helium (He) and liquid sodium ( N a )
nuclei used in the fusion process are available are also used. The heat released during the
in virtually unlimited amounts in sea water; reaction is transported via a heat exchanger
the
quantities of energy producedare to aboilerwheresteam is produced. From
enormous - a 600 MW power station would that point in the process, the nuclear system is
requireanetdailyfuelinput of only 15 n o differentfromthat in aconventional
tonnes of ordinary water - andthe thermalpowerplantwherehigh-pressure
environmental problems seemlikely to be less steam-powered turbines
linked
areto
than with energy producedby nuclear fission. generators that produce electricity, the most
One major
and possibly
insurmountable common end-product of nuclear reactors. All
problemremains, however.Fusion requires reactorsincorporatesystemsforrefuelling
very
high temperatures - as much as the core and containing or disposing of the
50,000,000"C - and pressures sustained for nuclear waste products created in the fission
long periods, and as yet there is n o material process. Mostreactorsareburnerreactors
capable of withstanding the extreme condi- thatconsumefuel,butsomearebreeder
tionsinvolved.Experimentalreactorshave reactors that produce additional fissionable
been built using magnetic confinement as a products during the fission process. Loaded
form of non-materialcontainerandthese with
Z35uranium
"'uranium,
and an
have met withonly limited success. Until such unmoderated reactor will ultimately produce
engineering problems can be solved,the "'plutonium ( h ) . Plutoniumwasonce in
commercial production of energy from fusion demand for use in nuclear weapons, but in
is not feasible. Coldfusion,whichwould terms of energy output it is similar to
remove the problems created by high temper- uranium and can also be used as a fuel. In
atures, is theoreticallypossible,butclaims the
breeder
reactor,
more
fissionable
that a cold fusion reaction hasbeen created in material is produced than consumed, which
thelaboratoryhavenot been confirmed suggests that breeder reactors could be an
scientifically. importantsource of fuel for
burner
reactors. Costs are high in time and money,
Further reading however, and there are safety concerns with
Herman, R. (1990) Fusion: The Search for Endless breeder
technology. As result,
a the
Energy, New York: Cambrldge University Press. development of breeder reactors
has
effectively
ceased.
Commercial nuclear
NUCLEAR REACTOR reactors are usually described in terms of
variables such as the moderator or coolant
A device in which the nuclear fission process system they use. Some examplesof common
is initiatedandallowed to proceed in a types of fissionreactorsareindicatedin
controlledmannerfortheproduction of Figure N-5 (a-d).
269 NUCLEAR WASTE

Figure N-5 The form and characteristicsof selected nuclear reactors currently in use
(a) A gas-cooled reactor (b)A boiling water reactor (c)A light water reactor
(d) A breeder reactor
pressure
reinforced
concrete shield V~sSSl

steam
separators
fuel
bundles
(core)

control rods
(b)

steam
-to
turbine

- water

primary secondary
coolant SOdium eodlum
circurt clrcult
(light water)

(C)

Further reading producedduringtheminingandmilling

Cole, H.A. (1988) Understanding Nuclear Power: processesrequired toproducethefuelfor
A Technical Guide to Industry and its Processes,
Aldershotkookfield, VT: Gower Technical Press/ nuclearreactors.Theproductsareusually
Gower Publishing. considered aslow-level wastes, but rock waste
Judd, A.M. (1981) FastBreederReactors: An and the liquidsused in processing uranium(U)
Engineering Introduction, OxfordNew York: must be storeduntiltheirradioactivity is
Pergamon Press. reduced to acceptable levels. Other low-level
Kleinbach, M.H. and Salvagin, C.E. (1986)Energy
Tecbnologies and Conversion Systems, Englewood waste includes contaminated clothing, filters
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. used to remove radioactive particles from the
Ramage, J. (1983) Energy: A Gurdebook, Oxford: air and from liquids, piping and contaminated
Oxford University Press. fluids. In the past these low-level wastes were
routinely disposed of in landfill sites or into
NUCLEAR WASTE the sea, butin most cases they are now stored
sealed
in drumsuntil
they
lose
their
Wasteproductsproduced by thenuclear radioactivity. The problem wastes are those
industryandcharacterized by theirradio- that emithigh levels of radioactivity. When the
activity. Radioactivity creates special problems nuclear fuel cycle is complete, the spent fuel is
in thedisposal of nuclearwaste.Waste is removed from the reactor. This so-called spent
NUCLEAR
Figure N-6 An underground disposal facility for high level nuclear waste
rooms
fuel still contains fissionable uranium, but it
also contains other products that prevent the
nuclear reactions from taking placeefficiently.
Theseincluderadioactivefissionproducts
such as strontium(Sr),caesium(CS)and
iodine (I), as well as actinides such as
plutonium (Pu), neptunium (Np) and curium
(Cm), all of which are fissionable. The spent
fuel may be reprocessed to obtain the
remaining uraniumand
other fissionable
products, but even after that radioactive waste
will remain.Oncethe usedfuel is removed
from the reactor it must be cooled, contained
and shielded.Preliminarystorage in water
bays can deal with all of these. The heat is
dissipated in the water, and a l-metre thick
concrete bay containing3 metres of water will
provide both shielding and containment. All
nuclear plants have these bays, and once the
wasteshavecooledandlost an appropriate
amount of theirradioactivity,they can be
transferred toabove-ground sealedconcrete
storage bins. Some of the waste productshave
very longhalf-lives,however, andrequire
permanent storage. As yet, there hasbeen little
progress on thisaspect of nuclearwaste
disposal, in part because the industry has not
WASTE 270
tunnel
been growing in recent years and has therefore
produced less waste than expected. Thus, the
urgency to find suitable disposal systems has
declined. The most
promisingapproach
appears to be deep burial in stable geological
formations.Atomic Energy of Canadahas
been exploringthe possibility of burying
nuclearwaste in theancientrocks of the
Canadian Shield, and the British government
has considered nuclear waste burial beneath
the Irish Sea. Such disposal methods are not
universallyaccepted,however,becausethey
still involve some potential for the escape of
radioactivity into the environment. Since the
sources of the waste and the preferred disposal
sites are often well separated, the potential for
contaminationduringthetransportation of
the waste must also be considered. Work in
North America and Europe suggests that safe
transportation is possible using
specially
designed containers. A final sourceof waste in
thenuclearindustry is thedecommissioning
wastes that result when a plant is closed down.
Further reading
Krausckopf, K.B. (1988) Radioactrue Waste
Drsposal and Geo/ogy, London:Chapmanand
Hall.
27 1 WINTER NUCLEAR

Lenssen, N. (199 1 ) Nuclear Waste: The Problem would be less than

first
expected,
with
That Won't Go Away, Washington, DC: World- temperaturesdeclining t o values
more
watch Institute. common in autumn or fall than in winter -
Pasqualetti,M.J.
(1990) Nuclear Decommls-
hence the term nuclear autumn (fall). With
srotltrrgatzd Society:PublicLurks to a Techtzrcal
Task, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. the end of the so-called 'cold war', interest in
nuclearwinterwaned,but in 1990 the
NUCLEAR WINTER original TTAPS team re-examined the theory
using
newinformationfromlaboratory
The result of a major nuclear war, according studies,
field
experiments and
numerical
to resultsfrom a theoreticalmodelthat modelling. While uncertaintiesremain,the
simulated
the
consequences of multiple new research affirms the basic findings of the
nuclearexplosions.Calculationsindicated original work, including the cooling estimates
that the explosions and the fires that followed upon which nuclear winter was based.
would throw sufficient debris and smoke into
the
atmosphere to block incomingsolar See also
radiationandcausetemperatures to fall Atmospheric turbidity, ENUWAR.
rapidly to winter levels even in midsummer.
Further reading
Such an eventwouldhavemajorenviron- Maddox, J.
(1984)'Nuclear
winter
not
yet
mentaland
socioeconomic consequences. established', Nature 308: 11.
Named the TTAPS scenario after
the Sagan, C. and Turco, R.P. (1990)A Path Where N o
scientists who developed and ran thefirst Man Thought: Nuclear Winter atzd the End of the
modelin 1983, thehypothesiswaswidely Arms Race, New York: Random House.
Thompson, S.I.. and Schneider, S.H. (1986)
criticized and modified by other researchers 'Nuclear winter reappraised', Forergtr Affairs 64:
using improved models. The results of one of 981-1005.
the
modificationssuggestedthat
cooling Turco, R.P., Toon, O.B., Ackerman, T.P., Pollack,

Figure N-7 The development of nuclear winter: ( a ) the conflict; (b) thepost-conflict fires; (c)
nuclear winter; (d) the aftereffects

........................

scavengmg ..

I increased U.V. radiation

:'
l
. . . .. . .. . .. . ..photochemical
. . smog:!.' .... ..
NUCLEIC ACIDS 272
J.B. and Sagan, C. (1983) ‘Nuclear winter: global
is anyunreasonable or unnecessaryinter-
consequences
of
multiple nuclear
explosions’,
ferencewiththe use or enjoyment of a
Science 222: 1283-92.
property or piece of land by its owner. It can
Turco, R.P., Toon, O.B., Ackerman, T.P., Pollack,
beused
J.B. and Sagan, C. (1990) ‘Climate and smoke: an to dealwithairpollution,noise,
appraisal of nuclear winter’, Science 247: 166-76.
vibrationandodours,forexample,which
have caused damageto the property or loss of
enjoyment of the property. Action against a
NUCLEIC ACIDS privatenuisancemaybeinitiated by an
individual,
but if theproblem is more
Polymers of nucleotides - compoundscon- widespread, it is considered a public nuisance
sisting of a nitrogenous base plus sugar and a and action must be initiatedby a government
phosphategroup - andprobablythemost representative. Theaim of theplaintiff in
important
compoundsfound living
in such cases is to obtain an injunction thatwill
organisms. DNA and RNA, for example, are bring about the abatement of the nuisance
nucleicacids thatcontainthegeneticcodes and receive compensationforthedamages
necessary for the development and functioning caused.
of living organisms.
Further reading
Further reading Estrin, D., Swaigen, J. and Carswell, M. A. (1978)
Hecht, S.M. (ed.)(1996) Bioorganic Chemistry: Enurronrnent on Trial, Toronto: Canadian
Nucleic Acids,New York:Oxford University Press. Environmental Law Research Foundation.

NUCLEUS NUTRIENT

A raw materialrequired by plants and

Used in general terms to refer to the core of
animals for growth and development. In their
an object. An atomic nucleus, for example, is
basic formnutrients
may be simple
the core of an atom. It consists of protons
chemicals, such as calcium, (Ca) magnesium
and neutrons, and although occupying only
(Mg) or iron (Fe), available in the soil and
a verysmallfraction of the volume of the
absorbed by growing plants. Such minerals
atomitaccountsforalmost all itsmass.
are also importantforanimals,butthe
Living cells also have a nucleus in the formof
nutrientsconsumed by animalsareusually
a distinct unit contained within a membrane.
presented in a more complexform. In
The DNA molecules whichcontrol
the
addition to mineralstheyincludecarbo-
characteristics of the cell are located in the
hydrates,fats,proteins,vitamins,inorganic
nucleus. In theatmosphere,smallparticles
salts and water. They are consumedin forms
that attract moisture are called condensation
and amounts thatvary according to the needs
nuclei.
of the organisms involved, and an excess or
deficit of specific nutrientscanhavean
NUCLIDE impacton
growth
anddevelopment.A
distinction is usuallymadebetweenmacro-
The nucleus of an atom, characterized by its nutrients - such as nitrogen (N), potassium
atomic number and mass number. (K) and phosphorus (P) required in relatively
large amounts - and micronutrients - such as
See also copper(Cu),
zinc
(Zn) or cobalt (CO)
Isotope, Radionuclide. required in only small amounts. The concept
of nutrient status or nutrient availability can
NUISANCE be applied both to soils and to lakes.
Nutrients in soils are provided by rock
A cause of action in common law that has weathering or the recycling of organic
beenused withsome successin environ- materialandremoved by plants or lost to
mental cases. In its simplest terms, a nuisance leaching. If nutrientsarebeing used more
273 NUTRIENT

rapidly thanthey are being replaced, then the See also

fertility of the soilwill decline. Nutrientlevels Eutrophic
lakes,
Malnutrition,
Metabolism,
Oligotrophic (lakes).
inlakesarerelated to age - oldlakes
generally having a higher nutrient status than Further reading
youngerlakes - buthuman activities can Paoletti,M.G.,Foissner, W. andColeman, D.C.
cause nutrientlevels to rise rapidly, leadingto (eds) (1993) Soil Biota,NutrientCyclingand
premature eutrophication. Farming Systems, Boca Raton, FL: Lewis.
 0
OASIS Figure 0 - 1 Vertical cross section through
two typesof occlusion
A location in an arid region in which there is
sufficient water to support a plant and animal
community.It is usuallytheresult of the
emergence of thelocalwatertableatthe
surface. Even major oases, such as those at
Kufra and Jalo in Libya, can never support
.....
'?;i:. cool air
large permanent populations, but historically .....
....
.....
theywereimportantcentresonthedesert .:....
:.
wid air ..:.....
.....
traderoutes.Thedrilling of boreholescan ....
....
....
..... .....
create
artificial
oasis-like
conditions by
bringing groundwater to the surface. COLD OCCLUSION

See also
Sahel.

OCCLUSION

The final stage

- in the development of a mid-
latitudefrontaldepression,causedwhenthe
warm sector airis pinched out between the cold
air ahead of the warm front and the advancing
cold air behind the cold front, and forced to
rise. The specific form of the occlusionwill vary
according to the
OCCULT DEPOSITION
temperature
difference
between the two cold air masses. The uplift of
the warm air is accompanied by cooling and Acid precipitation composed of fine fog and
condensation, causing the weather beneath an cloud
droplets.
Thesedroplets
condense
occlusion to be cloudyand wet.Depending around sulphate and nitrate aerosols and as a
upon therelative temperaturesof the warm and resultcontainconcentrations of sulphuric
cold air, precipitationmaytaketheform of and nitric acid that may be as much as twenty
rain, freezing rain or snow. times that of normal acidrainfall.
The
process is mostoftenexperienced in urban
See also areas where smog is common, in areas prone
Mid-latltude frontal model. to coastalfogand inhilly or mountainous
areas, wherethesummitsarefrequently in
Further reading cloud. Because the droplets are small enough
Carlson, T. ( I991 ) Mid-latrtrrde Weather Systems, to remain in suspension, their contributionto
LondonlNew York: Routledge. total precipitation is not always adequately
275 CIRCULATION OCEANIC

represented in rain gauge

totals.
Occult addition to these surface
flows,
density
deposition may be underestimated by u p to differences, in part thermally induced, cause
20 percent,particularly inforestedareas horizontal and vertical movements within the
where trees arevery effective in capturing the oceans. For example, cold, densewater, sinking
fine droplets. in the Antarctic, flows along the bottom of
the ocean basins and spreads northwards into
Further reading theSouthern Pacific, AtlanticandIndian
Park, C.C. (1987)Acid Rain: Rhetortc andReality, oceans. There is also some evidence that the
London: Methuen. difference between the saltier, denser water of
the Atlantic Ocean and the more dilute, less
OCEANIC CIRCULATION dense waters of the Pacific contributes to an
overalldeepwaterflowfromAtlantic to
Theorganizedmovement of water in the Pacific and a surfaceflow in theopposite
earth’s ocean basins. The oceanic circulation direction.Thishasbeenreferredto as the
is intimately linked to the circulation of the ‘Greatoceanicconveyer belt’. All of these
atmosphere.The prevailingwinds in the processeshelp to offsettheimbalance of
atmosphere, for example, drive water across energy that develops between equatorial
the ocean surface a t speeds of up to 5 km per regions andthe poles. This is illustrated
hour, in the formof broad, relatively shallow particularly well in the NorthAtlantic, where
drifts. The Corioliseffect and the shapeof the the warm waters of theGulfStreamDrift
ocean basins also help to determine the flow ensure that areas as far north as the Arctic
of these currents. In some cases,they carry Circle are
anomalously mild during the
warm water polewards while in others they wintermonths.Oneoceancurrentwhich
carrycoolerwaterintolowerlatitudes.In does
not
appear as part of the well-

Figure 0 - 2 The surface circulationof the oceans

COLD CURRENTS WARM CURRENTS

1 Labrador 5 Hurnboldt 8 Gulf Stream 13 Equatorial COUnter
2 Canary 6 Benguela 9 N. Atlantic Drift 14 S. Equatorial
3 California 7 West Wind Drift I O Kuroshio 15 Brazil
4 West Australia 1 1 N. Pacific Drift 16 Agulhas
12 N. Equatorial
OCEAN MODELS 276

Figure 0 - 3 The great oceanic conveyer belt

. .
Blackwell Science

established pattern, but which makes a major OCEANOGRAPHY

contribution to energytransfer is El Niiio.
This is a flow of warm surface water which Thestudy of allaspects of the world’s
appears
with
some
frequency in the oceans,includingthephysicalnatureand
equatorial regions of the eastern Pacific. O n structure of theoceanbasins,thephysics
average,oceanictransportaccountsfor 40 and chemistry of the ocean waters and the
percent of thetotalpolewardtransfer of biology of the marine organisms that inhabit
energy in the earth/atmosphere system, with the oceans.
theatmosphericcirculationaccountingfor
the remaining 60 per cent. Further reading
Pickard, G.L. and Emery,W.J. (1990) Descriptrve
See also Physlcal Oceanography: An Introduction (5th
ENSO, Gyre. editlon), Oxford: Pergamon.

Further reading OCEANS

Broecker, W.S. ( 1 991) ‘The great ocean conveyer’,
Oceanography 4 (2): 79-89.
Strahler,A.H. and Strahler,A.N. (1992) Modern
Physical Geography (4th edition), New York:
Wiley.
OCEAN MODELS
See coupled oceadatmosphere climate models,
general circulation models.
The large bodies of saltwater that cover about
71 per cent of the earth’s surface and contain97
per cent of the world’s total water supply. Parts
of the ocean that are deeper than 200 m belong
to the oceanic zone, whereas those that are less
than 200 m deep -for example, in coastal areas
andabovethecontinental shelf - are inthe
neritic zone. The neritic zone is muchmore
277
Figure 0-4 The morphologyof the ocean basins
continental
continental rise
variable in terms of temperature, s a l i n i t y and
sedimentation than
the Ocean deeps, and
because it is penetrated by solar radiation, it also
has a muchricher plant and animalcommunity.
Beneath the Ocean surface, the landscapeof the
Ocean floor includes a complex combinationof
morphological features from extensive plains to
deep troughs and high mountain ridges.
See also
Abyssal zone.
Further reading
deBlij, H.J. and Muller, P.O. (1993)Physical Geog-
raphy ofthe Global Enuzronment,New York: Wiley.
King, C.A.M. (1962) Oceanography for Geog-
raphers, London: Edward Arnold.
ODD HYDROGENS
See hydrogen oxides.
ODOURS
In environmental terms, the smells produced
by the release of (organic) vapours into the
l OIL POLLUTION
In a modern industrial society dependent
uponpetroleumasitsmainsourceof
energy, it is no surprise that the contamin-
ation of theenvironment by petroleum
products is widespread and common. Major
OIL POLLUTION
atmosphere and therefore a form of gaseous
air pollution.Themainsources of odours
include farming operations, meat-processing
plants, pulp and paper mills, sewage works
and the chemical industry. The impact of this
type of pollution varies with the odour and
withtheindividual.Forsome,theodours
may be merely disagreeable, but for others
they may bring on nausea and insomnia. In
most cases, the human nose can detect odours
long before the vapours reach life-threatening
concentrations, providing an early warning
of a potentially more serious situation.
See also
Mercaptans.
Further reading
Harper, R., Bate-Smith, E.G.and Land, D.G. (1968)
Odour Description and Odour Classification: A
Multidiscrplinary
Examrnatron, New York:
Elsevier.
See petroleum.
sources of oilpollution onlandinclude
motor vehicle operations and maintenance,
refineries,pipelines,petrochemicalplants
andotherindustrialoperations.Mostoil
spills on land are small - generally less than
OIL POLLUTION
1000 gallons - but occasionally they reach
disastrousproportions.Inlate1994,for
txample, a major leak in a pipeline carrying
oil from the Arctic to central Russia
allowed some 200,000 tonnes of crude to
spill on to theSiberiantundra(Painand
Kleiner 1994). Suchamassivespillcom-
pareswiththelargest oil tanker spills.
However, nothing as yet is comparable to
the volumes of oil released into the environ-
ment as a result of the Gulf War in 1991,
whenthedefeatedIraqiforcessabotaged
some 800oil wells in Kuwait. Some they set
alight, others were allowedto spew oil over
the surrounding desert. The Kuwait oil fires
burned for severalmonths; at theirpeak,
the spills amounted to morethan 7 m
tonnes of oil, and formed lakes that covered
some 49 kmz of Kuwait. As late as 1995,
despiteenormousamounts of timeand
money spent on clean-up, an estimated0.5
m tonnes remained (Pearce 1995a).
In the oceans, pollutants are providedby
shipping activities - both tanker and non-
tanker - and by offshore petroleum explor-
ation and production. Large spills from oil
tanker accidents are the major sources of
sudden,large-volumepollutionepisodes,
but offshoreoil operations also make major
contributions.In1977,forexample, a taminated as the effects of the spill descend
blow-out from the Ekofisk Bravo platform
released 14,000 tonnes of crude oil into the
North Sea (Jenkins 1980), and the largest
oil spillyet recorded - nearly 500,000
tonnes -was the resultof a blow-out at the
Ixtoc-l wellin the Bay of Campeche, off
the coast of Mexico (Cutter et al. 1991).
Evenregular
activities in theoffshore
environment can
contribute
significant
amounts of oil pollution. Morethan
16,000 tonnes of oil wereadded to the
Norwegian sectorof the NorthSea between
1984and1990 in theform of oil-based
drilling
muds.
Over the
sameperiod
perhaps as muchas eight times that amount
wasdischarged into
the British sector
(Pearce1995b). Inaddition to ongoing
shipping
and
offshore oil production
activities, there are the unexpected events,
such as the release of more than 800,000
tonnes of oil into the Persian Gulf during
278
the Gulf War in 1991, which maybe few in
number but are noless serious.
The classification intoland-basedand
ocean-based spills is not perfect, since
petroleum products released on land can be
carried into the oceans in runoff, and theoil
slicks created by spills at sea can be washed
uponshore. Oil pollution receives most
attentionfollowingmajor spills, both on
landand in theoceans,buttheregular
ongoingsmall-scalecontaminationfrom
leaking underground storage tanks or from
the bilgewater discharges of ocean shipping,
for example, commonly exceeds the irregular
contributions of major pipeline ruptures or
oil tanker accidents.
The spills thatnormally receive most
attention are those which occur in coastal
areas,wheretheyfoulgreatstretches of
sandy beach o r rocky shoreline. Reports in
the media carry pictures of oil-soaked sea-
birds and mammals, many destined to die
because the oil has destroyed their natural
insulationandbuoyancyorbecausethey
have ingested the toxic chemicals in the oil.
The effects of a spill reach far beyond these
more obvious impacts, however. Organisms
livingintheintertidalzonearepoisoned
and bottom-dwelling shellfish become con-
through the water. Often the food chain is
broken, either directly when an entire group
of organisms is wiped outby the initial spill,
o r indirectlywhenpredators begin to die
after ingesting a contaminated food supply.
Thus the entire ecosystem suffers.Similarly,
onland,the oil lakes thatfloodedlarge
areas of the desert in Kuwait were only the
more
obvious
impacts of the spills.
Vegetation is destroyed and life in the upper
layers of the soil is no longer possible. Oil
spills on land often migrate into local water
bodies, through which contamination may
be carried far beyond the original source,
and pollution may remain in the area for
decades if the oil seeps into the slow moving
groundwatersystem.Theterrestrialfood
chain is disrupted and toxic chemicals are
spread through the systemin much the same
way as they are in the aquatic ecosystem.
Many of these ecological impacts have
279
:conomicimplications. The aesthetic and
Jhysicaldegradationthatfollowscoastal
;pills, for
example,maybring
major
:conomic losses through the disruption of
:he touristindustry.Commercial shellfish
Ieds may have to be closed because oysters
m d clamshave been tainted by the oily
m t e r theyhaveingested.Similarly,local
fisheries may be decimated if spills occur
learfish-spawningbeds or onmigration
routes. O n land, soil that has been contam-
lnated is no longer suitable for agriculture,
and contaminated pasture or natural
;razing will no longer support animals. The
size of the particular oil spill is not always a
good indication of its ultimate impact. The
blow-out of 500,000 tonnes at the Zxtoc-l
well off Mexico in 1979wasthe largest
Dffshore oil spill on record. However, a com-
bination of winds and currents prevented
the main oil slicks from coming ashore, and
most of the oil dispersed in the open ocean.
Damage to theoceanicenvironmentmust
have taken place, but it was much less than
would have occurred in the more complex
and productive coastal environment. In con-
trast, the release of a much smaller amount
of oil - 38,000 tonnes - by the Exxon
Vuldez in Alaska killed thousands of sea-
birds and mammals and caused incalculable
environmental and economic damage.
Although the pollutants are mainly hydro-
carbons, andtherefore subject to biodegrada-
tion by bacteria and other organisms in the
naturalenvironment,theprocess is slow
and the impactof the pollutants may be felt
for many years after the initial contamin-
ation. Testsitesset up in Alaska in 1976,
for example, showed little improvement in
the level of contamination when re-
examimed in 1991 (Pain andKleiner 2994).
As a result, the area damagedby the oil spill
requiressomeform of directclean-up or
rehabilitation. O n land, free oil in pools can
be pumped into tanks, but the contamin-
ated soil remains. In Kuwait, after the liquid
oil had been removed from the surface of
thedesert,
the
soil
andsandbeneath
remained contaminated to a depth of 1.5 m
(Pearce1995a). Even if it is possible to
remove the polluted soil, the local environ-
OIL POLLUTION
ment is destroyedandtheproblem of
disposing of the polluted soil remains. Oil
spills at sea areattackedusingfloating
booms, that contain the oil until it can be
removed by pumps or skimmers; by spraying
the slick withchemicaldispersantsthat
break up the oil; and by burning the oil on
the surface or in the vessel from which it is
escaping. None of thesesystems is ideal.
Booms donotwork well whenseasare
rough.Chemical dispersants wereonce
popular because they caused the oil to sink
and the slicks to disappearquite quickly.
Evidencefromtheareascontaminated by
the Torrey Canyon and Amoco Cadiz spills
wherelargevolumes of dispersantswere
usedsuggests thatthecontamination of
bottom-dwelling organisms by oil and the
chemical dispersants persisted some ten to
fifteen years after the events (Pearce 1993).
Oncethe oil comes ashore,
clean-up
becomes difficult,
particularly on rocky
shores.Absorbentssuch as straw or peat
can be used to soak up the oil, contaminated
sandremovedandsteamused to clean
coated rocks. Nothing is completely success-
ful, however. Absorbents cannot remove all
of the oil andtheremoval of shoreline
materialmayhavesignificantecological
and
morphological consequences. Steam
cleaning was used extensively following the
Exxon Valdez accident,andalthough it
effectively removed the oil, it also tended to
scald
and kill the organisms that
had
escaped the initial effects of the spill.
Despiteongoingattemptstoimprove
clean-up technology, the success rate is not
impressive.Scientistsestimatethateven
under ideal conditions, with state-of-the-art
technology provided rapidlyby well-trained
technicians, no more than 10-15 per cent of
the oil from a major spill can be recovered
(Miller 1994). Theresidue remains in some
form or other in the environment. As with
all pollutionproblems,preventionrather
than response after the event wouldseem to
be the most appropriate approach.
References and further reading
Cutter, S., Renwlck, H.L. and Renwlck, W.H.
( 1 991) Exp/oitutrorr, Comeroutron, Preservntron,
OIL S H A L E 280

New York: Wiley. 144 (1950):8-9.

Jenkins, R.H. (1980)‘Oily water discharges from
offshore oil developments’, in C.R. Upton (ed.)
Ninth Envrronmenatal Workshop on Offshore
Hydrocarbon
Development, Calgary:
Arctic
Institute of North America.
Miller, G.T. (1994) Lrving in theEnvironment
(8th edition), Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Pain, S. and Kleiner, K. (1994) ‘Frustrated West
watches as Arctic oil spill grows’, New Scientist
Pearce, F. (1993) ‘What turns an oil spill into a
disaster?’, New Scientist 137 (1858): 11-13.
Pearce, F. (1995a) ‘Devastationinthedesert’,
New Scientrst 146 (1971): 40-3.
Pearce, F. (1995b)‘Dirty rigs choke North Sea to
death’, New Scientist 146 (1976): 4.
Revelle, C. and Revelle, P. (1974)Sourcebook on
the
Environment:The Scientific Perspective,
Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

I Figure 0 - 5 The distribution of major oceanic oil spills, 1962-89. Each dot represents a
spill of more than 5000 tons

Source: Cutter, S.L., Renwick, H.L. and Renwick, W.H. (1991) Exploitatton, Conservatron,
Preservation: A Geographic Perspectrve on Natural Resource Use, New York: Wiley

OIL SHALE an important by-product. Production ceased

in the early twentieth century, when conven-
A fine-grained sedimentary rock containing tional petroleum became more readily avail-
kerogen, a hydrocarbon of botanical origin, able. The largest existing deposits are in the
from which gaseous and liquid petroleum can Green River formation of Colorado, Wyoming
be extracted by destructivedistillation. Oil and Utah in the United States where there are
shalewasanimportantsource of oil in reserves of as much as 1800 billion barrelsof
Europe in thenineteenthcenturywiththe oil. Significant deposits also exist in the
Baltic
industry
centred
in
Estoniaand
central region of Europeand inBrazil. Oil shale
Scotland. The Scottish operations produced a received much attention in the 1970s following
variety of products including
gasoline, theOPEC-generated oil crisis, when it was
kerosene, lubricating oils, paraffin wax and seen as an attractive alternativeto the increas-
tar, with the fertilizer sulphateof ammonia as ingly
expensive
and
politically
sensitive
281 OIL TANKERS

Figure 0 - 6 The products of oil shale processing from a nineteenth-century operation in

central Scotland
condensation
fmotor
fradima/ 7spirit
diStilaUon

oil
liquor 120 kg
20 kg

OPEC crude. However, on average nearly1.3 OIL SPILL

tonnes of shale must be processed to produce
one barrel of oil, requiring the excavation of See oil pollution.
some 500 million tonnes of shale per year to
make the operation economically feasible. In OIL TANKERS
addition,theprocess is accompanied by
serious environmental concerns. When cooked
Shipping activities are responsible for about
to release the oil, the shale expands to several
50 per cent of theoilenteringtheworld
times the volume of theoriginal
rock,
oceans, largely asaresult of tankflushing
creatingwastedisposalproblems.Leachate
and bilge pumping, and perhaps as little as 2
contamination of the adjacent water systems
percentonaverage is released in tanker
and air pollution from the refining process
accidents. However, since the 1960s, tankers
are also potential hazards.To overcome some
have become increasingly larger, with the so-
of these environmental problems several oil
calledverylargecrudecarriers (VLCCs)
companies explored the in situ conversion of
capable of transporting between 250,000 and
oil shale into liquid oil by heating the shale
500,000 tonnes of crude oil. When such ships
underground and recovering theoil by way of
run aground or collide with another vessel,
wells. Although technicallypossible, it was
theresult is normallycatastrophicforthe
nottakenbeyondtheexperimentalstage
environment, because of the concentration of
because it wasexpensiveandnotwithout
large amounts of oil in a limited area. The
environmental problems. Oil shale remains a
causes of tanker accidents fall into three main
potential sourceof energy, but it is unlikely to
groups: human error, equipment failure and
be developed as long asrelatively inexpensive
structural failure. Although the human factor
conventional crude oil remains available.
can never be eliminated completely, it could
be reduced by better training and the develop-
Further reading
Kleinbach, M.H. and Salvagin, C.E. (1986)Energy
ment of improvednavigationtechniques,
Tecbnologres and Conversion Systems, Englewood involving, for example,globalpositioning
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. systems. Major equipment failure has resulted
 OIL TANKERS 282

Figure 0 - 7 A design for a safer tanker

spoon-
shaped
improved
bow for
twin double hull navigation
in
travel
screws equipment
ice I

1
two engSnes
submersible
pumps bow thrusters
in self-contained
in oil tanks to increase
engine

in
number
a of tankeraccidents.Most
tankers have only one engine driving a single
screw. In the event of a breakdown, thevessel
is at the mercy of the elements, and may well
drift or be driven
ashore.
Twin-engined
tankers with engines in separate engine rooms
would be able to cope with the loss of an
engine, and would be much more manoeuvr-
able under normal circumstances. The failure
of othercomponentssuchasnavigational
aids or pumping systems could be dealt with
by introducing the redundant system approach
used in aircraft. Structurally, oil tankers are
not particularly strong. They are subject to
flexing in heavy seas, which may cause the
hull t o leak or, in the worst cases, the ship t o

Table 0-2Major oil spills from tanker accidents

TONNES
LOCATION
YEAR SHIP SPILLED
1967 Torrey Canyon Scilly Islands, UK 120,000
1972 Sea Star Persian Gulf 115,000
1976 Showa Maru off Malaysia 70,000
1976 Argo Merchant North Atlantic 28,000
1976 Urquiola NW Spain 100,000
1976 Haven Mediterranean Sea 40,000
1978 Amoco Cadiz Brittany, France 220,000
1978 Andros Patria NW Spain 20,000
1979 Atlantic Express South America 300,000
1979 Burmah Agate Gulf of Mexico 42,000
1989 Kharg-5 S Spain 82,000
1989 Exxon Valdez Alaska, USA 38,000
1992 Aegean Sea NW Spain 70,000
1993 Braer Shetland Islands, UK 84,000

Source: Varlous, including Pearce (1993)

283 OPEC OIL EMBARGO

break up. The relatively thin hull plates are OPAQUE

unable to withstand much more than a minor
collisionwithanother vessel or withrocks Not transparent to light. The term may also
withoutleaking oil. Double-hulledtankers, be applied to theability of a substance to
in which the oil is carried in the inner hull block sound waves or X-rays.Inthelatter
separated from the outer hull by air-space or case, the substance would be ‘radio-opaque’.
ballastwatertanks,wouldpreventspills Opacity
may
absolute.
not
be Some
followingmanyminoraccidents,butboth materials,forexample,may be opaque to
hullscould still be punctured in a major certainwavelengths in theelectromagnetic
grounding or collision. All theseimprove- spectrum, but transparent to others.
ments are technically possible but would be
costly, ultimately driving up the price of oil. OPEC
Withoutthemtheworld’soceansand sea
coasts will continue to be subject to major oil See Organization of PetroleumExporting
pollutionepisodes,andtheenvironmental
Countries.
toll will be greater than it need be.

See also
OPEC OIL EMBARGO
Exxon Valdez, Oil pollution.
In October 1973, the Arab-dominated Organiz-
Further reading ation of Petroleum ExportingCountries
Pearce, F. (1993) ‘What turns an oil spill into a (OPEC)supportedEgyptand Syriain the
disaster?’, New Scientist 1 3 7 (1858): 11-13. Yom Kippur War against Israel. Its support
tooktheform of an oil embargoagainst
OKIES Westernnationsseen to favourIsrael.Oil
exports were reduced to some nations, and
Asomewhatdisparagingtermforfarmers banned completely to the United States and
from Oklahoma who migrated westwards to the Netherlands. The embargo, which lasted
California to escape the
ravages of the until March1974,wasaccompanied by a
DustbowlontheGreat Plains of North series of rapid unilateral
price
increases
America in the 1930s.
Theirplight
was which doubled the price of crude oil almost
described in JohnSteinbeck’s fictional account overnight andled to 1973 being referred to as
of the Dustbowl, The Grapes of Wrath. ‘thelastyear of cheap oil’. By 1973,the
economies of the world’s industrial nations
OLIGOTROPHIC (LAKES) had become seriously dependent upon cheap
imported oil, mainly from the OPEC nations
Water bodies that have a low concentration of who at that time supplied more than 80 per
nutrientsandarethereforelow inorganic cent of all imported oil. As a result, the effects
productivity.Oligotrophiclakestend to be of the combined embargo and price increases
clear because of the limited amounts of organic were
immediateand
almostuniversally
matter they contain. This is characteristic of devastating to thenon-exportingnations.
young lakes which have had insufficient time Theglobaleconomyrapidlywentinto a
to develop an adequatenutrientsupplyand recession,
characterized by double-digit
recycling system. Recently filled reservoirs, for inflation,risinginterestratesandspiralling
example, are generally oligotrophic. debts incurred by the oil importing nations.
To combat this situation, energy conservation
See also was encouraged and an effort was made to
Eutrophic, Eutrophication. substituteotherenergysources for oil. In
addition, the higher cost of oil encouraged
OPACITY increasedexplorationfornewsources of
non-OPEC oil, and in the second half of the
See opaque. 1970s
productionincreased in Canada,
O P E N - C A S T MINING 284

Figure 0-8 Oil price trends following the 1973 OPEC oil embargo

35 """"""""-
""""""""""""-

$
3 *O
E
n
1 h
30 """"-""""
25 """""""-

15
""

" " "_

""""""""""

"""""

m" 1992

8 10
1973
$ 5
l , I , , l , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
1

19801975 19901985
Source: After Miller, G.T. (1994) Lzvzng in the Environment (8th editlon), Belmont, CA: Wadsworth

Mexico and the North Sea. This improved the
supply and reduced the demand for oil, so
that by 1978 theprice had stabilized at about
US$12 per barrel -onlyslightly above what it
had been following the initial rapid price rises
in 1974-1975.Furtherpriceincreasesfol-
lowed, partly brought on by OPEC's manip-
ulation of the supply and partly as a resultof
theshut-down of Iranian oil production
duringthatcountry's Islamic revolutionin
1979. By 1981, the price of a barrel of oil
ranged from US$3540, helping to produce a
repeat of the recessionary conditions of the
1970s,buthaddeclined to theUS$18-20
range by the mid-1990s. In real terms, with
adjustments for inflation, the price of oil in
the mid-1990s is about the same as it was in
themid-1970s.TheOPECembargowasa
majorpoliticalandeconomiceventwhich
showed the power of energy-rich nations in a
world dependent upon petroleum products.
The embargo, and the responses of the non-
OPECnationsto it, broughtaboutradical
changes to the geography of oil production
andconsumption,andhencetotheglobal
economy.
Further reading
Hanink, D.M. (1994)The Zrtternational Economy:
A Geographzcal Perspectrue, New York: John
Wiley.
Khouja,
M.W. (ed.) (1981) The Challenge of
Energy: Policies zn the Makrng, LondonMew
York: Longman.
OPEN-CAST MINING
See open-pit mining.
OPEN-PIT MINING
A form of mining used to extract minerals
that are present close to the earth's surface.
Also referred to asopen-castmining, it
involves the removal of the overlying soil and
rock - the overburden - to expose the ore
beneath.Open-pitmining is generally less
costly than underground mining, which means
that it can be used to extract lower grade ores
profitably. In most cases, however, it causes
greater damage to the environment thanunder-
groundmining.Thelargestopenpitsare
between 1 and4km in diameterandmay
rangefrom 0.3 to 0.8 km in depth.The
Bingham Canyon copper mine at Bingham,
Utah is the largest open pit in the world. It is
4 km in diameter and 0.8 km deep. Excavating
such a pit changes the landscape permanently,
disrupts the local hydrology and creates large
amounts of waste.Withlowgradeore,
concentration or beneficiation is normally
carried out on-site, to reduce the amount of
wastetransportedtothe smelter, andthis
producestailingswhichmaycontaintoxic
chemicals. Although rehabilitation of the site
is desirable, and commonly required by law,
thelandscapecan never be returnedtoits
285 ORE

original state, and full restoration of the pre- Figure 0 - 9 The processing of metallic ores
operational environment is impossible, partic- and related environmental problems
ularly with larger pits.

Further reading
( m N ) - LANDSCAPE DESTRUCTION
AIR, WATER AND LAND
Griggs, G.B. and Gilchrist, J.A. (1983) Geologrcal
Hazards, Resources and Environmental Plannmg ACID MINE DRAINAGE
(2nd edition), Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. DISPOSAL OF ROCK WASTE

OPEN SYSTEM

See systems.
TAILINGS POND

(SMELTING" AIR POLLUTION BY SMOKE

Anaturallyoccurringmineraldepositthat
RELEASE Of TOXIC OR ACID
containsanelementatconcentrations well
abovethenormalcrustalaverageforthat DISPOSAL OF SMELTER
element. I1 - ~ II
The term can include fuels, such as coal
and oil, and chemical deposits, such as salt definitionmayalsoinclude aneconomic
(NaCI) orsulphur (S), but it is most commonly factor, in that a particular deposit might not
applied to metallicelements. The desired be considered an ore body unless the element
element is obtained by the extraction of the it contains can be extracted at a profit. The
ore and the separation of the metal from the level at which profitability becomes possible
surrounding unwanted minerals - gangue - may be represented by the minimum ore body
by smeltingor chemicalextraction.The concentration,butprofitability will also

Table 0 - 2 A comparison of crustal concentration and ore body concentrations forselected

minerals

ELEMENT
NATURAL CRUSTAL MINIMUM
ORE BODY
~ ~~
CONCENTRATION (%) CONCENTRATION (%)
Aluminum 8.0 24-32
Iron 5.0 20-30
Copper 0.0058 0.5-0.8
Nickel 0.0072 1.08
Zinc 0.0082 2.46
Titanium 0.5 5
Chromium 0.02 20
Lead 0.0001 0.2
Platinum 0.0000005 0.003
Silver 0.000007 0.01
Gold 0.0000002 0.0008
ORGANIC 286

dependuponsuchgeologicalfactorsasthe Figure 0-20The chemical structure of a

grade, size, shape and depth of the ore body, simple organic compound- urea and a
and non-geologicalfactorssuchasprices, complex organic compound - mimosine
geographical accessibility, labourcostsand
government policies. Since the non-geological Urea: CH 4N20
factors can be quite changeable, they exert
considerable influence on the potential profit- H,N-C-NH,
ability of an ore body and therefore on the
timing and rate of its development. Modern
II
0
technological societies
dependheavily on
metals and development is closely tied to the
avaliability of a wide variety of types, from Mirnosine: C,H,N2 0,
the relatively mundane and abundant, such as
iron (Fe) and steel, to the more esoteric and
scarcer, suchasgold (Au) andgermanium NH2
(Ge). Suchdependence
a hascomewith
environmental costs, however, at all stages in
the process from the original extraction of the
0EN:CH2-CH-C02H I
oretothemanufacture
product.
of thefinalmetal
OH
H H
Further reading
Barnes, J.W. (1988) Ores and
Minerals: provided by ploughing in growinggreen
IntroducingEconomrcGeology, MiltonKeynes/ plants and compost, also help to fertilize and
Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press.
Evans, A.M. (1993) Ore Geology and lndustrral
conditionthesoil. Pests arecontrolled by
Minerals: A n Introductron (3rd edition), Oxfordl cultivation practices which restrict the habitat
Boston: Blackwell Scientific. necessaryfor
the
pests, by thegenetic
Ripley, E.A., Redrnan, R.E. andCrowder, A.A. engineering of plantspecies to makethem
(1995) Envrronmental Effects of Mining, New resistant t o pests, by encouraging the natural
York: St Lucie Press.
predators of thepestsand by usingbio-
pesticidessuchasthepyrethroidsobtained
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS fromplants of thechrysanthemum family.
Such an approach maintains the quaility of
Chemical compounds which contain carbon
the soil and reduces the build-up of synthetic
( C ) combined with hydrogen (H) and often
chemicalsintheenvironment,although, in
withavariety of otherelementsincluding
the short term at least, crop yields and cash
oxygen (0)and nitrogen (N). Organic com-
profits may be less than those from a modern
pounds are molecularly very complex, com-
chemically based agricultural system.
monly consisting of large numbers of atoms
arranged in chains or rings.
Further reading
Little,C.E. (1987) Green Fields
Forever: The
See also Cotzservatiotl
Tillage
Revolutiorz in America,
Alcohols, Carbohydrates, Organochlorides. Washmgton, DC: Island Press.
Kaufrnann, D.G. and Franz C.M. (1993)Biosphere
ORGANIC FARMING 2000: ProtectingourGlobalEnvironment, New
York: HarperCollins.
Farming
without
the use of artificial
(chemically
manufactured)fertilizers or ORGANIZATION FOR
pesticides. Fertilization is provided by natural ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION
productssuchas
animalmanure, which AND DEVELOPMENT (OECD)
contains organic nitrogen(N), stimulates soil
bacteriaandmaintainsthesoilstructure An intergovernmental institution, consisting
through its organic content. Green manure, of theworld’stwenty-fourmostdeveloped
287 ORGANOPHOSPHORUS COMPOUNDS

nations, set up in 1962 to co-ordinate eco- New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Flavln,C.(1985) WorldOil: Coprng wrththe
nomic policies and encourage economic
Dangers of Success, Worldwatch Paper 66,
growth and world trade to the mutual benefit Washington, DC: Worldwatch.
of its members. As the apparent link between Hallwood, P. and Sinclair, S.W. (1981) Oil, Debt
economic growth and a variety of environ- andDevelopment:OPEC r n theThirdWorld,
mental issues increases,the OECD hasbecome LondodBoston: Allen & Unwln.
involved in the assessment of the socioeconomic
impacts of specific issues. It is also concerned ORGANOCHLORIDES
with the environmental aspects of foreign aid,
and its impact on sustainable development. A group of organic compounds that contain
chlorine (Cl). They have a variety of forms
Further reading and uses including
aerosol
propellants,
OECD(1991) ClimateChange: Evaluatrng the plasticizers,
transformercoolants (PCBs),
Socro-Economlc Impacts, Pans: Organization for food packaging (PVCs), electrical insulation
Economic Cooperation and Development.
Starke, L. (1990) Signs of Hope: Workrng Towards and
constructionmaterials
(PVCs),but
our Common Ftrttrre, Oxford: Oxford University probably their greatest use was as pesticides
Press. in the form of DDT, Aldrine and Lindane.
Strongly biocidal, they act through the central
ORGANIZATION OF PETROLEUM nervous system, and initially when they were
EXPORTING COUNTRIES (OPEC) introduced in the 1940s they were very effec-
tive against insect pests such as the malarial
A group of Middle Eastern, Asian, African mosquito.Withtime, however, manypests
and Latin American nations that includes the have developed an immunity to them. It has
world’s
majorpetroleum
producersand also become clear that the characteristics that
exporters. They came together in 1960, recog- madethemgoodpesticides - persistence,
nizing the importance of oil as a source of mobility and high biological activity - also
future development, and with the intention of posed
dangers
environment.
the
for
usingtheirpetroleumresources to advance Organochlorides accumulate in the
fatty
their economic interests.By controlling prices tissue of animals, and through biomagnifica-
and production, for example, they were able tion in the food chain may reach toxic levels
to increasetheir oil revenuessufficiently to in predators. Because of side-effects such as
allowmajorinvestment in theirsocialand sterilty, birth defects, cancer and damage to
economic infrastructures. OPEC operated very the nervous system, they havebeen banned or
successfully in the 1970s and early1980s, but had their use severely restricted in most parts
sincethen,internaldisputesandsignificant of the world.
changes in the nature of the world’s petroleum
economyhave
reduced
importance.
its Further reading
However, since the thirteen nations (Algeria, Brooks, G.T. (1974) Chlorrnated Insectrcrdes,
Ecuador,
Gabon,Indonesia,
Iran,
Iraq, Cleveland: CRC Press.
Hargrave, B. (1989) Drstributrotr of Chlorrnated
Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Hydrocarbonsand PCBs I n the ArcticOcean,
United Arab Emirates, Venezuela) that make Dartmouth, NS: Department of Fisheries and
up the organization control the bulk of the Oceans: Canada.
world’s petroleum reserves (c. 67 per cent), their Simonich, S.L. andHires, R.A. (199.5)‘Global
distribut~on of persistent
organochloride
com-
potential to influence international economics pounds’, Science 269: 1851-4.
and politics remains high. They are generally
unwilling, for example, to support environ-
mental initiatives such as restrictions on carbon ORGANOPHOSPHORUS
dioxide (CO,) emissions which would have an COMPOUNDS
impact on the use of their petroleum products.
A group of pesticides that work by blocking
Further reading the central nervous systems of the organisms
Danielsen, A.L. (1982) The Evolution of OPEC, exposed to them.Malathionanddiazonon
OROGENESIS 288

arethemostcommonly used organophos- originated in this way in the subduction zone

phates.Theyare highly
effective against
insects, butbreak
down
rapidly in the
environment and do not bioaccumulate. For
these reasons, they are preferred over organo-
chloride pesticides. Although generally
consideredsaferthantheorganochlorides,
they are highly toxic to humans and other
mammals and may be carcinogenic.
Further reading
Baarschers,
W.H. (1996) Eco-factsand
Eco-
fictron, Londonmew York: Routledge.
Toy, A.D.F. and Walsh, E.N. (1987) Phosphorous
Chemistry in Everyday Living (2nd edition),
Washington, DC: American Chemical Society.
OROGENESIS
The process of mountain building.It is an
integral part of the theory of plate tectonics,
that views the earth’s c r u s t as a series of rigid OSMOSIS
but mobileplates. As the platesmove,they
come into contact with each other, and it is The diffusion of asolventsuchaswater
these contacts that cause orogenesis. The through a semi-permeable membrane, from a
European Alps, forexample, were formed
when the African and European plates collided, higher concentration.
folding, deforming and uplifting the materials
thathad beendeposited in thesedimentary
basin between them. In some areas, contact is
followed by one of the plates sliding beneath
theother - aprocesscalled subduction -
creating a trench into which materials eroded
from the plates are deposited. Ultimately these
sediments undergo orogenesis. The Western
Cordillera of North America appear to have
formed where the North American plate
plunges beneath the Pacific plate. The crustal
stresses and strains created by such activities
encourage earthquakes and volcanic activity,
both of which are characteristic of orogenesis.
Three major orogenicperiods have occurred in
the
past 500400 millionyears. There is
geological evidence of even earlier episodes in
Precambrian times, and the continued move-
ment of the earth’s crustal plates suggests that
orogenesis is an ongoingprocess.
Further reading
Duff, P.M.D. (1993)Holmes’ Princrples ofPhysicul
Geology (4th edition), LondodNew York:
Chapman and Hall.
Tarbuck, E.J. and Lutgens, F.K. (1993) The Earth:
An Introduction to Physrcal Geology, New York:
Macmillan.
solution of lowconcentrationtoone of a
The
semi-permeable
membrane permitsthe
movement of the
solvent but prevents the dissolved substances
from passing through. Ultimately, as aresult of
thesolvent flow, theconcentrations of the
solutions on either side of the membrane will
tend to become equal. Osmosis, through the
semi-permeablemembranes which surround
individualcells,helps to control the flow of
water
through living organisms. Reverse

Figure 0 - 1 1 The formation of mountains during orogenesis

Mountain ranges Crumpled sedimentary

and volcanoes
I [and metamorphic rocks

Source: After Goudie, A. (1989) The Nature ofthe Enwrronment (2nd edition), Oxford: Blackwell
289 OVERFISHING

osmosis is usedinthedesalinationand OVERFISHING

purification of water. Saltwater or contamin-
atedfreshwater is pumpedunderpressure The taking of a fish species at a rate which
through asemi-permeablemembrane. The exceedsitsreproductivecapacity. With pro-
water molecules are allowed to pass through longed overfishing, the breeding stockbecomes
themembrane,whereasthesaltandother smaller and smaller, a sustainable yield cannot
impurities are retained in the original solution.be maintained andultimately, when too few fish
The process is quite effective, but costly. remain to make catching them profitable, the
speciesfaces commercialextinction.Atthat
Further reading stage,fishing fleets begin to exploitother
Amjad, Z. (ed.) (1993)Reverse Osmosa: Membrane species, reducing the pressure on the original
Technology,Water
Chemistryand
Industrial fish stock and therefore allowingit to recover.
Applications, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Zumdahl, S.S. (1993) Chemrstry (3rd edition), Recovery is not automatic, however. The over-
Lexington, Mmoronto: D.C. Heath. fished species may find it difficult to regain its
originalpopulationbecause of competition
OUR COMMON FUTURE from another species, or because the habitat it
requiresforrecoveryhasbeenaltered by
The final report of the UN sponsored World climate change or pollution. The species might
Commission o n Environment and Develop- also be reduced to below its minimum viable
ment, published in 1987. population ( " P ) size, buttheminimum
populationthatallowsprofitable fishing is
See also usually reached before that point, and pressure
Brundtland Commission. on the species is reduced. Global fish harvests
peaked in 1989 and have declined since then.
Further reading Overfishing may
not be theonly
factor
Starke, L. (1990) Signs of Hope: Working Towards involved,but it is estimated that the annual
our Common Future, Oxford: Oxford University
Press. global fish harvest would be 20-24 per cent

Figure 0-12 The decline of the Pacific herring stock

300 1 0 biomass (stock size)

E! commercial catch
nn

1960

Source: After Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, British Columbia and Environment Canada
(1993) State o f t b e Environment Report for Brrtisb Columbra,Victoria, BC: Ministry of Environment,
Lands and ParksEnvironment Canada
OVERPOPULATION 290

higher if no overfishing took place.Inter- OXIDATION

national agreements such as the 1982UN Con-
vention on the Lawof the Sea have attemptedto The combination of oxygen (0)with another
controloverfishing,butthey are difficult to element or compound to form an oxide. It
enforce, and it is estimated that more than forty mayalsobedefined as a processinwhich
species have been overfished since then. These hydrogen ( H ) is removed from a compound.
include major commercial species such as the An oxidationreactioninvolving a specific
Newfoundland cod, North Sea herring, Pacific elementproducesanend-productthat is a
and Atlantic salmon and Peruvian anchovy. combination of that elementandoxygen.
With
magnesium, for
example,
the
end
Further reading product is magnesium oxide.
Miller, G.T. (1994)Living in the Envrrorzment (8th
edition), Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
WorldwatchInstitute (1994) State of the World, 2Mg + 0, + 2 M g 0
New York: W.W. Norton.
With organic compounds, complete oxidation
OVERPOPULATION will always give carbondioxide(CO,)and
water(H,O),whatevertheoriginalcom-
A situation in which the population exceeds the pound.
carrying capacity of the environment. If allowed
to continue, it will cause the population to crash, C,H,,O, + 6 0 , -+ 6C0, + 2H,O
asthe resources uponwhich it dependsare glucose
used up. For example, a rapidly growing pop-
ulation often outstrips its food supply, leading or
to famine,starvationand an increase in the CH, + 2 0 , + CO, + 2H,O
death rate, until a new balance is reached. In methane
human terms, the increasing levels of environ-
mental degradation that accompany the high See also
rates of resourceuseassociatedwithover- Combustion, Corrosion, Metabolism, Reduction.
populationareanimportantelement in the
relationshipbetweenthepopulationandthe Further reading
carrying capacity of the environment. Hudicky, M.
(1990) Oxidatton i n Orgmrc
Chemrstry,Washington,DC:AmericanChemical
Society.
See also
Malthus, T.R.
OXIDE
Further reading
Brown, L.R. and Kane, H. (1995) Full House:
Reassessrng
the
Earth’s Populatron Carryrrzg See oxidation.
Capacrty, London: Earthscan.
OXIDES OF NITROGEN (NO,)
OVERTURN
The verticalcirculation of lakewater in A group of gases formed by the combination
spring and autumn, associated with seasonal of oxygen (0)and nitrogen (N), often under
changes in watertemperatureanddensity. highenergyconditions,suchasthebom-
Overturn involves the sinking of oxygen-rich bardment of the upper atmosphereby cosmic
surface water and the upwelling of nutrient- radiation,duringlightningstorms, inhigh
richbottomwater.Together,thesehave an temperature furnaces andin internal combus-
important role in improving the productivity tion engines. They include nitric oxide, (N,O)
of the lake, particularly in the spring. nitrousoxide(NO)andnitrogendioxide
(NO,), commonly referred to as a group by
See also the designation NOx. Nitrogen dioxide may
Epilimnion, Hypolimnion, Thermocline. exist as dinitrogen tetroxide (N,O,), formed
29 1 OZONE

whentwo molecules of nitrogendioxide Figure 0 - 2 3 The characteristics of an

combine. All the gases havean important role oxygen sag curve
in the nitrogen cycle, but are also involvedin
environmental issues such as photochemical
smog and acid rain. The presence of NOx in
the upper atmosphere also contributesto the
depletion of the ozone layer.
tI
Further reading
Lee, S.D. (1980) Nitrogen Oxides and thewEffects
on Health, Ann Arbor: Ann Arbor Science.

-
Seinfeld, J.H. (1986) Atmospherrc Chemistry and
Physics o f A i r Pollution, New York: Wiley. l
c anaerobic zone 4 crecovery zone+

downstream
OXYGEN (0)
decomposed and
convertedinto
carbon
A colourless, odourless gasthat, as a gas and in dioxide (CO,) and water,thedemandfor
combination with other substances, is the most oxygen declines. At the same time, reaeration
abundantelement in theearthlatmosphere processes, associated with such factors as the
system,occurringinrocks,water,airand a turbulence of the stream, return oxygen to
variety of organic materials. Oxygen makes up the water. Ultimately, the addition of oxygen
21 per cent of the volume of the atmosphere, exceeds its use and dissolved oxygen levels in
thatamount beingkept relatively constant the stream rise again. The characteristic dip
throughthe process of photosynthesis. It in thecurve as thedissolvedoxygen level
occurs in several forms, such as atomic oxygen declines andthenrecovers is termedthe
(0)and the triatomic allotrope, ozone (OJ,but oxygen ‘sag’. The depth and extentof the sag
most commonlyas diatomic oxygen(OJ. It is a depend uponsuch
factors
as
the
initial
highly reactivechemical,combiningreadily dissolved oxygen content of the stream, the
with other elements to form oxides. Oxygenis biochemicaloxygendemand (BOD) of the
essential for life on earth, being absorbed by effluent, the rate at which the effluent
is added
animals during respiration and used to release and the stream’s capacity for reaeration.
energy in reactions with otherchemicals.
See also
See also Biodegradation.
Combustion, Oxidation.
Further reading
Further reading Chiras,
D.D. (1994) Environmental Science:
Sawyer, D.T. (1991) Oxygen Chemistry, New Action foraSustainable Future, Redwood City,
York: Oxford University Press. CA: BenjaminlCummings.
Nemerow, N.L. (1974) Scientific Stream Pollutron
OXYGEN SAG CURVE Analysts, Washington, DC: Scripta Book Company.

Agraph of dissolved
oxygen (0) levels
against distance downstream from a known
source of biodegradable effluent.
When
organiceffluent is added to a stream,the
demand for oxygen from bacteria and other
organismswhich willdigest it, andfrom
chemical oxidation processes, is met by the
oxygen dissolved in the water. Thus, immed-
iately downstream from the effluent source,
the dissolved oxygen content of the stream
falls. As theorganicmaterial is gradually
OZONE (0,)
A blue gas with a pungent odour, ozone is an
allotrope of oxygen (0) in which each
molecule contains three atoms rather than the
two of normal atmospheric oxygen. Itis a very
powerful oxidizing agent. Ozone is present in
boththetroposphereandthestratosphere,
with tropospheric ozone accounting for about
10 per cent of the total ozone column. In the
troposphere,where it is a constituent of
OZONE 292

Figure 0-14 Schematic representation of the formation of stratospheric ozone

d ultravioletradiation I

Irygsn] -1
o molecular

OR

i ultravioletradiation I

Source: Kemp, D.D. (1994) Global Environmental Issues: A Climatological Approach, Londonhlew
York: Routledge

photochemical smog, it is normallyconsidered See also

to be pollutant,
a irritating
to eyes and Ozonedepletlont
Ozone layer.
respiratory tissues, and harmful to plants. In
contrast,stratosphericozone is an essential
Fishman, J. and Kalish, R. (1990) GIohal Alert: The
component Of the earth/atmosphere Ozotre Pollutron Crrsrs, New York: Plenum Press.
because of its ability to protect the biosphere Sawyer, D.T. (1991) oxygen Chemrstry, New
from excess ultraviolet radiation. York: Oxford University Press.
293
OZONE DEPLETION
Thevulnerability of stratosphericozone
(0,)to human interference was discovered
almost by accident in the mid-l970s, but in
the two decades that followed, depletionof
theozonelayer became a majorenviron-
mental issue, with a very
high public
profile.
Theamount of ozone in theupper
atmosphere is not fixed; it may fluctuate by
as much as 30per cent from day today, and
by 10 per cent over several years (Hammond
and Maugh 1974). Since the formation of
ozone is the result of a series of dynamic
physical and chemical processes such
fluctuations are not unexpected, although
theyarenormallylimited by checksand
balances built into the system. By the early
1970s, however, there were indications that
thesecontrolswereunabletopreventa
gradual decline in ozone levels. Inadvertent
human interference in the chemistry of the
ozone layer was identified as the cause
the decline, and there was growing concern
over
the
potentially
disastrousconse-
quences of such a development.
Ozone owes its existence to the impact
of ultravioletradiationonoxygen (0,)
molecules in theupperatmosphere,with
themainproductiontaking place in the
tropical stratosphere, where radiationlevels
are high (Rodriguez 1993).
Oxygen
molecules normally consist of two atoms,
andintheloweratmospheretheyretain
that configuration. At the high energy levels
associated with ultraviolet radiation in the
upper atmosphere, however, these molecules
split apart to produce atomic oxygen (see
Figure 0 - 1 4 ) . Before long, these free atoms
combine with theavailable molecular oxygen
to create triatomic oxygen or ozone. That
reaction is reversible. The ozone molecule
maybreakdownagaininto its original
components - molecular oxygen and atomic
oxygen -as a result of further absorptionof
ultravioletradiation, or it maycombine
with atomic oxygen tobe reconverted to the
molecular form(Crutzen 1974).
Ozone
molecules are also broken downin chemical
reactions
various
with
compounds
OZONE DEPLETION
containing nitrogen, (N) hydrogen (H) and
chlorine (Cl),all of which occur naturally in
theatmosphere.Althoughpresent in only
small amounts, they becomeefficient ozone
destroyersasaresult of theirabilityto
initiate catalytic chain reactions. The total
amount of ozone in the stratosphere at any
given time represents a balance between the
rate at which the gasis being produced and
the rate at whichit is being destroyed. Thus,
although the ozone layer is in a continuing
state of flux, the total concentration should
remain relatively constant.
Dataonstratosphericozoneareavail-
able only as far back as the 1950s, but they
indicate
that
ozone levels remained
relatively stable, fluctuating only within the
normal limits, until the mid- to late 1970s.
By that time,ithadbecomeclearthat
human activities had the potential to bring
about sufficientdegradation of theozone
of layer that it might never recover. The threat
was seen to come from four main sources,
associated
with
moderntechnological
developments in
warfare,aviation,
agr-
iculture
and lifestyle, andinvolving
a
variety of complexchemicalcompounds,
both old and new.
Nuclear war, supersonic transports (SSTs),
cruising in the stratosphere and agricultural
techniques increasingly dependentupon
nitrogen-based fertilizers were
seen
as
potential sources of increasing amounts of
oxides of nitrogen (NOx),a group of highly
potentdestroyers of ozone. Computer
simulations suggested that
followinga
major nuclear conflict50-70 per cent of the
ozone layer might be destroyed mainly as a
result of the synthesis of oxides of nitrogen
from atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen at
the high temperaturesproduced by the
thermonuclear explosions (Dotto andSchiff
1978). With the end of the cold war and
agreements to
reducethe
numbers of
nuclear
weapons,the
contribution of
nuclear war to ozone depletionis no longer
givenseriousconsideration. Similarly, the
hue and cry that accompanied the develop-
ment of the original supersonic transports
OZONE DEPLETION 294

n the 1970s hasdied away. Estimates of the to the user. Being inert they were also ideal
production of oxides of nitrogen and other for cleaning delicate electronic components
Dzone-destroying pollutants such as such as computerchips.However,these
hydrogen oxides ( H O x )were based on fleets very properties that made CFCs and halons
3f severalhundred SSTs. Fewer thanten so useful ultimately allowed them to become
SSTs remainedinoperation by themid- the major contributors to ozone depletion.
1990s, and their effects on the ozone layer Their stability allowed them to accumulate
are generallyconsidered to be negligible. in theenvironment relatively unchanged.
The role of the oxides of nitrogen released With time they gradually diffused into the
during agricultural activitiesis also question- upper atmosphere, where they encountered
able. Although increasing amounts of the conditions under which they were no longer
chemicals have been released into
the inert,and
broke
down to
release by-
environment as a result of the use of productswith a greatcapacitytodeplete
nitrogen-based fertilizers, thereis, as yet, n o stratospheric ozone.
proof that they have contributed to ozone The process was first explained in 1974
depletion. by Mario Molina and Sherwood Rowland,
If there is some doubt about the impact atmospheric chemists working
the
at
of SST exhaustemissions on theozone University of California, Irvine. They recog-
layer, orthe
contribution of nitrogen nized thatthe highlevels of ultraviolet
fertilizers to ozone depletion, the effects of radiation in the upper atmosphere caused
certain other chemicals are now well estab- thephotochemicaldegradation of the
lished. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and normallyinert CFCs, andthe release of
related bromofluorocarbons or halons have chlorine (Cl) into the ozonelayer. Catalytic
made a major contribution to ozone deple- chain reactions initiated by the free chlorine
tionandcontinuetopose a significant then began theprocess of depletingthe
threat to the ozone layer, despite successful ozone layer.Ironically, the survival of the
attemptsatcontrollingtheiroutputand CFCs in the lower atmosphere was possible
use. They were developed in the 1930s, and only because the ozonelayer protected them
after
1960
their
productionincreased from the excess ultraviolet radiation which
rapidly. CFCs were used in refrigeration and would have caused their
destruction.
air-conditioning systems, and as propellants Conclusions similar to thoseof Molina and
in aerosolspraycansdispensingawide Rowlandwerereachedindependentlyat
range of products from deodorants to about the same time by other researchers
paints and insect repellants. They were also (Cicerone et al. 1974; Crutzen 1974; Wofsy
used as foaming agents in the productionof et al. 1975), and with the knowledge that
insulating
foams,
polymer
foams
for the use of CFCs had been growing since the
upholstery and foam containers for the fast late1950s,thestage seemedset foran
foodindustry.Halonswerefound to be increasinglyrapidthinning of the earth’s
ideal for use in fire extinguishers and fire ozone shield.
protectionsystemsforaircraft,computer Theresearch also indicatedthatthe
centres and industrial control rooms where stability of theCFCsandhalons,which
conventionalfireextinguishingmaterials allowed them to remain in the atmosphere
such as water or foam would cause damage forperiods of 40to 150 years, would
to delicate instruments. exacerbatetheiroverall effect onozone
Thepopularity of CFCsandhalons depletion. It was estimated that even after a
stemmed fromtheir
stability
andlow complete ban on the production of CFCs,
toxicitywhichmeant,forexample,that the effects on the ozone layer might
theycould be used as propellants in the continue to be felt for a further 20 to 30
inhalers required by those suffering respir- years and, under certain circumstances, for
atory
problemswithout
changing the as long as 200 years after productionceased
efficacy of the medication or causing harm (Crutzen 1974; Wofsy et al. 1975).
295 OZONE DEPLETION

The net effect of all of this on long-term (MolinaandRowland1994).Whenthe

ozone depletion proved difficult to predict.
Molina and Rowland's original estimate of
a 7-13 per centreduction in steady-state
ozone depletion was increased to as much
as 20 per cent by some studies but reduced
to as little as 5-7 per cent by others (Molina
andRowland 1994).Although all the
researchersacknowledgedthattheresults
were a t best preliminary because of inade-
quate knowledge of the photochemistry of
thestratosphere,theconceptwaswidely
acceptedand led to muchspeculationon
the effects of the increasing levels of ultra-
violetradiationthatwouldfollowozone
depletion of that magnitude.
One of the characteristics of the 1970s
debate on ozone depletion was the way in
which aerosol spray cans took much of the
blame for the thinning of the ozone layer.
AlthoughCFCswerebeingemployed as
refrigerants and used in the production of
variousfoams,theproblemwasusually
presented as one in which the convenience
of the aerosol spray can was being bought
at the expenseof the global environment. In
1975 there was some justification for this,
since at that time two-thirds of CFCs were
used as propellants in aerosolspraycans
campaign against that product grew rapidly
themulti-milliondollaraerosolindustry
reacted strongly. Through advertising and
participation in US NationalAcademy of
Sciences (NAS) hearings,theyemphasized
the
speculativenature of the Molina-
Rowland hypothesis, and the lack of hard
scientificfacts to support it. The level of
concernwashigh, however, and the anti-
aerosol
forces
met
with
considerable
success. By 1978 a ban on the use of CFCs
in hair and deodorant sprays was in place in
the US and Canada followed with similar
legislation in 1980. This proved to be the
peak of the CFC controversy andby the late
1970s ozone depletion had already ceased
to makeheadlines.Academicstudiesin
stratospheric chemistry continued, but the
level of publicconcern fell in theearly
1980s,untilquiteunexpectedly, in 1985,
scientists working at the Halley Bay base of
the British Antarctic Survey announced that
theyhaddiscovered a 'hole' in the ozone
layer (Farman et al. 1985). All the fears that
had beenraisedduringtheaerosolspray
can debate suddenly returned.
Seasonal fluctuations in the ozone layer
aboveAntarcticaarepart of thenormal

Figure 0-15 Changes in total ozone: British Antarctic Survey Halley Station: 26 August
1996 to 16 January 1997

Dobson
Units
400
-l
300
--"""""""- "-" """
""
--- -
"""
""
_""-"----""""""~

1957-1 972: mean

"""

A
"""

h -
"
"_

200

100
1 September
October
1
, -. - 1

1 November
1

1 December
I

1 January

Source: British Antarctic Survey Web Page

OZONE DEPLETION
variability of the atmosphere in that area.
Thinninginthesouthernspringwould
become evident as early as late August and
continueuntilmid-Octoberwhenozone
levels would average between 250 and 300
Dobson units (DU). The ozone would begin
to thicken again in November to reach an
Figure 0-16 The breakdown of a chlorofluorocarbon molecule and its effect on ozone
1 ultraviolet radiation I
U chlorofluorocarbon
molecule
U chlorine
296
average of 350 to 360 DU by midsummer
(December). In the 1980s,however, the hole
began to develop earlier, grow more
extensive and persist for longer. At the same
time,totalozonevaluesweredeclining,
with reductions of as much as 40 to 65 per
cent from 1960s levels not uncommon. By
U chlorine
monoxide
297 OZONE DEPLETION

he mid-1990s daily values within the hole providesthemostspectacularexample of

were often below 130 DU (see Figure0-15) ozonedepletion,thinninghasalso been
md it had grown to cover as much as per10 identified
elsewhere. Ozone
depletion
:ent of the Southern Hemisphere for at least associatedwiththeeruption of Mount
me month every spring. At its most Pinatubo was observed in Canada in 1993
Zxtensive its edges reachedas
far
as whenvaluesaveraged 14 per centbelow
4ustralia, New Zealand and the southern normal between January and March (Kerr
:ip of South America. et al. 1993), and decreases of between 10
Whentheholewasfirstdiscovered, and20 per centwererecordedoverthe
dame fell almost immediately on CFCs and Arctic in early 1992 (Concar 1992). Similar
neasurements of thesechemicals in the situations occurred over Japan, the United
jtratosphereattheSouth Pole tendedto States, Russia and parts of Europe.
;upportthat.However, even withacon- Growing concernovertheconsequences
:inuous increase in CFCs of 5 per cent per of ozone depletion led totheMontreal
year there appeared to be
insufficient Protocol, a landmark international environ-
Ihlorine released through normal gas phase mental agreement on the protection of the
reactions to cause such an intense thinning ozone layer, which was signed in 1987.
3f the ozone layer. Further investigation of Together with subsequentamendments
the problemindicatedthattheprocess agreed upon in Helsinki (1989),London
involved heterogeneous chemical reactions (1990) and Copenhagen (1992), it provided a
associated withtheformation of polar timetable for a reduction in the production
stratosphericclouds.Althoughthepolar and use of ozone-destroying chemicals, and
stratosphere is very dry it becomes saturated their replacement by ozone-friendly products.
a t the very low temperatures (for example, Global atmosphericconcentrations of
195 K) reached during the winter months, indicatorchemicalssuchas CFC-l1and
andcloudsform.Theseconsist of ice CFC-12 continue to increase, but since 1989
particles, on the surfaceof which nitric and their growthrates havedecreasedsignifi-
hydrochloricacidparticlesenterintoa cantly, presumably as aresult of the Montreal
complex series of reactionswhichulti-
mately lead to the release of chlorine. By
way of achlorine - chlorinemonoxide Table 0-3 Phase-out dates for some
(C10) - cycle, it thenattackstheozone common anthropogenically produced
(Shine 1988). The evaporationof the polar ozone destroying chemicals
stratospheric clouds in the spring, as temp-
eratures rise, brings an end to the reactions
CHEMICAL PHASE-OUT
andallowstheozonelayer to recover.
COMPOUND DATE
Similarheterogeneouschemicalreactions
take place on the
surface
1996 of sulphate CFC-11
particles
released into
the
stratosphere
1996 CFC-12
during major volcanic eruptions (Brasseur
andGranier1992).The
eruptions 1996 of CFC-113
MountPinatuboandMountHudson in
1991,forexample,werefollowed 1996 by a CFC-l15
rapiddestruction of theozonelayer 1994 a1211t Halon
levels between 9 and 13 km (Deshler et al.
1992). In thefollowing year, record 1994low1301 Halon
ozone levels were reported over the South Methyl
chloroform
1996
Pole and over
southern
Chile
and
Argentina, while global ozone levels were 4 Carbon
tetrachloride
1996
per cent below normal (Kiernan 1993).
Althoughthe
Antarcticozone
hole Source: Kemp ( 1 994)
OTENTIAL
OZONE DEPLETION 298

Protocol and its amendments (Environment Depletron, SOE Bulletin No. 94-6, Ottawa:
Canada1994).However,thestability of Environment Canada.
Farman, J.C., Gardiner, B.G. and Shanklin, J.D.
CFCs and halons ensures that ozone deple- ( 1 985) ‘Large losses o f total ozone in Antarctica
tion will continue even afterproduction revealseasonalCIOJNOxinteraction’, Nature
ceases, and it is likely that stratospheric ozone 315: 207-10.
depletion has not yet reached its maximum. Hammond, A.L. and Maugh, T.H. (1974)
‘Stratospheric pollution:
Multiple
threats to
earth’s ozone’, Scrence 186: 335-8.
References and further reading Kemp, D.D. (1994) Global Enowonmental
Brasseur, G. andGramer,C. (1992) ‘Mount Issues: A Climatological Approach (2nd edition),
Pinatubo
aerosols,
chlorofluorocarbons
and LondonMew York: Routledge.
ozone depletion’, Scrence 257: 1239-42. Kerr, J.B., Wardle, D.I. andTarasick, D.W.
Cicerone,R.J.,Stolarski, R.S. andWalters, S. (1993) ‘Record low ozone levels over Canada in
(1974) ‘Stratospheric ozone
destruction by early 1993’, Geophysical ResearchLetters 20:
man-made chlorofluoromethanes’, Science 185: 1979-82.
1165-7. Kiernan, V. (1993) ‘Atmosphericozonehlts a
Concar,D. (1992) ‘Theresistablerise of skln new low’, N e w Screntrst 138 (1871):8 .
cancer’, N e w Scientrst 134 (1821):23-8. Molina,
M.J.
and
Rowland, F.S. (1974)
Crutzen, P.J. (1974) ‘Estimates of possible ‘Stratospherlc sink
for
chlorofluoromethanes:
variations in total ozone due to natural causes chlorineatom-catalyseddestructlon of ozone’,
and human activlties’, Ambio 3: 201-10. Nature 249: 810-12.
Deshler, T., Adrians, A., Gobbi, G.P., Hofmann, Molina, M.J. and Rowland, F.S. (1994) ‘Ozone
D.J., DiDonfrancesco, G. andJohnson, B.J. depletion: 20 yearsafterthealarm’, Chemical
(1992) ‘Volcanicaerosolandozonedepletion and Engrneerrng News 72 (33):8-13.
withintheAntarctlcpolarvortexduringthe Rodriguez,J.M. ( 1 993) ‘Probingatmospheric
australspring of 1991’, GeophysicalResearch ozone’, Screrzce 261: 1128-9.
Letters 19: 18 19-22. Shine, K. (1988) ‘Antarctic ozone - an extended
Dotto, L. and Schiff, H. (1978) The Ozone War, meeting report’, Weather 43: 208-10.
Garden City, NY: Doubleday. Wofsy, S.C., McElroy, M.B. and Sze, N.D. (197.5)
Environment Canada (1993)A Primer on Ozone consumption
‘Freon
implications
for
Depletron, Ottawa: Environment Canada. atmospheric ozone’, Scrence 187: 535-7.
Environment Canada (1994) Stratospheric Ozone

Table 0 - 4 The ozone depletion potentialof

selected chemicals
OZONE DEPLETION POTENTIAL
(ODP) CHEMICAL
COMPOUND
ODP
CFC-l1 1.o
A measure of the capacity of a specific chemical
1
to destroy ozone (OJ. CFC-11, with an ODP
CFC-l2 .o
of 1.0 is the standard against which all other CFC-113 0.8
chemicals are measured. The abilityof Halon CFC-115 0.6
1301 (ODP 10) todestroy ozone, for example, 3.0 Halon 1211
is ten times greater
10.0 than that of 1301 CFC-11. Halon
chloroform Methyl 0.1
See also
ChlorofluorocarbonsI Halons. tetrachloride
Carbon 1.1
0.3-0.9 bromide Methyl
Further reading HCFC-22 0.05
MacKenzle, 1). (1992) ‘Agreement reduces damage
to ozone layer’, N e w Screrrtist 136 (18.50): 10. HCFC-123 0.02
Tickell, 0. (1992) ‘Fire-fighters find gas that’s easy HFC-134a 0.0
on ozone’, N e w Screntrst 134 ( 1 8 18):lY

Sources: MacKenzie (1992);Tickell (1992)

299 OZONE PROTECTION ACT

OZONE LAYER terrestrial

organisms.
Concernover
such
developments led to the signing of the
A diffuse layer of ozone (0,)at heights of 20- Montreal Protocol which banned the use of
50 km in the stratosphere which protects the ozone-destroying chemicals.
earth’ssurfacefromthe effects of excess
ultraviolet radiation. At any given time, the See also
total amount of ozone is small - if brought to Ozone depletion.
normal atmospheric pressure at sealevel, for
example, it would form a band no more than Further reading
3 mmthick.However,throughadynamic, Shea, C.P. (1999) Protecting Life on Earth:Steps to
Save the
Ozone
Layer, Washington, DC:
reversible
process
which
in the
gas is Worldwatch Instltute.
continually broken down and reformed, this
relatively minor amount of ozone retains the
ability toabsorbultravioletradiationand OZONE PROTECTION ACT
prevent it from reaching the earth’s surface.
The
growth in thevolume of ozone- Legislation passed by the Australian govern-
destroyingchemicals,suchaschlorofluoro- ment in 1989 aimedateliminatingchloro-
carbons (CFCs), hasdisruptedtheprocess, fluorocarbon and halon use by 1994. It is an
allowinggreater
amounts of ultraviolet example of thetype of legislationrequired
radiation to passthrough to thesurface, a t thenational level tomakeinternational
raising fears of the increased occurrence of agreements,such as the Montreal Protocol,
skin cancer,eye damage andgenetic mutation in work.
PALAEOCLIMATOLOGY
(The study of) climate in the period prior to
the development of the instrumental record.
It includes the climatesof the geological past,
but most palaeoclimate research has involved
theinvestigation of theclimates
Quaternary period from the ice ages to the
beginning of the instrumental record in the
nineteenthcentury.
The
investigation
palaeoclimates is based on the use of proxy
dataobtainedfromelementscontaining
climatic component. These include ice cores,
oceansediments,terrestrialdeposits
glacial
sediments,
loess,
lacustrine
sedi-
ments),biologicalelements ( e . g . treerings,
pollen,plantandinsectfossils),historical
records (e.g. privatejournalsanddiaries,
company andgovernment papers).
Such
sources vary in quantity and quality, but the
choicegenerallyimproveswithtime.For
example,the
glacial
fluctuationswhich
provide evidence of climatic conditions during
the last glaciation are identified mainly from
ice coresandthestratigraphy of glacial
sediments. Such sources are also available to
provide evidence of postglacial changes, but
forthelaterHolocene,additionalphysical
sources are available including tree rings and
pollensequences.
Proxy data based on
human elements such as archaeological and
agricultural records were subsequently added
to the list (seeFigure C-13). The resulting
increase in the range of sources allows easier
comparison and cross-checking of evidence,
andtheoverallreliability of thepalaeo-
climate record is better for later time periods.
See also
Dendrochronology, Dendroclimatology, Palynology.
Further reading
Bradley, R.S. (1985) Quaternary Palaeoclimatology,
London: Chapman and Hall.
Crowley, T.J. andNorth, G.R. (1991) Palaeo-
climatology, New York: Oxford University Press.
PALAEOECOLOGY
of the
(Thestudy of) relationshipsbetween living
organisms and their environment in the past.
of It normally involves themorerecent(late-
andpostglacial)pastand uses plantand
a animal fossil remains to establishformer
biogeographical environments. By examining
(e.g. thedistribution of fossils such as pollen
grains and insect remains in time and place, it
may be possible to establishthehistory of
environmentalchangein a particulararea,
which in turn may provide proxy data for the
study of climate change.
See also
Palaeoclimatology, Palynology.
Further reading
Berglund, B.E. (ed.) (1986)Handbook ofHolocene
PalaeohydrologyandPalaeoecology, Chichester:
Wiley.
Lowe, J.T. and Walker, M.J.C. (1996)
ReconstrrrctmgQuaternaryEnvrronments (2nd
edition), London: Longman.
PALAEOGEOGRAPHY
The geography of a particulartimeand/or
place in the past.It will include consideration
of landforms,climateandotherenviron-
mental factors, and mayor may not include a
human element.Descriptions of thenature
anddistribution of glaciallandforms,for
example,areessentiallypalaeogeographical
in nature as are the travelogues produced by
30 1
explorers in the past, particularly when the
European influence began to spread to other
parts of the world. In geological literature the
term is used to refer to thegeographical
distribution of the continents in the past.
See also
Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology.
Further reading
McGowran, B. (1990) ‘Fiftymillionyearsago’,
Screntific Amerrcatz 78 (1): 30-9.
Sissons,J.B. (1967) The Evolutron of Scotland’s
Scenery, Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.
Stamp, L.D.(1962) Britain’s Structure and Scenery,
Edinburgh: Collins.
Thwaites,R.G. (ed.) (1905) Origrnd Journals o f
the Lewrs and Clark Expeditron, 1804-1806, New
York: Dodd, Mead & Co.
PALAEONTOLOGY
A branch of geology which involves the study
of the remains of plants and animalspreserved
in rocks in the form of fossils. By examining
thenature,formanddistribution of fossil
types, it is possible to infer the environmental
conditions under which they originally lived,
andtheways in whichdifferentorganisms
haveevolvedovertime.Althoughpalaeon-
tology is popularly seen asconcernedwith
fossils present in solid rock, fossils preserved
in soft deposits such as peator clay are more
useful for the study of recent environmental
change. The studyof fossil pollen and insects,
for example, has made a major contribution
to theunderstanding of changingenviron-
mental conditions during the Pleistocene and
Holocene.
See also
Darwin,
C.R.,
Evolutlon,
Palaeoclimatology,
Palaeoecology, Palynology.
Further reading
Coope, G.R. (1986) ‘Coleoptera analysis’, InB.E.
PALYNOLOGY
PALYNOLOGY
Berglund (ed.) Handbook of HolocenePalaeo-
ecology and Palaeohydrology, Chichester: Wiley.
Paul,
C.R.C. (1980) The NaturalHistoryof
Fossils, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
PALMER DROUGHT SEVERITY
INDEX (PDSI)
A drought index developed in the 1960s by
W.C. Palmer in the United States and widely
used there to evaluate soil moisture conditions.
It differs from many earlier indexes in that it
does not attempt to tie drought to arbitrary
amounts of precipitation or soil moisture
levels. Instead, Palmer’s Index takes
an
applied
approachbased on thewater
requirements of the normallevel of economic
activitiesinaregion.Droughtonlyexists
when these water requirements cannot be met
and the activities are adversly affected. Index
valuesrangefrom +4.0 (verymuchwetter
than usual) to -4.0 (extreme drought), derived
from a formula which includes consideration
of antecedent precipitation, potential evapo-
transpiration,moisturestorageintwosoil
layers and soil moisture recharge. The resulting
budget is revised monthly to provide a n
ongoingevaluation of theseverity of the
drought.
See also
Soil moisture deficit (SMD),Soil molsture storage,
Thornthwaite, C.W., Water balance.
Further reading
Briffa,K.R.,Jones, P.D. and Hulme, M. (1994)
‘Summermoisture
variability
across
Europe,
1892-1991: an analysis
basedon
the
Palmer
Drought Severity Index’, Internatlonu1 Journal of
Climatology 14: 474-506.
Palmer,
W.C. (1965) MeteorologrcalDrought,
Research Paper 45, Washington, DC: US Weather
Bureau.
Mather, J.R. (1974) Climatology:Fundamentals
and Applicatrons, New York: McGraw-Hill.
PALYNOLOGY 302

Figure P - l A sample pollen diagram from south-east Scotland

Source: After Sissons, J.B. (1967)The Evolutron ofscotland’s Scenery, Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd

era. Mostcurrentpalynologicalstudies, distinctive shape, size, surface morphology

however, are concerned with the analysis of anddistribution of pores of individual
more recent deposits, particularly those of pollen grains and spores allows them to be
the Quaternary. The abundance of pollen used to identify the plants that produced
produced by flowering plants, trees, shrubs them, sometimes to the level of particular
and
grasses,
particularly
those
which species.
Microscopic inspection of the
depend upon the wind for distribution, plusgrains allows the development of a pollen
thedurability of thegrains,ensuresthat spectrum that indicates the proportion of
sufficent pollen survives for analysis. The thevariousplantgeneraat
specific
a
grainsaremostoftenpreservedinlakes, stratigraphic horizon and reflects the plant
peatbogs and soil. Samplesremoved by assemblagethatexistedatthetimethe
hand boring from these sources are treated pollen or spores were originally produced.
chemically to separate the pollen from the Subsequent sampling of adjacent horizons
matrix,allowingindividualgrainsto be extends the recordof the plant communities
identifiedandcounted.Chemicalproces- that occupied the site. Pollen grains were
sing of the samples is possible because of first identified in peat in the late nineteenth
thedurability of theexoskeleton of the century, and Swedish scientists had begun
pollen grains, that under normal conditions the first systematicuse of pollen analysis by
protectstheliving cell chemicalsanda 1916. Themaindevelopment,however,
cellulose-based internal skeleton. began in the1 9 5 0 and ~ ~ since then, palynol-
Following the burialof the pollen grains, ogy has been used extensively and success-
the living cell and the internal skeleton nor- fully to reconstructpalaeoenvironments
mally decay, but the exoskeleton, or exine, during the Quaternary. In Northern Europe,
survives. It is composed of sporopollenin, forexample,thepolewardmigration of
an inert, durable, organic compound thatis vegetationandassociatedenvironmental
able to withstand, for example, the highly changesasthe W u r f l e i s c h e l glaciers
acidicenvironment of apeat bog. The retreated
wasestablishedusing
pollen
303 PARASITE

analysis. Changing climatic conditions were See also

then inferred from the results and a time Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, Proxy data.
frame was created using I4C dating.
Reconstructionscoveringsimilartime Further reading
Bernabo,J.C.andWebb, T (1977)‘Changing
periodshave been producedforNorth patterns in the Holocenepollen
record of
America and partsof Asia. Pollen analysis is Northeastern
North
America:
mapped
a
one of the most common and perhaps most summary’, Quaternary Research VIII: 70-1.
successful techniques usedin the study of Faegri, K. andIversen,J.(1950) Text-book of
Modern Pollen Analysis, Copenhagen:
environmental change. In addition, palyn- Munksgard.(4thedition revisedby K. Faegrl,
ology has an important role in archaeology P.E. Kalan and K. Kryswinski (1990) Chichester:
- for example, establishing the plants grown Wiley.)
by a former agricultural community - and Moore, P.D., Webb,J.A.andCollinson,M.E.
althoughtheamount of pollensurviving (199 1) PollenAnalysrs, Oxford: Blackwell
Scientific.
frompre-Quaternarytimes is limited,the Traverse, A. (1988) Palaeopalynology, Boston:
presence of fossil pollen in sedimentary rocks Allen & Unwin.
may help with the correlation of strata or Tzedakis, P.C., Bennett, K.D. andMagri, D.
the identification of strata likely to contain (1994) ‘Climate and the pollen record’, Nature
370: 513.
coal or oil.

Environment Canada.
Houghton, J.T. (ed.) (1984) The Global Climate,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
See Peroxyacetylnitrate. Schneider, S.H. (1987) ‘Climatic
modelling’,
Sclerztific American 256:72-89.
PARAFFIN
PARASITE
See kerosene.
An organismthat lives in or onanother
PARAMETERIZATION organism and uses that relationship to obtain
foodenergy.Parasitesareusuallysmaller
than their hosts, but can range in size, from
The method by which regional scaleprocesses
micro-organisms such as viruses and bacteria
are
included
global
in climate
models.
to intestinaltapewormsseveralmetreslong
Parameterization involves theestablishment
found in manylargemammals,including
of statisticalrelationshipsbetweensmall-
humans. Many parasites are host specific, but
scale or regionalprocesses and variables
some may infest an intermediate hostat some
which can be measured at the grid scale of the
stage in their life cycle. Some tapeworms, for
model. Since the latter can be calculated by
example,undergoinitial
development in
themodel,thevalues of thesmall-scale
snails or mice, only reaching maturity when
processes
can
then be estimated. For
consumed by larger grazing
animals or
example,cloudiness,which is very much a
predators. In theory, it is not in the parasite’s
local factor, can be represented using temp-
bestinterest to kill the host, but some do.
erature and humidity values calculated at the
Others may make the host sufficiently weak
modelgridpoints.Radiationandevapor-
that it succumbs to someform of disease.
ationcan also be estimated in a similar
Parasites are integral parts of all ecosystems,
fashion.
but modern society spends considerable time
See also
and money ensuring that parasites are kept
General clrculation models. undercontrol.Thiscan be done by main-
taining a clean water supply, for example, by
Further reading the strict enforcement of food inspection or
Hengevcld, H.G. (1991) Understanditzg Atmos- by the use of pesticides. In ThirdWorld
pheric- Change, SOE Report 91-2, Ottawa: nations, however, overcrowding,generally
PARTICLE COAGULATION 304

insanitary living conditions and the absence PARTICULATE MATTER/

of an efficienthealthcareinfrastructure PARTICULATES
permits the easy spreadof parasites, causing
sickness, blindness and death, and generally A collectivenameforfinesolid or liquid
reducing the abilityof the society to reach its particles added
the
to
atmosphere by
full potential. processes at the earth'ssurface.Particulate
matter includes dust, smoke, soot, pollen and
See also soil particles. Globally,85-90 per cent of it is
Commensalism, Symbiosis. of naturalorigin,withhumanactivities
accountingfortheother 10-15 percent.
Further reading Locally, the proportion of anthropogenically
Crawley, M.J. (ed.) (1992) Natural Enemies: The
PopulationBiology of Predators,Parasitesand produced particulate matter can be higher -
Diseases, Oxford: Blackwell Scientific. for example, in urbantindustrial areas - and
from timeto time events such as fires (Kuwait
PARTICLE COAGULATION oil fires) or industrial explosions (Chernobyl)
also increase the human contribution. Once
An atmospheric process in which individual atmosphere,
thein particulates
are
particles floating in the atmosphere combine redistributed by way of the wind and pressure
together to form larger particles. Individual patterns, remaining in suspension for periods
sootparticles,forexample,are -0.lpm in ranging from several hours to several years
diameter,
but
readily
link
together
in dependinguponparticlesizeandaltitude
branching chains or loose aggregates which attained.Particulatesexert an influence on
may reach ten times that size. These larger climate by disrupting the flow of radiation
particles
may be too heavy to
remain withinthe
earthlatmosphere system. By
suspended and, under the effect of gravity, increasing atmospheric turbidity, they cause
fall back to the surface, helping to cleanse the the attenuation of solarradiation,thenet
atmosphere in the process. effectbeinglocal or evenglobalcooling.
Cooling following such events as the eruption
See also of Mount Pinatubo appears to support this,
Particulate matter, Particulates. butthere is alsosomeevidencethatthe

Figure P-2: Emissions of particulate matter by selected nations

600 T

0 1985
m 1989

France United W Austria Norway

Kingdom

Source: Based on data in World Resources Institute (1992) World Resources 1992-93, A Guide to the
Global Envzronment, New York: Oxford University Press
 305 PEAT/PEATLANDS

presence of particulate matter in the atmos- PCBs

phere might produce a slight warming.
See polychlorinated biphenyls.
See also
Aerosols,Arctichaze,Dust veil index,Fall-out,
Nuclear wmter, Smog, Sulphate particles. PEAT/PEATLANDS

Further reading Peat is a soft,fibrous,organicsubstance,

Fennelly, P.F. (1981) ‘The origin and influence of brown or black in colour and consisting of
airborne
particulates’,
in B.J. Skinner(ed.)
Climates, Past and
Present, LOS Altos,CA: partiallydecomposedplantmaterial,found
Kauffmann. in waterlogged or poorly drained areas.
Groisman, P.Y. (1992) ‘Possibleregionalclimate Waterlogging allows only anaerobic decom-
consequences of the Pinatubo
eruption:
an position, which is a relatively slow process,
empirical approach’, Geophyszcal Research Letters and as a resulttheorganicmaterialcan
19: 1603-6.
accumulate to depths of as much as 10 m.
Because the process of decomposition is so
PASTORAL AGRICULTURE slow, parts of plantsremainrecognizable
even after thousands of years. Peat deposits
A form of agriculture, based on the herding havethereforebecomeprimelocationsfor
of grazing animals suchas cattle, sheep, goats investigating palaeoenvironments. The exam-
and camels,common insemi-aridtropical ination of such plant fossils as leaves, stems,
andtemperatenaturalgrasslands.Itoften seeds and pollen, for example, can provide a
involves
nomadism, necessary to allow record of changing environmental conditions
grazed
vegetation to regenerate or to at a particular site. Peat will develop in any
accommodateseasonalchangesinweather locationwherethedrainage is poorand
conditions.Permanentpastoralism is made continues to be poor for some time. It is part
possible by the cultivation of forage, such as of the sedimentary successionin the evolution
hay, usingfertilizers andirrigatingwhere of lakes, for
example,growingon
the
necessary. waterlogged sediments present near the end
of the infill process. Ideal conditions for peat
See also
Arable
agriculture,
Desertification,
Sahel, Soil growth are also provided by estuarine mud-
erosion. flats and in flat-bottomed valleys with
incompetent streams. Many of the peatlands
PATHOGEN now in existence owe their formation to the
disruption of drainage during the last glacial.
living
organism
A which causes a The hollows in hummocky glacial
land-
transmissible o r communicable disease. scapes, for example, often contain peat, and
Commonpathogens are bacteria,viruses, the flat floors of glaciated valleys provide the
protozoa and parasitic worms, spread in air, waterloggedconditionsrequiredforpeat
water, food, body fluids andinsects. They are growth.Climatologically,highamounts of
responsible
for
diseases
such as cholera, precipitation
coupled
with
low
evapo-
typhoid fever, malariaanddysentry,which transpirationratesandpoorrunoff also
cause the deaths of millions of people every encourage peat growth, often in the form of a
year, particularly in less developed countries, blanket bog, that covers large areas of both
wherepoornutrition,overcrowding,poor upland and lowland. Such conditions existin
sanitation
unsafe
and
drinking-water higher latitudes in the northern hemisphere,
supplies encourage and increase the spreadof and, as a result,thousands of hectares of
pathogens. peatlands are located in a zonestretching
fromRussia,throughNorthernEurope to
Further reading Canadaand Alaska.
Peatlands
may be
Mottet, N.K. (ed.) (1985)Envlrotznlentul pa tho lo^, subdivided according to their nutrient status
New York: Oxford Unlversity Press. into fens (eutrophic) and bogs (oligotrophic).
PEDOLOGY 306
Theformerare
generallymore rich
in Peatlauds mzd Peat Mosses, A n n Arbor: University
nutrients and usually occur where the inflow of Michigan Press.
of waterbringswith it mineralsfromthe
Godwin, H. (1981)The Archrves o f t h e Peat Bogs,
Cambridge: Cambridge Universlty Press.
surrounding area.If the local rocksare rich in Moore, P.D. and Bellamy, D.J. (1974) Peatlarrds,
bases, the p H of such fens may reach as much London: Elek.
as 7 or 8. Fens are characterized by grasses Pearce, F. (1994) ‘Peat hogs hold hulk of Britain’s
andsedgesand in
places
may support carbon’, New Scierztzst 144: 6 .
moisture-tolerant trees such as willow, alder
and even birch. Peat bogs have low nutrient PEDOLOGY
levels
in part becausetheyreceivewater
draining from
base-poor rocks
suchas The studyof the morphology and distribution
granite or deposits such as sand and gravel of soilsincluding
consideration of their
that are low in available minerals. Peatlands internal properties and the processes involved
whichare
maintained by an excess of in their development.
precipitation, that provides n o minerals, are
also nutrient poor. Bogs are characterized by See also
an abundance of Sphagnum mosses in Soil classification, Soil structure, Soil texture.
combination withheather (Calluna) and
Further reading
heath (Erica) species, which can survive the
Foth, H.D. (1990) F~ordarnerztalsof Soil Screrzce
relativelyhighacidity of theenvironment. (8th edition),New York: Wiley.
Forcenturies,muchefforthasgoneinto
clearing and draining fens and lowland bogs PERCOLATION
toprovideadditionallandforagriculture.
Peatwaslongthetraditionalfuelinareas
Vertical movement of water downwards
such as Ireland and Scotland, where coal was
through soil or rock in the unsaturated zone
not readilyavailable. In morerecenttimes,
immediately beneath the surface.
thelarge-scaleburning of peattoproduce
electricity has been developed in Finland and
Ireland,andexplored in North America.
PERIGLACIAL
Given the
lowenergycontent of peat,
however, it is only feasible where the peat is Periglacial environments occur in cold regions
easily accessible and cheap to extract. Dried which experience near glacial conditions and
peatalsohas a variety of applications in wherefrost
action is thepredominant
horticulture. Once seen as unproductive and geomorphological
process. Periglacial
uninteresting, peatlands are now recognized conditionsexistadjacent to icesheetsand
as bemg significant in the hydrology of many glaciers,butalsoextendintoareas inhigh
areasthroughtheirabilitytoretainwater, latitudes and at high altitudes where average
andhavingarole in thegreenhouse effect temperatures are low, winters are long and
through their capacity to store carbon (C).In theground is permanentlyfrozen(perma-
addition, the release of methane (CH,), one frost). It is estimated that 20-25 per cent o f
of the products of anaerobic decomposition, theearth’ssurfaceexperiencesperiglacial
frompeatbogsmaycontributetoglobal conditions, mostly in the polar and subpolar
warming.
Increasingly
environmentalists regions of the northern hemisphereand in the
consider themas
representing
distinct
a mountainous areas of Europe, Asia and
environment, often
unaltered by human North America. With much less landmass in
activity and therefore worth preserving. high latitudes, the southern hemisphere has
only
small
areas
exhibiting
periglacial
See also
conditions, in Antarctica,TicrradelFuego
Palynology, Wetlands. and the southern Andes mountains. The land
surface inperiglacialregionsmayinclude
Further reading snowand ice, bare
rock
and
tundra
<:rum, H.A. and I’lanlsek, S. (1988) A Focrrs on vegetation. In someperiglacialareasthe
307 PERIODIC TABLE

summertemperaturesmay be sufficiently the periglacial zone movedsouth ahead of the

high to permittreegrowth.Morphological advancing ice. With global warming, existing
features in periglacial zones are associated with periglacial
features
in
northernlatitudes
frost
action
and
mass
movement. The might also becomeinactive. Human use of
freezing and expansionof water in cracks and areas in the periglacial zone is currently quite
jointsaids
the
destruction of rock,for limited, but it is clear from such activities as
example,while on a largerscalethermal oil and other mineral development that the
contraction cracks, ice wedges and ice-cored periglacialenvironment is easily disturbed
conical hills or pingoes are all characteristic and possessesits own peculiarengineering,
of periglacialareas.Massmovement in the construction,
maintenance and
pollution
form of frostcreepandsolifluction also control problems.
contributes to periglacial landscapes, partic-
ularly
those
formed in unconsolidated Further reading
sediments.Wherepartialthawing of the French,H.M.and Slaymaker, 0. (eds) (1993)
Canada's
Emlronments,
Cold Montreal:
permafrosthastakenplace, a hummocky McCill-Queen's University Press.
landscape with water-filled enclosed hollows Washburn, A.L. (1979) Geocryology: A Survey of
- thermokarst - is formed. Elsewhere, patterned Pertglacial
Processes
and Ewironnzents, New
ground in the form of polygons created by York: Wiley.
interlocking ice wedges, stone stripesor stone Williams, P.J. and Smlth, M.W. (1989) The Frozen
Earth:Fultdarnentals of Geocryology, London/
circles is common. Many of these features are New York: Cambrldge University Press.
present in relict or fossil form in areas that
arenowno longerexperiencingperiglacial
conditions. They are found, for example, in PERIODIC TABLE
middlelatitudesacrosscentralandeastern
North America, northern and north-western A classificationof the elements intabular form,
Europe and eastern Asia. They usually repre- originallydeveloped in 1869 by theRussian
sent features which were active at the time of chemist D.I. Mendeleev, and based on his
the ice ages, when in the northern hemisphere periodic law which stated that theproperties of

Figure P-3 The periodic table of the elements

PERMAFROST 308
elements were related to their atomic weights. tend to be metals, whereas those in the higher
Although a number of elementswere as yet numberedgroupsaremainlynon-metallic.
unidentified when Mendeleevproduced his LocatedbetweenGroups I1 and 111 arethe
table, its organization was sufficiently transitionelements,thatsharesome of the
systematicthat he wasable to predictthe characteristics of the adjacent groups but differ
existence and properties of missing elements in terms of such elements
as
electron
and left spaces in his table to accommodate distributionandvalence. All thetransition
them. Modern versions of the periodic table elements are metallic and include mostof the
arrange the elements in order of their atomic commercially important metals- for example,
numbers. Each
horizontal row or period iron, copper, silver, gold. Although all of the
includeselementswithdistinctlydifferent information contained in the periodic table is
properties in sequence. When the sequence is available inavariety of othersources,its
repeated a series of horizontalgroups is mainadvantage is theprovision of easy
produced in which the elements have similar correlation of the wide range of physical and
properties.
Descriptivenameshave been chemical properties of the elements.
applied to some of the groups to reflect their
characteristics. Group I1 is the alkaline earth Further reading
Faughn, J.S., Turk, J. and Turk, A. (1991) Physrcal
metals, for example, Group VI1 contains the Science, Philadelphia, PA: Saunders.
halogens and GroupVI11 the noble gases. The Zumdahl, S.S. (1993) Chemrstry (3rdedition),
constituents of thelowernumberedgroups Lexington, MAIToronto: D.C. Heath.

PERMAFROST
4 contraction of ‘permanently frozen Siberia and China, being thickest in polar
;round’. Popularly, permafrost is character- regions and generally thinning towards the
zed by the presenceof perennial ice beneath south, but with local differences because of
:he surface of the earth.Technically, it refers variations in climateandterrain.Thick-
to a condition in whichsubsurfacetemp- nesses range from a few metres to as much
eratures remain below 0°C for at least two as 500 m in parts of northern Canada with
:onsecutive wintersandduringtheinter- reported thicknesses as great as 1200 m in
vening summer. Water may or may not be north-eastern
far Siberia.
Along
the
present. If it is present it may not be frozen- southern margins of the permafrost zone,
for example, because of the mineralization the presence of frozen ground is discontin-
of groundwater. Even under the most severe uous, and itsdistributionfluctuates as a
conditions, the ground may not always be result of even short-term climate variations.
frozencompletely to thesurface. In most Discontinuous permafrost is found almost
areasexperiencingpermafrostconditions as far south as the 50th parallel in Canada
there is asurface,activelayerwhich is and China. If the predicted global warming
subject to seasonal freezing and thawing. It occurs, the limits of permafrost will retreat
varies between c.15 cm and several metres polewards and
the
area
underlain by
in thickness, depending upon such factors permanentlyfrozenground will be much
as seasonaltemperaturevariation,snow restricted. The presence of permafrost
cover, vegetation coverand the natureof the createsproblemsforthehuman use of
soilandrock in thearea.Beneaththat, northern
areas,
mainly
through
the
where temperatures remain below freezing, disruption of energy flow in the active layer.
is the true permafrost, its upper boundary Understableconditions,thethickness of
beingreferred to as thepermafrosttable. theactivelayerandthelocation of the
Permafrost underlies as much as 25 per cent permafrost table is in balance with the flow
of theearth’s
surface
mainly high
in of heat into and out of the surface layer.
latitudes in the northern hemisphere. It is That balance is disturbed during
such
extensivein
Alaska,
northern
Canada, activities as the erection of buildings, road
309 PERMAFROST

Figure P-4 Vertical cross-sections across (a) Asia and (b) NorthAmerica, showing the
thickness and changing nature of the permafrost layer

Active layer
Adve layer 0.5-2.5 m layer Sea of

(unfrozen ground)

Norman Wells Hay River

Resolute N.W.T N.W.T. N.W.T,
Lat. 74‘ h.65’ ht61
Ache hyer Actiw layerActivelayer

Condnuws permafrost sominuous permafrost

zone zone

Source: After Goudie, A. (1989) The Nature ofthe Etzutronmelzt (2nd edition), Oxford: Blackwell

m d pipeline construction and

mineral excavation for the line and construction of
extraction. The removal or destruction of pumphouses and other facilities all disrupt
tundra vegetation, for example, allows an the energy balance of the permafrost. Once
increasedinflow of heat into the ground, the oil begins to flow, the loss of heat from
because
the
insulating
value of the thepipeline itself has
the
potential to
vegetation is lost. This in turn increases the degrade the permafrost. Stresses and strains
thickness of the active layer, makes placed on the structure by uneven melting
additionalwateravailable in thesurface might then lead to the rupture of the pipe
layer, and since that wateris prevented from with a consequentescape of oil intothe
percolatingdownwards because of the environment.Modern engineering
and
presence of thepermafrost, it collectsin construction techniques have allowed some
poolsorrunsacrossthesurfacecausing of theseproblems to be mitigated.For
erosion. Similarly, any heated
structure example, where possible, construction work
built onpermafrosr will also disruptthe on the tundra is carried out in the winter
heat flow. The resulting localized melting of months when the active layer is frozen and
thepermafrost will causethebuildingto snow protects the vegetation from damage;
sink or tilt on its foundations, with resulting structuresareplacedongravelpadsand
structuraldamage. Theconstruction of insulated to prevent the escape of heat into
pipelinesinthe north represents a serious thepermafrost;pipelinesmay be raised
threat to permafrost. During the construc- abovethesurface,ratherthanburied, in
tionphase,thebuilding of accessroads, areas where the permafrost is particularly
P E R M A N E N T DROUGHT
unstable, to allow the heat from the system
to be dissipated into the atmosphere. Despite
such
developments, permafrostenviron-
ments remain delicately balanced and any
advance of human activities into such areas
must be approachedwithcautionanda
clearunderstanding of theenvironmental
limitations involved.
See also
Alaska Pipeline, Periglacial, Solifluctlon.
PERMANENT DROUGHT
One of theforms of droughtidentified b y
C.W. Thornthwaite. Agriculture is not
normally possible, since there is insufficient
moistureforanythingbutthexerophytic
plants
whichhaveadapted
to
the
arid
environment. The
provision of moisture
throughirrigationmayallowcropsto
produced, but costs are high.
See also
Conttngentdrought,Invisibledrought,Seasonal
drought.
Further reading
Thornthwaite, C.W. (1947) ‘Climate and moisture
conservation’, Annals of the Assocratron o f
A n w i c a n Geographers 37: 87-100.
PERMEABILITY
A measure of the ability of rock or soil to
allowthetranmission of waterorother
fluids.Permeabilitydependsnotonlyupon
the amountof pore space in the rock, butalso
upon the way in which the pore spaces are
interconnected. For example, a rock structure forirritationtothe
mayhavelargeporespacesbut if theyare system, and is themajorsource
sealed off from each other the permeabilityof
the rock will be low. Sand andgravel deposits
withlargeinterconnectedporespacesare
commonly much more permeable than clays
that have small pores poorly connected with
each other. For most purposes, in fact, clays
may be considered t o be impermeable. The
permeability of an aquifer will determine the
rate at which it can be pumped and also the
rate at which it will be replenished.
310
Further reading
Andersland, O.B. andLadanyt, B. (1994) A n
Introductionto Frozen GroundEngtneering,
New York: Chapman and Hall.
Anisimov,
O.A. and
Nelson, EE. (1996)
‘Permafrost distribution m the Northern Hemi-
sphere
underscenarios of climatic
change’,
Global and Planetary Change 14: 59-72.
Harris, S.A. (1986) The Permafrost Envrronnrent,
Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield.
Williams, P.J. andSmith, M.W. (1989) The
FrozenEarth:Fundanrentals ofGeocryology,
LondonlNew York: Cambrtdge University Press.
See also
Porosity, Semi-permeable membrane.
Further reading
Todd, D.K. (1980) Groundwater Hydrology (2nd
editmn), New YorklChichcster: Wiley.
Walton, W.C. (1991) Prrncrples of Groundwater
Engineerrng, Chelsea, MI: Lewis Publishers.
be PEROXYACETYL NITRATE (PAN)
One of a group of highly potentoxidants,
which is presentinphotochemicalsmog.
Although details of its synthesis are not well
established,therawmaterialsrequiredfor
the
production of PAN include
hydro-
carbons, oxides of nitrogen (NO and NO,)
and ozone (OJ, all of which are common in
an
atmospherepolluted by automobile
emissions. Solar radiation provides the energy
to initiatehundreds of chemicalreactions
involving these pollutants and one of the by-
products is PAN. It is a highlyreactive,
relatively unstablecompound,that is con-
stantly being broken down and reformed in
the dynamic chemical environment of urban
photochemical smog. Like other components
of photochemical smog, PAN is responsible
eyes andrespiratory
of smog
damage to plants. Since the formationof PAN
depends upon the presence of hydrocarbons
in theatmosphere,anyattempt to reduce
PAN levels must initially involve a reduction
in hydrocarbon emissions.
Further reading
Aubrecht, G.J. (1989) Energy, Columbus,OH:
Merrill.
McCormick, J. (1991) Urban Air
Pollution,
31 1
PERVIOUS
Allowing the transmissionof fluids. Commonly
consideredsynonymouswithpermeable, but
with transmission being possible because of
the presence of cracks, jointsand fissures rather
than because of the original textureof the rock.
See also
Permeability
PESTICIDES
Chemical products designed to kill o r restrict
the developmentof pests -organisms deemed
undesirable by society. Theyincludefungi-
cides,herbicides and insecticides.Pesticides
range from relatively simple elements such as
Table P - l Some advantages and disadvantages of pesticide use
~ ~ ~~~
ADVANTAGES
Used in the appropriate manner, pesticides
save lives, by killing pathogens
Pesticides kill pests that eat or destroy food,
and therefore improve the quality and
quantity of food available
By saving lives, by protecting food supplies,
pesticides provide a benefit that outweighs
their economic, environmental and
health cost
Health risks of pesticide use are becoming
better understood, and can be offset by
responsible handling or the development
of safer products
Pesticides are cheaper to produce and are
faster and more effective than many
alternatives
PESTICIDES
sulphur (S) to complex chemical compounds
such as chlorinated hydrocarbons and may be
broad-spectrum or narrow-spectrum agents.
Abroad-spectrumherbicide,forexample,
could be used to clear all the vegetation along
a pipelineright of way, whereas a narrow-
spectrumherbicidemight be used toclear
broad-leavedweedsfrom a lawnwithout
damagingthegrass. Pesticides alsovary in
their persistence in the environment, and in
general,thelongertheyremainchemically
stable
the
greater is their
potential
for
environmental damage. The use of pesticides
has undoubtedly benefited society, by prevent-
ing
disease,
improving foodsupplyand
contributing to economic development. At the
sametime,ignorance of theenvironmental
impact of pesticides, the indiscriminate useof
certainproductsandinadequatecontrol of
theproductionand use of pesticideshas
createdproblemsforwildlifeandnatural
vegetation and has threatened human health.
DISADVANTAGES
Non-threatening organisms mayalso be
destroyed, particularly if broad-spectrum
pesticides are used
If used excessively, or at the wrongtime
in the growing cycle, pesticide residues
may remain on the foodto cause health
problems for consumers
Immediate or short-term effects of
pesticide use have to be considered
against the impact of the longer term
effects of exposure of people, wildlife and
the environment in general to low levels
of toxic agents
Unsafe manufacturing techniques and
improper handling of the product can
cause illness and death for those working
with pesticides
The development of genetic immunity
among organisms reduces the
effectiveness of many pesticides and the
necessity to develop stronger chemicals or
to use larger amounts reduces their
economic benefit considerably
PETROCHEMICALS 312
See also which act as feedstocks for the manufacture
Bhopal,
DDT,Integrated
pest
management, of products such as plastics, pesticides, fert-
Organochlorides, Organophosphates. ilizers,
antiseptics
and
pharmaceuticals.
Petrochemicals play a very important role in
Further reading modern society, but they also create pollution
Baarschers, W. (1996) Eco-facts and Eco-fiction, problems. Plastics are a major component of
LondodNew York: Routledge.
Briggs, S.A. (1992)Basic Gurdeto Pesticides, Their solidwaste,forexample,fertilizerscontri-
CharacterrstiwandHazards, Washington,DC: bute to eutrophication of lakes and rivers and
Hemisphere Publishing. pesticide residues in food and water present
Miller, G.T. (1994) Living rn theEnvrronment: health problems.
Princrples,ConnecttonsandSolutions, Belmont,
CA: Wadswonh.
Ware, G.W. (1991) Fundamentals of Pesticrdes: A Further reading
Self Instnrchon Guide (3rd edition), Fresno, CA: Burdick, D.L. and Leffler,W.L. (1990) Petro-
Thomson Publishing. chemrcals in Non-Technical
Language (2nd
edition), Tulsa, OK: PennWell PublishingCo.
PETROCHEMICALS
PETROL
Chemicals derivedfrom oil and natural gas-
for example, ethylene, propylene, toluene - See gasoline.

PETROLEUM

A mixture of naturallyoccurringhydro- transportation industry (gasoline, kerosene)

carbons,thatmayexistinasolid (e.g. and is widely used for space heating (fuel
bitumen), liquid (e.g. crude oil) or gaseous
state (e.g. natural gas).
commonly
It Figure P-5 Examples of petroleum
contains variable amounts of other chemi- reservoirs
cals such as sulphur ( S ) and nitrogen (N). cap rock natural
gas oil water
Petroleum is the end-product of the partial
decay of living organisms whichonce
inhabited the world’s oceans. As they died
theysanktothebottom of theoceans,
wheretheanaerobicconditionsallowed
themto be preserved. A combination of
heat, sedimentation and pressure converted
the organic material into its different forms.
In the caseof oil and natural gas, migration
through the pores and cracks in the rocks (a) anticlinal trap
took place allowing them to accumulate in
underground pools or reservoirsor, in some
natural cap rock natural 011 water
cases, leak through to the surface. Crude oil seepage , gas A I I
is the most complexof the various forms of
petroleum,withcrudecontaininghigher
proportions of lighter fluids
such
as
gasoline (petrol) and kerosene being most
valuable. The different components of the
oil areseparatedfromeachother by the
process of fractional distillation, allowing
theindividualconstituents of thecrude
mixture to be collected.Petroleumisthe
predominantsource of energy in
the (b) fault trap
313 PETROLEUM

Figure P-6 The collection of off-shore oil by shuttle tanker

shuttle tanker

topside facilities4 n l
artlcuiated
loading platform

I- subsea
d, natural
gas),
with
the
heavier States. Exploration in offshore and frontier
:omponents(heavyoils,waxes,bitumen) locations since the 1960s has brought oil
lsed forlubrication,waterproofingand and gas fields in the NorthSea, Alaska and
,oad construction. Siberia
into
production,
and
further
Thevariousforms of petroleumalso developmentintheseareasaswellas
xovidethe
feedstockfor
the
petro- locationsintheCanadianArcticandon
:hemicalsindustry. Thefirstcommercial sections of the continentalshelf as far apart
xoduction of petroleum from conventional as the east coast of Canada, the Falkland
;ources took place in North America in the Islands, Western Europeand
southern
nid-nineteenthcentury,andtheNorth China is already taking place. Such areas
knerican controlof the industry continued offerpromisingadditionstothe world’s
until the 1960s, despite a shift in the main petroleumreserves,althoughthePersian
;ource of oil from the United States to the Gulf states continue to hold some 55 per
Middle East. Multinational oil companies cent of the total. Once such conventional
based intheUnitedStatesdominatedall sources of petroleum have been used up, oil
aspects of the industry
outside
the will still be available in large quantities in
communist bloc. With the growthof OPEC such non-conventional sources as oil shale
in the 1960s, power shifted to the major and tar sands.
producingnationsandtherole of the The dependenceof society on petroleum
multinationals
declined
dramatically, has had a major impact on the geography ol
particularly ontheproductionside.The the world as a whole, but more particular17
development of non-OPEC sources of incertainareas,suchasmajor cities, fol
petroleum has since reduced the influence example, where the urban geography is veq
of OPEC in the world oil market, although much a reflection of the dominant role 0:
the Middle Eastern OPEC members remain the automobile. The geography of nation!
the world’s majorsuppliers of oil. The such as Scotland and Norway has changec
United States remains a major oil producer, significantly as a result of the discovery o
althoughproductionhasstabilizedand oil
beneath the
North Sea while thl
most fields are past their peak. Prior to the development of a modern infrastructure i~
breakup of the Union, the USSR was the Saudi Arabia and other nations aroundthl
world’s major petroleum producer outside Persian Gulf would not have been possibL
the Middle East. Since then, output from withouttherichesprovided by the oi!
the former USSR has stabilized, although beneath the desert. The complex political
the
potentialfor
increasedproduction geography of the region is also in large pari
appears more promising than in the United a result of the presence of oil. Along wit)
pH (POTENTIAL HYDROGEN) 314

the economicbenefitsassociatedwiththe cheaper than the alternatives, that situation

use of petroleum as a source of energy, there is likely to continue.
arealso some distinctdrawbacks. Spills
duringtheproductionandtransportation See also
of oil have been responsible for some of the Alaska
Pipeline, Oil pollution, Oil tanker
world’s major environmental disasters, and accidents, OPEC, OPEC oil embargo
such events are likely to increase in number
Further reading
as exploration and production expand into
Chapman, J.D. (1989) Geography and Ettergy:
the
more fragile environments of the Contnwcial Energy Systenls attd Nat~ottul
frontier zones and the ocean margins. Even Policy, HarIowlNew York: LongmanNiley.
when petroleum
productsare used as Chapman, K . (1976) North Sea Oil a d Gas: A
intended the effects are not benign. Emis- Geographical Perspectrve, Newton Abbot: Davld
sions from automobiles, residential heating eCC Charles.
Livingston, J. (1981) Arctic Oil, Toronto: CBC
and industrial processes addto atmospheric Publications.
pollution,andcontribute to suchglobal Mushrush, G.W.and
Speight,
J.G.
(1995)
environmental issues as atmospheric turb- Petroleunr
Products:
Uttstahility and
idity, acidrainandtheenhancement of Zttconzpatibility, Washington, DC: Taylor &
Francis.
greenhouse gas levels. Attempts at dealing Shwandran, B. (1977) Middle East Oil Issues
withtheseproblemshavemetwithonly attd Problenzs, Cambridge, MA:
Schenkman
limitedsuccess, and as longasthepro- I’ublishmg.
ductionand use of petroleum remains

pH (POTENTIAL HYDROGEN) 14 based on hydrogen ion

concentration.
Acid substanceshave p H valuesbetween 0
Therepresentation of theacidityorakalinityand 7; alkalinesubstancesrangebetween 7
of a substance on a logarithmic scale of 0 to and 14 and a p H of 7 is considered neutral.

Figure P-7 The pH scale: showing the pHlevel of common substances

sea water

distilled water

normal rain
acid rain

acid rainfall
Pitlochry, Scotland
acid rainfall
West Virginia, USA
315 SMOG PHOTOCHEMICAL

PHENOLOGY PHOSPHORUS (P)

The study of periodic biological phenomena An element that occurs in several allotropic
and their relationshipto weather and climate. forms,
white
and
red
being
the
most
It includes consideration of such elements as common.Theformer is highly flammable
thegrowth of plantsandthemigratory and poisonous whereas the latter has a low
activities of animals. The stages of develop- flammability
and is non-poisonous.
ment of certain plants species - for example, Phosphorus does
not
occur free
in the
flowering, fruiting, ripening- are called pheno- environment, but usually in combination in
phases. Phenology has been used extensively theform of a phosphate - forexample,
in the study of climate change to provide proxy calciumphosphate - Ca,(P0,)2. It is an
data from which past climate conditions can important
macronutrient
which as a
be established. In
Europe,the
study of component of nucleicacidsandadenosine
phenologicaldatafromthecultivation of triphosphate is essential to life. Phosphorus is
grapes has proveda fruitful source of inform- recycled through the environment, mainly by
ation on climate change in France and living organisms that absorb the phosphorus
Germany. as they growandreturn it to the
soil
followingdeathanddecomposition.New
See also phosphorus is added to the system through
Palaeoclimatology. the
weathering of phosphates in rocks.
Phosphorus compounds areused as fertilizers
Further reading and detergents.
LC RoyLadurie, E. (1980) ‘Grape harvests from
the fifteenth through the nlnetecnth centuries’,The See also
Journal of Interdiscrplinary History 10 (4): 839- Allotropy.
so.
Further reading
PHOSPHATES Jahnkc, R.A. (1992) ‘The phosphorus cycle’, in S.S.
Butcher, R.J. Carlson, G.H. Orlans and G.V. Wolfe
(eds) GlobalBiogeochemical
Cycles, London:
Salts of phosphoric acid (H,PO,), phosphates Academic Press.
are a source of the phosphorus (P) essential Toy, A.D.F. andWalsh,E.N.(1987) Phosphorus
forplantgrowth.Theymay be supplied Chemistry rtz Everyday Living, Washlngton, DC:
American Chemlcal Society.
naturally through the weathering of rocks or
may be added to the soil through the use of
phosphate rock
prepared as a fertilizer.
PHOTOCHEMICAL PROCESSES
Phosphate rock is treated with sulphuric acid Chemical processes induced by the presence
(HLS04)to produce superphosphates, a form of sunlight
whichprovides
the
energy
in whichthephosphorus is morereadily
requiredforthereactionsinvolved.Photo-
availabletoplants.Theleaching of excess
chemicalprocesseshave an integralrolein
phosphatesfromthe soil or its additionto
photosynthesis. The productionof melanin in
waterways in sewagecanlead to eutro-
the human bodyis initiated by photochemical
phication. The development of phosphate-free processes. They also cause the photochemical
detergentshasdonemuch to alleviate that
smogcommon in manyurbanareasand
problem.
contribute to globalenvironmental issues
such as ozone depletion and acid rain.
See also
Nutrlcnt.
PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG
Further reading
Toy, A.D.F. andWalsh, E.N. (1987) Phosphorus Smogwhich is produced by theaction of
Chemrstry 111 Everyday Livrrlg (2nd
edition), photochemicalprocesses on primarycom-
Washington, DC: Amerlcan Chemical Society. bustion products, particularly those such as
PHOTON 316

Figure P-8 The formation of photochemical National

Academy of Sciences (1988) Alr
smog by the action of sunlight on pollutants Pollutron, theAufornobile and Human Health,
Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
SUNLfGHT
PHOTON

A discrete bundle of electromagnetic energy

emitted by a radiation or light source. A light
/ J PAN
J
Aldehyde
beam consists of a stream of photons, each of
whichcarries a specific amount of energy
related to the frequency of radiation. Thus,
the photons of higher frequency radiation a t
thevioletend of theelectromagnetic spec-
trum carry more energy than photons of red
light at the other endof the spectrum.

hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen (NOx), PHOTOSYNTHESIS

produced by the internal combustion engine.
Los Angeles in California is commonly con- A biochemical process in which green plants
sidered the classic example of a community absorbsolarradiationandconvert it into
whichsufferstheeffects of photochemical chemicalenergy.
It is made possible by
smog,buttheproblem is also common in chlorophyll,thegreenpigmentthat gives
other large cities- from Sao Pauloin Brazil to plantstheircolour,whichinitiallyconverts
BangkokinThailand - whichhaveheavy the radiant energy into chemical energy in the
automobiletrafficandabundantsunshine. form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). That
Undersuchcircumstances,complexphoto- energyissubsequently usedin a series of
chemical reactions produce a variety of toxic reactions which bring about the reduction of
chemicals such as ozone (OJ, aldehydes and carbondioxide(CO,) to simplesugars.
peroxyacetyl nitrate
(PAN),creating
an Although complex indetail,photosynthesis
atmospherethat
causes eye and lung can be summarized as a process in which
irritation as well as plant damage. Since the carbondioxideandwaterareconsumed,
processes involved depend upon sunlight, the carbohydrates are produced and stored, and
greatest development of photochemical smog oxygen (0)is released.
is usuallyin
the
earlyafternoon,
when
sunlightintensity is highest.Clear,stable light energy
atmospheric conditions - such as under high
atmospheric pressure - and physical barriers 6 C 0 , + 6H,O * C,H,,O, + 60,
to atmospheric mixing - such as strategically chlorophyll glucose
located high ground - also contribute to the
intensification of photochemical smog. In greenplants,thehydrogen (H) forthe
Despitesomeforty
years of legislation formation of the carbohydrate is supplied by
designed to curb emissions of hydrocarbons water,butcertainphotosyntheticbacteria
and oxides of nitrogen (NOx),photochemical obtain
their
hydrogenfrom
hydrogen
pollutionremainsendemicinmany of the sulphide(H,S)and release sulphur (S) as a
world's
largest
cities,
with
severe
smog by-product. Animals depend upon the ability
episodesleading to increasesinrespiratory of plants to convertradiantenergyinto
disease and death rates. chemical energy inthe formof carbohydrates,
since they lack the ability to synthesize their
Further reading own food in that way. Thus photosynthesis is
Degobert, P. (1995) Automobiles atld Pollutron, the base on which the earth's food supply is
Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
McCormick, J. (1991) Urban Air Poll~rtion,
built. Photosynthesis also helps to maintain
Nairobi: UNEP. theoxygen/carbondioxidebalance in the
317 P L A N T COMMUNITY

atmosphere,butagriculturalactivitiesand both fresh and salt water bodies where they

deforestationhavereducedtheamount of aremovedaround by wind,wavesand
photosynthesis taking place, allowing levels currents.Populationsvary as a result of
of atmosphericcarbondioxide to rise and changes in nutrient availability and climate.
contribute to global warming. The microscopicplantsarephytoplankton
andtheanimalsarezooplankton.Phyto-
Further reading planktonaretheprimaryproducersinthe
Foyer, C.H. (1984) Photosynthesrs, NewYork: system, grazed on by zooplankton at thefirst
Wiley. stage in theaquaticfoodchain.Thezoo-
planktonareinturnconsumed by other
PHYTOPLANKTON zooplanktonthrough a series of perhaps
three or four trophic levels before larger fish
Microscopicplantsthat live in theupper enter the chain. Since there is a 90 per cent
layers of fresh and salt water environments, loss of energy at each trophiclevel, the higher
moved around by wind, waves and currents. elements in the planktonic food chains - sea
They consist mainlyof unicellular algae, such mammals, humans - receive only a very small
as diatoms. Because of theirlightrequire- amount of theoriginalenergyprovided by
ments, they are found mainly in the upper 5 the
phytoplankton. Direct
harvesting of
to 100 m of the water- the photic zone- into phytoplankton has been suggested as a means
which
light
can
penetrate.
Containing of countering that loss and providing food
chlorophyll,phytoplanktonarecapable of from the sea more efficiently by short-
photosynthesis,and as primaryproducers circuitingthechain.However,thecost of
they provide a base for aquatic food chains. such a systemwould be prohibitive,and
Their nutrient requirements are met by the might have serious ecological consequences.
natural flow of nutrients into the ocean from Farming shellfish,
such as oystersand
the land, or by the upwelling of nutrient-rich mussels, is a potentially workable alternative.
waters from deeper parts of the ocean - for They obtain their food by naturally filtering
example, off thecoast of Peru. A rapid outplanktonand sincetheyoccupythe
increase
in
the
availability of nutrients, second trophic level the total energy loss is
particularly nitrates and phosphates, can lead reduced. Because theyformthebase of all
to massive algal blooms, that can cause the
aquaticfoodchains,anydamage to the
release of toxins into the water and create planktonpopulation will havefar-reaching
serious environmental problems. During their repercussions, extending beyond marineorgan-
seasonal blooms, phytoplankton also release
isms to human communities which depend on
dimethylsulphideintotheatmosphere in
fishfortheirfoodsupply.Destruction of
quantities sufficiently large to contribute to
phytoplankton also has the
potential to
acidprecipitation.Phytoplanktonarealso
impact
on
global
warming through a
involved in the carbon cycle, through their
reduction in the recycling of carbon dioxide
consumption of carbon dioxide (CO,) during
(CO,) that takes place during photosynthesis.
photosynthesis, thus helping to maintain the
atmosphere’s oxygen/carbon dioxide balance.
Further reading
See also Moore, P.D. (1994) ‘Does plankton hold the key to
Plankton, Zooplankton. carbon budgets?’, Scrence Watch 5 ( 6 ) :7-8.
Platt, T. and Li, W.K.W. (eds)(1986) Photo-
syrzthettc Picoplankton, Ottawa:Department of
Further reading Oceans and Fisheries.
Boney, A.D.
(197.5) Phytoplarzkton, London:
Edward Arnold.
PLANT COMMUNITY
PLANKTON
The population of all the plant species living
Free-floating
plants
andanimals,
usually within a particular habitat.
microscopic, that live in the upper layers of
PLASTICS 318
Further reading insulating value and resistance to corrosion,
Bazzaz., E A . (1996) Plants i t 1 Changing plastics are used in a wide range of products
E?zvrrotzntents: Lrtzkrng Physrologrcul, Poprrlation
utrd Commulzity Ecology, Cambridge: Cambridge
from
householdutensils to
construction
University Press. materials and have replaced wood and metal
for many purposes. Along withsuchutility
PLASTICS comes an environmental price. The creation
of toxic wastes during the production process
and the extended survival rates of plastics in
Organic materials,
commonlypetroleum
the environment are serious problems in some
based, which canbe made sufficiently flexible
areas.
that theycan be shaped or moulded under
heat, pressure or both to produce a product
See also
that is stable under normal conditions. Most
Plastics disposal, Plastics recycling.
plastics are polymers,formedthroughthe
combination of moleculesinto long chains. Further reading
They are
usually classified into thermo- Elias, H-G. (1993) An [?ztrodrrctmn to Plmtrcs,
plastics
and
thermosetting plastics. The Weinheim, NY: VCH.
formercan be heatedor melted and re- Wolf, N. and Feldman, E. (1990) Plastrcs:
America’s Packagrng Dilenrtna, Covclo, CA: Island
formed without losing any of their properties.
Press.
Polythene,
polyvinyl
chloride (PVC),
polystyrene and high impactpolystyrene
(HIPS) all belong to thisgroup.Thermo- PLASTICS DISPOSAL
setting plastics which include resins cannot be
reusedbecause of thepermanentchemical The strength and durability of plastics, while
changesthat
take
place
during
their a majoradvantagewhentheyare in use,
formation. Because of suchpropertiesas creates
serious
disposalproblems.
Many
strength,
lightness, flexibility,
durability, plasticswilllastforseveralhundredyears

Figure P-9 Types of plastic and their use

Q THERMOPLASTICS

soft plastics:
bottles, cups,
acrylics adhesives,
casings,
plastlc sheets epoxy resins electrlcal
phenolics components,
packaging, fibreglass
products,
chloride (PVC) lnsulatlon polymers
high impact
polystyrene
(HIPS)
packaging,

butadienestyrene

Insulation.
fence posts,
guttering,
319 PLATE

oncediscarded.Oldfishingnets, beer can community-based recycling programmes and

holders,coffeecups or shoppingbags all the establishment of coding systems to allow
creatcaesthetic
pollution,but
also
pose consumers to recognizedifferenttypes of
threats to wildlife, which may swallow or get plastic.Thisallowsthesorting o f these
caught In them. Plastics nowaccountfor recyclable plastics from other solid waste and
between 7 and 10 per cent of solid waste by helps to makethe process
viable. The
weight and between 20 and 25 per cent by imposition of cash deposits on non-refillable
volume. Until recently, most were disposed of liquid containers also encourages consumers
in landfill sites or incinerated, but because of to return the plastic to a collection centre for
thepressureonlandandconcernoverthe recycling.Plastics are not usually re-formed
release of toxic gases duringincineration, intotheirorlginalproducts.ThePET of
othermethods of disposalarebeingcon- plastic drink bottles may be reused as plastlc
sideredandpractised.Degradableplastics tiles, automotiveparts,carpetbacking or
have beendeveloped.Somecontainnon- containers for non-food products,
while
plasticmaterialsuchascornstarchwhich recycled HDPE may appear in garbage cans,
breaksdownundermicrobialactionand flowerpots or so-called ‘plastic lumber’ used
destroystheintegrity of the plastic. Others forfencing or housesiding.Polystyrene,
arephotodegradable,withmoleculesthat cleaned and pelletized, is mostcommonly
degradeoncontinuedexposuretolight. used forinsulationandpackaging.Where
Despite the attractiveness of the technology, plastics are not separated for recycling, they
little is known about the long-term environ- are shredded and converted into products in
mental impact of the degradation products, whichtheproperties of a specific type of
andmanyenvironmentalistsconsiderthe plastic
are
not
required.
Despite
the
recycling of plastics to be more appropriate. availability of technology to recycle plastics,
it is not generallyviablewithout selective
Further reading collection or some formof automatic sorting.
Environmental Protection Agcncy ( 1 990) Methods Separationfromdomesticgarbage is not
to Marrage and Cortrrol Plastrc Wastes, Washington, economical and as a result only about 20 per
DC: Government Printing Office.
Kupchella, C.E. and Hyland,
M.C. (1993) cent of the easily recyled plastics are recycled.
Erturrotrnterrtal Screrrce: Lrvittg wrthrtr the System The remainder continue to be disposed of in
of Nature, Englcwood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. landfillsites or incinerated.TheEChas
developed waste
management guidelines
PLASTICS RECYCLING whlch should increase recycling to a t least 50
per
cent, and in the United
States
and
As with all recycling, the recycling of plastics Canada,governments,particularlyatstate
is seen as a means o f conserving resources, and provincial levels,
areresponding to
saving money and reducing the flowof waste strong demands from environmental groups
products to theenvironment.Intheory,all to increase the level of plastics recycling.
thermoplastics are recyclable, but because of
contaminants - for example, colouring pig- Further reading
ments - and products containing a combin- Powelson, D.R. and Powelson, M.A. ( 1 992) The
ation of plastics or plastics and other Kecycler’s Marrunl for Btrsirtess, Goverrtmerzts u r d
the Errvrrortmerztal Commrtrrrty, New York: Van
materials, it is not possible to returnall Nostrand Reinhold.
thermoplasticstotheiroriginalstate.The
mostcommonly recycledplastics arePET
(polyethyleneterephthalate) used in soft PLATE TECTONICS
drink
bottles,
HDPE(high
density
poly-
ethylene) usedinlarger containers,partic- The theory that the lithosphere consists of a
ularly
those
for
corrosive
liquids,
and number of rigid platesthatarecapable of
polystyrene used in fast food containers, cups movement over the asthenosphere, the most
and plates.Recycling of theseproducts is easily deformed part o f the
underlying
encouraged
the
consumer
at level
by mantle. As theymove,theycausemajor
PLEISTOCENE 3 20

Figure P-IO The location of the earth’s main crustal plates

Source: After Goudie, A. (1989) The Nature o f t h e Etrvrronment (2nd edition), Oxford:Blackwell

tectonic activity, whichmay be rapidand Evolution (3rd edition), OxfordMewYork: Perga-

potentially catastrophic as with earthquakes mon Press.
and volcaniceruptions,orslowerand less Kearey, P. and Vine, F.G. (1990) Global Tectonics,
Oxford: Blackwell Scientific.
obviousaswithorogenesisandsea-floor Summerfield, M.A. (1991) Global Geomorph-
spreading.Platesmovingawayfromeach ology, LondonINewYork:LongrnanScientific/
other (sea-floor spreading) have created the Wiley.
mid-oceanic ridges beneath the Atlantic and
Pacific oceans. Colliding plates have produced PLEISTOCENE
major
mountainsystems
such
the
as
Himalayas and Alps (orogenesis). Where one The firstepoch of theQuaternaryperiod,
of theplatesslidesbeneaththeother on beginningbetween 1.6 and 2 millionyears
contact, subduction zones are created. These ago at the endof the Pliocene and continuing
areas,whereparts of thelithosphereare until
some 10,000 years ago when the
reabsorbed into the mantle, are characterized Holocene
began.
However,
because of
by frequentseismicactivityandvolcanic differentapproachestowardsdating - for
eruptions.
Subduction
zones
are
often example,stratigraphical,biostratigraphical
marked by deepoceanictrenches,butthey or archaeological - the PliocenePleistocene
arealsositeswhereorogenesiscanoccur. boundary has
not been
firmly
set,
the
Where the plates slide past each other, as is Pleistocene/Holoceneboundary is to some
thecasealongmuch of thewestcoast of extent arbitrary and the chronology of events
North America,earthquakesarecommon. within the epoch remains controversial. The
The movement of the plates is thought to be Pleistocene was dominated by ice. Great ice
associatedwithconvectioncurrents in the sheets covered the continental landmasses in
mantle, but this may not be the only factor the northern hemisphere, extending from the
involved. polesouthbeyondthe50thparalleland
flowing down from the mountain ranges of
Further reading westernNorthAmerica,Scandinaviaand
Condie, K.C. (1989) Plate Tectonicsand Crustal Central Europe on to the adjacent lowlands.
321 PLEISTOCENE

Figure P-l 1 Glacials and interglacials of the Pleistocene

Holocene
Holocene

WEICHSEL WlscoNslN
Mondsee and
Sangamonian
Eemlan
SAALE
)X" (

10 m Holstein Yarmouthian

GL MINDEL ELSTER KANSAN

IIGI 1 Cromer I Aftonian 1""1

NEBRASKAN

GL DOMU ? PRE-NEBRASKAN

In the southern hemisphere, the absence of lake levels in inland drainage basins such as
largelandmassesinhighlatitudeslimited Salt Lake in the United States, Lake Chad in
glaciation to Antarctica and higher altitudes Africa andLakeEyre in Australiavaried
in South America and New Zealand. At least considerably.Winds blowing off the ice
sixmajorPleistoceneglaciationshave been carriedlargeamounts of finedustwhich
identified andthereareindicationsthatas settled out to produce the loess deposits of
many as sixteen or twenty may have taken Northern China. The most widespread land-
place. The interglacials and interstadials that scapechangesoutsidetheglaciatedareas,
separatetheiceagesrepresentperiods of however, were brought about by the eustatic
climaticamelioration. As the ice advanced changesproducedasthe ice advancedand
and retreated across mid-to high latitudes in retreated. Relic marine features such as raised
the
northern
hemisphere, it repeatedly and drowned beaches and valleys or deltas
disrupted the distribution patterns of plants graded to alower sea-level andnowsub-
and animals in these areas and significantly merged provide evidence of these changes. In
alteredthelandscape.Plantsandanimals areasadjacent to the ice sheets in
the
haveresponded to new post-Pleistocene northern hemispheresubject to isostatic
environmentalconditions,butthecirques, change,complexcombinations of raised,
glaciatedvalleys,
ice-moulded landscapes, submergedandtiltedstrandlines reflect the
moraines, fluvioglacial features and old lake interplay of eustatic and isostatic processes.
beds, found in Alaska and Canada, through In addition to the changes that took place in
Greenland andIceland to North-western thephysicallandscapeandthevegetation
Europeand
Siberiaare
evidence of the thatcovered it, significantchanges in the
enduringimprint of thePleistocene on the nature and distribution of animal species -
landscape. Although extensive land glaciation including the human animal -were a feature
is considered to be the main characteristic of of the Pleistocene.In addition to modern
the
Pleistocene,
significant
geographical species, the fauna of the Pleistocene included
changesalsotook
placebeyondthe ice suchlargemammalsastheelephant-like
margins. Tundra vegetation now typical of mammoth,
cave
the
bear
and
the
the Arctic covered muchof Europe and North sabre-toothed tiger, some of which survived
America south of the ice front, and the other into postglacialtimes
before
becoming
vegetation belts were also displaced. Chang- extinct.
There is someindication
that
ing amounts and distributionof precipitation extinctionmighthave been accomplished
caused the desert margins to fluctuate, and finally by hunting pressure
fromhuman
PLUME 322
groups. The evolution of the human species Figure P-12 Types of plume and the
from the upright hominid (Homo erectus) to environmental conditions that produce them
modern Homo sapiens took place during the
Pleistocene, anddevelopingtechnological
skills may well have allowed hunting groups
to finish off thesealreadydeclininggiant
species - perhaps an early indication of the
potential of the human speciesto bring about
environmental change. By the end of the ice
ages, Homo sapiens was sufficientlywell
established to accommodateandeventake
advantage of the steadily
anleliorating
conditions that followed the decay of the ice
sheets, and led into the Holocene.

See also
Eustasy, Glacicr, Isostasy.

Further reading
Deynoux, M. (cd.) (1994) Earth's Glacral Record,
CambridgeMew York: Cambridge Unlverslty
Press.
Flint, R.F. (1971) Glacral arzd Quutcrrtary
Geology, Ncw York: Wilcy.
Jones, R. and Keen, D. (1992) Plerstoce?ze Etzvtrotr-
nzerrts rrt t h e Brrtrsh Isles, London: Chapman and
Hall.
Rice, S.K. and Giles, L. (1994)'Climate In the
Plclstocenc', Nature 371: 11 1.
0 5'c
PLUME ""_ Dry adiabaticlapserate (r)
~ Environmenlatlapserate (ELRj

Emissions of gases andparticulatematter

fromachimneythatarenotimmediately Source: After Oke, T. (1978) Boumfary Layer
dispersed, but retain a distinct identity as they C h a t e s , London: Methucn
move away from the source. Water droplets,
smokeparticlesanddustmaketheplume
Further reading
visible, with a sharp boundary between the Oke, T. (1987) Boundary].oyerClimates (2nd
emlssions and surrounding non-polluted air, edition), London: Methuen.
but in somecasesgaseousemissionsform Pasquill, F. (1974) Atntospherrc Diffrrrsron: The
plumes but remaln invisible. The size, shape Drspersiort of Wirtdl~orrte Mater101 from Imhrstrral
and perslstence of a plume will depend upon mzd OtherSources (2ndedition),NewYork/
Toronto: Halstead Press.
suchfactorsasthetemperatureandcom-
position of thedischarge,itsemissionrate
and the stabilityof the atmosphere at the time
PLUTON
of emission.Thesefactorsalsogovernthe
potential of theplumetocausepollution. See batholith.
Although most
commonly used
in the
atmospheric environment, the plume concept PLUTONIUM (Pu)
can also be applied to the release of effluent
into water bodies. A silvery, dense metal.
Plutonium is an
actinide,producedasaresult of nuclear
See also reactions. For example, "'plutonium, one of
Atmospheric stability/instability. thirteen isotopes of the element, is produced
323 P O L A R FRONT

through the bombardment of Usuranium by Figure P-13 The characteristics of a podzolic

neutrons. Since it is fissile it can be used as soil horizon
fuel in nuclearreactorsortoprovidethe
explosivepowerinnuclearweapons.One abundant
kilogram of plutonium contains the energy precipitation
equivalent to joules,
more
or
than
150,000 times that availablein a barrel of oil,
239Plutonium has a half-life of 24,400 years, organic material
and the high level of radioactivity it emits
during that time makes it one of the most
humus-rich horizon
hazardous elements known. leached horizon

See also
Nuclear fission.

Further reading
Seaberg, G.T. and Loveland, W.D. (1990) The
Elements Beyond Uranrum, New York: Wiley.

PNEUMONOCONIOSIS

Achroniclungdiseasecausedwhenthe
inhalation of dust, usually over a prolonged See also
period, leadsto a significant reduction in lung Soil classificatlon.
function. It is most common among miners
where it is referred to as silicosis, or 'black Further reading
lung', where coal is involved. Hassett, J.J. and Banwart, W.L.(1992) Soils and
thew Environment, Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
PODZOL Paton, T.R., Humphreys, G.S. and Mitchell, P.B.
(1995) Soils: A New Global View,
New Haven, C T :
A soil in which percolatingwater has leached Yale University Press.
iron and aluminum oxides and hydroxides as
well as organicmatter
fromthe
upper PODZOLIZATION
horizons of the soil profile and redeposited
them in illuvial horizons deeper in the profile. The processes by which podzols are formed.
As a result of the removal of nutrients from
the upper layers, podzols have low fertility. POLAR FRONT
Theyarecommonincool,moistregions,
where low temperatures inhibit the bacterial The transition zone separating air masses of
activitynecessary tobreakdownorganic polaroriginandthose of tropicalorsub-
matter to replace the leached nutrients, and tropical origin. Conceived at the time of the
there is sufficient precipitation to maintain First World War by meteorologists in Norway,
therate of leaching.Podzolsarenaturally theconceptremainsanintegralpartof
acidic and sensitive to additional acidity such modem meteorology and weather forecasting.
asthatprovided by acidrain.Theyare Thefront is bestdeveloped in thewinter
located in areas such as the Canadian Shield when the temperature contrast between the
in North America and
Scandinaviaand air masses is greatest. At that season itis also
Russia in Europe.Withlowfertilityand commonlylocatedbetween 40" and 50"
moderate to high acidity, they are capable of latitude, whereas in the summer is it found at
only limited agricultural development and are higher latitudes and is often discontinuous.
probablybest
left
under
their
natural Extratropicalcyclones, or frontaldepres-
vegetation of coniferous, evergreen forest. sions,whichdevelopandmovealongthe
P O L A RS T R A T O S P H E R I C CLOUDS 324

front make a major contribution to weather ’POLLUTER PAYS’ PRINCIPLE

patterns in mid- to high latitudes. Associated
with the surface front is the polar front jet The concept that those who cause pollution
stream located a t the tropopause. or are likely to cause pollution should pay for
its clean-up or prevention. It applies a t the
Further reading level of both the producer and the consumer.
Barry, K.G.and Chorley, R.J. (1992) Atmosphere, A producer causing an oil spill, for example,
Weatherand
Climate, (6th
edition),
London:
Routledge. would be expected to finance the clean-up,or
an industry emitting toxic pollutants would
POLAR STRATOSPHERIC CLOUDS be forced to takemeasures to preventthe
emissions; a consumer might be assesseda tax
Clouds of iceparticles thatforminthe on a product likely to cause pollution when
stratosphere above
the
poles
during
the used ordiscarded - forexample,gasoline,
winter.Heterogeneouschemicalreactions, disposable drinks containers or car tyres. In
involving nitric and hydrochloric acid, on the some cases,
producers or
manufacturers
surface of theseparticlesmaylead to the might berequired to post bonds to ensure
release of chlorine (Cl) which destroys ozone that
money is available to deal
with
(0,)molecules and leads to the thinning of unexpectedenvironmentaldamage.
In
the ozone layer. Such chemical changes made practice, government subsidies or tax incen-
possible by the formation of polar stratos- tives may be used to encourage producers to
phericcloudshave been implicatedinthe reduce pollution, and the consumer normally
development of the Antarctic ozone hole. In endsup paying, either
through
higher
taxation required to offset the tax relief for
theArctic,
the
stratosphere generally
is
warmer than over southern polar regions. As companies or by assuming costs easily passed
o n by the producer through an increasein the
aresult,polarstratosphericcloudsare less
price of the commodity to the consumer.
ready to form and ozone destruction is less
efficient. The evaporation of the clouds as
Further reading
temperatures rise in the spring brings an end
Goldfarb, T.D. (ed.) (1993) Takrng Sides: Clashing
to the reactions, and allows the ozone layer to Views on Controversial Environmental Issues (5th
recover. edition),
Guildford,
CT:
Dushkin Publishing
Group.
Further reading
Hofmann, D.J. and Deshler, T. (1991)‘Stratos-
pheric cloud observations during formation of the POLLUTION
Antarcticozoneholein1989’, Journal of Geo-
physical Research 96: 2897-912.
Shine, K. (1988) ‘Antarctic ozone - an extended See environmental pollution.
meeting report’, Weather 43: 208-10.
POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS
POLAR VORTEX (PCBs)
See circumpolar vortex. A group of highly stable chlorinated hydro-
carbonsused as liquidinsulators in the
electricity
distribution
industry
and
as
plasticizers and synthetic resinsin the plastics
Small
grains
containing
male
the industry. Being stable,theytend to accu-
reproductive cells of seed-producing plants. mulate in the environment, mainly by passage
They are spread by wind, birds and insects. through food chains. As a result,theyare
found in locationsfarremovedfromtheir
POLLEN ANALYSIS industrial sources. Seals, fish and humans in
the Arctic, for example, have traces of PCBs
See palynology. In theirbodies. Tests haveindicatedthat
325 P O L Y V I N Y L CHLORIDE

PCBs are carcinogenic and may impair the POLYSTYRENE

immune system, perhaps in part because of
impurities,such as dioxins, that they often A thermoplastic polymer used as a thermal
contain. Because of this, their production and and electrical insulator. Easily moulded, it isa
use has been banned in most industrial common packaging material. It is frequently
countries since the late 1970s, but consider- foamed to improveitsthermalinsulating
able quantities remain in use in Third World properties.
countries or in storage in developed nations.
Storage has been necessary since they are too See also
toxic to be disposed of in the usual manner - Plastics, Polymer foams.
for
example, in land-fill. Special high-
temperature incinerators have been developed POLYTHENE
as an effective alternative. Even withno
additional production or use, the stability of Polyethylene. A thermoplastic material thatis
PCBs will ensurethattheyremain in the tough,
flexible
and
resistant to most
environment for atleast several decades. chemicals. It is frequently used forliquid
containersandformedintothin
flexible
Further reading sheets suitable for a variety of purposes from
Baarschers, W.H. ( 1 9 96) Eco-facts and shopping
bags to vapour moisture
or
Eco-fictiorz, LondonlNew York: Routledge.
Hutzinger, O., Safe, S. and Zitko, V. (1974) The
barriers.
Chemistry of PCBs, Cleveland: CRC Press.
See also
Plastics.
POLYMER
POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC)
A chemical produced by the combination of
individual moleculesof a compound to produce
Probably the most commonly used plastic. It
largermolecules,oftenintheform of long
hasthesameorigin as polythene - the
chains. Most plastics are polymers and natural
hydrocarbon, ethylene - but
with
the
polymersinclude cellulose, proteins
and
addition of a chlorine (Cl) atom. The result is
nucleic acids.
a more versatile plastic that with the addition
Further reading
of plasticizers and pigments can be used for a
Young, R.J. and Lovell, P.A. (1991) lrttroductton variety of products from clothing and food
toPolymers (2ndedition),London/New York: packaging to coverings for electrical cables.It
Chapman and Hall. also uses less raw material and less energy to
produce than most comparable plastics and
POLYMER FOAMS recycles well. In its powdered form, however,
it can cause pneumoconiosis and if inciner-
Synthetic foamproduced by bubbling ated it releaseshydrochloricacidgasand
chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs)throughliquid dioxins into the atmosphere. The former can
plastic. Foams produced in this way are used easily be removed by scrubbers during con-
in insulationmaterials,upholsterycushion- trolledincineration,butdioxinsaremuch
ing and food containers. The escape of CFCs more difficult to remove. They are persistant
during production, and from the foam as it chemicals which have been implicated in the
ages, has contributed to ozone depletion, and development of cancers,neurologicalprob-
resulted in the banning of some foams or the lems andbirthdefects in thoseexposed to
search for replacements. them.
POPULATION 326

POPULATION - ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

L population is a group of individuals, environment began to be challenged.
lsually of the same species or related species Central to that challenge was the
forexample,birdsorfish),occupying a development of technology which allowed
pecific area. The number of individuals in the more efficient use of energy. It was the
hegroup will dependuponthecarrying ability to concentrateandthenexpend
.apacity of the area. In human terms, the largerandlargeramounts of energy that
otalpopulation is theoreticallygoverned made
earth’s
the humanpopulation
)y the carrying capacityof the whole earth, uniquely able to alter the environment. The
)ut in practice different parts of the earth impact remained local or regional until the
Ire more able to support life than others - so-called
Industrial
Revolution,
when
:ompare the Arctic with the more populous majordevelopments intechnology and a
.egions of North America and Europe to the significantincreaseinpopulationmade a
#outh, for example. For thousands of years, global impact possible. Since then, energy
he earth’s total human population changed consumption has increased six-fold and the
ittle until the demographic transition of the world population is now at least five times
:ighteenth and nineteenth centuries whenit greaterthan it was in 1800. Theexact
ncreased rapidly. In the last decade of the relationship betweenpopulation growth
.wentiethcentury isit approaching 6 and technology remainsa matter of contro-
illion. Whether this is close to the earth’s versy, but there can be no denying that, in
naximumsustainablepopulation is not combination, these
two
elements were
m y to calculate,
but in many areas responsiblefor
the
increasingly
rapid
lumbers are sufficiently high that
the environmental change which began in the
lvailable resources are inadequate to meet mid-eighteenth
century. Because of
:he needs of the population, and
the technology, populations did not have to be
Inhabitants suffer from poverty, malnutrition large tohave a significantimpact on the
and
disease.
these
In areas also the environment. Western industrialized nations,
mvironmentsuffers.Populationpressures for example, place much greater pressure on
;ause soil and water pollution, the destruction resources and have a much greater impact
of vegetation and animal populations and ontheenvironmentthanThird World
soil erosion. Society’s ability to cause such nations which have much larger and faster
disruption is a relativelyrecent phenome- growingpopulations.However,thedevel-
non,stronglyinfluenced by demography opednationswithreduced
populatior
andtechnologicaldevelopment.Primitive pressures to contend with should be able tc
peoples, for example, being few in number, use technology to reverse the environmenta
and operating at low energy levels with only problems they have created.
basictools,did verylittle toaltertheir
environment.Intruth,theywerealmost Further reading
entirelydominated by it. Whenitwas Ehrlich, P.R. and Ehrlich,
A.H. (1990) Thc
Poptrlutrott Esplostotz, New York: Doubleday.
benign, survival was assured. When it was Hardin, G. ( 1993) Llvttzg tuithitz Ltmits: Eco/ogg
malevolent, survival was threatened. E:cottotnrcs uttd Pvpulottorz Tohoos, New York
Populationtotals
changed little
for Oxford Univcrslty Press.
thousands of years, but slowly, and in only Unlted Natlons ( 1 994) I’oprr/atrotl, Etzvrrottntettt
arld Deve/opmertt, New York: Unlted Natlons.
a few areas at first, the dominance of the

POPULATION EXPLOSION POROSITY

See ecological explosion. A measure of the amount o f pore space in a

rock, usually expressed as a percentage.
327 POWER

See also ceases when water is no longer available, but

Permeability. theenvironmentmayretaintheability to
cause additional evapotranspiration through
POSITIVE FEEDBACK such
elements as
temperature,radiation,
humidityandwind.Potentialevapotrans-
See feedback. piration is thetheoreticalvaluethatrepre-
sentsthat ability. The differencebetween
POTASSIUM (K) actual(measurable)andpotential(theoret-
ical) evapotranspiration canbe considered as
A soft, silvery-white metal similar to sodium a measure of moisture deficit, and farmers in
( N a ) in its properties. I t is highly reactive and agricultural
areas
experiencing
moisture
is usually found in the form of salts. deficiency can use this approach to estimate
Potassium is an essentialnutrientforthe the appropriate amount of moisture required
human body, and various potassium salts are to combat drought orto allow crops to grow
used as fertilizers, oxidizing
agents, at their full potential.
disinfectants and antacids.
Further reading
POTENTIAL ENERGY Thornthwaite, C.W. ( 1948) ‘An approach towards
a rational classificatlon of climate,’ Geographtcd
RCUJCIU38: SS-94.
See energy.
POWER
POTENTIAL
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (PE) A measure of work done or energy expended
per unit of time:
The amountof evaporation and transpiration
E
that will take place if sufficient moisture is P= (where P = power; E = energy; t = time)
available tofill the environment’s capacityfor
evapotranspiration. Measurable evaporation The unit of power is the watt.

Figure P - l 4 A sample climatic water budget for a mid-latitude station in North America or
Europe, based on the Thornthwaite model

250

200 -
precipitation
E
150 c.
E potential
.-3 evapotranspiration
g 100
actual
evapotranspiration
50

J F M A M J J A S O N D J

moisture soil moisture

recharge
soil moisture
utilization water surplus
P R E C A M B R I A N SHIELD 328

PRECAMBRIAN SHIELD to be separated out of a solution.

See also
An area of ancient rocks, mainly igneous and
Coagulation.
metamorphicinorigin,formedperhapsas
early as 4.5 billion years ago. Long exposure
to erosion has worn them downto a subdued
PRECIPITATION
rounded landscape. Being composed mainly
of acid-richrock,thePrecambrian Shield Any solid or liquid water particles falling to
areas of the world are susceptibleto acid rain the earth’s surfacefromtheatmosphere. It
damage. They also contain mineral-rich intru- includesrain,
snow,hail
andsleet,
but
sions that are worked to provide the ores of ‘precipitation’ and ‘rain’ are often treated as
copper, nickle and zinc. The Laurentian Shield synonyms. Theamount,distribution
and
in Canada and the Fenno-Scandian Shield in nature of precipitationmakeanimportant
Sweden and Finland are Precambrian in origin. contribution to variations in the physical and
biological processes in the earth/atmosphere
See also system - for example,compare tropical
INCO. rainforestsandtropicaldeserts. In human
terms the availability of precipitation is never
PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES ideal,andconsiderabletime,moneyand
effort is expended in dealing with its uneven
Thegradualmovement of theequinoxes distribution. Too much will lead to the need
aroundtheelliptic,broughtabout by the for drainage systems or even flood control;
gyroscopic effect of a wobble in the earth’s too littlemayrequirethedevelopment of
axis. The net result is to change the seasonof water transfer systems and irrigation.
the year at which the earth is closest to the
sun
(perihelion). At present,perihelion PRECIPITATION SCAVENGING
occurs in January. In about 10,500 years it
will occur in July, since the precession of the One of the atmosphere’s self-cleansing
equinoxes has a periodicity of about 21,000 mechanisms. It is the process by which rain
years.Suchcyclicalvariationshaveimplic- and snow wash particulate matter out of the
ations for climate change, sincethey alter the atmosphere, thus helping to cleanse it. Rain
amountandtiming of thesolarradiation coloured by dust or smoke during the process
reachingtheearth.The precession of the may be described as ‘red rain’ or ‘black rain’.
equinoxes is a central element in the Milan- Precipitation
scavenging is known to
kovitch hypothesis, oneof the models used to accompany forest fires, and black, sooty rain
explain
climate
thefluctuations
that fell following the bombing of Hamburg and
produced the ice ages during the Pleistocene. Dresden during
the Second
World War,
helping to clear the dense smoke clouds from
Further reading theburning cities. Black rainalso fell at
Birchall, G. and McCutcheon, J. (1993) Planet Hiroshima and
Nagasakifollowing
the
Earth: A Physzcal Geography, Toronto: Wiley.
Pickering, K.T. and Owen, L.A. (1994) An nuclear bombing of these cities.
Introductiorz to
Global Environmental Issues,
LondonlNew York: Routledge. Further reading
Peczkic, J. (1988) ‘Initial uncertainties in “Nuclear
Winter”: a proposedtestbasedontheDresden
PRECIPITATION (CHEMICAL) firestorm’, Climatic Change 12: 198-208.
Tullett, M.T. (1984)‘Saharan dust-fall in Northern
The formation of an insoluble substance - a Ireland’, Weather 39: 151-2.
precipitate - as a result of a chemical reaction
inasolution.Precipitationcan beused in PRESSURE
waste
treatment
remove
to hazardous
chemicals from a solution, or in refining to Pressure is force per unit area. Atmospheric
allow an economically important substance pressure is created by theweight of the
329 P R O X Y DATA

atmosphereon
the earth’s
surface,
for See also
example.Acolumn of air, 1 inchsquare, Enzymes.
reaching from the earth’s surfaceto the outer
edge of theatmosphere,hasanaverage further reading
Light, A. (1974) Proteins: Structure and Function,
weight of 14.7 lb. This represents a sea-level Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
pressure of 14.7 Ib in-’. Atmospheric pressure
can also be expressed as inches or mm of PROTON
mercury (Hg), representing the height of the
column of mercury that can be supported by
A stableelementary or subatomicparticle
theatmosphere(29.9 in or 760 mmon
that carries an electrical charge equal to but
average), as millibars (1013.25 mb
on
opposite in sign to that of anelectron.
average) or morecommonly in SI units as
Protonssharethe nuclei of atomswith
kilopascals (101.3 kpa on average).
neutrons.Thenumber of protonsinthe
nucleus of an atom is anindication of its
PRIMARY AEROSOLS atomic number.

Large particles with diameters between 1 and PROTOPLASM

100 pm. Theyinclude soil, dust and a variety
of industrial emissions formed by the break- The living matter of which cells are made. It
up of material at the earth’s surface. includesthenucleus of the cell plusthe
non-nucleic material or cyctoplasm contained
See also
within a thin membrane.
Secondary aerosols.

PROTOZOA
PROTECTION OF THE GLOBAL
ATMOSPHERE (THE HAGUE 1989)
Microscopic unicellular organisms. The cell
may be relatively large and complex, with a
Declarationsigned by twenty-fournations well-definednucleusandsomemechanism,
which recognized the global extent of such such as cilia (short threads) or flagella
environmental issues as global warming and (relatively long whip-like threads) that allow
ozone depletion and the urgent need to deal them to move. Protozoaoccupy a great
with them before the threats to life that they variety of habitats. Some are parasitic - for
represented became unmanageable. It called example,causingsleepingsickness - and
for improved decision making and enforce- many
have an
important role
the
in
ment attheinternational level, but also environment because of their
ability to
recognized that not all nations were equally consume dead organic matter.
able to implement these
proposals,
and
thereforeincludedprovisionsforassisting See also
developing countries
to
introduce
higher Activated sewage sludge, Parasite.
environmental standards.
PROXY DATA
PROTEINS
Data used to study a situation, phenomenon
Complexnitrogenouscompoundsthatare or condition for which no direct information
basic
components of living
organisms. - such as instrumentalmeasurements - is
Proteins are organic polymers consisting of available. Proxy data are widely used in the
amino acidslinkedintochains.A specific study of climate change to extend
the
protein may includeas many as twenty amino meteorological record back beyond the mid-
acids and it is the arrangement of these acids nineteenth century when instrumental measure-
in theproteinmoleculethatprovidesthe ments began. Such indicatorsof past climates
characteristic properties of the protein. take many forms. They may, for example, be
PUDDLING

biological,
stratigraphical,
archaeological, tree rings and corals’, Climate Dyrrantrcs 11: 211-
agricultural,glaciologicalor
historical
in 22.
Lorius, C., Jouzel, J., Ritz, C., Merlivat, I., Barkov,
nature, but all reflect to a greater or lesser N.I., Korotkevlch, Y.S. and Kotlyakov, V.M.
degree the climatic conditions that prevailed (1985) ‘A 150,000 year climatic
record
from
atthetime theydeveloped.Theyvaryin Antarctic ice’, Nature 316: 591-6.
quality;some,such as treeringsand fossil
pollen, allow past conditionsto be quantified PUDDLING
with some precision, whereas others, such as
some of the historical data, may provide only Thecompaction of soil,broughtabout by
qualitative results. The calibrationof the data such factors asheavy, persistent precipitation
is also variable.Treeringsandhistorical on bare ground and trampling by livestock o r
documentscanprovide specific datesfor humans.Thenet effect is to decreasethe
meteorologicalevents,butotherdatamay permeability of thesoil.Thisreducesits
provideonly
relative
dating orat best ability to support vegetation and encourages
establish a range within which a n event may soil erosion since water unable to percolate
have occurred. Gaps in the proxy record also into the soil runsoff the surface. It may occur
create
problems.Fewlong-termclimate in forest cut-overs where the soilis no longer
reconstructionsdependentirelyuponone protected from heavy rain by vegetation orin
source of proxy data.
They incorporate hightrafficareassuch as pasturegatesor
informationfromavariety of sources, not livestock feeding stations, and it has become
only to fill gaps, butalsotoimprovethe a problem in popular recreation areas as a
reliability of the results. Using the available result of heavy use by walkers and hikers.
proxy data, scientists have reconstructed the
climatic history of the last 10,000 years with PUEBLO DROUGHT
some reliability, and in places
there is
sufficient evidence to extend the record back serious
A drought
which
struck
south-
further into glacial times. western North America - particularly what
arenowthestates of Arizona andNew
See also
Dendroclimatology, Palynology, Phenology. Mexico - inthethirteenthcentury.Named
after the Pueblo group of Indian tribes who
Further reading inhabited the area at the time and who were
Ball, T. (1986)‘Historlcalevidenceandclimatic stronglyaffected by thedroughtandthe
Implications of a shift in the boreal forest-tundra famine that accompaniedit.
transition in Central Canada’, CIintatrc Charrge 8:
421-34.
Further reading
Bradley, R.S. and Jones, P.D. (eds) (1992) Clinrnte
sirrce A.D. 1500, London: Routledge. Rosenberg, M.J. (ed.)(1978) North Anterrcon
Cook, E.R. (1995) ‘Temperaturehistormfrom Droughts, Boulder, CO: Wcstview Press.

PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY

An industry that
processes
long-fibred, productionvaries. In China, for example,
cellulose-rich material into pulp and paper. 80 per cent of the paper pulp produced is
It is the economic mainstay of many com- fromnon-woodsources.Woodpulp is
munities in North America - particularly producedmechanically, by grinding down
Canada - andScandinavia.Treesarethe the
woodseparate
to the fibres, or
mainsource of fibres,butespartograss, chemically, by dissolvingthelignin in the
hemp, bamboo and jute arealso used. More wood to release thecellulosefibres.The
than 90 percent of theworld’spaper is environmental impact of the industry, from
produced
from
trees,
although
the theharvesting of thepulpwood to the
proportion of tree and treeless paper production of the paper, is significant, and
 33 1 INDUSTRY PAPER AND PULP

Table P-2 Pulp and paper mill effluents

S IFFLUENT
Gbre
+or
chemical by-products of the
vood digestion process)
;lime inhibitors
e.g. organo-mercury
:ompounds)
3leaching by-products
Sases
e.g. methyl sulphides;
nethyl mercaptans)
Fibre mats on streambeds; Recovery and removal of fibre
suspended solids; increased through secondary treatment;
BOD aeration of the effluent in
ponds
Toxic to aquatic organisms In-plant recovery and recycling
of chemicals
Bioaccumulation of mercury Replacement of organo-
infish;mercurypoisoningmercurycompounds
Bioaccumulation of Replace chlorine bleach with
chlorinated organic chlorine dioxide or hydrogen
compounds peroxide
Obnoxious
odours
Installation of scrubbers,
but
difficult to remove completely

after the paper hasleft the mill, its ultimate
disposal
has
important
environmental
implications. Clear cutting or the complete
removal of timber was once the normin all
pulpwoodproducingareas.This led to
changes in local temperatureregimes,
changes to the hydrological cycle, changes
in soil conditions and changes to the animal
populations of the area. The exposure of
the soil to direct precipitation caused soil
compaction,reduced
infiltration
and
allowed
greater runoff, causing the
potential for soil erosion to increase. Clear
cutting is now banned in many areas and
reforestation is common as the need to
conserve resources has led to programmes
which involve sustainable yields. However,
theamount of pulpwoodharvestedcon-
tinues to exceed the amount replaced and
even where reforestation programmes are
well established the extended life cycle of
treesmeans thatcompletereplacement
takesdecades.
Environmental problems
increasethroughtheproductionprocess.
Pulp and paper mills require large amounts
of water and when that wateris returned to
the system it is usually polluted. Ground-
woodpulpproduceslargeamounts of
suspended solids and organic waste which
raise
the
biochemical oxygendemand
(BOD) of water bodies into which they are
dumped. Chemical pulpingadds
toxic
chemicalssuch as organicmercury(Hg),
bleaching agents, sulphites and dioxins to
the water, causing contaminationof aquatic
organisms and
in
some cases
creating
serioushealthproblemsforcommunities
using the water or eating fish caught in it.
Effluentcontrollegislation
hasreduced
many of these problems. Used liquor from
the pulping process is recycled, mercury has
been banned and the
increaseduse oi
non-bleached pulp and paper has helped tc
reduce the amount of chlorine (Cl) released
intotheenvironmentwhichhas inturn
caused the production of dioxins to decline
Air pollution from the industry is relativel)
easy to control, although odours caused b,
some processes, while not proven hazardous
continue to reduce environmental qualityir
areas adjacent to pulp mills. Once the papel
is produced and
used,
the remaining
environmental problem is its
disposal
Burial in landfill sites or incineration werc
once the most common forms of disposal
but recycling is now seen as the preferrec
PUMPED 332

option. The recycled paper can be mixed in projected to doublebetween1995and

with new pulp to produce a product that 2010 - is to be minimized.
can match one made completely from new
further reading
pulp. With such attention to environmental
Ferguson, K . (ed.) (1991) Environmental Solu-
impacts at all stages of production and use, tlonsforthePulpand Paper Industry, San
as well asthe
consideration given to Francisco, CA: Miller Freeman.
sustainable yields, thepulpandpaper Postel, S. (1994) ‘Carryingcapacity:earth’s
industry is responding to publicpressure. bottom line’,in L. Brown(ed.) State o f the
World 2994, New York: Norton.
Such
responses
must
continue if the Servos, M.R. (ed.) (1996) Environmental Fate
potential
environmentalimpact of the and Effects of Pulp and Paper Mill Effluents,
rising world demand for paper products - Delray Beach, FL: St Lucie Press.

PUMPED STORAGE SYSTEM PYROLYSIS

A systemused in the productlon of hydro- The destructive distillationof organic wastes.

electricityinvolving two reservoirswitha Domestic refuse garbage
or contains
pumpinglgenerating station between the two. considerable amounts of hydrocarbon-based
Under normal working conditionswater material.Whenheated in an oxygen-free
releasedfromtheupperreservoirpasses environment,oneton of suchwastecan
through the generator and produces electricity. produce the energy equivalent to one barrel
At times when the demandis low - for exam- of oil in the form of gas and liquid. The best
ple, overnight - the excess baseload electricity results are obtained from wastes containing
from the electrical gridis used to pump water high
proportions of rubber or plastic.
fromthelowerreservoir to theupper.The Pyrolysis can be incorporated into integrated
energy expended in the pumping operation is wastedisposal facilities, whichincludethe
stored as potential energy in the water in the sorting and recycling of materials, with the
upper reservoir. When the demand for electri- energy produced contributing to the running
city rises again, the water is released to flow of thesystem.Theenergyrecoveredfrom
down through the turbines of the generator. garbagethroughpyrolysis is less thanthat
Advantages of such systems include the ability recovered by direct combustion, but being in
to provide electricity rapidly when needed and theform of agasorliquid,thepyrolysis
a reduced dependence upon precipitation since product has
advantagesfor
storageand
the same water can be used several times. transportation.Theresidueremainingafter
pyrolysis - char - may be used as alow-
further reading calorie fuel or disposed of in landfill sites.
Ramage, J. (1983) Energy: A Gurdebook, Oxford/
New York: Oxford University Press. Further reading
Warnpler, T.P. (1995) Applied
Pyrolysrs
PYRETHRUM Handbook, New York: M. Dekker.

See insecticides.
 4
QUASI-BIENNIAL OSCILLATION Quaternary should be dated at some 1.6 to
1.8millionyearsago.ThePleistocenewas
0 characterized by widespread glacial episodes,
although the onset of glaciation had already
The reversal of easterly and westerly winds in begun in the Pliocene if the 1.6 to 1.8 million-
the
equatorial
stratosphere.
The
entire year dating of the base of the Pleistocene is
oscillationoccursoveraperiod of 26-30 accepted. The Holocene, which began about
months with an easterly flow dominating for 10,000 years BP, has been a period of general
12-16 months, followed by a reversal which amelioration of climate (although not with-
allows the westerly winds to prevail for 12- outperiods of deteriorationalso)during
16months. In conjunctionwithsunspot whichmodernpost-glacial
environmental
activity, the QBO appears to contribute to patterns developed and human beings evolved
climatechangealthoughthe
mechanisms culturally and socially.
involved remain unclear. During periods of low
solar activity, for example, when the QBO is See also
westerly, winters in North America are colder Ice ages.
than normal. Under the sameQBO conditions,
but with an active sun, winters are warmer. Further reading
Flint, R.F. (1971) Glacral m d Quaternary
See also Geology, New York: Wiley.
Bradley, R. (1985) Quaternary Palaeotztology,
Quiet sun, Sunspots.
London: Chapman and Hall.
Gordon, J.E. andSutherland, D.G. (1993) The
Further reading Quaternary of Scotland, LondonlNew York:
Mannion, A.M. (1991) Global Envrrontnental Chapman and Hall.
Change, LondonMew York: LongrnanlWiley. Jenkins, D.G. (1987) ‘Was the Pliocene-Pleistocene
boundary placed at the wrong level?’, Quaternary
Scrence Reviews 6: 41-2.
QUATERNARY
QUARTZ
The
second
period of the
Cainozoic
(Cenozoic)era,followingtheTertiary.It Natural silica (SO,), commona rock-
includes
the
Pleistocene
and
Holocene forming mineral. It is characteristic of acid
epochs. Delimiting the Quaternary hasbeen a igneous rocks such as granite, but becauseof
subject of some debate. The Pliocene/Pleis- its resistance to weathering it is also found in
toceneboundary,markingtheend of the sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, such as
Tertiaryandbeginning of theQuaternary, sandstonesandschists.Quartzoccurs in
was originally dated at some 3 million years crystalline form in igneous rocks, with pure
BP based on the deterioration of climate and quartz beingclear, andcolouredvarieties
the expansion of glaciers and ice sheets into suchasamethyst(purple),citrine(yellow)
mid-latitudes. More recently, floral and androsequartz(pink) being
caused by
faunal evidence suggests that the base of the chemical impurities in the crystal. Quartz is a
OUlET SUN 334
raw materialfor glass, produced by the sunspots or solarflares.Thisreduction in
melting and cooling of pure silica. solar activity causes the solar windto decline,
reducesthefrequency of theauroraand
Further reading decreasesthe level of radioandmagnetic
Hearney, P.J., Prewitt, C.T. and Gibbs, G.V. (1994) interference on the earth.It may also have an
Silica: Physrcal Bchaurorrr, Geochemrstry atrd impact on weather and climate, by reducing
Materrals Applications, Washington, DC: Minero-
loglcal Society of America. the flow of energy into the earthhmosphere
system.
QUIET S
UB See also
Magnetosphere.
A situation in whichthesundisplays no
 R
r-STRATEGISTS
Organismsthatareusuallysmallandhave
relatively short life-spans during which they
mature quickly and produce large numbersof
offspring. r refers to themaximumpopu-
lation growth rate, and r-strategists d o little
to support theiroffspring, butdependon
quantity rather than quality for the survival
of the species. Numbersfluctuate wildly.
Efficient reproduction allows the population
to growrapidlyaslongastheconditions
suitableforgrowtharepresent. If these
conditions change -for example, food supply
is curtailed - the population will crash and
remam low
until
favourableconditions
return again. Many insects are r-strategistsas
well as some small mammals such as mice.
Althoughtheconcept is mostcommonly
applied to animals,dandelionsandother
plants classified as weeds may be considered
as r-strategists.
See also
Carrying capacity. Demography, K-stratcglsts.
Further reading
Enger, E.D. and Smlth, U.F. (1995) Ettvrromttetttol
Screrrce: A Sttrdy of Irrterrelrztrorrshis, Dubuque,
IA: Wm C. Brown.
An acronym for radiation absorbed dose - a
measure o f the amount of ionizing radiation
absorbed by living tissue. One rad is
equivalent to the absorption of 0.01 joules
per kilogram of the tissue being irradiated.
The rad has been replaced by the gray which
is equivalent to 100 rads.
RADIANT ENERGY
Energy transmitted in the form of radiation -
i.e. as rays, waves or streams of particles. The
main source o f radiant energy in the earth/
atmosphere system is the sun.
RADIATION
The emission of electromagnetic energy from
a source in the form of rays, waves or streams
of particles. The term is also applied to the
energy itself. The nature and intensity of the
emission varies with the energy status of the
source, and this is reflected in the range of
energy levels in the electromagnetic spectrum.
With a surface temperature close to 6000 K,
the sun emits high intensity radiation mainly
In the ultraviolet (9 per cent) andvisible light
(45 per cent) sectorsof the spectrum, whereas
the earth, with an average surface tempera-
ture of 285 K, emits low intensity radiationin
the
infrared
range.Other
high
intensity
radiation sources include certain radioactive
elements,whichemit,forexample,gamma
rays. These are capableof causing ionization,
leading to cell damage and the initiation of
various types of cancer. Lower energy radi-
ation such as microwaves and radiowaves have
important
commercialapplications
and
infraredradiationhasasignificantrole in
remote sensing.
See also
loninngradiatmn,Radianonahsorption,Kadio-
activity, Solar radiation, Terrestrial radiation.
Further reading
Marion, J.B. andHeald, M.A. (1989) Clnssicrll
Electromapetrc Rndintrorr (2ndcdition), New
YorklToronto: Academlc Press.
RADIATION 336

Figure R-l Spectral distribution of solar and terrestrial radiation

Main atmosphericabsorption bands

03 02 H
H2200 C02 H20
0
a-

lo r l

"

0.1

~unraviobt~*iblo~
1 .o
wavelength (urn)
10

infrared
1100

Source: KemD, D.D. (1994) Global Environmental Issues: A Climatological Approach, LondonMew
York: Routledge

RADIATION ABSORPTION is well established, for example, and nuclear

radiationcancausedeath,serious injury,
The intake of radiant energy by an object. cancer or genetic defects, depending upon the
Usuallythiscausesthetemperature of the size and timingof the dose. The absorptionof
object to rise, andallows it to becomea radiation by abodyorobjectcan be con-
radiating body in its own right. The earth's trolledthroughthe use of insulationor
absorption of solar radiation, for example, shielding.
allows it to emit terrestrial radiation. When
radiation is intercepted by an object, several See also
things can happen to it, depending upon the Backscatter, Ekctromagnetic
spectrum,
Rad,
nature of the object and the intensity of the Radioactivity, Rem.
radiation. It may be transmitted if the object
Further reading
is transparent; it may be reflected or scattered
Faughn, J.S., Turk, J. and Turk, A. (1991) Physrcal
if the object is bright or polished; it may be Scrence, Philadelphia, PA: Saunders.
absorbed if theobject is dark; it may be Seigel, R. and Howell, J.R. (1992) Thermal Radi-
transmitted, reflected or absorbed in varying atlon HeatTransfer (3rdedition),Washington,
proportions depending upon the exact nature DC: Hemisphere Publishing.
of theobject.Onlytheradiationthat is
absorbed can cause the temperature of the
object to change.Thegreenhouse effect RADIATION BLINDNESS
dependsuponthe selectiveability of the
atmosphere to allowsolarradiation to be Loss of sightcaused by damage to the eye
transmitted but to cause terrestrial radiation fromexposure to excesssolarradiation. It
to be absorbed.Thus it is thelatterthat usually takes the form of cataracts in which
causestheatmosphere to warmup.The thenormallyclearlens of the eyebecomes
absorption of high-energy radiationcan opaque,causingreducedlighttransmission
cause damage to living
tissue. The
link and loss of visual perception.
Although
between ultraviolet radiation and skin cancer cataracts can have a variety of other causes,
 337 AGENT FORCING RADIATIVE

Table R-l Biological effects of exposure to radiation

EFFECTS
DOSAGE
0.005 rem Maximum annual radiation at perimeterof nuclear generating station. No
known effects.
0.220 rem Level of normal background radiation atsea-level. Probability of cancer is 1
in 100,000 people exposed.
10 rem No obvious illness following instantaneous exposure, but1 in 1000 chance
of delayed cancer among those exposed.
100 rem Would cause nausea if received in one acute dose and producesa 1 in 100
chance of delayed cancer among those exposed.
300-600 rem Causes nausea within hours of acute exposure, followed by vomiting,
diarrhoea, hair loss and emaciation.
1000 rem If received instantaneously, this dosage would cause immedate illness and
lead to death within a few weeks if n o medical treatment was obtained.

Source: Ontario Hydro, Powerful Facts about Radiation (public information booklet)

a n increaseintheiroccurrencehasbeen RADIATION SICKNESS

projectedbecause of theextraultraviolet
radiation
(mainly W - B ) beingallowed Sickness caused by exposure to a sub-lethal
through to theearth’ssurface as the ozone dose of ionizing radiation (between 100 and
layerthins. Snow blindnessis a temporary 300 rem). Symptoms include the rapid onset
form of radiationblindnesscaused by the of nausea and vomiting followed some days
exposure of the eyes to solar radiation later by diarrhoea,hair loss, sorethroat,
reflected off a white snow surface. haemorrhagingandbonemarrowdamage.
Delayed effects suchasmiscarriagesand
RADIATION SCATTERING stillbirths are common. In the longer term,
sub-lethal doses of radiation also increase the
risk of leukemia and other formsof cancer.
The
disruption of the
smooth flow of
radiation through the atmosphere, usually as Further reading
a result of particulate matter in theenergy Turner, J.G. (1995) Atoms, Radiatlon and
path.Some of theenergy willbereflected Radiatron Protectron, New York: Wiley.
back(backscatter),
butthrough
multiple
reflection
somemay be returned to its RADIATION SPECTRUM
originalpath(forwardscatter).Solarradi-
ationscattered in thiswaymayeventually See electromagnetic spectrum.
reach the earth’s surfacein the formof diffuse
radiation. RADIATIVE FORCING AGENT
See also Any factor capable of disturbing the energy
Atmospheric turbidity.
balance of the earth/atmospheresystem.
Radiative forcing is the change in average net
Further reading
Bohren, C F . Huffman,
and D.R. (1983) radiation - incoming solar radiation compared
Absorption and Scatterrng of Lrght by Small to outgoingterrestrialradiation - atthe
Partrcles, New York: Wiley. tropopause. Changes in natural forcing agents
such as solar radiation, planetary albedo and
R A D I A T I V E - C O N V E C T I V E MODELS 338

atmospheric aerosol concentrations continue atingglobalscaleradiativeandconvective

to disruptthe energy balance,butanthro- processes at different levels in theatmos-
pogenicforcing
agents
involvingozone phere. The main inputs into these models are
depletion,atmospheric turbidity
andthe incomingsolar
radiation
and
returning
enhancement of the greenhouseeffect are also terrestrialradiation.Theycan be used to
causing significant disruption to the system’s estimatetemperature change initiated by
energybudget.Forcingmay be negative o r changing atmospheric aerosol levels, such as
positive.Aerosols,forexample,generally thoseproduced by volcaniceruptions.The
have a negative impact. When Mount Pina- original TTAPS scenario of nuclearwinter
tubo erupted in 1991, it reduced the global wasbased o n results
from a radiative-
netradiation by 3-4 In contrast,green- convectivemodel.One-dimensionalmodels
house gases arepositiveradiativeforcing such as thistreattheearthas a uniform
agents, and a forcingof +2.45 Wm-’has been surface with no geography and no seasons. As
attributed to the increase in greenhouse gas a result, they are inadequate to deal with the
levels since pre-industrial times. uneven surface energy distribution associated
with the differences in heat capacity between
Further reading land and ocean. At best, they are useful for
Houghton, J.T., Meira Filho, L.G., Bruce, J., Lee, the preliminary investigation of global scale
H.,Callander, B.A., Haites, E.F., Harris, N. and
Maskell, K. (1994) Climate Charrge 1994: radiative and convective processes a t differ-
Radiatroe Forctngof Climate Changeandan ent levels in the atmosphere. However, they
Evaluation of the IPCC 1992 Emrssrorr Scenartos, cannot deal with seasonal or regional scale
Cambridge: Cambridge Unwersity Press. features, and require so many assumptions that
Shine, K., Derwent,R.G.,Wuebbles, D.J. and their ability to provide accurate predictions is
Morcrettc, J.J. (1990)‘Radiative
forcing of
climate’,in J.T. Houghton, C.J. Jenklns and J.J. limited.
Ephraums (eds) CIimate Charrge: The IPCC
Scietrtific Assessment, Cambridge: Cambridge See also
University Press. Models.

RADIATIVE-CONVECTIVE Further reading

MODELS Schnelder,
S.H.
(1987) ‘Climatic modeling’,
Scientific American 256: 72-89.
One-dimensionalclimatemodelsincorpor-

Table R-2 Radiative forcing agents

RADIATIVE
FORCING
FORCING AGENTS ( COMMENTS
Greenhouse gases + 0.56 Business-as-usual
+ 0.41
Major emission
controls
Solar variability + 0.1 e.g. orbital
changes
andchanges in solar
- 0.1 irradiance - sunspot cycles
Large volcanic eruption - 0.2 e.g. El Chichon,
Mount
Pinatubo
Anthropogenic sulphur emissions + 0.15? Difficult toestimate - totalemissionsare
- 0.1 5 ? declining,
regionaldifferences
remain
Stratospheric H,O + 0.02

Source: Based on data in Houghton et al. ( 1994)

339 RADIOCARBON DATING

RADICAL This is theprocessthattakesplace in a

nuclear reactor, and the induced radioactivity
See free radical. contributes to the problems of nuclear waste
disposal. Although exposure to radioactivity
RADIOACTIVE WASTE canhaveharmfulconsequences,it is also
used in medicine to treat certain cancers and
as a tracer physical,
in biological and
See nuclear waste.
chemical systems.
RADIOACTIVITY See also
Atom, Nuclearfisslon,
Nucleus,
Radiation
Radiation emittedas the result of the decay of slckness, Radioisotope.
the atomic nuclei of certain elements. Nuclei
capable of producing radiation in this way Further reading
are called radionuclides. The radiation takes Miller, E.W. and Millcr,
K.M. (1990)
theform of elementaryparticles - such as Enurrorzmental Hazards: Radioactwe Materral and
Wastes: A ReferenceHarrdbook, Santa Barbara,
alphaand betaparticles - or gammarays, CA: ABC-Clio.
and emissions continue until a stable state is
attained.Certainelementssuch as uranium
(U) and thorium (Th) are naturally unstable RADIOCARBON DATING
andtheiratomicnucleidisintegratespon-
taneously,
releasing
radioactivity
the
in A method used to date organic materials. It
process. As theradioactivity is released, a relies on the intake of radioactive carbon-l4
series of newproducts is formedwiththe ('"c) by living organisms and the subsequent
finalmember in eachseriesbeing a stable decay of the carbon after the organism dies.
element.Withuraniumandthorium,that Mostcarbonexists as one of twostable
stable element is lead. Radioactivity can be isotopes "C and "C, but a small amount is
induced in manyelements by bombarding present in the environmentas radioactive !'C.
their nuclei with particles such as neutrons. Radiocarbon is produced in the atmosphere

Figure R-2 The radioactive decay sequenceof Uranium-238

B
-+a
STABLE
RADIOISOTOPE
when cosmic rays collide with nitrogen
atomsandtransformthemintocarbon-14
atoms.Theseatomsmixwiththeother
carbon isotopes and are absorbed as carbon
dioxide (CO,) by living plants during photo-
synthesis.Consumption of theplants
animals passes the I4C through the system.As
a result, all living organisms contain
their tissues. When the organisms die, I4C is
nolongerabsorbed and the
proportion
present in thetissue begins to fall asthe
radiocarbon decays.Radiocarbon has
a
half-life of about 5700 years, and by
comparing the proportionof I4C remaining in
a fossil organic sample with what might be
expected ina modern living organism it is
possible to estimate the age of thesample.
Thismethod is suitable for materialup to
70,000 years old.
assumes
It that
the
proportion of I4C in theatmospherehas
remained constant, but human activities have
introduced variations which have reduced the
accuracy of the technique. The increased use
of coalasafuelfollowingtheIndustrial
Revolution, for
example, increasedthe
output of the other isotopes of carbon and
theproportion of radiocarbondecreased.
Conversely, the detonation of nuclear devices
in the atmosphere increased the amount
I4C produced, at
least until 1964 when
above-ground testingof nuclear weapons was
banned. This combination of fossil fuel carbon
and bomb carbonresulted in inaccurate dating,
particularly of youngersamples,but recali-
bration using dendroclimatological techniques
has allowed the inaccuracies to be resolved.
Radiocarbondatinghas beenused
sively to establish the timing and sequenceof
events during the Pleistocene and Holocene.
See also
Dendroclimatology.
Further reading
Bowman, S. ( 1 990) Radiocarbon Datrng, London:
British Museum Publicatlons.
Broecker, W.S., Peng, T.-H., Ostlund, G. and
Stuiver, M.(1985)‘Thedistribution of bomb
radiocarbon in the ocean’, lournal of Geophysical
Research 90: 6953-70.
Stuiver, M. and Quay, P.D. (1981) ‘Atmospheric
I4C changes resulting from fossil fuel CO release
and cosmic ray flux variability’, EarthPlanetary
Scrence Letters 53: 349-62.
340
(N) RADIOISOTOPE
Anisotope of an
element
whichemits
radioactivity.Carbon-l4 (”C) is aradio-
isotope of carbon (C), for example.
by
RADIONUCLIDE
I4C in
A nuclide which disintegrates spontaneously,
releasing radioactivity in the process. The nuclei
of uranium (U), radium (Ra) and strontium
(Sr) atoms, for example, are radionuclides.
RADIOSONDE
An instrumentpackagecarriedupintothe
atmosphere by a balloon. It includes sensors
for measuring such elements as temperature,
atmosphericpressureandhumidityanda
radio transmitter through which the inform-
ation is sentback to agroundstation. By
trackingtheradiosonde,eithervisually or
electronically, it is possible to calculate wind
speed and direction. Radiosonde observations
providethedata for creatingtemperature,
pressure and wind profiles of the troposphere,
which can be used for weather forecasting.
of
RADIUM (Ra)
rare,
Aradioactiveelement,
chemically
similar to barium (Ba). It occurs as several
isotopes,themoststable of whichhasa
half-life of 1620 years. The main source of
radium is pitchblende, an oreof uranium (U).
exten-
See also
Radioactivity, Radon.
RADON (Rn)
A noble gas producedby the decay of radium
(Ra). Radon is radioactive and, as it disin-
tegrates, it producesadditionalradioactive
decay products -the daughtersof radon. It is
suspected of causinglungcanceramong
uranium miners, and studies have suggestedit
is a common indoor pollutant in some areas.
Radon may seep into houses from the decay
of radium in the local bedrock or in building
materials, creating an environmental hazard
34 1
for the residents. Exposure limits have been
suggestedinBritain,Canada,theUnited
States and Swedenforresidentialproperty,
and these can be met by installing relatively
simpleventilationsystemsthatpreventthe
accumulation of the gas.
See also
Daughter product.
Further reading
Nagda, N.L. (1994) Radon: Prevaleme, Measure-
mettts,HealthRrsksandControl, Philadelphia,
PA: A S T M .
RAIN
Precipitation in theform of liquidwater
droplets. Droplets varyin size, but exceed 0.5
mm indiameter.Smallerdropletsarecon-
sidered to be drizzle.Severaltheorieshave
been developed to explain the formation of
raindrops,but
the
two
mostcommonly
accepted involve the presence of ice crystals
(the Bergeron-Findeisen process) and
the
coalescence of droplets of differentsizes.
When ice crystalsandsupercooledwater
droplets (temperature < O ' C ) are present in a
cloud, the droplets tend to vaporize and the
vapour is depositeddirectlyonthecrystal.
The ice crystals continue to grow as the result
of further vapour deposition or through the
aggregation of crystals until
they
are
sufficiently heavy to overcome upcurrents in
the air. They thenbegin to fall and when they
reach warmer air they melt into raindrops.
Collision or coalescencetheories see larger
dropletssweepingup or absorbingsmaller
droplets as theymovethroughtheclouds,
until they are large enough to fall out.
See also
Condensation nuclei, Rain making.
Further reading
Lutgens, E K . and Tarbuck, E.J. (1989) The
Atmosphere: A n lntroductzontoMeteorology,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Mason, B.J. (1975)Clouds, Rain and Rarnmaking,
CambridgebJew York: Cambridge University
Press.
RAIN MAKING
RAIN MAKING
The artificial augmentation of precipitation,
based onthe Bergeron-Findeisentheory of
the formationof rain, in which the deposition
of watervapouron icecrystalsinsuper-
cooled clouds
ultimatelyproduces water
droplets large enough to fall from the clouds
as rain. Rain making involves seeding clouds
with ice crystal nuclei toencouragethe
growth of ice crystals and initiate
the
Bergeron process. The most common types of
agentsforcloudseedingaresolidcarbon
dioxide (dry ice) or silver iodide (AgI). The
very low temperature of the dry ice (-78°C)
cools the air so rapidly that ice crystals are
produced
spontaneously,
whereas
the
crystalline structure of silver iodide is similar
to that of ice whichencouragestheinitial
deposition of vapour from the super-cooled
water droplets in the clouds to produce the
ice crystals. The seeding of clouds at temp-
eratures between -5°C and -15°C appears to
be most effective, with increases in
precipitation of about 10-15% being claimed
forsuchconditions. Seeding is mostcom-
monly done from aircraft flying through or
abovecloud,butcloudseedingmaterials
have also been introduced into the clouds in
artillery shells fused to burst a t a particular
height or by convection from surface fires or
other generators. Rain making has been used
in precipitation management schemes in the
United States, Australia and Russia, and any
future developments are likely to be in these
areasalso.However, it has received less
attention in recent years because of the costs
involved,thedifficulty of measuringthe
effectiveness of theprocess,potential legal
problemsassociatedwiththetimingand
distribution of theadditionalprecipitation
and the possibleeffects of silver iodide on the
environment. Since precipitationaugment-
ation seems to be most successful in clouds
that are already likely to produce rain, some
thought has been given to seeding clouds in
areas of orographic rainfall. The additional
precipitationcould be stored in reservoirs
and distributed by pipeline to areas requiring
additional water. Such a programme has been
considered for thewesternUnitedStates,
where rain making wouldbe used to augment
RAINFOREST

the snowpack in the Sierra Nevada and the
Rocky Mountains, with the additional water
beingsupplied
naturallywhenthe
snow
melted in the spring. There is some concern
that if successful, these schemes might causea
deterioration in the habitats of existing
plantsandanimalsandcausefloodingor
excess erosion in the downstream sections of
the rivers flowing outof the mountains. Cloud
seeding techniques havealso been employed to
dissipate fog, suppress hail and in attempts to
reduce the power of hurricanes.
Further reading
Calder, N.(1974) The Weather Machlne and the
Threat oflce, London: BBC Publications.
Eagleman, J.R. (1985) Meteorology: The Atnzos-
phere in Actrorz, Belrnont, CA: Wadsworth.
Mason, B.J. (1975) Clozrds, R a m a d Razrzmaking,
CambridgeNew York: Cambridge Unlversity
Press.

RAINFOREST

3road-leaved,mainly
evergreen
forests combine to remove nutrientsfrom
the
'ound in the tropics, sub-tropics and some upper levels of the forest soil and increased
'emperate
regions
where
moisture is runoff leads to floodingand soil erosion.
ibundant all yearround.Tropicalrain- The net result is that the natural regener-
'orests are bestdeveloped 10' northand ation of theforestcover is verydifficult,
;outh of theequatorintheAmazonand causing
long-term
disruption of the
Zongo basins, West Africa and in parts of ecosystem,threatening
the
survival of
;outh-east Asia. Outside of thatband, certain plants and animals, and causing a
temperatures and rainfall are sufficiently decline in biodiversity. O n the human side,
high to allow rainforest to flourish in areas the indigenous inhabitants of the rainforest
such as Central America,Bangladesh, have been displaced from their traditional
Burma and north-eastern Australia. Trop- hunting and cultivating territories through
ical rainforests cover some 12 million km2 destruction of habitat or i n somecases
and
representnearly
one-third of the through forced resettlement. Cases of indi-
world's forests. Temperate rainforest exists genouspeoplesbeingmurdered toallow
in the coastal regions of western Canada, access to an area have also been reported
theUnitedStates Pacific north-westand from South America.
New Zealand, where the prevailing wester- Many of thethreatstotherainforest
lies provideenoughmoisture tomaintain environment originate in thedeveloped
the
rainforest ecosystem. Rainforests are nations.Thedemandfortropicalhard-
arguably the most persistent, most stable and woodsremainshigh,despiteattempts at
mostcomplex of theearth's ecosystems. boycotts by environmental groups. Where
Tropical rainforests alone contain as many as theexport of hardwoods is declining, it
30 million species of plants and animals. appears to be as a result of the exhaustion
Because therainforestsarecapable of of resourcesratherthan a reduction in
producinglargequantities of timber,they demand. Agricultural
development also
represent a large capital asset, particularly threatenstheforest.Treesareclearedto
for developing countries in South America, open up land for the cultivation of a variety
Africa and Asia. This poses a major of cashcropsrangingfromcassava and
dilemma for these areas.In the short term at cocoa to pepper and pineapples, which arc
least, the developing nations would benefit exported to produce a greater profit thar
economically from the exploitation of the couldbe
made by growing food
for
rainforest, but only at some environmental domestic use. Land is also cleared to
cost. Changes in microclimatic temperature provide pasture for cattle ranching, partic-
and moisture regimes inevitably follow the ularyinLatinAmerica.Much of the beef
removal of a forest cover. Higher soil fromthisarea is exportedtotheUnited
temperatures and
moreactive
leaching States to be madeintohamburgerpatties
343 RAINFOREST

Figure R-3 The global distribution of rainforest

Source: After Park, C.C. (1992) TropIcal Rarnforests, LondonlNcw York: Routledge

for the fast food industry. This ‘hamburger the forestfloor. The increase in atmospheric
connection’, as it has been called, is seen by carbondioxideresultingfromdecreased
environmental and conservation groups as photosynthesis
clearing
the
and of
a particularly invidious misuseof resources. vegetation is equivalent to about 2 billion
Mineral exploitation, hydroelectric develop- tonnes per year.An attempt was made to
ments and other mega-projects, often using dealwithsuchproblemsattheUnited
foreignaidorinstigated by multinational NationsConference on Environmentand
companies,
contribute
also to the Development(UNCED) heldin Riode
destruction of the forest. Janeiro in 1992, when a group of nations
Although the
developednations
are discussedproblemsassociatedwith
the
placingthesurvival of therainforest in sustainabledevelopment of forests. The
jeopardythroughsuchdemands, in the result was an agreement acknowledging the
samecountriesenvironmentalgroupsare need to balance the exploitation of forests
attempting to reverse the situation. Moti- with their conservation, but not bindingon
vated t o protect one of the few remaining the signatories,mainly as aresult of the
natural environments and the rights of its unwillingness of the developing nations to
inhabitants,theyhave used avariety of accept international monitoring and super-
approaches from lobbying to direct action vision of their forests.
in an attempt to reduce the threat to the
forest. Some groups have beenaccused of Further reading
using misinformation tactics in their zeal to Furley, P.A. (ed.)(1993) The Forest Prorztler:
protecttheforest. In the scientific com- Sett/emetrt
and
Change It1 the Brazilian
Rorarmia, London: Routledge.
munity, there is concern over the potential Mabberley, D.J. (1992) Troplca/ Rainforest
impact of the removal of the rainforest on Ecology (2nd edition), GlasgowlNew York:
global warming. The clearing of the forest RlackieKhapman and Hall.
raises carbon dioxide (CO,)levels indirectly Moore, P.D., Chaloncr, B. and Stott, P. ( 1 996)
GkJhal
Ewirotlmental
Change, Oxford:
through
reduced
photosynthesis,
but Blackwell Science.
carbon dioxide is also added directly to the Park, C C . (19Y2) Tropical Rartrforests, London/
atmosphere by burning, by thedecay of New York: Routledge.
biomass and by the increased oxidation of Whitmore, T.C. ( 1990) Introduction to Troprcal
carbon (C) from the newly exposed soil of R a m Forests, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ON RAINFOREST 344

RAINFOREST ACTION NETWORK RECHARGE RATE

(RAN)
The rate at which water withdrawn from the
Anenvironmentalorganizationworking to groundwatersystem is replaced by precipi-
protect the earth’s rainforests and the human tation. In many areas, water can be pumped
rights of their inhabitants through education, out of the system more rapidly than it can be
grassroots
organization
and
non-violent replaced. As a result, the water table declines
directaction.Launchedin 1985, RAN has andextractionbecomesmoredifficultand
campaigned to maketheproblems of the costly. In parts of the Ogallala aquifer in the
rainforest better known through the organ- south-western United States, for example, the
ization of actiongroupsandconferences, water table is being drawn down at a rate of
throughthepublication of newslettersand 1 m per year while the effective recharge rate
reports, and through direct action in the form may be as low as 1 to 4 mm. Elsewhere, as in
of consumer boycotts and fund-raising. Itled the Sahara region, thereis negligible recharge
a successful consumer campaign to force the and the groundwater being used is inherited
fast food retailer,BurgerKing, to cancel its from periods when the region was wetter. The
contractsforrainforest beef, and has been artificial
recharge of aquifershas
been
veryactiveincampaigns to stopthe clear considered, but in areas where groundwater
cutting of temperaterainforest inBritish use is high there is usually no excess water
Columbia, Canada. In the human rightsfield, available. In addition, pumping surface water
RAN
supported
has indigenous
the intoanaquifercreatesthepotentialfor
inhabitants of the rainforest
in
Borneo, introducing pollution into the groundwater
Ecuador and Brazil. system or disrupting the permeability of the
aquifer by introducing sediments.
RAMSAR CONVENTION
Further reading
See wetlands. Walton, W.C. (1991) Prrncrples of Groundwater
Engineerrng, Chelsea, MI: Lewis.

RAYLEIGH SCATTERING RECLAMATION

The scattering of light by very small particles
Thetreatment of landmadederelict by
without loss of energy,namedafterLord
industrial or agricultural activities, with the
Rayleigh who first developed the theory in
aim of returning it to productive use.
1871. It is responsible for the blue colour of
Companiesinvolvedinactivitiessuchas
the sky, for example, with white light from
gravelextraction,strip-miningandquarry-
the sun being scattered by gas molecules in
ing, which once created large areasof derelict
theatmosphere. Since smallparticles are
land,arenowrequired to rehabilitatethe
particularlyefficient atscatteringshorter
areas affected once the activities cease. The
wavelengthradiation,
the
light
shining
term is also appliedto the creationof dry land
throughan
atmosphere containing large
in coastal areas by a combination of dyking
quantities of small aerosols will appear red
and infilling, or to the drainingof wetlands to
becausetheshorterbluewavelengthshave
allow agricultural development.
been scattered more effectively than the
longer red wavelengths.
Further reading
Agassi, M. (ed.) (1996)Soil Erosrorr, Conservation
Further reading and Rehabilitatron, New York: M. Dekker.
Bohren, C.F. andHuffman, D.R. (1993) Plotkin, S.E. (1986) ‘From surface mine to
Absorptrorz and Scatterrng of Lightby Small cropland’, Environment 28 ( 1 ) : l-20,404.
Partrcles, New York: Wiley.
345 RECYCLING

RECURRENCE INTERVAL hazardssuchasflooding.Therecurrence

interval for a flood of aspecific magnitude
Thereturnperiod of aparticularevent,can be estimatedfromhistoricstreamflow
representedasastatisticalestimation of thedata,forexample,allowingreference to the
frequencywithwhichanevent of aspecificfifty-year flood,thehundred-yearfloodor
magnitude is expected to occur. The approach is flooding at some other interval. Such inform-
commonly used in evaluating environmental ation is important for floodplainmanagement.

RECYCLING

,ince
the
earth/atmospheresystem is
a Althoughoften seen asamodernpheno-
losed system in material terms, it includes a menon brought on by the need to conserve
lumber of veryefficientnatural recycling resources,recyclinghaslong
a history,
ystems that allow elements such as water, particularly in the metal industries. There
,arbon (C), nitrogen (N) and sulphur (S) to have been flourishing scrap metal markets
le used many times
over.
However,in forsuchcommoditiesasiron(Fe),steel,
‘urrent usagerecycling refers to the recovery aluminum (AI) and copper (Cu) for many
)f waste material for reprocessing into new years, and a very high proportion of all the
xoducts, or thereuse of discarded products. gold (Au) ever mined remains in circulation,

Table R-3 Some widely recycled commodities and problems associated with them

COMMODITY
Glass - mainly unbroken
:ontainers
Paper - clean, dry
newspapers easiest to recycle
Metal products - cans, caps
and lids
Plastic - thermoplastics such
as PET and HDPE
Mixed paper - magazines,
glossy paper, cereal boxes,
shredded office paper,
corrugated cardboard
Motor oil - filtered and
re-refined
Automotive batteries
PROBLEMS
Clear glass is most valuable. Mixed glass- clear and
coloured - not suitable for direct recycling. Ceramics, light
bulbs, pyrex glass and mirrors also contaminate the glass.
Rubber bands, plastic bags, dirt, food waste and moulds
often contaminate otherwise recyclable paper.
Full cans, aerosol spray cans and those containing
hazardous waste can cause problems, but metal products
are commonly recycled many times.
Coloured pigments, caps that are of non-recyclable
material, may contaminate a melt and prevent the proper
recycling of the plastic.
Separation of the different types of paper required. Waxed
paper, carbon paper, milk cartons, foil-covered boxes and
thermal fax paper make recycling difficult.
Companies participate in recycling programmes - often by
law - but disposal of oil by ‘do-it-yourself’ oil changers is
a major source of environmental contamination.
Contain lead which can contaminate the environmentif
disposed of improperly.
~. .

Source: Consumer Recycling Gulde - 1996: WWW Page of Evergreetz Industrres

RECYCLING 346

V p r e R-4 A recycling depot. The initla1 collection and sorting

of the recyclable material is
done by the users of the depot which represents a saving in time and money for the
municipal authority.

Photograph: The author

because of its high value and resistance to Althoughtherearesavingsinextraction

corrosion.Increasingly,plastics,glassand and processingcostswhenmaterialsare
paperproductsarebeingrecycledrather recycled, they might be offsetby the costsof
than being incinerated or dumped in collecting them and transporting them an to
sanitary landfill sites. appropriate processing plant. In attempts to
Recycling can take different forms. An encouragerecycling,governments a t all
object, such as a glass bottle or compressed levels have used a wide range of incentives
gas cylinder, might be reused several times, and disincentives.Theseusually take the
forexample.Eventuallythebottle or the form of subsidies, taxes or direct legislation
cylinder will no longer be reusable, how- controlling the disposalof certain products
ever, butmightthenbereprocessed to Subsidies are used to allow recycling whert
produce new containers. In many cases the itwouldnototherwisebe economically
objectscannot be recycleddirectly. They feasible, but with time is expectedto become
canoften be reprocessed forother uses, self-financing. Taxes maybe direct, with the
however. Glass has been used to produce revenue being use to subsidize the recycling
skidresistantroadsurfaces,forexample, ordisposalprocess. A number of juris-
and plastics converted into ‘plastic lumber’, dictionsinNorthAmericahavetaxesin
garbage cans and other containers. place aimed at dealing with the problemof
While recycling is generally considered scrap car tyres which tendto accumulate in
to be environmentally approprlate and the massivedumps, trapping
water
which
technologyexists to achieveit,it is less providesbreedingplacesformosquitoes
widely
developed
than
might
it be. and, in case of fire, having the potential to
347
cause
serious
environmental
problems
through the smoke, gases and oil released.
Taxes on the use of landfill sites indirectly
encourage recycling by making it a less
costlyalternative todumping.Legislation
directed at encouraging recycling can also
include
the
banning of certainnon-
recyclableproducts,suchas‘throw-away’
bottles and other containers. Individuals are
mostofteninvolved inrecycling through
curbside pick-up - the so-called ‘blue-box’
programme - or depot recycling where the
waste is dropped off at a central location.
The main problem with this approachis the
sorting of the collected waste. The inclusion
of inappropriatematerialscanmake re-
cyclingimpossible and every year
large
quantities of plastics collected for recycling
are dumped in landfill sites for that reason.
Although the amount o f material being
collected for recycling is growing rapidly, it
is not beingused as rapidly.Changing
markets alter the demand for the recyclables
REDDATA BOOKS
A series of bookssponsored by theWorld
ConservationUnion, a privateorganization
basedinSwitzerland,thatprovide a global
listing of endangered species. Available Red
Data Books include issues on birds, mammals
of theNewWorldandAustralasia, inver-
tebrates and plants.
Further reading
Cox, G.W. (1993) Cotzservntrotz Ecology:
Biosphere and Biostrrvivnl, Dubuque, IA: Wm C.
Brown.
REDLIST
Based on EuropeanCommissiondirectives,
this is a British list of twenty-three substances
whose discharge into water bodies should be
minimized because of their hazardous nature.
The list includes such substances as mercury
(Hg) and its compounds, DDT, PCBs and a
variety of common pesticides.
See also
Black Llst.
REFLECTION
and as a resulttheyaccumulate in ware-
houses,andthefinancialandenviron-
mentalbenefitsarenotrealized.Thus,
although the potential benefitsof recycling
are high, and the collection of appropriate
materialscan be legislated,the process
cannot be divorced from the broader consid-
erations of the economic system.
See also
Conservation, Plastlcs recycling.
Further reading
McKinney, R.W.J. (ed.)(1995) Techrrology of
Paper Recycling, LondonlNcwYork: BlackLe/
Chapman and Hall.
Powclson, D.R. and Powelson, M.A. (1992) The
Recycler’s Matrtral for Business, Gouerrzment
and the Errvrronwzental Conzmurzrty, Ncw York:
Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Selke, S.E. (1990) Packagrtzg arrd the Etrvtron-
rrzetrt: Altertzatrves, Trends arzd Solutiotrs,
Lancaster, PA: Technomic.
(Sec also the WWW Home Pages o f such environ-
mental groups astheEnvlronmental Recycling
Group and the Recycling Council of Ontario.)
REDRAIN
See precipitation scavenging.
REDUCTION
The removalof oxygen (0)from a compound
or theaddition of hydrogen ( H ) to it. A
reducingagent is a chemicalwhichbrings
about reduction.
REFLECTANCE
A measure o f the ability of a surface to reflect
radiation, defined as the ratio of the amount
of radiation reflected to the amount incident
on the surface.
See also
Albedo, Reflectlon.
REFLECTION
The return of light waves, or other forms of
electromagnetic radiation, when they strikea
surface.
REFRACTION 348
See also RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Albedo, Reflectance.
A measure of the amount of water vapour in
REFRACTION the air, compared to the amount that the air
can hold at that temperature andpressure. It
The bendingof a ray of light or other form of canalso be expressed astheratio of the
radiationthatoccurswhentheraytravels measuredvapourpressure to thesaturated
from one transparent medium into another. vapourpressure of theairatthesame
Light rays bend when they cross the boundary temperature.Relative
humidity is usually
betweenairandwater,forexample.This expressed as a percentage.
occurs because slight differences in the den-
sity of the media cause changes in the wave- See also
length of the light. Rainbows result from the Humldity.
refraction of light by raindropsanddesert
mirages are caused by the refraction of light
rays when they pass through air of different
densities. In coastal areas, water waves are Acronym for Roentgen Equivalent Man - a
refracted when the wave front is slowed more measure of therelativebiological effect of
rapidly in one area than another. This occurs radiation on the humanbody. One rem is the
whenthewavesapproachthecoast at an dose of ionizing radiation that will have the
angle or when the depthof the offshore water same biological effect on an individual as one
is variable. roentgen of X-rays. The rem
has
been
replaced by the sievert (Sv), with oneSv being
REFUSE-DERIVEDFUEL equal to 100 rem.
INCINERATOR
See also
See waste-to-energy incinerator. Rad.

REGIONAL ACIDIFICATION REMOTESENSING

INFORMATION AND
The observation of the surface of the earth
SIMULATION (RAINS)
from a distance by means of sensors. Aerial
photography was the earliest form of remote
Acomputermodeloriginallydeveloped to sensing, but satellite observation is now most
study acid rain in Europe. Designed by the common,involvingthecreation of direct
IIASA, it allows users to visualize the future photographic images or the collection of data
impacts of current actions, or inactions, and in digital form. Remote sensing can provide
to design strategies to deal with them. information for large areas very rapidly, but
accurateanalysisrequiresadequateground
RELATIVEDENSITY control.

Formerly called specific gravity, it is the ratio Further reading

of the density of a substance at agiven temp-
erature to the density of water at 4"C, i.e. its
maximum density. If substance
a has
a LondonMewYork: Chapman and Hall.
relative density of less than 1, it will float on
water, if greater than 1 it will sink. Cork, with
a relative density of 0.24 will float, gold (Au),
with a relative density of 19.3 will sink.
Barrett, E.C. and Curtis, L.F. (1992) Introduction
toEnvwonmental Remote Sensrng (3rd edition),
Gurney, R.J., Foster, J.L. andParkinson, C.L.
(1993) Atlas of Satellite Ohservatrons Related to
Global Change, Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
349 RENEWABLE

RENEWABLE ENERGY Figure R-5 (a) The componentsof a

residential active solar heating system
Energyfromnaturalsources,thatcan be \
replaced as itis used or at least within a very wiar radlatlon
limitedtimeframe.Renewableenergyis
supplied by flowing water, wind, biomass and
the sun. The sun is the ultimate renewable
energy source, and is a very effective nuclear
furnace, able to provide the eartWatmosphere
system with a relatively steady flow of energy
as a result of on-going nuclear fusion. Solar
energycan be useddirectlythroughsolar
panels or photoelectric cells, and once in the
eartWatmosphere system it drives
the
hydrological cycle, which ensures the renewal
of water power, it helps create the pressure
differences,whichcausethewind to blow
and brings about biomass renewal through SOLAR COLLECTOR:P U N
photosynthesis. Theenergy
contained in insulated sides
fossil fuels is also stored solar energy, and in
theory will be restored after use. However,
the replacement processes take so long that
onceusedthesefuelscannot be restored
fluid
within the human time frame, and therefore c incool
inhumantermstheyareconsideredto be
non-renewable resources. plastic orglass top
UntiltheIndustrialRevolution,society
depended almostentirely
on
renewable (b) Residential heating using a passive solar
energy. The more concentrated, more reliable heating system
andmoreefficientenergyavailablefrom
fossilfuelscausedtherenewablesource to
decline in importance. Only water, through
its
ability
provide
to electrical energy,
retained and even increased its importance.
Interest in renewable energy increased in the warm air in
1960s, whenitappearedthatoilandgas
sourceswerefacingdepletion,andinthe
1970s, following the
petroleum
price
increases initiated by the OPEC oil embargo
of 1 9 7 3 . Growingenvironmentalismalso g i k h d . dark wall
favoured the re-adoptionof renewable energy absorbs and
resources, since
they
wereperceived
as re-radiates solar
radiation
causing less environmental damage
than
fossil fuels. They are capable of sustainable
development,buttheyarenotcompletely of forest,bushandscrub to meetthefuel
environmentallyfriendly.Biomassburning needs of rapidly growing populations.
can
create
air
pollution
and
some
in Although the generationof hydroelectricity is
developing countries such as Nepal and parts less damaging to theenvironmentthanits
of the Sahel, where renewable resources did production in thermallypoweredstations,
not completely succumb to the dominanceof hydroelectricschemes have
significant
a
fossil fuels, serious problems of soil erosion effect on the hydrological cycle through the
and desertification have followed the removal creation of large reservoirs and changes in
RENEWABLE 350

stream-flowpatterns.Thedevelopment of Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopklns University Press.

wind energy systems is often accompanied by
aesthetic and noise pollution. RESERVES
Renewable energy sourcescannotsupply
energyin thequantity and withthe efficiency Resources not currently being exploited, but
demanded by modern society. Thus,although available for use and able to be extracted or
they have many desirable traits, they are unlikely harvested using existing technology under the
to replace or even seriously
challenge the prevailingeconomicconditions.Theseare
dominance of non-renewable energy resources. sometimes referred to as proven reserves to
distinguish them from potential reserves. The
See also latter
can
be
considered as identifiable
Non-renewable resources. resources that could be exploited if and when
physical,
economic
technological
and
Further reading conditions,individuallyor in combination,
Boylc, G. (1996) Renewable Energy: Power for a
Sustarnable Futrrre, Oxford:
Oxford University became appropriate.
Press/Open Unlversity.
Darmstadtcr, J., Landsberg, H.H., Morton, H.C. RESERVOIRS - E N V I R O N M E N T A L
and
Coda, M.1. (1983) Energy Today
and EFFECTS
TOHKJ~Y Englewood
~ J W , Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Howes, K. and Famberg, A. (eds) (1991) The
EnergySorucebook: A Gzrrde to Technology, Reservoirs are lakescreatedartificially to
Resoztrces and Policy, New York: American meet specific needs such as the provision of
Institute o f Physics. water
domestic
for consumption, for
irrigation, for industrial use, forhydroelec-
RENEWABLE RESOURCE tricity production, for flood control and for
recreation. Reservoirshavemany of the
A resource that is replaced at a rate which is attributes of natural lakes, but because of the
faster than, o r a t least as fast as, it can be way in which they are created and used, they
used. The oxygen (0)in the air, the plants also give rise to a number of environmental
and animals in the environment, the water in problems. Reservoirs are created by building
the hydrological system and energy from the dams across rivers and allowing the stream
sun are all renewable, for example. Modern flow to pond up to the required level. This
pressures on suchresourceshavecreated almost immediately changes the hydrologyof
situations in which they are unable to renew thearea.Streamflow is alteredandthe
rapidly enough to meet the demands placed existing balance
betweendeposition and
on them. Oxygen is unlikely to be used more erosion is destroyed. Sediment collects in the
rapidly than it can be replaced and the sun reservoir, whereas, below
the
dam,the
will continue to supply energy for millions of absence of sediment in theflowingwater
years. Such resources are sometimes referred allows
greater
erosion.
Nutrients
are
to as perpetualresources. In many places, deposited along with the sediments, and areas
however, plantandanimalresourcesare whichdependeduponthespread of sedi-
beingconsumed atratesthat exceedtheir mentsduring floods to providenutrients
natural rates of reproduction. Similarly, in an become less fertile. The building of the Aswan
increasing number of areas around the world, Dam and the creation of Lake Nasser on the
waterconsumptionrateshaveoutstripped River Nile, for example, resulted in reduced
the ability of the hydrological cycle to main- fertility In the soil downstream from the dam
tain the natural supply. Thus the classification for that reason. Upstream from the reservoir,
of resources as either renewable or non- the streams have to adjust to the presence of
renewable is less clear-cut than it once was. thelakeandthegroundwaterhydrology is
also
affected.
Habitat is destroyed by
Further reading floodingand by water levels thatchange
I’cnrce, D.W. and Turner, 1i.K. ( 1 9 9 0 ) Econonzrcs more
rapidly
than in natural
the
of NaturalResources and the Envrrontnc~nt, environment. Animals are forced out or are
35 1 RESOURCES

drowned by the rising waterlevels behind the reservoirs such as the oceans, atmosphere and
dam and in the adjacent streams the existing terrestrial vegetation from which it flows in
flora and fauna may be unable to adjust to response to interactions in the system.
the new fluvial regimes. Fish such as salmon,
for example, that migrate upstreamto spawn Further reading
will have their migratory patterns disrupted Fearnside, P.M. (1995) ‘Hydroelectrtc dams in the
even when fish laddersareincluded in the BrazilianAmazon as sources o f “greenhouse”
gases’, Erlvrrorzmerltol <:otlSerlJ‘lt/(Jtf22: 7-1 9.
project. On the human side, when reservoirs Friends o f the Earth (1989) DcImrmrlg the
are formed the flooding of agricultural land, Rarrlforest: Irltfinrl Peoples’ Sumnut of Altunzrro,
towns and villages may make it necessary to London: FOE.
relocatcpeople.Thebuilding o f theThree I’carce, F. ( 1992) The Ilanmed: Klvers, Drlms und
the Conzirtg WorldWater Crrsrs, 1,ondon: The
Gorges Dam on the Yangtse River in China, Bodley Head.
for example, will flood some 40,000 hectares
o f landanddisplacemorethan 2 million
RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND
people. Even wherethenumbers of people RECOVERY ACT (RCRA)
are smaller, thedisruption of traditional
lifestyles can be serious. The construction of
reservoirs for the development of the James An act passed by the US Congress i n 1976 to
Bay Project in Canadaand hydroelectric deal with the problem of waste disposal. The
megaprojects in the Brazilian Amazonhave provisions of the act are administered by the
disrupted the environment to such a n extent EPA, which was required to develop criteria
thatthetraditionalhuntingandgathering designating
for hazardouswaste
and
activities o f theindigenouspeople of these establishanationwidereportingsystemfor
regions are no longer viable. companiesinvolvcd in theproductionand
Thedevelopment o f increasinglylarger disposal of such waste. The original law was
reservoirshasincreasedtheirpotentialto found to contain many loopholes and i n an
have a global impact. The Altamira Project attempt to closethem anamendmentwas
on the Xingu River in Brazil will involve the passedin 1984thatextendedthewaste
flooding of some 18,000 km2 of rainforest. disposalguidelines to agreaternumber of
Past experience with similar projects suggests companiesandbroadened itsprovisions to
thatsuchanarea is unlikely to be logged includenot
just
landfill sites, but
also
before flooding and millions of cubic metres underground storage
tanks.
The
1984
of primetimber will be lost.Floodingthe amendments were aimed at encouraging the
forest will prevent it from recycling carbon reuse,recycling andneutralization of toxic
dioxide(CO?),causing it to contribute
wastes, with disposal in landfill seen as the
indirectly to global warming, and when the last resort. Many environmentalists consider
drowned timber begins to decay it is likely to the act’s definition of hazardousortoxic
produce considerable quantities of methane wastes to be too narrow and would include
(CH,,) which is also linked to warming. sewage,
agricultural
wastes
containing
Problemssuchasthesehave led environ- pesticidesandmineor mill tailings in the
mentalgroups to oppose schemeswhlch system.
require the creatlon o f large reservoirs. They
See also
havemetwithsome success, but in many Acid nunc dramage.
nations, such as Brazil and China, where a
reliable and relatively cheap supply of energy Further reading
is seen as aprerequisiteforfuturedevelop- Smith, Z.A. (1995) The Ertvrrorrmer~tal Policy
ment the planning and construction of such Paradox, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: I’rcntice-Hall.
schemes is likely to continue.
The term reservoir is also used to refer to RESOURCES
storage facilities for other commodities In the
environment. In the carbon cycle, for exam- In thebroadest sense,resourcesareany
ple, carbon (C) is stored in a number o f objects, materials or commodities that are of
RESOURCES 352

use t o society. The concept

is
entirely Non-renewable Finite supply and cannot
anthropocentric. Different groups of people resources: be replaced
as
rapidly
as
value different materials as resources, and as they are being used, e.g.
society changes, so does its concept of what fossil fuels, mineral ores.
constitutes a resource. In the energy field, for
Potential
Will
only
become
resources
example,woodwasreplaced by coal,and
resources: when
economic,
the
coal by petroleum as the main resource, but
cultural or technological
the change has not been universal and some
conditions in a society
groups still depend on wood as their main
create a demand for them,
source of energy. Perhaps the
ultimate
e.g. waste water, scrap car
example of the way in which materials are
tyres.
valued differently by different groups occurs
in recycling, where the waste products of a
When used economic
an
in context,
community become resources for the recycler.
renewable and non-renewable resources are
Resources can be classified in a number of
commonlyreferredtoasflowandstock
ways, depending upon the context in which
resources respectively. Resources can also be
they
being
areconsidered. A basic categorized
according their
to existing
classification would include the following:
availability and their potential futurediscovery.
Reserves are known quantities which can be
Perpetual
Will
always
exist
in
obtained economically at existing prices and
resources:
relatively
constant
supply
with existing technology. Slightly less available
no matter how they are
are conditional resources which are known to
used, e.g. solar energy.
exist, but which are not suitable for exploit-
RenewableReplaced by natural ationuntileconomicand/ortechnological
resources:
processes
oncethey are used, conditions change. Unidentified resources are
e.g. forests, animals, water. those which have not yet been discovered, but

Figure R-6 A classification of the different formsof resources and their relationships

4
Identified
resources I In known I In resources
Undiscovered unknown $'

- Degree of certainty of existence

pmved mwes
Potential resources E
conditional + hypothetical + SpeCulathre
Source: After Park, C.C. (1997) The Environment: Prrncrples and Applications, London: Routledge
353 RIO DECLARATION

through
past
experienceor
preliminary RICHARDSON, L.F.
exploration are expected to become available.
Theboundariesbetweenthedifferentcate- A British meteorologist who was a pioneerin
gories are not static, but change as the socio- the field of numerical atmospheric modelling
economic, cultural and technological nature as a means of providing weather forecasts.
of society changes. He published the results of his work in 1922
in his book Weather Prediction by Numerical
Further reading Process. At the time, his methods were not
Becht, J.E. and
Belzung,
L.D. (1975) World
Resource
Management, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ:
practicable. The complexity of the comput-
Prentice-Hall. ationsrequiredandtheexistence of only
Cutter,S.L.,Renwlck,H.L.andRenwlck,W.H. rudimentary methods of mechanicalcal-
( 1 991) Exploitation,Conservation, Preservatron: culation meant that the predictions could not
AGeographtcPerspectiveonNaturalResource keep ahead of changing weather conditions.
Use, New York: Wiley.
Rees, J. (1990) NaturalResources:Allocatron, As a result, no real forecast could be made. It
Economics and Policy, London: Routledge. took almost forty years and the development
of moresophisticateddatacollectionand
RESPIRATION analysistechniquesbeforethetheorycould
be put into practice.
The process by which aerobic organisms take
oxygen (0)from the air and use it to oxidize Further reading
organic compounds from which they obtain Ashford, O.M. (1981) ‘The dream
and
the
energy. By-products of the process are carbon fantasy’, Weather 36: 323-S.
Ashford, O.M. (1992) ‘Development of weather
dioxide
(CO,)
and
water.
Respiration forecastlng in Britain, 1900-40’, Weather 47: 394-
sometimes refers onlyto the processby which 402.
the oxygen is taken into the body initially -
through lungs or gills - and carbon dioxideis
given out. Anaerobic respiration is a form of RIO DECLARATION
respirationused by organismsthatdonot
have access to oxygen for producingenergy. A declaration of globalprinciples onthe
theme of economically and environmentally
RETROFITTING sound development. Along with Agenda 21,
it represented the culminationof the activities
Theadaptation of an existing structure or of theUnited
NationsConference on
appliance to meetneeds that did notexist EnvironmentandDevelopment(UNCED).
whenthestructure or appliancewasfirst TheRioDeclarationcontainstwenty-seven
constructed. For example, coal-burning ther- principles which have the collective goal of
malpowerplantsmayberetrofittedwith establishing newlevels of global co-operation
scrubbers to meet the requirementof acid gas to achieve sustainable development without
emission levels that are now lower than they further jeopardizing the environment. Con-
werewhentheplantswerefirstbuilt.The taining reference to such elements as thespecial
addition of extrainsulation to residential needs of developing nations, the eradication
properties to save energy and cut costs in the of poverty, theparticularroles of women,
1 9 7 0 ~asenergy
~ prices rose, is another youth and indigenous peoples and the develop-
example of retrofitting. ment of public awareness of the problems, as
well aspromotingtherationalizationand
RETURNPERIOD expansion of traditional approaches such as
environmental legislation, environmental impact
See recurrence interval. assessment and economic, scientific and
technological
policy
developments, the
Rio
REVERSE OSMOSIS Declaration has the potential to have a major
impact on global environmental and economic
See osmosis. systems.However, therecan be no assurance
ROENTGEN 354

that these efforts will be successful. They were land and sea. During the transition between
the result of compromise among some 150 the stable patterns within that range, the paths
nations, and attaining sufficient common ground followed by the waves are quite variable and
to make this possibleinevitably weakened the difficult to forecast. The influence of Rossby
language and contentof the Declaration, leaving waves extendsto
the
lower
atmosphere,
it open to various interpretations and therefore throughtheircontribution to thedevelop-
less likely to be effective. ment of suchfeaturesasmid-latitudelow
pressure systems, for example. Wave patterns
Further reading similar to those of theatmosphericRossby
I’carson, EA., Hass, P.M. and Levy, M.A. ( 1992) waves have also been identified in the oceans.
‘A summary o f the major documents signed a t thc
earth summit and thc global forum’, Ertwrwmertt
34: 12-15 and 34-6.
I’earce, F. ( 1992) ‘1)cspondency dcscends on h o ’ ,
Netu Scwrltlst 134 ( 1824): 4.
Further reading
ROENTGEN Barry, R.G. and Chorky, R.J. ( 1992) Atrrzospherc,
Wcrrtl~r m d Climate (6th edition),
London:
Routledge.
A unit formerly used to measure X- or gamma Harman, J.l<. (1967) Troposp/wrtcWuues, ]et
radiation.
Namedafter
WilhelmKonrad Strccrrrts ‘ 7 I l d Urtrtcd States W c u t h ~ r Puttcrrzs,
Washmgton, DC:
Assoclatlon of Amcrlcan
Roentgen ( 1 845-1923),the discoverer of Geographers.
X-rays, it has been replaced by coulombs per
kilogram of dryairinthe SI system. One ROTENONE
roentgen is equivalent to 2.58 X Clkg.

See also See insecticides.

Curie, Rad, Rem.
RUNOFF
ROSSBY WAVES
The water that flows across the land surface
Longwaves in thecircumpolarwesterly into rivers and lakeswhenprecipitation
airflow in the upper
atmosphere,first exceedsevapotranspiration and
the
soil
described by Carl Rossby in the 1930s. They moisture storage is full. It can take the form
are brought about by latitudinal variations in of sheet flow, but ultimately
formsand
theCoriolisparameterandtheir effect on follows rills, gullies or channels. Runoff may
vorticity. Air moving polewards takes on an be increased by human activitiessuchas
anticyclonic flow which tendsto bring it back agricultureandforestrywhichreducethe
towards the
equator. As the air
moves Infiltration capacity of the soil, and increase
towardstheequator it takes on a cyclonic the potential for soil erosion and flooding.In
flow which causes it to swing back towards urbanareasthepresence of largeareas of
the pole. The net result is the north-south- impervioussurfacematerialleads to high
north oscillation of the air stream as it moves runoff rates.
around
the
earth,
and
through these
oscillations,Rossbywavesmakeamajor See also
contribution to meridional energy transfer in Hydrologlcal cyclc.
mid- to high latitudesTheflowpattern
commonly resolves itself into a rangeof three Further reading
Agassl, M. (ed.) (1996) Soil Erostorz, Corrservatron
t o sixwaves,withanumber of preferred attd Kehahilitotrorz, New York: M. Dekker.
locationscreated by thepresence of major Natlonal
ResearchCouncil (1993) Hydrology,
mountain ranges such as the Rockies, Andes Hydruzrlics arzd Water Quality, Washington, DC:
andtheTibetanPlateau or by thethermal Natlonal Academy Press.
differences caused by differential heating of
SAARBRUCKEN INTERNATIONAL regulations which controlled the underground
CONFERENCE (1990) disposal of wastes thatmightcontaminate
groundwaterandendangerdrinking-water
A conference on the role of energy in climate supplies.
and
development. It recognized thatthe
problemsinvolving
energy
and
climate See also
change were global in nature and therefore Water quality, Water quality standards.
neededglobalsolutions.
Thesesolutions,
however, would have to take into account the Further reading
Gilbert,C.G.andCalabrese, E.J. (eds) (1992)
different socioeconomic conditions in different Regulatrng Dritzkmg Water Qucllity, Boca Raton,
countriesand be modifiedaccordingly.A FL: Lewis.
majorconcerninvolveddealingwiththe Kaufman, D.G. and Franz, C.M. (1993) Biosphere
natural aspirations of developing nations. A 2000: Protectrng our Global Emurolrment, New
York: HarperCollins.
blanketcurb on carbon dioxide (CO,)
emissions, for example, wouldbe particularly
damaging to these nations, and to arrive at a SAHEL
globalaverageforemissionreductions, it
might be necessary to introduce above- A semi-arid to arid area, subject to seasonal
averagerestrictions on developednations, and long-term drought, in West Africa south
while developing nations would be allowed of the Sahara Desert. Named from the Arabic
more leeway, but with progress tiedto greater
energy efficiency. The question of assessment Figure S-I The location of the Sahel
of environmentalcostswasalsodiscussed.
Participants in the conference agreed that the
prices of the different forms of energy should
reflect theenvironmentalcostswhichtheir
use incurred, and suggested that taxes should
be rearranged to encourage the use of
environmentally friendly energy systems.

SAFE DRINKING-WATER ACT

(SDWA)
A US federal government act passed in 1974
andmodified in 1977, whichsetnational
drinking-water
standards
andestablished
maximum contaminant levels (MCL) for
pollutants in water likely to be used for
human consumption. The act also introduced W
SALINITY
word for ‘border’, since it borders the desert,
the Sahel properconsists of sixnations -
Senegal, MauretaniaMali,BurkinaFaso,
Niger and Chad - but the name has come to
includeadjacentnationsthatsufferfrom
problems of drought,famineanddesertifi-
cation that are characteristic of the Sahel. I t is
an area of seasonal drought in which pastoral
farming depends upon precipitation from the
Intertropical
Convergence Zone
for
the
growth of grass and other forage. When the
rainsarelateor less thanexpected,little
vegetationgrowsandthere is insufficient
food for the animals. During longer periods
of drought, such as in the 1960s and 197Os,
the animals die and famine follows. Longer
periods of drought also encourage desertifi-
cationthroughthesouthwardspread of
desert-like
conditions
from
the
adjacent
Sahara Desert.
Further reading
Bryson, R.A. and Murray, T.J. (1977) Climates of
Hunger, Madison, WI:University of Wisconsin
Press.
Glantz, M.H. (ed.) (1976) The Politics of Natural
D~saster:The Case of the Sahel Drought, New
York: Praeger.
Grinner, J.A. (1988) TheWest African Suhel:
HumanAgency
and
Environmental
Change,
Chicago:University of Chicago;Committee on
Geographical Studies.
Hulme, M. (1989) ‘Isenvironmentaldegradation
causing drought in the Sahel? An assessment from
recent empirical research’, Geography 74: 38-46.
SALINITY
A measure of theproportion of dissolved
salts and other solids present in water, usually
expressed in parts per million (ppm). Sodium
chloride(NaCI) is themainconstituent of
saline water, but salts of other metals such as
potassium (K) and magnesium (Mg) are also
common. Sea water typically contains in
excess of 30,000 pprn of dissolved solids, but
in some areas, such as the Persian Gulf, for
example,thesalinitymay exceed 40,000
ppm, whereas in the Baltic the salinity is less
than 7000 pp”. The highest salinity readings
comefromtheDead Sea whichcontains
240,000 pprn of dissolvedsolids.Under-
ground water pumped up from deep wells is
also often salty. To be potable it must contain
356
less than 500 pprn and for irrigationless than
1000 ppm of total dissolved solids.
Further reading
Strahler, A.H. and Strahler, A.N. (1992) Modern
Physical Geography (4th edition), New York:
Wiley.
SALINIZATION
The build-up of salts in soil as a result of the
capillaryflow of salinewatertowardsthe
surface. Salinization is a common problem in
areaswhereagriculturerequiresirrigation.
There, the natural process is exacerbated by
the evaporation of irrigation water that not
only adds salts directly to the soil, but also
encouragessub-surfacewaterto be drawn
from deeper levels to the surface where it is
evaporated. At best, it can lead to a reduction
in crop yields; atworst, it makestheland
sterile and unsuitable for agriculture. Mostof
the world’s irrigated lands are subject to some
degree of salinization, and as much as 30 per
cent may have reached the stage of desertifi-
cation.Salinization
also
occurswhere a
change in vegetation cover reduces the level
of evapotranspiration and allows an increase
in the groundwater recharge rate. The water
table rises towardsthesurface,making it
easier for capillary action to draw water up
through the soil to be evaporated and deposit
salt. A combination of gooddrainageand
sufficient water to leach the salts back down
through the soil may prevent or even reverse
the process, but it is costly and the drainage
of salt-laden water may damage the environ-
ment in adjacent areas. In the United States
some 300,000 hectaressuffersalinization,
reducing crop productivityby as much as25-
30 per cent. In many developing nations such
asPakistan,Iran,IraqandMexicoit is a
growingconcernand in Indiaalone20
millionhectaresexperiencesomedegree of
salinization. Salinization is a problem of long
standing in some areas however, having
causedproblems for theirrigation-based
agrariancivilizations of southernMesopo-
tamia some 4000 years ago.
See also
Leachmg.
 357 SANITARY LANDFILL

Further reading sulphuricacid (H,SO,). Sodiumchloride is

Chiras, D. (1994) Envlronmental Scrence: Action known as common salt.
for aSustainable Future (4th edition), Redwood
City, CA: BenjaminKumming.
Jacobsen, T. and Adams, R.M. (1971) ‘Salt and silt SALT MARSH
in ancientMesopotamianagriculture’, in T.R.
Detwyler(ed.) Man’s Impact on Envrronment, A wetland area found in the intertidal zone of
New York: McGraw-Hill.
low-lying coasts, mainly in temperate regions.
Salt marshes develop close to the maximum
SALT tidal limits on mud-flats and are flooded only
intermittently. They support a range of salt-
A compound formed when the hydrogen ( H ) tolerant or halophyticplants,whichcontr-
in an acid is replaced by a metal. When an ibutetotheaggradation of thecoast by
acid reacts with a base, for example, a salt is trappingandcolonizingsedimentbrought
formed and water released. into the marsh during tidal flooding.
NaOH + HCI + NaCl + H,O See also
sodium
hydrochloric
sodium
water Wetlands.
chloride
hydroxide
acid
(base) SAND

Salts are named after the acid and metal from Unconsolidated sediment consisting of mineral
whichtheyareformed - sodiumchloride granules ranging between about60 pm and 2
(NaCI) from sodium (Na) and hydrochloric mm in diameter. Particles of silica or quartz
acid
(HCI),
for
example,
and
calcium (50,)are common components of sand.
sulphate (CaSO,) fromcalcium(Ca)and

SANITARY LANDFILL

A North American term for the disposal of
domestic refuse or garbage by controlled
tipping or dumping. Sanitary landfill sites
are operated in such a way that they reduce
or removetheproblemsassociatedwith
uncontrolledgarbagedisposal in rubbish
dumps or waste tips. They are designed to
minimize the problems of litter and odours
that
constitute a public nuisance
at
uncontrolled sites, and to dealwiththe
potentialpublichealththreatsfromrats,
birds
and flies whichare
attracted
to
dumps. In North America, visits by larger
animals such as bears are also reduced by
controlleddumping. If properlymanaged,
sanitary
landfill sites also reduce the
indiscriminate dumping of hazardous wastes.
The form of individual sanitary landfill
sitesvaries accordingtosuchfactors
topography, geology, groundwaterhydro-
logy,landavailabilityandthevolume
waste requiring disposal, but most fit into
two types - the trench system or the area
system. In somesites,therampsystem,
which is a combination of the other two, is
used. All are operated using
similar
techniques, however. Incoming garbage is
spread
and
compacted in selected
a
working area and at the end of theday’s
operation the waste is covered with a layer
of compacted soil some 15 cm thick. When
theavailablespace atthe sitehasbeen
completely filled, a layer of soil between 50
and 60 cm thick is spread over the surface,
vegetation is reintroduced and landscaping
is carriedouttocompletetherehabilit-
ation. The rehabilitated land is most com-
monly used as open space parkland or for a
variety of recreational uses, but in some
places agricultural uses such as grazing are
as allowed.
Despite the many advantagesof the sani-
of tary landfill approach to waste disposal, it
is notwithout its problems. Burying the
SANTA B A R B A R A O I L SPILL 358

Figure S-2The structure and componentsof a sanitary landfill system

garbage creates anaerobic conditions that They destroy the existing environment and
lead t o the formation of methane (CH,) gas may
take
agricultural
land
out of
duringthedecompositionprocess.Inthe commission for an extended period. They
past,
seepage of methane has
caused cause noise, and increased traffic flow puts
explosionsinbuildingssited onformer pressure on the local road network.
landfill sites. As a result, building on such Perceived as reducing
adjacentland
locationsisseldompermitted,andsome values, and often identified with old-style
form of ventilationsystem is requiredat open tips, sanitary landfill sites are frequent
most sites t o allow the gas to dissipate. In targets for public opposition, particularly in
large landfill sites, the amount of methane the planning stages when they are subject to
producedmay be sufficient tomake its the effects of the NIMBY syndrome. As a
collectionanduseasafuelworthwhile. result of strong political and environmental
The drainage of liquids - leachate - from opposition to the creation of new landfill
landfill
potential
sites
the
has to facilities, many jurisdictions are beginning
contaminatethe local surfacewaterand to reconsider their waste disposal priorities.
groundwater supply. This is normally dealt Recycling, for example, can remove large
with by appropriateplanningthattakes amounts of paper and plastic from domestic
into account local drainage patterns, but in and industrial garbage, reducing the volume
some cases it may be necessary to seal the of waste beingplaced
in
landfill
and
base of thelandfillsite,usingclay,for allowingtheexistingsites t o remainin
example, t o prevent the
drainage of operation for a longer periodof time.
leachate into the groundwater system. The
leachate is pumped storage
to for Further reading
subsequent safe
disposal.Despitetheir Bagchi, A. (1994) Desrgn, Constructton and
Monitorrng o f u Sunrtury Landfill (2nd edition),
manyadvantagesovertraditionalwaste New York: Wiley.
disposal techniques, sanitary landfill sites are Environment Canada (1983) Stress on Land,
notcompletelyenvironmentallyfriendly. Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishlng Centre.

SANTA BARBARA OIL SPILL eight

months
and
total
in introduced
some
10,000tonnes of crude oil into the ocean. It
A spillwhichoriginatedinleakagefromawashedashore t o pollutetheSantaBarbara
drillingoperation off thecoast of Californiabeaches,killsome 3500 sea birdsand
near Santa Barbara in January 1969. The oil seriously damage other marine life. Although
continued to leak from the site for a further a relatively small spill compared to many oil
359 SAVANNA

tanker accidents, the Santa Barbara spill was pheric conditions. A saturated air massis one
important because it was the first serious oil which has absorbed as much water vapour as
spill
assocated
with
offshore
petroleum it canata specific temperature. Similarly,
development in the United States. The ques- saturation in soils is reachedwhenallthe
tions raised by the spill led to an examination availableporespaceshave beenfilled with
of the policies andproceduresadopted by water.
government and industry for the exploitation
of offshore petroleum resources, and contri- See also
buted to improveddrillingandclean-up Absolute humldity.
guidelines.
SAVANNA
See also
Oil pollution, O i l tanker accidents. A major biome of thesemi-aridtropics, in
which annual grasses predominate, but with
Further reading a scatteringof trees. The grasses grow rapidly
Steinhart, C.E. and Steinhart, J.S. ( 1 972) Blotuotrt: during the wet season and die o f f in the dry
A C a e Study ( ~ f t hhr t t c l Unrbarn Oil .ypi//, North
Scituntc, M A : lluxbury Press.
season,whereasthetreeshavedeveloped
drought-resistant characteristics which allow
them to survive the seasonal drought. Fire is
SATURATED ADIABATIC LAPSE
common in the dry season and that tends to
RATE (SALR)
favour the survivalof the grass over the trees.
Towardstheir
polewardboundaries, the
See adiabatic process. savannas give way to the desert biome and
equatorwards, they ultimately merge with the
SATURATION tropicalforest.Thegreatestextent of the
savanna is immediately south of the Sahara
Astate in whlchasolutioncontainsthe Desert in Africa, but it is also present in parts
maximumamount of solutethatcan be of South America and Australia. The animal
dissolved and remain in solution a t a given population of the savanna is dominated by
temperature. The term also applies to atmos- large
herbivores - wildebeest, antelope,
Figure S-3 The global distribution of savanna grasslands
SCATTERING 360
kangaroo - and the predators- lions, hyenas, conduct
interdisciplinary
analyses of
dingoes -that prey on them. environmentalproblems,particularlythose
thatareglobal inscale. SCOPE doesnot
See also support research directly, but worksto ensure
Grasslands. that
theknowledge supplied by current
environmental
research is appropriately
Further reading evaluated. It has investigated and published
BourliPre, F. (ed.)(1983) Tropical
Savannas, reports on a wide range of issues including
Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Huntley. B.J. and Walker, B.H. (eds)
(1982) biogeochemical cycles,the
environmental
Ecology of Tropical Savannas: Ecologtcal Studies consequences of nuclear warandclimate
42, Berlin: Springer-Verlag. change.

SCATTERING Further reading

Bolin, B., Doos, B.R., Jager, J. and Warrick, R.A.
(eds)
(1986) TheGreenhouseEffect,
Climate
The deflection of radiation by small particles ChangeandEcosystems, SCOPE 29, New York:
suspended in its path. Although it applies to Wiley.
all types of radiation it is particularly evident SCOPE-ENUWAR(1987)‘Environmentalconse-
in the case of visible light. The blue colour of quences of nuclear war: an update’, Environment
the sky, for example, is caused by the 29: 4 5 and 45.
scattering of white light by the gas molecules
in the atmosphere, and red skies are caused SCREE
by thescattering of bluelight by small
aerosols suspended in the air. Talus.Loose,unconsolidatedangularrock
fragments, commonly produced when mech-
anicalweatheringsuchasfrostshattering
SCHISTOSOMIASIS causes rock to break off a steep slope or cliff
and accumulate atits base.
A tropical or subtropical intestinal disease of
humanscaused by parasiticflatworms or See also
flukes. Using snails as intermediate hosts, the Mass movement.
flukesarespreadfromperson to person
through polluted water and insanitary living SCRUBBERS
habits.
Deteriorating
health
and
reduced
resistance usually cause those infected to die Structures used to reduce acid gas emissions
of secondary diseases rather than the schito- from industrial plants, with the ultimate aim
somiasis itself. Schistosomiasis is prevalent in of preventing acid rain. Wet or dry techniques
Africa, South America and tropicalAsia, where can be used, but all involve bringing the gases
as many as 200 million people are infected. in contact with alkaline or basic substances
whichneutralizetheir acidity. In dryscru-
See also bbers,forexample,acidity is reduced by
Parasite. passing the gases through crushed limestone,
whereas in wet scrubbers the neutralization
Further reading takes place when the gases come in contact
Hickman, C.P., Roberts, L.S. andLarson, A.
(1996) Integrated Prrnctples o f z o o l o g y , Dubuque, withlime-richsolutions.Scrubbershavean
IA: Wm C. Brown. advantageoverothertechniques of acid
Spencer, H. (1976) Tropical Pathology, New York: reduction in that they can be employed in
Springer-Verlag. existingplants by retrofitting. Efficient wet
scrubbers can remove upto 95 per cent of the
SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE ON acidity from emissions (see Figure F-4).
PROBLEMS OF THE
ENVIRONMENT (SCOPE) Further reading
Park, C C . ( 1 9 8 7 )Acrd Ram: Rhetorrcarrd Reality,
A committeecreated in 1969 by ICSU to London: Mcthuen.
361 SEA-LEVEL

Ridley, M. (1993) ‘Cleaning up wlth cheap Figure S-4 Contributions t o sea-level change
technology’, New Scientrst 137 (1857): 26-7. over the past century
cm
SEA ICE MODELS 25

Models which attempt to simulate the role of

sea ice inglobalclimates.Thesimplest
modelsrepresentsea ice asamotionless
uniform layer, but more sophisticated models 20
incorporate snow on the ice, fractional ice
coverage, multilayer ice, the effectsof salinity
and sea ice dynamics. They may be incor- THERMAL
porated in ocean models or coupled directly 15 EXPANSION
to general circulation models. GLACIERS,
BEST
ESTIMATE
0 SMALL ICE CAPS
Further reading (10.5) GREENLAND
IPCC (1996) Climate Change 1995: The Science of ICE SHEET
Climate Change, Cambridge: Cambridge Universlty 10
Press. ANTARCTIC
ICE SHEET

SEA LEVEL
5
The level that a calm sea, unaffectedby tides
or waveswouldassume.Meansea level
(MSL) at any coastal location is taken as the
average of high and low tide levels. MSL is
used as a datum from which altitudes on land 0
and beneath the ocean are measured.

Further reading
Woodroffe, C. (1994) ‘Sea
level’, Progressin
Physical Geography 18: 436-51. -5

SEA-LEVEL CHANGE Source: Derived from data in IPCC (1990)

Climate Change: TheIPCC Screntific Assessment,
Coastlines
around
world
theprovide Cambrldge: Cambrldge University Press
abundantevidencethat sea level hasnot
always occupied its present position. Raised change. Towards the end of the last ice age
beaches several metres above the current sea some 10,000 years ago, melting ice returned
level andkilometres
from
the
present water to the oceans causing a eustatic rise in
coastline indicate highersea levels in the past, sea level. At the same time, the removal of the
while river valleys that continue out on to theice fromthelandallowedisostaticuplift
continental shelf beneath the ocean provide which altered the relative positions of land
evidence that past sea levels were also lower. and sea. Thus, the net sea-level change was
Risingandfalling sealevels arebrought brought about by a combination of eustatic
about globally by eustatic change, and locallyand isostaticfactors.
Currently
there
is
or regionallyby isostatic and tectonic change. considerable interest in the potential impact
Any sea-level changeis typically the result of of globalwarmingon sea level. Change
acombination of thesefactors.Tectonic would result from the thermal expansion of
changes such as earth movements or volcanic the ocean waters and the melting of glaciers
activity, for example, may change the shape and ice sheets as global temperatures rose.
of the ocean basins and contribute to eustatic The potential for change has been examined
SEA-SURFACE 362

by the IPCC and it has reported that there is (1986) ‘Sahelrainfall

evidence that sea level may already haverisen
by 10-25 cm in the past century and that the
trend islikely to continue.According to its
projections, sea level may rise by 38-55 cm by
the year 2100, withmost of theincrease
attributable to the melting of snow and ice.
Should such an increase come to pass, it would
create
major
environmental, political
and
economic problems for all coastal nations.
See also
Eustasy, Flood, Isostasy.
Further reading
Goudie, A.S. (1992) Enurrortme?ztal Change,
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
IPCC (1996)Climate Change 1995: The Scrence of
Climate Change, Cambridge: Cambridge Univcrslty
Press.
Sahagian, D.L., Schwnrtz, F.W. and Jacobs, D.K.
(1994) ‘Direct anthropogenic contributions to sea
level rise in thetwentlethcentury’, Nature 367:
54-7.
Tooley, M.J. and Shennan, I. (eds) (1987)Sea Leuel
Changes, Oxfordmew York: Blackwell.
SEA-SURFACE TEMPERATURES
(SSTs)
and
worldwide sea
temperatures1901-85;observational,modelling
and slrnulation studies’, Notrrrc 320: 602-7.
Owen, J.A. and Ward, M.N. (1989) ‘Forecasting
Sahel rainfall’, Weather 44: 57-64.
SEASONAL DROUGHT
One of theforms of drought identified by
C.W. Thornthwaite. Areas
experiencing
seasonal drought have distinct dry and wet
seasons duringthe year, usuallyassociated
with changing air mass distribution. Seasonal
drought is common in the tropical
and
subtropicalgrasslands of Africa,Indiaand
Australiawheredryconditionsarebrought
on by the arrival of continental tropical airas
theIntertropicalconvergence zone (ITCZ)
advancesequatorwards.Therainyseason
arrives with the maritime tropical air massas
the ITCZ returns. If the maritime air fails to
arrive, seasonal drought may extend into the
normal
wet
season,
disrupting
human
activities and causing potential hardship to
the inhabitants of these areas.
See also
Sahel, Savanna.

A source of information on potential change Further reading

in the earthlatmosphere system. Anomalous
warming or cooling of the seasurface,for
example, may be followed some time laterby
changingpressure,windandprecipitation
patterns.Oncetheinitialchangehas been
identified,suchtime-lagsallowsubsequent
events to be predicted.Sea-surfacetemp-
eratureanomaliesintheAtlanticOcean
during the spring, for example, have allowed
the forecasting of summer rainfall patterns in
the Sahel. SSTs also play a role in the develop-
ment of tropicalcyclones,whichrequire
water temperatures tobe at least 27°C before
they form. There is some concern that, with
future global warming, this threshold will be
exceeded more frequently, thus increasing the
number of storms.
See also
El Niiio.
Further reading
Folland, C.K., I’almcr. T.N. and Parker, D.E.
Thornthwaite, C.W. (1947) ‘Climate and moisture
conservation’, Annals of the Assocratron of
American Geographers 37: 87-100.
SECOND WORLD CLIMATE
CONFERENCE
A conference sponsoredby the WMO, UNEP
and UNESCO, held in Geneva, Switzerland
in 1990. Deliberationsatthescientificand
technicalsessionsproducedtheconsensus
that, since climate issues extended beyond the
physicalsciences intosocialandeconomic
systems, increased attention should be given
to improving knowledge of climateand
humaninteractions. In addition,although
they
allowed
that
many
uncertainties
remained, the participants at the conference
suggested that regional and national
programmes be initiated to reducesources
and increasesinks of greenhouse gases to
slow predicted global warming. The Minis-
terialDeclarationissued attheend of the
363 SEDIMENT YIELD

conference reaffirmed these suggestions and Further reading

urgedthedevelopednations to analysethe
available options with a view to developing
programmes,strategiesandtargetsforthe
reduction of greenhouse gas emissions,for
presentation
at
the UN Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED) at
Rio in 1992.
See also
First World Climate Conference.
SECONDARYAEROSOLS
Aerosols formed as a result of chemical and
physicalprocessesintheatmosphere.They
include
aggregates of gaseousmolecules,
water droplets and chemical products suchas
sulphates and hydrocarbons. They are con-
centrated in the size range of 0.01-1 pm and
may make up as much as 64 per cent of total
global aerosols. Eight per cent are of anthro-
pogenicorigin,fromcombustionsystems,
vehicleemissions andindustrialprocesses,
whiletheremaining S6 percentarefrom
natural sources such as volcanoes, the oceans
and a wide range of organic processes.
See also
Primary aerosols.
Fennelly, P.F. (1981) ‘The origin and influence of
airborne particles’, in B.J. Skinner (ed.) Climates,
Past arld Present, Los Altos, CA: Kauffmann.
SECURELANDFILL
A development of the sanitary landfill concept
for the safe disposal of hazardous waste. To
preventthewastefromescapingintothe
environment through leakage, secure landfill
sites are usually sealed with a heavy plastic
liner and the products stored in containers.
This segregation is necessary to prevent the
mixing of wastes should individual containers
leak.When full, thesite issealedwith a
plastic and clay cap to preventtheperco-
lation of precipitation. The contentsof secure
landfill sites must be recorded and the sites
monitoredforleachateandgasproduction
for an extended period of time to ensure that
the integrity of the system is maintained.
SEDIMENTYIELD
The
total
amount of particulatematter
leaving a drainage basin in the form of bed
load or suspended load.
reflects
It the
combined effects of a number of physical
conditions
and
activities in thedrainage

Figure S-5 The requirements of a secure landfill site

methane methane recovery leachate storage

storage tank and treatment
facility
n

.. ..... .. .

Imonitoring
~

well
SEDIMENTARY R O C 364
K

basin.Suchfactors as climate,topography, SELECTIVE CATALYTIC

rocktype,vegetationcoverandlanduse REDUCTION
control erosion, and although not all of the
eroded material is carried out of the basin, An efficient but costly process developed to
anychanges inthesefactorsareusually reducetheemission of oxides of nitrogen
followed by changes in sediment yield.In (NOx)from power plants. With the helpof a
areas where vegetation is sparse and preci- catalyst,theoxides of nitrogenarebroken
pitation variable, sediment yields will increase down into harmless nitrogen (N) and oxygen
in wetteryearsanddecline in drieryears. (0). The processis efficient - removing up t o
Human activities such as logging and arable 80 per cent of the oxides of nitrogen released
agriculture,whichencourageincreasedsoil - but it is costly to install and maintain.
erosion also contributeto highersediment
yields. Further reading
Ellis, E.C.,Erbes, R.E. and Grott, J.K. (1990)
Further reading ‘Abatement of atmosphericemissions in North
Ritter, D.F., Kochel, C.R. and Miller, J.R. (1995) America:progress to date and promise for the
Process Geomorphology (3rd edition), Dubuque, future’, in S.E. Lindberg,A.L.PageandS.A.
IA: Wm C. Brown. Norton (eds) Actdic Precrprtatton, Volume 3,
Sources,
Deposttionand
Canopy
Interactions,
New York: Springer-Verlag.
SEDIMENTARY ROCK
SEMI-PERMEABLE MEMBRANE
Rockproduced by theconsolidation of
sediments deposited by wind, water or ice.
See osmosis.
Sedimentary rocks
may be createdfrom
fragments or particleserodedfromolder
rocks(forexample,sandstoneandshale), SENSIBLE HEAT
from organic material (for example, coal) or
from
chemicalprecipitates
(for
example, Heat which canbe felt or sensed. The sensible
gypsumandcertainlimestones). Typically, heat of a substance or object represents the
sedimentaryrocksaredeposited in distinct heat content of the substance per unit mass.
layers or strata, and many contain fossils. Thetransfer of sensibleheatinairmasses
makes animportantcontribution to the
Further reading redistribution of heat from the tropics to the
Carozzi, A.V. ( l 993) Sedimentary
Petrology, poles.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
See also
SEDIMENTATION Latent heat.

The settling out of solidparticles from the

SEPARATE SEWER SYSTEM
liquid in which they are suspended, usually
under theeffects of gravity. Sediments carried A wastewaterdisposalsysteminwhich
into a lake by a river, for example, gradually domesticand
industrial
sewage is kept
fall to the lake bottom, when the low energy separate from urban runoff, usuallyby instal-
environment of thelakenolongerallows ling two sets of drainage pipes.Since the
them toremain in suspension. A similar volume of runoffcanincrease rapidly, for
process takes place in sewage settling ponds. example,duringstorms,separationensures
In somechemicalandindustrialprocesses, thatthecapacity of thesewagetreatment
sedimentation is encouraged by using a system is not exceeded. In the combined or
centrifuge, in which centrifugal force causes onlypartiallyseparatesystems,common in
suspended particles to separate
from a the older sections of many cities, major rain
suspension. storms produce such a volume of runoff that
thesystemscannotcope,andareasare
floodedwith a mixture of sewage and
365 SEWAGE

rainwater. At such times, to minimize the contamination of soil and the local ground-
floodingand to preventdamage to
the water system.
treatment plant, it may also be necessary to
release untreated sewage into rivers or lakes. SERE
Further reading See succession.
Tchobanoglous, G. and Burton, EL. (1991)
Wastewater Engineering, Treatment, Disposal and
Reuse (3rd editlon), New York: McGraw-Hill. SEWAGE
SEPTIC SYSTEM Liquid or semi-solid waste from domestic or
industrial sources. It is predominantly organic,
Asewagedisposalsystemconsisting of a including human waste and food processing
collection tankandadrain field.
Septic residue,forexample,butit also contains
systems are common in rural areas that do detergents and other cleansers, plus a variety
not have access to municipal sewage systems. of industrial chemicals, sometimes including
Sewage and waste water are discharged into heavy metals. Because of the toxicity of many
an underground concrete or fibreglass tank in industrial wastes, theirrelease into municipal
which sedimentation and bacterial digestion sewage systems is now very much restricted.
of thewastetakes place. The liquidwaste Sewage is a ubiquitouspollutant,which
then drains into a perforated pipe system that continues to be released untreated into many
gradually releases it intocrushedrockand of theworld'swaterways,disruptingthe
gravel,
where it is
filtered
before
being aquatic environment through its impact on
absorbed by the soil. A well-maintained the
biochemical oxygendemand, causing
septic system is an effective way of dealing health problems and constraining human use
withlimitedamounts of sewage. If not of riversandlakes. Even in developed
properly maintained, however, it can lead to nations, where environmental regulations are

Figure S-6 The components of a modern septic system

property line
r""""""""""""""""""""""""""""-,

t ,
I

1.5 m min
3 m min

m
30mmax . I

15 m minimum

I
I

I clearance to cased I;
0 wells: 30 m minimum to ; .
""""_"""" """"."""""""~ q1
..
f 1
""Q """

on
weti
0 adjacent
voperty

washed aggregate or gravel

(19 mm dlameter)

" "0.5
"_ m m i n j """ groundwater table
SEWAGE T R E A T M E N366
T

SEWAGE TREATMENT

nthepast,sewagewasreleasedinto treatment plant can be released into rivers

waterways without the
benefit of any or lakes and have no chemicalor biological
:reatment. While quantities remained small, impact on the aquatic environment.
.heenvironmentwasabletopurifythe Sewage treatment is normally classified
water through oxidation and the activities as primary, secondary or tertiary. Primary
,f avariety of micro-organismswhich treatmentinvolveslittlemorethanthe
xoke down the pollutants into less noxious removal of solids.Sticks,rags andmetal
Jy-products. As populations grewand objectsarescreenedout of theeffluent,
.ifestyles and technology changed,
the grease and oil are skimmed off the top and
volume of sewage increased and the natural suspended sediments are allowed to settle.
approach was no longer feasible. The direct Undissolvedorganicmaterialcollects in
ereatment of sewage became necessary, settling
pondsas
sludge.
Theeffluent
although it was not always available where remainingafter
this
purely
mechanical
andwhenmostneeded.Modernsewage treatment is commonlyreleaseddirectly
treatment systems can process waste water into rivers, lakes or the sea, although it is
so well that the effluent coming out of the sometimeschlorinatedprior to release.

Figure S-7The elements of a primary, secondary and tertiary sewage treatment system
raw
sewage
screen
settling
grit
sludge

sludge settling and

drying pond

f chlorination
sludge
trickling
filter

SECONOARY
TREATMENT

TEFmARY
TREATMENT
toagrlcultwal,IndwMal
activated
filter
nitrate and domestlc Use
carbon filter
367
Primary treatment does not remove nutri-
ents, dissolved organic material, bacteria or
potentially toxic chemicals. They are released
to become a burden on the environment. In
plantsprovidingsecondarytreatment,the
primaryeffluent is subjected to biological
purification.Twomethodsare used -
trickling filters or activated sewage sludge.
In theformer,the
primary
effluent is
allowed to filter slowly through a thick bed
of rocks,duringwhichbacteriaconsume
the dissolved organic matter.In plants using
the activated sludge method, high oxygen
(0)levels maintained in theeffluent by
aerationencouragetherapiddigestion of
the sewageby bacteria. In both cases, subse-
quentsedimentationallowsmore of the
remaining suspended sediments to settle out.
Following secondary treatment, the effluent
SHIFTING CULTIVATION
A form of cultivation common in primitive
agricultural
societies in the
tropics
and
subtropics, also referred to as ‘bush fallow’
or‘slash-and-burnagriculture’.Forestand
grassland is cleared,usually by fire, which
providesashto fertilize the
land to be
cultivated. After several years of cultivation,
thedecliningfertility of thesoilleads to a
significantreduction in crop yields and the
community moves to a new location to start
again.Theabandonedland is allowed to
revert to nature,returningultimately to its
original state. The environmental impact of
shifting cultivation is limited if populations
remainsmallandtheareaoverwhichthey
can migrate is large. As populations increase
or movement is restricted, once abandoned
land cannot recover beforeit is needed again,
soil fertility continues to decline and the land
loses its ability to support the population.
Further reading
Goudie, A. (1984) TheHr~matzItnpnct, Oxford:
Blackwell.
Park, C.C. ( 1992) Troprcal Rarnforcsts, London:
Routledge.
SHIFTING C U L T I V A T I O N
may have regained 85 per cent of its original
quality, and direct discharge into the environ-
ment would normally cause few problems.
In some cases, the secondary effluent may
still retainsuspendedsolids,orinclude
dissolvedchemicals of variousforms.
Tertiary treatment using activated carbon
filters, reverse osmosis systems and chemical
coagulation techniques can deal with most
of the remaining contaminants and provide
water that is up to 99 per cent pure.
Further reading
Horan, N.J. (1990) Biologrcal Wastewater
Treatnwtzt Systems: Theory and Operutron, New
York: Wiley.
Reed, S.C., Crltes, R.W. and Middlehrooks, E.J.
( 1 995) Natural Systems fvr Waste Management
a d Treatment (2nd edition),
NewYork:
McGraw-Hill.
SHIFTING SANDS
A popular image of desertification in which
desertsanddunesmigrateintoanarea,
covering
arable
land
and
pasture
and
sometimes settlements, thus creating a desert.
Althoughthisdoeshappen,it is much less
common than once thought.In the 1960s and
1970s, for example, it was claimed that the
Sahara Desert was advancing southwards at a
rate of as much as 48 km per year, along a
300 kmfront.Suchfiguresare no longer
generally accepted. See Figure S-8 overleaf.
Further reading
Nelson, R. (1990) Drylutzd rtzauagemetzt: the
‘desertificatrvrz’ problctn,World B a d Technical
Paper No. 16, Washlngton, DC: World Bank.
Pearce, F. (1992) ‘Miracle of the shifting sands’,
N e w Scretztrst 134 ( 1 8 17):4.
SHORT-WAVE RADIATION
Radiation from the highenergyend of the
electromagneticspectrumwithwavelengths
less than 5 pm. The termis commonly applied
to solar
radiation
which
consists of
ultravioletand visiblelightrays, both of
whichhaveshorterwavelengthsthanthe
terrestrial radiation emitted by the earth.
S I UNITS 368
Figure S-8 Migrating sand dunes overlooking a desert highway

Photograph: Courtesy of Susan and Glenn Burton

SI UNITS grams.seconds) system. It is now used for all

scientific purposes having replaced the c.g.s.
Table S - l Basic and derived SI units (centimetres.grams.seconds) and f.p.s. (feet.
pounds. seconds) systems.

BASIC UNITS SICK BUILDING SYNDROME

metre - length
kilogram - mass A condition brought on by poor indoor air
quality. Dust, gases, paint and solvent fumes,
second - time metal
particles
and
variety
a of other
ampsre - electric current contaminantshavealwaysbeenpresentin
kelvin - temperature industrial buildings, and occupational health
mole - amount of substance standards have been introduced to deal with
them. More recently, concern over indoor air
candela - luminous intensiity quality has shifted t o office and residential
DERIVED UNITS (examples) buildingswherecontaminantscaninclude
newton - force volatile chemicals from photocopiers, paint,
stain, glue and cleansing agents, odours from
joule - work
energy
or cooking and cleaning, dust particles, ozone
watt - power (0,)fromlaserprintersandcopiersand
volt - electric
potential possiblybacteriaandviruses.Inthepast,
such
pollutantsescapedto
the
outside
becquerel - radioactivity
through open windows, poorly fitting doors
sievert - doseequivalent(ionizing and cracks in the fabric of the buildings. In
radiation) their escape, they were accompaniedby large
amounts of heat energy. With the energy crisis
SystimeInternational d'UnitCs. An inter- inthemid-1970s,energyandcostsavings
nationally accepted system of measurement wereaccomplished by sealingcracksand
units
based on
the m.k.s. (metres.kilo- weatherstripping doors and windows, which
369
not only kept the heat in, but also prevented
the contaminants fromescaping. The net result
wasadeterioration in airqualityandthe
creation of the sick
building
syndrome.
Symptoms included headaches, watery eyes,
sore throats,asthmaattacksandgeneral
malaise. Because contaminant levels in such a
situation are frequently too low to be meas-
uredaccurately,andthesymptomsoften
non-specific, confrontation between employers
and employees is not uncommon. Improved
ventilation, regular maintenance of air con-
ditioning systems and better control over the
release of contaminants can
reduce
the
incidence of sick building syndrome.
Further reading
Baarschers, W.H. (1996)Eco-facts and Eco-fiction,
LondodNew York: Routledge.
Baker, H. (1997) ‘Chemical warfare a t work’, N e w
Scientist 154 (2087): 30-5.
SIERRA CLUB
non-profit
A environmental organization
founded in California in 1892. Its 182 charter
members, led by its president John Muir, were
committed to preserving the North American
wilderness,whicheven atthattimewas
coming under increasing threat from develop-
ment. One of the club’s first activities was to
participate in the preservation of the Yose-
mite area of the Californian Sierra Nevada,
and sincethen it has beeninvolvedinthe
founding,preservation and
expansion of
parks and wilderness reserves throughout the
westernUnitedStates,
from
Arizona to
Alaska. It led the fight for the Wilderness Act,
and through directpoliticalaction - Sierra
Club members stood for and were elected to
seats in Congress - lawsuitsandpublic
education also contributed to the passing of
suchenvironmentallegislation as the Clean
Air Act and Clean Water Act and the Super-
fund. More recently, it hasraisedconcerns
about theUS contribution to global warming.
Most of the activities of the Sierra Club are
directed at environmental problemsin the US,
but it also has an active Canadian chapter,
and has worked through organizations such
as the World Bank to confront problems in
the Brazilian rainforest.
SILENT SPRING
See also
Conservation.
SIEVERT
The SI unit for the dose equivalent of ionizing
radiation. One sievert represents a dosage of
1 joule per kilogram of tissue, absorbed from
the ionizing radiation. The sievert has replaced
the rem as the unitof dose equivalent.
1 rem = 1 sievert(Sv)
SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO
Ameasure of the efficiency of communi-
cation, in which the signal can be considered
as the messagebeing transmittedandthe
noise as any disturbance that obscures that
message.Itcanbeapplieddirectly to elec-
tronic communication, but it is also applicable
to environmental phenomena. In the study of
global warming, for example, the long-term
temperature trend (signal) may be obscured
by short-term temperature variability (noise).
SILENT SPRING
Abest-sellingbook by RachelCarson,an
Americanwriterandnaturalist,whowas
amongthe first to drawattention to the
impact of chemicals on the environment. Its
title, Silent Spring, refers to the silence that
would fall over the land as birds succumbed
to the chemicalpoisonsreleased by the
growingandoftenindiscriminate use of
pesticides,herbicides and fertilizers. DDT,
whichup to thattimehad beenviewed as
almost a miracle pesticide, was identified as
one of the main culprits. When it was pub-
lished in 1962, the book was denounced by
the chemical industry as alarmist, and many
biologists treated it with some scepticism, but
its concerns proved to be justified. It gave the
environmental movement a major boost, and
inspiredanincreasingamount of research
over the next two decades into the problem of
environmental pollution by chemicals.
Further reading
Carson, R. (1962) Silent Sprrng, New York:
Houghton Mifflin.
SILICA 370
Cox, G.W. (1993) Conservatron Ecology: thesimulationapproach is limited by the
Biosphere and Hiosurvrval. Dubuque, IA: Wm C. inability of models to replicate the complex-
Brown.
ity of the environment exactly.
SILICA See also
General circulation models.
Silicon dioxide(SiO,), a hard,
white or
colourless compound, common in the rocks SINK
of the earth’s crust.
Natural reservoir or store for materials circu-
See also
Quartz.
lating through the earthhtmosphere system.
The oceans area major natural sink for many
substances from heavy metals to carbon (C).
SlLlCOSlS
If the storage capacityof a sink is altered, the
impacts may be felt throughout the system.
See pneumonoconiosis.
For example, growing forests actas a sink for
carbon. If they are cut down and notreplaced,
yl” additionalcarbon, in theform of carbon
dioxide (CO,) remains in circulation to
Fine, unconsolidated sediments consisting of contribute to global warming.
particles with diameters in the range 2.0 pm
to 60.0 pm,andthusintermediate in size Further reading
between sand and clay. Moore, B. and Bolin, R. (1986)‘Theoceans,
carbondioxldeand
global
climate
change’,
Oceanus 29: 9-15.
SILVER (A& VanKooten,G.C.,Arthur, L. andWilson, W.R.
( 1 992) ‘I’otentlal to sequester carbon in Canadian
A white,soft,preciousmetal. Silver occurs forests: some economlc considerations’, Canadian
free in natureand as the ores argentite, P ~ b l i cPolicy 18: 127-38.
acanthiteandhorn silver. Being extremely
malleable, ductile and a good conductor of SKIN CANCER
electricity,
it is widelyused
in
coinage,
jewellery andelectronicequipment. In the A disease indicated by the alteration of skin
form of its compounds silver bromide (AgBr) cells and associatedwithdamage to the
andchloride (AgCI), it is usedin photo- genetic make-up of the cells. The damage may
graphy, and silver iodide (Agl) is used to seed be caused by a variety of carcinogens,but
clouds during rainmaking. current concern has focused on exposure to
ultravioletradiation as theprimarycause.
Further reading Levels of skin cancer have been rising since
Bakewell, l? (ed.) (1996)Mines ofsilver and Gold the late 1970s, apparently in parallel with the
r n the Amerrcas, Brookfield, VT: Variorum. thinning of the ozone layer,andthecon-
sequent increase in the amount of ultraviolet
SIMULATION radiationreachingtheearth’ssurface (see
Figure M-3). Some researchers also consider
Therepresentation of complexphenomena societal
factors,
which
promote
greater
usingphysical or mathematicalmodels. By exposure of the skin to the sun, to make a
usingappropriatephysicalandtime-scales, majorcontributiontotheproblem.Many
simulation can be used to test hypotheses in skin cancers respond to treatment, although
the laboratory which could not be tested in those in the melanoma group are often fatal.
the field because of time o r cost constraints.
Computer-based simulation models are cur- See also
Ozone depletion.
rently the most effective means of studying
climate change, for example. The accuracyof
371 SMOKE

Further reading SMITH, R.A.

Concar, D. (1992)‘Thc reslstiblerlsc of skin
cancer’, New Screrrtist 134 (1821): 23-8.
Mackic, R.M. ( 1993) ‘Ultrav~olet radiation and the An English chemist credited
with
first
skin’, Radiologrcal Protection Bulletrrt 143: S-9. recognizingthelinkbetweenairpollution
Mackie, R., Hunter, J.A.A., Aitchlson, T.C., Hole, and the acidity of precipitation, by observing
D., McLaren, K., Rankin, K., Blessing, K., Evans, rain falling on industrial Manchester in the
A.T., Hutcheon, A.W., Jones, D.H., Soutar, D.S.,
Watson, A.C.H., Cornbleet, M.A. and Smlth, J.F. mid-nineteenth century. In 1872, he wrote a
(1992) ‘Cutaneous malignant melanoma, Scotland book on thesubject in which he made the first
1979-89’, The La?Zcet 339: 971-S. reference in the literature to ‘acid rain’. He
wenton to become Britain’s
first
Alkali
SLAB MODELS Inspectorresponsibleforthecontrol of air
pollutionfromindustrialsources,but his
Interactive
ocean-atmospherecirculation ideas on acid rain were largely ignored until
models in which the ocean is represented by the mid-twentieth century.
only the uppermost layer o r ‘slab’ of water.
This is necessary to accommodate the differ- further reading
ent response times of atmosphere and ocean. Park, C.C. (1987)Acid Rarn: Rhetorrc a d Reality,
London: Methuen.
The ocean deeps may take centuries to react Smith, R.A. (1872) Arr and Ram: T/7e Hegztzrzz?zgs
to change, whereastheatmospheremay of a Chemical Climatology, London:Longrnans
respond in days. A model incorporating the Grecn.
ocean deeps would take a long time to reach
equilibrium, and would thereforebe costly to SMOG
run. Using only the upper layer of the ocean,
where response times are closer to those in Acombination of smokeand fog which
the atmosphere, is a compromiseto save time createsairpollution.Originallyapplied to
and money. pollution
containing
acid
smoke
from
burning coal, asin the London Smogof 1952,
See also but also used to describe the photochemical
Atmosphere climate models, Coupled occan. pollution of cities such as Los Angeles, where
thehydrocarbonsandoxides of nitrogen
SMELTING (NO,) released intotheatmospherefrom
automobile exhausts
undergocontinuing
The processing of metallic ore to produce the chemical change made possible by the energy
free
metal,
commonly accomplished by available from abundant solar radiation.
heating the ore sufficiently so that the metal
becomes molten and can be separated from See also
the
unwanted materials
which
are
also Photochemical smog.
present in theore.Duringsmelting,pollu-
tantssuchassulphurdioxide (SO?) and Further reading
Brimblccombe, P. (1987) The Big Snroke: A
particulate matter may be given off and large History of Air Pollutiotz rtz Lorzdort since Medieval
amounts o f waste may be left at the endof the Tirnes, LondodNcw York: Methuen.
process. As thebetterqualityoresare used I’attcrson, D.]. and Heincn, N.A. (1972)Emrssrorzs
up,andmoreore has to heprocessed to f r o m Comhrstrorz Engzrzes uttd thcrr Control, Ann
producethesameamount of metal,the Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Science Publishers.
volume o f waste increases.
SMOKE
Further reading
Craddock, P.T. ( 1 995) E d y Metal Mitrzrzg a t z d A suspension of fine solid particles (usually
I’rodrrctrotr, Edinburgh:
Edinburgh
Universlty < l pm in diameter) in the air. It is usually
Press.
Chatterlcc, A. (1994) Reyotrd the R l a t Ft(rm~ce, produced by the incomplete combustion of a
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. fuel. The smoke fromcoal, for example, con-
sists of fine particles of carbon (C), whereas
SNOW 372
that
fromoil
might
include
unburned between 750 and 1000 cm are not uncom-
hydrocarbons. Smokecan
incorporatea mon at stations in the mountains of western
variety of solid particles
includingsilica Canada and
the
UnitedStates,
Norway,
(SiO,), aluminum(AI)andlead(Pb),acids westernJapan,theSouthIsland of New
such as sulphuric acid (H,SO,) and organic Zealandandthesouthern Andesin South
compounds.Thepresence of smokeinthe America. A record 2850 cm of snow fell a t
atmosphere can have a significant effect on Mount Rainier, WashingtonintheUnited
the earth’s energy budget, disrupting the flow States in thewinter of 1971-1972andat
of bothincomingandoutgoingradiation. Takada, Japan in 1927, 240 cm of snow fell
Following the Gulf War, smoke from oil fires in three days.
in Kuwait at one point reduced the incoming
short wave radiation flux to zero, and led to Further reading
daytime temperature reductions of as much Gray, D.M. and Male, D.H. (1981) Handbook of
as5.S”C. Thedisruption of radiation by Snow: Prlncipies,Processes, Management and Use,
TorontolNew York: Pergamon Press.
smokealsohadanimportantrole in the
nuclearwinterhypothesis.Thepresence of
smoke in the atmosphere can lead to health
SODIUM (Na)
problems when the carbon particles and the
other pollutants associated with them - for
A soft, silvery metal that belongs to the alkali
example,aciddroplets - areinhaledand metal
group,
along
with
caesium
(CS),
drawn into the lungs. francium (Fr) , lithium(Li),potassium (K)
andrubidium(Rb). Being highlyreactive,
See also
sodium is notfoundfree in nature,but it
Atmosphericturbidity,Kuwait oil fires, London occurs in awidevariety of compounds.It
Smog, Soot. reacts so vigorouslywithwaterthatthe
hydrogen (H) released in theprocessmay
Further reading ignite and cause an explosion.In its elemental
Johnson, D.W., Kilsby, C.G., McKenna, D.S., form the uses of sodium are limited, but it is
Saunders, R.W., Jenkins, G.J., Smith, EB. and used in sodiumvapourlampsandasa
Foot, J.S. (1991)‘Airborneobservations of the
physical and chemical characteristicsof the Kuwait coolant in fast breeder nuclear reactors. Its
oil smoke plume’, Nature 3 5 3 : 617-21. many compounds have a wide range of uses,
Shaw, W.S. (1992) ‘Smoke at Bahrain during the however, with sodium
chloride
(NaCI)
Kuwaiti oil fires’, Weather 47: 220-6. (commonsalt),sodiumhydroxide(NaOH)
(caustic
soda)
and
sodium
bicarbonate
SNOW (NaHCO,) usedextensively in industry and
in the home.
Solid precipitation in the form of single ice
See also
crystals or groups of ice crystals which have
Caustic chemicals, Periodic table.
agglomeratedintosnowflakes.Snowflakes
tend to become larger when the temperature
is closer to freezing point and when the air
SODIUM CHLORIDE (NaCI)
contains more moisture. When the airis cold
See salt.
and dry, ice crystals are the norm. Snowfall is
common in higher latitudes and higher alti-
tudes where temperatures are below freezing SODIUM HYDROXIDE
for at least part of the year. Snow is difficult
tomeasureaccurately since it is proneto See caustic chemicals.
blowing and drifting. However, the greatest
snowdepthsandsnowfallintensitiesare SOFT WATER
recorded in coastalmountainousareas in
mid-latitudes which lie across the path of the Water that contains only small amounts of
prevailing onshore wind. Annual snowfalls of dissolved
salts, particularlycalcium
(Ca)
373
salts. Soft water contains less than 50 ppm of
calcium carbonate (CaCO,) or its equivalent
in other salts. Water containing more than
that is considered to be hard.Soapsand
detergents lather better in soft water, and in
certainindustries - forexample,dyeing,
brewing and distilling - soft water is neces-
sary for the production of a quality product.
For manyresidential andindustrial uses,
where soft water is not available naturally,
hardwaterhas to be softened, usually
throughanionexchangeprocess,before it
can be used.
See also
Base exchange, Water quality.
SOIL
A mixture of weatheredrockparticlesand
organic material on the surfaceof the land in
which plants grow. The composition of soil
varieswithtime,placeand use. Therock
particles
differ
size
in and chemical
composition depending upon such factors as
the original bedrock source and the nature
andextent of weatheringthathastaken
place. Organic matter maybe humus or other
dead and decaying plant or animal remains,
but it also includes macro-organisms such as
earthwormsandmicro-organismssuch
bacteria.Inaddition,airandwaterare
usually
presentwithin
the
porespaces
betweenthevariousparticles.Thesoil isa
dynamicentity,thatchanges as aresult of
inputs such as rain, organic deposition from
plants and animals and nutrients released by
weathering, and
outputs
which include
moistureevapotranspirationanddrainage,
nutrient uptake by plants and nutrient loss
fromleaching.Thebalanceamongthese
variouselementsdeterminesthefertility
thesoil,which is reflectedinitsability
support vegetation. Becauseweathering,
moisture supply and organic activities are to
a large extent controlled by climate,inthe
naturalenvironment soil dynamicsdepend
uponthe prevailing climatic
conditions.
Wherethenaturalenvironmenthasbeen
altered by human activities,however,the
addition of nutrients in the formof fertilizers,
the supply of extra water through irrigation
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
and the removal of organic matter and nutri-
ents through cropping disrupt the natural soil
processes with potentially detrimental effects
on soil fertility.
Further reading
Coleman,D.C.andCrossley,D.A.(eds)(1996)
Fundamentals of Soil Ecology, London: Academic
Press.
Ollier, C. and Pam, C. (1995) Regolith, Soils and
Landforms, London: Wiley.
Ross, S. (1989) Soil Processes: A Systernntrc
Approach, London: Routledge.
Singer,M.J. andMunns,D.N.(1991) Soils: An
Introductron, New YorkTToronto:
Macmillanl
Collier Macmillan Canada.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Thegrouping of soilsaccording to the
characteristics of mature soils. A
simple
classificationis to divide soils according to
their
relationship to the environmental
situation in which theyoccur. Zonal soils, for
example, havecharacteristicsthat reflect
regional climatic conditions; intrazonal soils
are not typical of the climate zones in which
they
occur,
because of thepresence of
overridinglocalfactorssuchasgeology or
drainage;azonalsoilsarepoorlydeveloped
and not yetin balancewiththeirenviron-
as ment, although it is expected that they will
eventually mature into one of the other two
types.
The first of the modern soil classifications
wasdeveloped in theUnitedStatesinthe
1930s, based on earlier Russian models, and
dividedzonalsoilsintopedalfers - soilsin
which iron (Fe) and aluminum (AI) accumu-
late - and pedocals - soils in which calcium
(Ca) accumulates. Pedalfers occur mainly in
humid regions, whereas the pedocals are soils
of of sub-humid,semi-aridandaridclimates.
to Althoughthesystemhasbeensuperseded,
several of the great soil groups identified in
that Russian-American classification are well
entrenched in the geographical and environ-
mental literature. They include the iron-rich
laterites of the tropics,
the
grey-brown
leachedpodzols of humidtemperatelati-
tudes, and the chernozems or black earths of
thesub-humidgrasslands. In 1975, the US
Department of Agriculture produced a new,
 SOIL CONSERVATION 374
Figure S-9 The soil orders of the Seventh modification.TheCanadian soilclassific-
Approximation ation system has incorporated some elements
of the US system, but being concerned with
soilsinhigherlatitudesithas no need to
incorporate the tropical and subtropical ele-
soils with moderately ments of the CSCS or any otherclassification.
71 ‘NcEpT’soLs developedhorizons Instead, it paysgreaterattention to cold
regionsoilssuchasthecryosols of thefar
H,sTosoLs - soilshighinorganicmatter,
common in waterlogged areas
north which are underlain by permafrost.

Further reading
- sub-tropical
hlghly weatheredtroplcal and
soils such as laterites
B o d , S.W., Hole, ED. and McCracken, R.J. (1980)
Soil Getzests and Classificatron (2nd edition),
Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.
1 - 1 ULJ‘soLS - deeplyweatheredsoilswitha
day M z o n andlowin bases
Briggs, D. and Smithson, l’. (1997) Fundamentals
of Physical Geography (2ndedition),Inndon:
Routledge.
1- - day-rich soils which swell in wet
conditions and aack in dry
causing disruptionto the horlzons
Paton,T.R.,Humphries, G.S. andMitchell, P.B.
(1995) Soils: A N e w Global View, NewHaven:
Yale University Press.

1- - gray-brown forest soils with a

day-enriched horizon and high
in bases
Roth, H. (1991) Furzdanzentals of Soil Screm-e,
London: Wiley.
Strahler, A.H. and Strahler, A.N. (1992) Modern

ISPODOSOLS I
. - add sdls such as w d d s witha
leached upper h o k & and an
Physrcal Geography (4thedition),New
Wiley.
York:

iron-rich depositional horizon

1-1 - grassland soilssuch as Mack-earths

oI c+wmozems rich in organic
matter and high inbases
SOIL CONSERVATION

The preservatlon of the quality, quantity and

1- ( - soils of arid regions, often with
accumulations of salt gypsum and
carbonates
productivity of the soil in an area, usmg tech-
niques that slow the rate of soil erosion and
maintain fertility. Conservationcommonly
more complex classification, initially referred involves the retention of a vegetation cover,
to astheSeventhApproximationfor Soil the maintenance of a good soil structure and
Classification,because of thenumber of a reduction in water and wind speeds. Vege-
revisions necessary, but now more commonly tationcovercan be retained by employing
designated as the Comprehensive Soil Classi- forestpracticesthat do not includeclear
ficationSystem(CSCS).The CSCS is based cutting, by preventingovergrazingor by
on ten soil orders which are further divided adopting agricultural techniques that do not
into sub-orders and great groupsto provide a allowthesoil to remainexposedfor long
worldscaleclassification,plusadditional periods of time. In some areas susceptible to
subgroups, families and series, which apply erosion,forexample,pastoralagriculture
only in the United States. The names of the might be moresuitablethanarableagri-
orders are intended to provide an indication culture.Agoodsoilstructurerequiresthat
of the nature of the soil. Aridisols are dry or the organic content and nutrient levels in the
desert soils, for example, and Oxisols contain soil aremaintained.Bothhelp
to
bind
high levels of oxides, mainlyiron
and individual particles together into largeraggre-
aluminum.Sub-ordernames reflect charac- gates thatare less
easily eroded.
Organic
teristics of the soil or its environment.For components and nutrients also determine the
example,soils in the sub-order Humox are fertility of the soil, and normally a fertilesoil
oxide-richsoilswith humus in theupper is
less likely to sufferfrom soil erosion.
horizon. The CSCS has been widely accepted Maintainingsoilfertility is thusgood soil
asaworldscaleclassification,but, to be conservation practice. Contour ploughing -
useful at the regional level, it requires some ploughing across the slope rather than up and
375 SOIL EROSION

down - of relatively shallowslopesand as overgrazingand excessive cropping,to

terracing of steeper slopes reduces the volume continue,andsoilerosionremains a major
and speed of downslopewater flow, and global problem.
therefore reduces erosion. Windbreaks which
slow the wind and cultivation practices which See also
restrict the area of bare soil - for example, Desertification.
strip cultivation - help to reduce soil erosion
Further reading
by wind. The adoption of such conservation Ellis, S. and Mellor, A. (1995) Soils and E n w o n -
practiceshelpedtheGreatPlains of North nzent, London: Routledge.
America to recover from the ravages of soil Morgan, R.P.C. (1995) Soil Erosron and Conser-
erosion in the 1930s, but in manyareas, vation, Harlow: Longman.
particularly on land marginal for agriculture, Pierzynski, G.M., Sims, J.T. and Vance, G.F. (1994)
Soils and Envzrorznzerzfal Quality, Boca Raton, FL:
technological and
socioeconomic
factors Lewis.
allow poor soil conservation practices, such

SOIL EROSION
The removal of topsoil by water, wind and the soil structure and reduces the amount of
gravity. Soil erosion is a naturalpart of pore space in the soil, whichin turn reduces
andscape formation and change, but in its infiltrationcapacityandincreasesrunoff.
nodern usage it usuallyrefers to acceler- Any reduction in soil fertility also
ated erosion in which human activities have encourages soil erosion, through the loss of
laused the topsoil to be eroded at a rate humus and nutrients which helpto bind the
;reater than it can be formed. Natural soil soil particles together. In pastoral agricul-
Zrosionis greatestwhereunconsolidated ture,
overgrazing may cause
sufficient
sediments are
directly
exposed to
the damage to the vegetation cover to initiate
elements. Winds easily erode the exposed erosion. Urbanization and industrial activ-
sands of thedesert,forexample,andin ities such as mining also encouragesoil
sparselyvegetatedareasinthesemi-arid erosion. Whatever the origin, on moderate
regions of theworld, bare soil is easily slopeserosion by wateroftentakesthe
eroded by infrequentbutoftenintense form of sheet wash in which the fine soil
precipitation. Erosion rates are also high in particles are removed by a relatively shal-
areas with well-marked seasonal wet and lowflowwhichcoversthewhole slope,
dry periods such as those that experience normallybecause the
infiltration
rate
monsoon and Mediterranean climates. cannot copewiththe intensity of the
The human contribution to soil erosion precipitation.Onsteeperslopes,orthose
comes about as a result of activities that wherethevegetationcover is notcom-
lead to the removal o f vegetation and the pletely
removed, gullyerosion is more
direct exposure of the soil to the elements. common. Gully erosion is also encouraged
Clear
cutting of forests,
for
example, in row crops, such as corn and potatoes,
particularlyonsteepslopes,increasesthe wherethe
baresoil
between the
rows
volume and rate of runoff and encourages provides a natural pathway for the water.
increased erosion. Most arable agriculture Wind erosion mainly involves the finer soil
involves
activities that leave the soil particles,whicharesmallenough to be
exposed for extended periods of time and carried in suspension or drifted along the
therefore vulnerableto erosion. In addition, ground.
ploughing,harrowingandrollingcontri- Soil erosion causes the productivlty of
bute to thebreakup of soilaggregates, theaffectedarea to be impaired,butits
producingsmallerparticlesthatarcmore environmental impactcanextend
into
easily eroded.Compaction by machinery adjacent areas. Soil removed from one area
during cultivation and harvesting damages by wind or watercan be deposited in
SOIL HORIZONS 376

Figure S - l 0 The distribution of areas subject to soil erosion and their annual sediment loss
I I

Source: After Enger, E.D. and Smith, B.F. (1995) Envionmental Scrence: A Study 1n Interrelatronshtps
(5th edition) Dubuque,1A: Wm C. Brown

sufficient
quantities
in
adjacent
areas to Erosron in Developrng Countries, Harlow:
cover
crops or disrupt
existing soil Longman.
processes.
Sediments carried into StreamS Lal, R. (1990) soil ErosJon in the Troprcs:
Principles
and
Management, New York:
and lakescan
cause
shoaling,
disrupting McGraw-H,ll.
transportation or damaging fish habitat. Morgan, R.P.C. (1995) Soil Erosron and
Conservation, Harlow: Longman.
See abo Pimental, D., Harvey, C., Resosudarmo, P.,
Soil conservation.
Sinclan, K., Kurz, D., McNair, M., Crist, S.,
Shpritz, L., Fitton, L., Saffouri, R. and Blair, R.
(1995)‘Environmentalandeconomiccosts of
Further reading soil erosion and conservation benefits’, Scrence
Blaikie, P. (1985) The Political Economy ofSoil 267: 1117-23.

SOIL HORIZONS and clay particles carried down from the A

The series of distinctive layers that make up a
soil profile (see Figure P-13). They are differ-
entiated according to the physical, chemical
and biologicalpropertieswhich give each
horizon a characteristiccolour,texture or
structure. Soil horizons are
commonly
designated A, B or C. The A horizon is the
uppermost, containinghumusand
other
organic matter and usually showing evidence
of leaching or eluviation. Beneath it, the B
horizon is zone
a of depositionforthe
minerals, such as iron and aluminum oxides,
horizon. The C horizon consists of the parent
material for the soil, usually in the form of
weatheredrock
particles.
Many classifi-
cations include an 0 horizon - the layer of
fresh organic materialon the soil surface, and
a D or R horizon - theunalteredbedrock
lyingbeneaththe C horizon.Thedifferent
horizons vary in thickness from soil to soil,
andthe full sequencemaynotalways be
present. For somepurposes,theindividual
horizons are subdivided according to minor
internal differences.
377 SOIL TEXTURE

Further reading See also

Roth. H. (1991) Fundamentals of Soil Science,
London: WiIey.
Rowell.D.L.11994) Soil Science: Methodsand
Applications, Harlow: Longman. ’
Steilla, D. (1976) The Geography of Soils, Engle-
wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Field capacity, Soil moisture deficit.
Further reading
Iwata, S., Tabuchl, T. and Warkentin, B.P. (1995)
Soil Water Interactions:Mechanrsms
and
Applications (2nd edition), NewYork: M. Dekker.

SOIL MOISTURE DEFICIT (SMD) SOIL PROFILE

Whengrowingplantscannot meet their The vertical sequence of soil horizons from

immediatemoisture needs fromincoming the surface down to bedrock.
precipitation, they use the moisture reserves
that are available in the soil. This creates a SOIL STRUCTURE
soil moisture deficit when measured against
the field capacity of thesoil. SMDcan be The form of the aggregates produced when
estimated using a lysimeter or by comparing individual soilparticles
clump
together.
evapotranspirationandprecipitationmeas- Aggregates may be crumbs, blocks or plates,
urements. Increased accuracyis possible if the for example, depending upon the original soil
nature and stateof crop development- which texture and the level of organic matter and
influences moisture requirements - and the nutrients in the soil. Organic matter - such as
storagecapacity of the specificsoil can be humus - andnutrientshelptobindthe
calculated. Thus the SMD across a region will individual
particles
together.
The soil
not be constant
a value,but will vary becomessusceptible toerosion if theyare
according to crop and soil conditions, down lost.
to the scale of individual fields. SMD values
areimportantfromanagricultural view- Further reading
point, since they give anindication of the Brady, N.C.(1990) The NatureandProperties
amount of irrigation water required to bring of Soils, NewYorklLondon:MacmilladCollier
the soil backto fieldcapacity,which is Macmillan.
theoreticallythebestconditionforplant
growth. SOIL TEXTURE

See also A measure of the proportionsof sand, silt and

Soil moisture storage. clayina soil. Thetexture of a soil hasa

Further reading Figure S-l 1 A soil texture diagram

Kramer, P.J. and Boyer, J.S. (1995) Water Relations
of Plants and Soils, San Diego,CA:Academic
Press.

SOIL MOISTURE STORAGE

Water held in the pore spaces of the soil. The
amount available varies from soil to soil, but
it is available toplantswhichabsorb it
throughtheir
root
systems
and
pass it
throughtotheatmosphereduringtrans-
piration. In arid areas, it offsets the moisture
deficit caused whenevapotranspiration exceeds
precipitation,andthusdelaystheonset of
drought. The soil moisture storage is recharged 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
when precipitation is again in excess. percent sand
S O L A R CONSTANT 378

strong influence on its structure and affects SOLAR RADIATION

such
elements as its
ability to
absorb
precipitation, its moisturestoragecapacity Radiant energy given off by the sun. Since the
and its ease of cultivation. sun is a very hot body, radiating at a temp-
erature of a b o u t 5 7 0 0 K, thebulk of the
Further reading radiation is high energy at ultraviolet and visible
Brady, N.C. ( 1990) The Nature and Properties of light wavelengths (see figure R-l). Although
Soils, New YorklLondon: Macmillan/Collicr
Macmillan only a small proportion is intercepted by the
earth, it providestheenergythat drivesthe
earthlatmosphere system. About 5 0 per cent of
SOLAR CONSTANT the solar energy arriving at the outer edge of
the atmosphere passes through to the earth’s
The solar radiation flux at the outer edge of surface, and the remainder is absorbed - for
the atmosphere on a surface perpendicular to example, by theozonelayer - o r reflected
the
incident
radiation. It is difficult to back into space by atmospheric aerosols.
measure, but its valueis usually considered to
be close to1370
Although referred to See also
as a constant, it does appear tohave a natural Electromagnetic spectrum.
variability, but only within the rangeof a few
watts over time-scalesof several decades. Any SOLAR WIND
larger
variations
have
the
potential to
contribute to climate change. Streams of electrically chargedparticles
emitted by the sun. The volume of particles,
SOLARENERGY or the strength of the wind is increased by
solar
flaresand
during sunspot activity.
See solar radiation. Interaction between the solar wind and the
earth’smagnetospherecausestheaurora or
‘Northern Lights’ to form.
SOLAR FLARES
See also
Short, but intense outbursts of radiation that Qulct sun.
occur inmagneticallyactiveregions of the
sun. This causes an increase in thesolar wind, Further reading
and the emission of shortwave radiation such Brandt, J.C. (1970) Introdrrctron to the S o h
as X-rays and ultraviolet radiation increases Wind, San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman.
rapidly, to as much as 100 times the norm.
Longer, radio frequency wave emissions also SOLID
increase.
Solar
flares, and
the
magnetic
storms
with
whichthey
are
associated, Along with liquid and gas, one of the three
increaseauroralactivityandcreatemajor states of matter. Strong cohesion between the
disruptions in telecommunication and navi- molecules thatmake up a solid allow it to
gation systems. Their occurrence is cyclical, retain its shape.Anythingwhichaltersthat
with periods of increased frequency similar to cohesion - for example, heat or pressure -
that of sunspots, and periodsof relative quiet will allow the solid to deform.
in between.
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL
See also
Magnetosphere, Quiet sun. See waste disposal.
Further reading
McIntosh, P.S. andDryer,M.(eds) (1972) Solar SOLID WASTES
Actrvity: Ohservutiom ami Predictrom, Cam-
bridge, MA: MIT Press. See waste.
379 SONIC BOOM

SOLSTICE SOLVENT

The time of greatest declination of the sun or A liquidcapable of dissolvingothersubs-

the time at which the overhead sun is furthest tances
and
incorporating
them
into
a
from the equator. This happens twice a year. solution. In a brinesolution,forexample,
At noon on 21 June - thenorthernhemi- water is the solvent in which salt has been
sphere summer solstice - the sun is directly dissolved. Water is the most common natural
overhead at the Tropic of Cancer (23.5"N), solvent in theenvironment,but in its pure
whereas at noon on 21 December - the winter state it is incapable of dissolving some
solstice - it is overheadattheTropic of substancesandmorecomplexsolventsare
Capricorn ( 2 3 . 5 5 ) . At the summer solstice, required. Hydrocarbons providea wide range
areas north of 66.5"N experience 24 hours of of solvents,including
acetone,
ethanol,
daylight, while areassouth of 66.5"s experience methanolandtrichloromethane,whichare
24 hours of darkness. Thesituation is used in the food, plastics and pharmaceutical
reversed at the wintersolstice. industries.
The
escape of solvents
into
enclosedspaces
can
cause sick building
SOLUBILITY syndrome, and improper disposal can lead to
water pollution. To protect the environment
A measure of the extent to which a substance and reduce costs many industrial solvents are
(solute)will dissolve in a solvent to produce a now recycled.
solution.Solubility is usuallytemperature
dependent.Whensolidsaredissolved in Further reading
liquids,solubilityincreases as temperature Stoye, D. (ed.) (1993) Parrzts, Coatfrzgs and
Solvents, Weinheim, NY: VCH.
rises, for example, whereas the solubility of
gases decreases as temperature rises.
SONIC BOOM
SOLUTION
The noise heard when an aircraft or missile
travelling at greater than the speed of sound
A homogeneous mixture formed when sub-
(1220kphat sea-level; 1060kph in the
stances in different states (i.e. solid, liquid or
stratosphere) passes an observer. Any object
gas) are combined together, and the mixture
travellingthroughtheatmospherecreates
takes on the state of one of the components.
pressurewaves ahead of it. Supersonic
Whenasolid is dissolvedin a liquid,for
aircraft fly fast enough that they overtake the
example, the solution is a liquid. Gases can
pressurewavesandcauseashockwave to
also be incorporated in liquid solutions.
develop. Theshockwavespreadsoutas a
See also conewiththeaircraftat its apex,andthe
Solubility, Solvent. sonicboom is causedwhenthe
cone,
spreading out behind the aircraft, reaches the
SOLUTION WEATHERING ground. As the line of intersection of the cone
withtheground is pulled along by the
A form of weathering in which minerals are movingaircraftthesonic boom follows,
dissolved by acidified water. Solution weath- creating a 'boomcarpet'.Thusthesonic
ering is common in limestone areas where boom is not a single event, occurring when
watercontainingdissolvedcarbondioxide the
aircraft
breaks
the
so-called
sound
(CO,) causes the corrosion of the rock. barrier. It is a continuing event. The pressure
change associated with the boom can rattle or
See also even break windows, and the sudden noise is
Subsidence - landscape. disconcerting to thoseexposed to it. The
Further reading
sonic
boomcreated by SSTs such as
Sweeting,M.M. (1972) Karst Lartdforms,Lon- Concordeplacesconstraints on theflight
don: Macmillan. paths and routes followed by such aircraft.
SOOT 380

Figure S-l 2 The creation of a sonic boom by a supersonic aircraft

pressure
waves
evenly
spaced

subsonic speed of sound

(Mach 1)

sonic boom when cone

intersects surface

Further reading
Calvert, B. (1981) Flyrng
Concorde,
London: causelongitudinalpressurewaves to form
Fonrana. andspread out inalldirectionsfromthe
source. Because of such factors
as
the
SOOT composition and structure of the source and
theresultingfrequency of thevibrations
Finelydividedparticles of carbonformed emanating fromit, each sourcewill produce a
duringcombustion, particularly of fossil particularsoundwhichwithexperience is
fuels. Individual soot particles readily com- recognizable to the listener. The human ear
bine with each other into clusters or strings, cannotdetectvibrationswithafrequency
andare effective atabsorbingradiation greater than 20,000 hertz, but these higher
across the entire spectrum. Thus soot has a frequencies can be detected by some animals,
high specific absorption coefficient, and the suchasdogs.Undercertaincircumstances,
injection of large amounts of soot into the soundcanbecomeanenvironmental issue
atmospherehasmajorimplications for the with social and medical implications.
earth’s energy budget.
See also
See also Noise, Ultrasonic waves.
Aerosols, Nuclear wmter.
Further reading
Foreman, J.E.K. (1990) Sourzd Analysis arrd Noise
Further reading
Appleby, L. Harrison,
and R.M. (1989) Corrtrol, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
’Environmental effects of nuclear war’, Chemistry
rn Brrtmn 2.5: 1223-8. SOUTHERN OSCILLATION
SOUND reversal
periodic
The ofpatterns
and pressure
wind directions in the atmosphere above the
ThesensationexperiencedwhentheearequatorialPacificOcean. An indication of the
interceptsvibrationswithfrequenciesbetween SouthernOscillation is obtained bp com-
20 and 20,000 hertz, transmitted through the paring barometric pressuredifferencesbetween
airfrom a vibratingsource.ThevibrationsTahiti in theeastern Pacific andDarwin in
38 1 MODELS SPECTRAL

northernAustralia.Pressure a t these two EnvironmentalQuality in aGrowingEconomy,

stations is negatively correlated, high pressure
over Tahiti normally being accompanied by
low pressure over Darwin, for example. In
contrast, low pressure at Tahitiis matched by
highpressure atDarwin.Thesepressure
differences induce a strong latitudinal circu-
lationintheequatorialatmosphere - the
Walker Circulation (see figure W-l). Period-
ically the regional pressure patterns reverse,
and it is this reversal that is referred to as the
Southern Oscillation. It has a periodicity of
one to five years, and is ultimately respons-
ible for the developmentof El Niiio.
See also
ENSO.
Further reading
Lockwood, J.G. (1984) 'The Southern Oscillation
and El Nifio', Progress in Physical Geography, 8:
102-10.
Rasmusson, E.M. and Hall, J.M. (1983)'El Niiio',
Weatkerwise 36: 166-75.
Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Odum, E.P. (1993) Ecology and Our Endangered
Life-supportSystems (2nd edition), Sunderland,
MA: Sinauer.
Park, C.C. (1997) Environment: Principles and
Applications, LondonMew York: Routledge.
SPATIAL RESOLUTION
Anindication of thedetailavailablefrom
weather and climate models, determined by
the horizontal and vertical distributionof the
grid points for which data are available, and
at
whichthe
appropriate
equationsare
solved. In a model with coarse spatial reso-
lution the grid points arewell spaced, and as
a result may miss the development of small-
scale
phenomena. Fine resolutionmodels
have many more grid points, and are there-
fore more accurate. However, the additional
accuracy is costly, and in mostmodelsthe
spatial resolution is the result of compromise
between accuracy and cost.

SPACESHIP EARTH See also

A concept popular in the 1960s and 1970s,
that likened the earth/atmosphere system to
theenvironment of a spaceship in which
resources are finite andwastedisposal is
constrained by thespaceavailable. For the
inhabitants of the spaceship to survive and
function, management decisions haveto take
these factors into account. The idea appears
to have been first
visualized by the US
politician Adlai Stevenson, but was developed
by an economist,KennethBoulding, to
counteract the common view that economic
systemswereopensystemsunrestrained by
environmentallimits. Hedrewattention to
thefactthat, like a spaceship,theearth/
atmospheresystemwas a closedsystemin
material terms, and if economic decisions did
not allow for that, disaster would follow. The
concept of environmentalresponsibility in
economic decisions is now widely accepted,
and is well established in sustainable develop-
ment policies.
Grid-point models.
SPECIES
Asubdivision of agenusincorporatinga
group of organisms with common character-
istics, which separate them from other groups.
Members of the same species can breed, but
breeding is not possible between species.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
See relative density.
SPECIFIC HEAT
The amountof heat required to raise the temp-
erature of unit mass of a substance through
one degree. Itcan be expressedinseveral
ways - joules per kilogram per "K; calories
pergram per "C; Britishthermalunits per
pound per "F.

Further reading SPECTRAL MODELS

Boulding, K.E. (1966) 'Theeconomics of the
corning
spaceship
Earth',
in H. Jarrett (ed.) Atmospheric
circulation
models, used in
SPHAGNUM 302

weather
forecasting,
that
focus
on
the SPORE
representation of atmosphericdisturbances
or waves by a finite number of mathematical A microscopic, thick-walled
reproductive
functions. The progressive solution
of a series structure, comparable to a seed, produced by
of equations allows the development of the someplants (for example, ferns),
fungi,
atmosphericdisturbancesto be predicted, bacteria and protozoa. Spores are generally
normally over a period of between five and produced inlargenumbers,areresistant to
ten days. adverse environmental conditions and, being
microscopic, can be carried great distancesby
Further reading thewind, all of whichhelps to ensurethe
Barry, K.G. and Chorley, R.J. (1992) Atmosphere, survival of the species that produce them.
Weather and CIinmte (6th edition), LondonNew
York: Routledge.
Further reading
Ingold, C.T. (1971) t;zr?zga/ Spores: Thew
SPHAGNUM Liberatrotz altd Dzspersal, Oxford:
Clarendon
Press.
A genus of moss which is a common
component of the plant
community in SPRING FLUSH
temperate peat bogs. Being acid tolerant, it
colonizes the margins of acid lakes. The rapid runoff of water from melting snow
and ice, common in mid- to high latitudes at
See also the endof winter. In areas subjectto acid rain,
Wetlands. the winter’s accumulation of acidity is flushed

Figure S-1.3 The rapid decrease in p H levels associated with rapid snow melt in spring

15.0

10.0

5.0

0
383
intoriversandlakes in a matter of days,
rapidly reducing the p H of these waterbodies
and having serious consequences for aquatic
organisms. If the increased acidity coincides
with the beginnings of the annual fish hatch
thenewlyhatched fry cannot survivethe
shock,and fish populations in acidiclakes
often have reduced or missing age sets which
reflect this high mortality.
Further reading
Baker, ].P. andSchofield,C.L.(1985)‘Acidific-
ationimpactson fishpopulations:a review’, in
D.D. Adams and W.P. Page (eds) Acrd Deposrtrotz:
Etruirotrnzerrtal, Ecorzomrc and Politrcal Issues,
New York: Plenum Press.
Jeffries, D.S. (1990)‘Snowpackstorage of pol-
lutants,releaseduringmelting,andimpacton
receivingwaters’, in S.A. Norton, S.E. Lmdberg
and A.L. Page (eds) Actdic l’reczprtatron, Volume
4 , Soils, Aquatic Processes and Lake Acrdrficatrort,
New York: Springer-Verlag.
STANDARD TEMPERATURE A N D
PRESSURE (STP)
The standard references used to compare the
volume of gases - a temperature of 273.15K
(0°C) and a pressure of 101,325 pascals (760
mm of mercury).
A white, insoluble carbohydrate, consisting
of chains of glucose units. Starches stored in
potatoes, and cereals such as rice, wheat and
corn provide some 70 per centof the world’s
food supply.
STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT
REPORTING (SOE)
A means of providing current and accessible
informationonenvironmentalqualityand
natural resources, SOE reports are produced
regularly by government agencies or depart-
ments in such countries as Australia, Canada
and the Netherlands. They provide inform-
ation on the current state of environmental
issues, and through regular publication they
allow
the
monitoring of environmental
change with time.
STEAM
Further reading
Lloyd, R. (1996) ‘State of the Environment
Reporting in Australia:review’,
a Australiatz
lourtlal of Enurrorrmetrtal Matrngemetrt 3: 1.5 1-62.
STATEMENT OF FOREST
PRINCIPLES
A product of the 1992 Earth Summit, aimed
at the sustainable developmento f the world’s
forests. It is a general statement, not legally
binding on the signatories, that acknowledges
the need to balance exploitation and conserv-
ation of forests, but makes no provision for
international monitoring or supervision.
Further reading
Pearce, F. (1992) ‘Last chance to save the planet’,
NEW Screrltrst 134 (1757): 24-8.
STEADY STATE SYSTEM
Asystem in whichinputsandoutputs are
equal and constant and in which the various
elements are in equilibrium. Any change
alterstherelationshipsamongthecompo-
nents of the system, creating imbalance, and
setting in train a series of responses, or
feedbacks, which attempt to restore balance.
See also
Dynarnlc equilibrium, Ecological balance.
STEAM ENGINE
A machine by which the chemical energy in a
variety of fuels -wood, coal, natural gas, oil,
uranium - can be converted into kinetic or
mechanical energy. Heat released during the
combustion of the fuels is used to boil water
and produce steam that under pressure can
drive a piston or turbine. The developmentof
reciprocating
the (piston-driven)
steam
engineduringtheearlynineteenthcentury
provided the power that drove the Industrial
Revolution.Steamengines
were used to
pump water,powertextilemills and drive
hammers,cuttersand pressesin themetal
industries. Made mobile in railwayloco-
motives and steamships, they made a major
contribution to international trade
and
allowed the European nations to spread their
STEPPE 384

influence worldwide. The reciprocating steam the earth's surface where the temperature is
engine
has been replaced by the steam close to freezing point.
turbine,which,operatingat higher temp-
erature and pressure, is more efficient. Steam See also
turbinesare usedextensively to generate Atmospheric layers.
electricityinfossilfuel andnuclearpower
stations. Steamengines havealways been STRATOSPHERE
major contributors to pollution. Particulate
matterand gasesreleased duringthecom- That part of the atmosphere lying above the
bustion process pollute the atmosphere and tropopause.It is characterised by an iso-
hot water produced when the used steam is thermal layer (temperatures remain constant)
condensedcancausethermalpollutionto up to about 20 km above the earth's surface,
waterways. Much of the acid rain produced beyondwhichthetemperature rises again
in North America and Europe originated in from about-50 "C to reachclose to 0°C at the
coal-burning thermal electric power stations. stratopause. This is the result of the presence
Clean air legislation and other environmental of ozone which absorbs incoming ultraviolet
regulations have dealt with such problems in radiation, causing the temperature to rise.
most of the developed world,
but
in
developing nations, such as India and China, See also
which continue to depend on coal-fired steam Atmospheric layers.
engines, air pollution remains
serious
a
problem. STRATOSPHERIC OZONE
Further reading See ozone.
Jones, H. (1973)Steam Engines: An Znternationd
History, London: Benn.
Reynolds, W.C. (1974) Energy: From Nature to
STRIP-CROPPING
M a n , New York: McGraw-Hill.
The practice of cultivatinglandinlong,
STEPPE narrow strips in which, for example, rows of
grain may alternate with leafy crops or land
lyingfallow. Variationsincultivationtech-
A semi-arid area, characterizedby short-grass
niques and timing of different crops ensure
vegetation,consideredtransitionalbetween
that the land always retains some vegetation
desert
and
sub-humid climates. In areas
cover, and is thereforeprotectedfromsoil
closer to thelatter, steppe may include woody
erosion. Strip-cropping is widely used in the
shrubs. Because of their aridity and proximity
arablefarmingareas of theGreat Plains,
to deserts,steppeareasaresusceptibleto
wherethestripsmay be orientedatright
desertification.
angles to the direction of the prevailing wind.
See also
Grasslands. See also
Soil conservation.

STOCHASTIC PROCESSES STRIP-MINING

Processes whichincludeinputsthatare
part random in character.Theyinclude
element of chance.
STRATOPAUSE
The boundary between the stratosphere and
mesosphere, located at about 50 km above
in Open-cast or open-pit mining. The recovery
an of coal or mineral ore by stripping the over-
burden from the surface to expose the coal or
ore body, which can then be removed using
conventional excavation techniques. Because
it is generallycheaperthanunderground
mining, it can be used to developpoorer
quality deposits. In the case of metal ores, the
385 SUBSIDENCE - LANDSCAPE

excavation is usually followed by on-site con-
centration or beneficiation of the ore. As the
overburden is removed, it is dumped in long
linear mounds that create a large-scale ridge
and furrow landscape. In the past, when the
mineral deposit was worked out, the site was
abandonedandthe ridges remained.The
resultinglandscapewasunpleasantto look
at,butitalsocreatedenvironmentalprob-
lems. Oxidation of exposed minerals such as
pyrites(ironsulphide)createdacidswhich
inhibited plant growth. The unconsolidated
material, unprotected by a vegetation cover,
was easily eroded by wind andwater.
Rainwaterflowing off the ridgesbecame
increasingly acidic and ultimately raised the
acidity of theadjacentwaterbodies.The
runoff also carried large amountsof sediment
thatwastransported to streamsandrivers
where it disrupted the
aquatichabitat.
Thousands of square kilometres in the
Appalachianregion of theeasternUnited
States suffered in this way. Currently, in all
developednations,legislationrequiresthat
all completed strip-mining operations
followed by the restoration of the landscape.
This includes the returnof the topsoil and the
planting of vegetation. Recovery of the
vegetationmaytakebetween five andten
years and during that time the site must
monitored and
maintained. The
serious
problems associated with strip-mining activ-
itiesin thepastaremuch less common,
although lax enforcement of thelegislation
haspreventedthemfrom being eliminated
completely.
problems that had attracted growing concern
in the 1960s. SCEP was the first major study
to drawattentiontotheglobalextent of
human-induced environmental issues.
Further reading
SCEP (1970) Man’s Impact on the Global
Environment:Study of Crltical
Environmental
Problems, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
STUDY OF MAN’S IMPACT ON
CLIMATE (SMIC)
A 1971 report that grew out of issues raised
originally in the SCEP. focused
It on
inadvertentclimatemodification,atboth
regionalandglobal scales, andwas widely
recognized as an authoritative assessment of
all aspects of human-induced climate change.
Further reading
SMIC (1971) InadvertentClimateModification:
Report of the Study of Man’s lmpact on Climate,
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
be SUBLIMATION
The conversion of a solid into a vapour with
nointermediateliquidstage.Undercon-
ditions of low relative humidity, snow canbe
be
evaporated
directly
into
water
vapour
withoutenteringtheliquidwaterphase.
Sublimation is also used t o describe the direct
deposition of water vapour on toice.
SUBSIDENCE - ATMOSPHERIC

Further reading The sinking of air in the atmosphere. Sub-

Griggs, G.B. andGilchrlst, J.A. (1983) Geologic sidence may be associated with the coolingof
Hazards, Resources and Environmental Planning, airclose to thesurface - asincoldanti-
Belrnont, CA: Wadsworth. cyclones, or with the larger scale circulation
-
Toole, K.R. (1976) The Rape of the Great Plains:
Northwest America, Cattle and Coal, Boston, MA: forexample,inthedescendingarm of a
Lit .”,Brown & Co. convection cell. Subsidenceencouragesthe
retention of pollutants close to the earth’s
STUDY OF CRITICAL surface
and
contributes to drought by
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS preventingtheuplift necessary forprecipi-
(SCEP) tation.

A report produced in 1970 covering a range SUBSIDENCE - LANDSCAPE

of atmospheric,terrestrial
and
aquatic
environmental issues, most of whichhad Thecreation of hollows in thelandscape
their
immediateorigins in the
pollution following
removal
the of sub-surface
SUBSISTENCE FARMING
material.
Subsidence occurs
naturallyin
limestone areas, where solution weathering
of the underground rock creates a space into
whichthesurfacematerialsinks. It isalso
common in coal-mining areas, where under-
ground mining is practised. The removal of
the
coal
provides
the
necessaryspace.
Subsidencemaytakeplace slowly, being
gradually revealedby the pondingof water in
the hollows it creates or by cracking in the
walls of buildings, but it can also take place
catastrophically,when it cancausemajor
damage to structures and loss of life.
SUBSISTENCE FARMING
The production of sufficient food and other
necessities to meet the requirementsof a farm
unit, leaving no surplus for sale and little for
storage. As a result, subsistence farmers are
ill-prepared for crop failure.
See also
Cash cropplng.
SUCCESSION
Thegradualandsequentialchangeinthe
structure and content of an ecosystem at a
particular site. It progresses through distinct
stages until the so-called climax community is
attained,withthecompletesequencefrom
the initiation of the community to the climax
referred to as a sere. The climax community
represents the ecosystem thatis best suited to
Figure S-24 The stages of primary plant succession in a mid-latitude temperate zone in which
the climax community is deciduous forest
- ............
TIME c wmral hundred years
386
theenvironmentalconditionsatthesite.
Succession is best illustrated by changes in
vegetation,
butalso
it applies toother
elements such as soils and animals, which are
intimatelylinkedwithvegetation.Primary
successionbegins whencommunity
a is
established on a previously unvegetated site-
for example, a lava flow or mud-flats exposed
by falling water levels. Secondary succession
occurs on a site which has been previously
vegetated, but where the natural succession
has been disrupted. Natural fires can initiate
secondary succession, but human interference
withecosystems is increasinglyresponsible.
Secondarysuccessionwillbegin onaban-
donedagriculturalland or landcleared by
forestry activities, for example.
Further reading
Burrows,
C.J. (1990) Processes of Vegetatron
Change, London: Unwin Hyman.
Del Moral, R. and Wood,D.M. (1993) ‘Early
primary succession on the volcano Mount St
Helens’,]ournal of Vegetatron Science4(2):2 2 3 4 .
Glenn-Lewin,D.C.,Peet, R.K. and Veblen, T.T.
(eds) (1992) Plant Successron: Theory and
Predictron, London: Chapman and Hall.
Shugart, H.H. (1984) A Theory of Forest
Dynamrcs: The Ecologrcal Implications of Forest
Successron Models, New York: Springer-Verlag.
SUGARS
Relativelysimplecarbohydrates,character-
ized by their sweetness and solubility. They
are classified into monosaccharides, contain-
ingfive or sixatoms of carbon (C) and
387 SULPHUR DIOXIDE

disaccharidescontainingtwelveatoms of Brasseur,
G. and Granier, C. (1992) ‘Mount
carbon. Glucose (C,H,,O,), for example, is a Pinatubo aerosols, chlorofluorocarbons and ozone
depletion’, Scrence 257: 1239-42.
monosaccharide and sucrose (C12Hzz0,,) is a Charlson, R.J. and Wigley, T.M.L. (1994) ‘Sulfate
disaccharide. Sucrose is common household aerosol and climatic change’, Scientific American
sugar. 270: 48-57.

SULPHATE PARTICLE SULPHUR (S)

Anegativelychargedioncontainingone
atom of sulphur (S) and four of oxygen (0).
Sulphate particles are released naturally into
theenvironment,forexample,duringvol-
canic
eruptions,
but
modernindustrial
activities,particularlythosewhichinvolve
the combustion of fossil fuels, are also major
producers.Sulphatesmakeupthelargest
group of secondary aerosols in the atmos-
phere,
andcontribute
number
to
a of
environmental issues. For example, they are
abundant in Arctic Haze; they combine with
water to contribute to atmospheric acidity;
theyareveryeffectiveatscatteringsolar
radiation, and they have been identified as
contributing to thethinning of theozone
layer over the Antarctic.
See also
Atmosphericturbidity,Heterogeneouschemical
reactions, Mount Pinatubo.
Further reading
Barne, L.A. (1986) ‘Arctlc air pollution; an over-
view of current knowledge’, Atmospherrc Envrron-
ment, 20: 643-63.
A yellow,non-metallicelementoccurring
naturallyinitselementalforminmany
volcanicregionsandincombinationwith
manymetalsinthe earth‘s crust. All fossil
fuels contain sulphur, whichis released in the
form of sulphur dioxide (SO,) during com-
bustion. Used in the manufacture of sulphuric
acid (H,SO,) andotherchemicals,suchas
fertilizers and fungicides, it also has a long
history of use in medicine. Sulphur is present
in all living matter, usually as a constituent of
certain proteins.
Further reading
Bates, T.S.,Lamb, B.K., Guenther, A., Dignon, J.
and Stoiber,R.E. (1992) ‘Sulfur emissions to the
atmosphere from natural resources’, ]ouml of
Atmospherrc Chemrstry 14 (1-4): 315-37.
Meyer, B. (1977) Surfur, Energy and Environment,
A m s t e r d a a e w York: Elsevier.
SULPHUR DIOXIDE (SO,)
An acid gas in which each molecule contains
one atom of sulphur (S) and two of oxygen

Figure S-25Sulphur dioxide emissions in selected countries

7000 T

6000

5 5000
m

0 1975
E
0
m 1980
S 3000
N
2000

l000

0
CANADA UK JAPAN SWEDEN NOWAY

Source: Based on datain World Resources Institute (1992) World Resources 1992-93: A Guzde to the
Global Envrronment, New York: Oxford University Press
SUNSPOTS

(0).It is a product of thecombustion of variable, but their numbers follow a cyclical

materials containing sulphur. The burning of
sulphur-rich coal, for example, releases large
amounts of sulphur dioxide into the atmos-
pherewhere it combines withwaterto
producesulphuricacid (H,SO,), themain
component of acid precipitation.
See also
Scrubbers.
SUNSPOTS
Dark spots, associated with strong electro-
magnetic activity, that appear on the surface
of the sun. The temperature within sunspots
is as much as 1000 K lower than the gases
that surround them. As a result they radiate
less energy and therefore appear dark. The
size andduration of sunspots is quite
patternthatincludespeaksapproximately
every eleven years. These sunspot cycles have
been linked to events - such as drought and
glaciation - that occur with some regularity
in the earth/atmosphere system. Low sunspot
numbers, for example, indicatinga reduction
in solar activity and therefore less radiation
reaching the earth, havebeen linked to the
advance of glaciers at various times in the
past. Some drought years in North America
have also been associated with low sunspot
numbers.
See also
Maunder Minimum, Quiet sun, Solar flares.
Further reading
Lockwood, J.G. (1979) Causes of Climate,
London: Edward Arnold.

SUPERFUND
Figure S- 16 Two hundred yearsof sunspot
frequencies A multibillion dollar fund established in the
UnitedStatesin 1980 undertheCompre-
mean sunspot number hensive EnvironmentalResponse,Compen-
0 40 80 120
160 200 sationand Liability Act tocleanupaban-
1770 donedhazardous waste
dumpsites
that
threaten the environment and public health.
1790 Thefund is financed by federalandstate
governments with contributions in the form
1810 of taxesfromthepetroleumandchemical
industries. Under the act, fines to pay for the
1830 clean-up can be levied on the companies who
established the dumps, but the owners cannot
1850 always beidentified and lengthylitigation
can stall the recovery of the costs. Estimates
suggest that a total clean-upof all hazardous
1870
siteswouldtakebetweenthirtyand fifty
years and cost in theregion of 1.5 trillion
1890 dollars, almost 100 times the original size of
thefund.Thefund is administered by the
1910 EPA.

1930 Further reading

Smith,Z.A.(1995) TheEnvironmentalPolicy
Paradox, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
1950

1970 SUPERNOVA
Source: Based on data in Schneider, S.H. and
Mass, C. (1975) ‘Volcanlc dust, sunspots and A starwhichovera few days becomes
temperature trends’, Sciertce 190: 741-6 exceptionallybright - morethan a million
389 DEVELOPMENT
times brighter than normal- before declining
again. Thelevels of cosmic radiation released
duringthisprocessareexceptionallyhigh,
and, if the supernova occurs close enough to
the earth, may contribute to ozone depletion
through the creation of oxides of nitrogen
(NOx) whenthe cosmic
rays
strike
the
atmosphere.
SUPERSATURATION
A conditioninwhichasolutioncontains
more solute than is required to saturate it.
The term is applied to an atmosphere con-
taining more water vapour than is necessary
to produce saturation - in effect its relative
humidityexceeds 100 percent. If super- noise levels during take-off require that SSTs
saturated air near the ground encounters a
coldsurface,condensation will takeplace,
butinthefreeatmosphere well abovethe
ground, the supersaturated state can exist for passingoverland,forexample,theyare
some time. Condensationwill only take place
when condensation nuclei are introduced into speeds.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Developmentjudged to bebotheconom-
d l y and environmentally sound, so that
the needs of the world’s current population
can be met without jeopardizing those of
future generations. In its current form, the
concept grew out of the work of the World
Commission on Environment and Develop-
ment,whichmetinthemid-l980s,and
became a central issue at the UNCED held
in Rio in 1992. Sustainability is an integral
part of all natural
systems, however,
maintained by the controlled flowof matter
o r energy
through
the
systems,
and
disruption of these flows or damage to the
components of a system can interfere with
sustainability.
Population
pressure or
human activities which result in the excess
use of availableresourcesthreatensus-
tainability. Non-renewable resources, such
as most minerals, cannot normally support
sustainable development in the long term,
althoughprudentmanagementcombined
with recycling can extend their life-spans.
Renewableresources, ontheotherhand,
SUSTAINABLE
the supersaturated air mass.
SUPERSONIC TRANSPORTS
(SSTs)
Commercial aircraft that routinely fly faster
thanthe speed of sound,andat higher
altitudes than subsonic airliners. Flying high
in the stratosphere, they inject ozone destroy-
ingpollutantssuchasoxides of niotrogen
(NOx)andoddhydrogens(HOx) directly
into the ozone layer. Only two types of SST
haveflownsincetheirdevelopmentinthe
1970s - the Russian Tu-l44 and the
Anglo-French Concorde - andonlythe
Concorde continues inservice. High engine
adoptnoiseabatementproceduresatmost
airports, and the sonic boom they generate
restrictstheiruse oncertainroutes.When
usually
required to remain at
subsonic
should be able to provideasustainable
yield if appropriately managed. However,
declining plant and animal stocks, threats
to biodiversity, soil depletion and increas-
ingly widespreadecosystemdeterioration
provideevidencethatmodernharvesting
andresource
extractiontechniques far
surpass the ability of renewable resources
to maintain sustainability.
Malthus recognized the dire consequences
associated with loss of sustainability, as did
theearlyconservationistssuchasJohn
Muir, although they did not use that term
specifically. In modern times, the concept
expandedbeyonditsoriginallinkswith
natural systems, and began more and more
to includesocioeconomic anddevelop-
mental elements. The reportsof the Clubof
Rome,for
example,
incorporatedthe
sustainability theme through their consider-
ation of population growth, resource use,
food supply and pollution.
Currentsustainability issues cover a
very broad spectrum, with the concept of
M IDSESVI O
ENL OSPUM
SETN
ATINABLE
sustainable yield applied to agriculture,
energy, fishing, forestry and resource develop-
ment in such a waythattheeconomic
factorsareintegratedwithenvironmental
concerns as far as possible. Themodern
approach to sustainabledevelopment is
increasinglymultifaceted,with a need to
integrate a wide range of elements. It has
become people centred, for example, with
localstrategiesbeingdeveloped to meet
local problems, while at the same time it is
apparentthat it musthavethescopeto
foster sustainable patterns of international
trade and finance. At the international level,
the developed nations must be prepared to
providehelp to theThird World if sus-
tainabledevelopment is to be successful.
Sustainable development was central to the
UNCED’s Agenda 21, and the signatoriesto
that agreement are working to implement
its recommendations. Work is ongoing on
severalelements,including biodiversity,
energy, deforestationandland use, under
theauspices of theSustainableDevelop-
ment Commission and such agencies as the
UN Food andAgriculturalOrganization
(FAO), UNEP, UNDP and the World Bank.
Particular
attention is being
given to
sustainableagricultureandruraldevelop-
ment in theThirdWorld, as a means of
increasing agricultural production and food
supplywithout threateningthe
natural
resource base of the developing nations.On
paper, the sustainability goalsof Agenda 21
can be achieved by following a few basic
principlessuch as those listed by Park
(1997):
respect and care for the community of
life
improve the quality of human life
conserve the earth’s vitality and
SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
SYMBIOSIS
COMMISSION
A close and permanent relationship between
An institutionestablished as a result of theorganisms
EarthSummit,aimedatmonitoringandtakes
promotingtheapproachtowardssustainableorganismsbenefitfromtherelationship;
developmentidentified attheSummit.commensalism,
390
diversity
minimize the depletion of
non-renewable resources
keep within the earth’s carrying capacity
change personal attitudes and practices
enable communities to care for their
own environments
provide a national framework for
integrating development and
conservation
create a global alliance.
In practice,theseinvolve a wide range of
complex, interrelated technical, social and
economic issues, which include
several
areas of potential conflict and tension - for
example,thetraditionalandoften very
differentapproaches to resourceexploit-
ationandconservation will have to be
reconciled. Thus, desirable and necessaryas
it may be, sustainabledevelopment will
require a long-term commitment, and most
observersagreethat it is unlikely to be
achieved in the near future.
Further reading
Brown, L.R.(ed.) (1997) State of theWorld
1997, New York: Norton.
Elliott, J. (1993) An lntroductrotr to Sustarnable
Development, London: Routledge.
Goodlnnd, R.J.A. (ed.) (1992) Etrvrronttzeutally
Sustainable Economic Developmetzt: Building on
Brrtndtlattd, Paris: UNESCO.
Meadows, D.H., Meadows, D.L. and Randers, J .
( 1 992) Beyoftd the Limits: Cotzfrotztrtig Global
Collapse, Etzvrsiomzg a Sustarrlable Future, Post
Mills, W: Chelsea Green.
Milbrath, LW. (1989)Emrsiorwrg a Sustaitrable
Socrety, Albany, NY: StateUnlversity of New
York Press.
Park, C C . (1997) Etzvrronrnent: Prrrzcrples and
Applicatrons, London/New York: Routledge.
Plant, J. and Plant, C. (eds) (1990) Turtle Talk:
Fifteerr Vozces for a Sustai?rable Future, Santa
Cruz, CA: New Society.
of differentspecies.Symbiosis
a number of forms. In mutualism,both
in
one benefits and
theother is
391 SYSTEM

unharmed; in parasitism, one of the organ- on energy supply remains limited, although
isms benefits a t the expense of the other. they may be locally or regionally important.

See also Further reading

Parasite. Probstein, R.F, andHicks, R.E. (1982) Synthetic
Fuels, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Supp, E. (1990) How t o Produce Metharzol fronz
SYNERGISM Coal, BerlinlNew York: Springer-Verlag.
World
Bank (1980)AlcoholProductionfront
A condition in which two substances work Rionzass 171 the Developirtg Courztrres, Washington,
together in such a way that their combined DC: World Bank.
effect is greaterthanthesum o f thetwo
separate effects. It applies in airpollution SYSTEM
episodes, for example, when smoke particles
and sulphuric acid droplets have a synergistic An assemblage of interrelated objects organ-
effect on therespiratorysystems of those ized as an integrated whole. In environmental
exposed to smog. Synergism canalso increase studies, systems are usually classified as open
the potency of drugs used for pharmaceutical or closed. Open systems arethosewhich
purposes. allowanexchangeorflow of energy and
massacrossthesystemboundaries in the
SYNFUELS form of inputs and outputs. Closed systems
involve the input and output of energy, but
Synthetic fuels produced by the conversion of not mass. The earth/atmosphere system, for
awiderange of organicmaterialsintoa example, is a closed system, in which there is
gaseous or liquid form suitable for use as a no materialflowacrossthesystembound-
fuel. The raw material maybe a conventional aries. The closednature of thesystem is
fuelsuchascoal,growingplantmaterials, important, since it means that the amount of
human and animal sewage or garbage. Town matter in the system is fixed, and therefore
gas or coal gas produced by the destructive existing material resources are finite. Systems
distillation of coalwasone of thefirst commonlyinclude a series of sub-systems,
synfuelsproduced,andwas used in many ranging scale
infrom
microscopic to
areas until the adventof more energy efficient continental, which may act individually, but
naturalgas.Liquidsynfuelshave also been withinand
linked to the
main
system.
produced from coal. Coal liquefication plants Drainagebasinsareoftenstudiedusinga
were operated in Germany during the Second systemsapproach.Individualbasinshave
World War, butcheappostwaroilprices energy and mass inputs and outputs, but they
made further development uneconomic. The belong to thelargerhydrologicalsystem
onlymajordevelopmenthas beenin South drivenultimately by the energy flow in the
Africa.Alcoholssuch
as
methanol
and whole
earthhtmosphere system.
When
ethanolproduced by the conversion of outputs balance inputs in a system, it is said
carbohydrates in plants have also been used to be in asteadystate.Balance is seldom
as fuels, andtheproduction of methane complete, however, and in mostenviron-
(CH,) - biogas - by theanaerobicdecom- mental
systemssomeform of dynamic
position of sewageprovidesanimportant equilibrium is the best that can be achieved.
substituteforconventionalfuels in some Human interference progressively
has
parts of India. The pyrolysis of domestic disruptedeventhatdegree of balance by
refuse or garbage can produce small amounts interferingwiththeflow of materialor
of liquid and gaseous synfuels, in the process energy in systems. In the past, the disruption
helping to reduce the volume of material to wasmainly a t thesub-system level - for
be disposed of in landfill sites. Synfuels are example,the
addition of pollutants to
usuallycostly toproduce in quantityand drainage basins, or the removalof vegetation
create the same environmental problems as from ecosystems - but the human impact is
conventional fuels. Thus, their overall impact now being felt at
the
earthhtmosphere
SYSTEM 392
system level. Global warming, for example, is introduced
do
not
remain
isolated,
but
in large part a reflection of society's ability t o ultimately impact on the larger system.
disrupttheflow of energythroughthe
system. The general concept of the system is See also
relativelysimple,but
its
application
to Entropy.
specificsituationscan be difficult.Inthe
complex relationships that exist between the Further reading
differentelements of theenvironment,for Huggett, R.J. (1980)SystemsAnalysrs rn Geo-
graphy, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
example,delineatingsub-systemsispartic- Huggett, R.J. (1993)Modelling the Human Impact
ularlydifficultbecause it is notalways on Nature:SystemsAnalysrs of Environmental
possible to identify clear boundaries between Problems, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
them. System theory has been useful in the Huggett, R.J. (1995)Geoecology: An Evolutionary
Approach, London: Routledge.
study of environmental issues,
however, White, I.D., Mottershead, D.N. and Harrison, S.J.
through its reinforcementof the concept that (1992)EnvrronmentalSystems: An lntroductory
the various elements in the environment are Text, London: Chapman and Hall.
interrelated,and,asaresult,anychanges

Figure S-l 7 (a) Schematic diagramof the eartldatmosphere system

(a) energyfbwaatem-opsn

I
I
L"""""""-J
~ ~ ~ - c b m c l

of a sub-system of anthropogenic origin- a thermal electric power plant

(b) Schematic diagram

r
I
" "_ out
$"- out
--- L I
I I I I
I
I

Source: Kemp, D.D. (1994)Global Envrronmental Issues; A Climatological Approach, LondodNew

York: Routledge
 T
deer, moose and wolves, which have adapted
to the cold winters, inhabit the taiga all the year
round, butmany of the region’s birdsare
The Eurasian equivalent of the NorthAmerican
migratory, nesting in the area before returning
boreal forest (see Figure B-S), stretching from
southforthe winter. Characteristic of the
Scandinavia to far eastern
Siberia. Lying
region is the large number of bitinginsects
between tundrato the northandtemperate
such as mosquitoes andblackfly that hatch in
deciduous forest or grassland to the south, the
theirmillions in the short summerseason.
taiga biome includesmainlyconiferoustrees
Human habitation of the taiga oftenrelies upon
such as spruce, fir and larch, growing in large
forest products,and thearea is dotted with
stands of few species. The climate of the taiga is
towns dependent upon lumbering or the pulp
harsh,
with
long
cold
winters and
short
andpaper industry. Threatsto the
taiga
summers. Precipitation, much of it in the form
environment include clear-cutting of the forest
of snow, ranges from250 to 1000 mm peryear,
and air and water pollutioncaused by the mills.
andincombinationwithlowtomoderate
temperatures this produces humid conditions. Further reading
The landscape therefore includes many lakes, Larsen,J.A. (1980) The Boreal Ecosystent, New
ponds and peat bogs. Large mammals such as York: Academic Press. beyond its local or regional

Figure T-l The global distribution of taiga

TAILINGS 394

TAILINGS Figure T-2The 400 m high 'superstack' at

Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
Wastematerialremainingafterthemining
and on-site processing of mineral resources.
Tailings may be inert and pose few problems
to theenvironment,other
than
those
associatedwithaesthetics.However,even
seemingly innocuous rock waste may contain
mineralsthat,
whenexposed to
surface
conditions,undergophysicalandchemical
changes which allow harmful products such
as acids and toxic metals to enter the environ-
ment. Many processing techniques cause the
production of very fine tailings suspended in
water,thatmayincluderemnants of the
chemicals used in the process. To prevent such
materialsfromreachingtheenvironment,
theyarestoredintailingponds until the
sediments settle out and the chemicals are
neutralized, after which they can be disposed
of in an acceptable manner. Such ponds can
present a significant environmental hazard if
they are breachedor even leak consistently.

See also
Acid mine drainage, Ore, Uranium mill tailings.
Photograph: The author
Further reading
Ritcey, G.M. (1989) Tailings
Management: beyond
its
local or reglonal boundaries to
Problems and Solutronsm theMining Industry, boundaries to become a continental scale problem.
Amsterdam/New York: Elsevier.
Further reading
TALL STACKS POLICY Howard, R. and Perky, M. (1991)Pozsoned Skzes,
Toronto: Stoddart.
Park, C.C. (1987)Acrd R a m Rhetoricand Reality,
Anapproach to theproblem of localair London: Methuen.
pollution, which involved the building of tall
smokestacks to allow the release of pollutants TALUS
outside the local atmospheric boundary layer.
By the mid-1970s stacks ranging in height See scree.
from150 m to 300 mwerecommonon
smeltersandthermal electric
generating
stations in Europe and North America. The
TANNINS
International Nickle Company (INCO) built
the tallest smokestack (400 m) to dispose of Agroup of complexorganiccompounds
exhaust
gases from
its
nickel
smelting derivedfromorganicacidssuchastannic
complex in Sudbury,Ontario.Whileall of acid.Tanninsareusedinthetanning of
thisreducedlocalpollution,itintroduced leather and in the dyeing industry.
pollutantsintothelargerscalecirculation
andcontributedtothelong-rangetrans- TAR SANDS
portation of air pollution (LRTAP). A major
result of the release of acid gasesfrom tall stacks Tar sands or oil sands are deposits of sand
wasthepromotion of acidprecipitation impregnatedwithbitumen,averyviscous
 395
Figure T-3 Experimental technique for the ~n
situ extraction of oil from tar sands
tnjeclion
well
air steam and oil
and fire combustion and
gases water water
hydrocarbon.Majortarsanddepositsare
located inVenezuela, the United States and
Russia,but by farthelargestdepositsare
those in Alberta,Canada,withestimated
reserves equivalentto 800-900 billion barrels
of crude oil. Perhaps only 10 per cent of that
total is recoverable with existing technology,
however. Tarsandsconsist of 84 percent
sand and 12 per cent bitumen by weight with
the remainder mainly water. Approximately
2.5 tonnes of sand are required to produce a
barrel of oil. Thesandsareextracted by
strip-miningandtreatedwithhotwater,
steam and chemicals to separate the bitumen
from the
sand.
Further
refining of the
bitumen to remove impurities such as sulphur
(S) and the fractionation o f the hydrocarbons
intoamixture o f naphthaandgasoils
produces a high-quality syntheticcrude
suitable for use in the production of gasoline
and aviation fuel, or as a feedstockforthe
petrochemicalsindustry.Theprocessing of
one barrel of bitumen produces 15.5 m’ of
gas, 15 kg of coke, 5.9 kg of sulphur and 0.8
barrels o f syntheticcrude oil. The first oil
from the Alberta tar sands was produced
1967, but the industry faces both economic
and environmental problems. The operations
are extremely capital, labour and equipment
intensive and,althoughproductioncan be
profitable,the level of profitability is very
sensitive to the fluctuation of world crudc oil
prices. Environmental issues arise during the
extractionprocess,whichfacesthesame
TELECONNECTION
problems as all large-scale strip-mining oper-
ations,andduringrefining,whichbadly
pollutes the large volumes of water required
for the process. Consideration has been given
to the in situ extraction of the oil through the
liquefication of thebitumenunderground
and its subsequentpumpingusingconven-
tional methods, but it is not yet economically
and
technically
feasible.
The
potential
supplies of oil from tar sands are very large,
and
plans
are
being
made to increase
Albertan oil sands petroleum production to
1.2 million barrels per day by the year 2020.
However, much will depend upon world oil
prices and production, and the tar sands are
unlikely to be utilized to their fullest extentas
long as crude oil from conventional sources
remains readily available.
Further reading
Fitzgerald, J.J. (1978) Black Gold 70rth Grrt,
Sidney, BC: Grays Publishing.
Schumacher, 1M.M. (ed.) (1982) Heavy Oil and Tar
Sarzds Recoveryand Upgradirzg: Itztert7attotral
Technology, Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Data Corp.
Smnh, J.W. (1980) ‘Synfuels: o i l shaleand tar
sands’, in LC. Kuedisili and M.W. Firehaugh (eds)
Perspectrves otz Energy, New York: Oxford
University Press.
TAXONOMY
Theclassification of organismsintohierar-
chical groups. In addition to the description
andcataloguing of individualplantsand
animals,moderntaxonomyincludescon-
sideration of thecausesand effects of the
variations among organisms.
TELECONNECTION
The linking of environmental events in time
and place. The concept is based on
observations that the various elements in the
earth/atmospheresystem
are
sufficiently
in interconnected that
changes in one will
automatically set in motion changes in
others. The changes often involve a time-lag
and include locations
that
may be well
separated from each other. For example, an
El Niiio in the eastern Pacific late in one year
may be linked tothe failure of theIndian
monsoon in the following year. The time-lag
between events may also make it possible to
TEMPERATURE 396
predict the consequences of a specific event, mixing.Smoke and
other
emissions
are
andthisaspect of teleconnection is being therefore trapped beneath the inversion and,
closely examined for its potential in drought asaresult,thesurfacelayermaybecome
prediction. highly polluted.Inversionsarecommonly
caused by strongradiationcooling of the
Further reading groundat night,particularlyin valleys o r
Glantz,M.H.,Katz, R.W. and Nicholl,N (eds) basinswherethecoolairdrains on to the
(1991) Teleconnectiorrs Linkrng Worldwide lowergroundandreinforcestheradiation
ClimateAnomalies: Scientific Basrs and Socretal
Impact, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. cooling.
Temperature inversions
are
also
Mooley, D.A. and Parthasarathy, B. (1983)'Indian caused by the adiabatic
warming of
summer monsoon and El Niiio', Pure and Applied descending air in anticyclones.
Geophysrcs 121: 339-52.
See also
TEMPERATURE Adiabatic process, Convection.

In popular terms, temperature is the measure TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY

of the warmth or coldness of an object. In (TVA)
scientific terms, it is a measure of the mole-
cular kinetic energy of matter and represents A United States government agency created in
thespeed at whichthemolecules in the 1933 to control flooding,improve navi-
matter move or vibrate. Temperature can be gation, rehabilitate land and foster regional
measured usingseveral scales, depending development in theTennesseeRiver valley
upon the purposeof the measurement and the through the production of hydroelectricity. It
conditionsunderwhich it is beingtaken. is an integrated system which includes parts
Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin are the most of seven states through which the Tennessee
common scales used in modern times. River flows. The system includes fifty dams,
most of which produce electricity, and
TEMPERATURE INVERSION togetherhaveacapacity of morethan30
millionKw (30 Gw).Theauthorityalso
The reversal of the normal temperature produceselectricityfromcoal-firedstations
decline with altitudein the troposphere. In an and until 1985 operated two nuclear power
inversion, the temperature rises with altitude plants.
Opposition
from
environmental
because of the presence of a layer of warm air groups helped to halt the Authority's nuclear
above the cooler surface air. The warm layer programme,and it hasalsocomeunder
acts to dampen convectiveactivity
and attackforenvironmentaldisruptioncaused

Figure T-4 Lapse rates associated with a temperature inversion

1500

1000 environmental
lapse rate

500
1
""""""""""" ". \ -
l a p s e rate

-
expected
temperature temperature
8.ZoC at400 m
I I I I I I I

0 5 10 15OC
397 TETRACHLOROMETHANE

by strip-miningandburningcoal. As a TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT

product of the integration of the system, the
TVA has helped to improve agricultural and
forestry practices, control flooding and reduce
soil erosion. Some of the reservoir areas have
been developed as recreational facilities and
the provision of electricity has contributed to
industrial development in the valley.
See also
Nuclear energy.
Further reading
Owen, M. (1983) The Tennessee Valley Authorrty,
New York: Praeger.
Schaffer, D. (1989)‘Managing
water in the
Tennessee Valley in post-war
the period’,
Environmental Revrew 13(2): 1-16.
That part of the environment that includes
the components of the land surface- such as
rock and soil - and the plants and animals
that live on it. The quality of the terrestrial
environment is beingthreatened by such
factorsaspollutionfromsolidandliquid
waste, mining and agricultural activities, soil
erosion, overpopulation, desertification and
deforestation. Attempts at maintaining quality
haveinvolvedtheapplication of environ-
mentalimpactassessmentandtheintro-
duction of appropriate land use planning.
See also
Aquatic environment, Atmospheric environment.

TERATOGEN Further reading

Aber, J.D.andMelillo,J.M.(1991) Terrestrral
An agent or substancethatproducesbirth Ecosystems, Philadelphia, PA: Saunders.
defects by causing malformation of the tissues
in a developing foetus. It may be a relatively TERRESTRIAL RADIATION
common substance like alcohol, for example.
Foetalalcoholsyndrome is caused by the Radiation emitted from the earth’s surface.
consumption of alcohol by pregnant women. Since the earth is a relatively low temperature
Thechildrenaffectedmaydisplayawide body, terrestrial radiation is low energy, long-
range of defects from brain damage to cleft wave radiation from the infrared sector of the
palate.Morecomplexchemicalssuchas spectrum. In theory, the terrestrial radiation
dioxinhavealso beenidentifiedasterato- emitted by the earth balances the amount of
genic. Children born to mothers exposed to solar radiation entering. However, that isa
Agent Orange are
suspected of having long-termbalance,based on averageinput
suffered chromosome malformation while in andoutput of radiation.Variousfactors
the womb,which produced a varietyof defects. intervene to disrupt the
balance.
For
example,terrestrialradiation is trapped by
Further reading greenhousegases in the troposphere and is
Smith, D.W. and Jones, K.L. (1982) Recognrzahle thus retained in thesystem.In so doing, it
Patterns Human
of Malformation: Genetrc, performsthe very importantfunction of
EmbryologrcandClinrcalAspects, Philadelphia,
PA: Saunders.
bringingaboutthewarming of theearth/
atmosphere system.
TERPENE See also
Electromagnetic
spectrum,
Greenhouse
effect,
One of a group of fragranthydrocarbons Heat budget.
found in the essential oils of someplants,
particularly
conifers. Released from these Further reading
plants, terpenes maybe responsible for the haze Barry, R.G. and Chorley, R.J. (1992) Atmosphere,
common oversuchareasas the Blue Ridge Weather and Climate (6th edition), London/New
York: Routledge.
Mountains of Virginia in the United States.

Further reading
TETRACHLOROMETHANE
Newrnan, A.A. (1972) Chemistry of Terpenes and
Terpenoids, London: Academic Press. See carbon tetrachloride.
THERM 398
THERM naturalgas,
with
coal
beingthe
most
common fuel used. The thermal
energy
A unit of heat equivalent to 100,000 Btus. released when the coal is burned is used to
Once commonly used in Britain as a measure heatwaterandproducesteam,whichis
of gas or steam consumption, but now being directedunderpressurethroughturbines.
replaced by the megajoule. These in turn power generators to produce
theelectricity.Because of the many energy
See also conversions involved- chemical t o thermal to
British Thermal Unit, Joule. kinetic t o electrical - thermal power stations
arenotparticularlyefficient. Even large,
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY modern, well-maintained plants have energy
efficiency ratings of less than 40 percent.
The rate of heat transfer through a body by Energy is lost through friction in the turbines
conduction. and generators and through flue gases, but
the bulk of it is lost in the conversion of water
to steam and back to water. Once the steam
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
haspassedthroughtheturbines Itis con-
densedbackintowater,whichlosesits
See Thornthwaite, C.W. thermal energyto the environment as it cools.
The initialhightemperaturesarebrought
THERMAL ELECTRIC POWER down in on-site cooling ponds or by cooling
STATION towers, but even with that the water is com-
monlywarmerthanthewaterbodyinto
An electricity generating station in which the whichit is releasedandthereforecreates
electricity is produced by burning coal, oilor thermalpollution.Thermalpowerplants

Figure T-5 A coal-fired thermal electric power station. The waterside location, the fuel storage
space requirements and the releaseof pollutants set such power stations in conflict with the
environment, in this case a lakeshore marsh ecosystem

Photograph: The author

 399 T H E R M A L POLLUTION

have also been linked to air pollution through insolationwhichcausesthesurfaceairto

therelease of particulatematterandacid becomemore
buoyant
and
exert less
gasesfromtheirsmokestacks, to increase pressure. They encourage cyclonicinflow, but
atmosphericturbidityandcauseacidrain. only closeto the surface, since they tendto be
More efficient combustion and the fitting of shallow
features
most
at only a few
scrubbers to theplantshavereducedthese kilometres deep. Thermal lows range in scale
problems. The production of carbon dioxide from local or regional features to the large-
(CO2) asaby-product of thecombustion scalelowpressuresystemsthatformover
process in thermalelectricpowerstations Asia and Australiaduringthestrongsolar
contributes to the enhancement of the heating of the summer months.
greenhouse effect and therefore
global
warming. As yet there is no widely acceptable See also
solution in sightforthiscarbondioxide Atmospheric pressure, Cyclone.
emissionproblem. Fossil fuelcombustion
currently accounts for some 60 per centof the Further reading
Hidore, J.J. and Oliver, J.E. (1993) Climatology:
total
world electricity production, with A H Atmospherrc Scrence, New York: Macmillan.
coal-burningpowerplantsaloneproducing
40 percent,andthesefiguresare likely to THERMAL POLLUTION
increase as the demand for electricity grows
in areas such as China and India, when there
arelargecoal reserves. There is concern In theory a temperature increase in any part
amongenvironmentaliststhatthegrowing of the environment brought aboutby human
demand will be metfromthermalplants, activities.
Thus,
the
urban
heat
island
most of which will not be designed to meet phenomenon might
considered
be an
increasingly
the environmental
strict example of thermal pollution. However, it is
standards imposed on plants in the developed appliedmainly to waterbodies.Themajor
nations. That
being so, thermalelectric source of thermal pollution in rivers, streams
powerplants will make increasing
an and lakes is the release of cooling water from
contribution to the problemsof air pollution, thermalelectricpowerstationsandother
acid rain and global warming. industrialenterprises.Cuttingdowntrees
that provide shade along water-courses can
See also also leadindirectly to thermal pollution. In
Hydroelectricity, Nuclear energy, Tall stacks the absence of shade, direct solar radiation
policy. cancausethetemperature of the river or
stream to rise. The main impact of thermal
Further reading pollution is through reduction
a in the
Flavin, C. and Lenssen, N. ( 1 994) ‘Reshaping the availability of dissolved oxygen (0) as
power industry’, in L.R. Brown (ed.) State of the temperatures
increase,
which
creates
World - 1994, New YorklLondon: Norton.
Shannon,R.H.(1982) Hutzdbook of Coal-based problems
for fish andother
aquatic
Electrrc Power Gemratrou, Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes organisms. The problemis usually greatest at
Data Corp. times of low flow in waters already polluted
by organicsubstances.Risingtemperatures
THERMAL ENERGY can also encourage bacterial growth, creating
potential health problems where the water is
See energy. used for drinking or for recreational activities
such as swimming.
THERMAL LOW
See also
Biochemical oxygen demand, Oxygen sag curve.
Low pressure system producedby the heating
of the earth’s surface and the air immediately Further reading
above it. Thermallowsordepressionsare Langford, T.E.L. ( 1990) Ecological Effects of
best developed under clear skies and strong Thermal Drscharges, London: Elsevier.
THERMISTOR 400

THERMISTOR THERMOCOUPLE

A semiconductor in which there is a strong

An instrument for measuring temperature. It
negative correlation between electrical resis-
consists of wires of two differentmetals
tance and temperature. Thus, it can be used
joined to formacontinuouscircuit.When
as a sensor for measuring temperature. The
one of thejunctions is maintainedata
sensitivity, rapid response time and smallsize
constanttemperature (referencejunction)
of thermistorshavemadethemidealfor
and the temperature of the other (measuring
manymicroclimatological studies
and
in
junction) is allowed to rise, an electromotive
other areas such as medicine and electronics,
force (emf) or currentis created in the circuit.
where these characteristics are important.
By measuring that emf, the temperature of the
measuring junction can be calculated. In the
See also
Thermocouple, Thermometer. past,
the
temperature of the reference
junction was maintained by placing it ina
THERMOCLINE freezing solution, and a galvanometer placed
in thecircuitprovided a measure of the
The layer of water in the oceans and in lakes current fromwhich thetemperature was
that
separates
the
warmer surface
layer calculated. In modern thermocouple systems,
(epilimnion in lakes) from the deeper colder electronic circuitry maintains the temperature
layer (hypolimnion in lakes). The thermocline of thereferencejunctionandallowsthe
is usually absent from the oceans polewards temperature of theotherjunction to be
of 60" latitude. It ranges in thickness from a displayed on a screen or dial directly in "C or
few metres in lakes to more than 100 metres
"F ratherthan inmillivolts.Itsharesthe
characteristics of sensitivity, rapidresponse
in the tropical oceans and is characterized by
a temperature gradient that exceeds that of and smallsize with the thermistor.
the
layersaboveand below. Theupper
See also
surface of the thermocline marks the limit of Thermometer.
penetration of solar energy either directly o r
throughmixing,andsincethatvarieswith THERMOMETER
the seasons, the depthof the thermocline also
varies, particularly in mid- and high latitude
lakes.Duringthesummerintheseareas, Aninstrumentformeasuringtemperature.
warming of the water
may
push
the Thermometers vary size,
in shape
and
thermoclinedownand in shallowlakes it construction, depending upon such factors as
may disappear completely. Conversely, in the the
range of temperature involved,
the
winter, the lake may become uniformly cold accuracy required and the conditions under
and no thermocline will be evident. The whichtheinstrument will be exposed. The
presence of a thermocline tends to inhibit the mostcommontype is themercury-in-glass
interchange of water,gases andnutrients thermometer. The mercury (Hg) is enclosed in
between the warm and cold layers. It limits abulbattached to acapillarytube,along
thedownwardmixing of carbondioxide which it expands or contracts in response to
(CO,), forexample,whichmayexplain in changingtemperature.Wheretemperatures
part the ability of higher latitude oceans to are likely to fall below -39"C, at which liquid
absorb more of that gas than those in lower mercurysolidifies,alcohol-in-glassthermo-
latitudes. See Figure E-8. metersare used. Thermometers can be
constructed to maintainthemaximum or
Further reading minimum temperature recorded in the time
Strahler, A.H. and Strahler, A.N. (1992) Modertz between readings, or to provide a continuous
PhysicdGeography (4thedition),New York: record of temperatureconditionsoveran
Wiley.
extendedperiod. Bimetallic stripthermo-
meters,
in
whichthe
differences in the
40 1 THIRD WORLD

coefficients of expansion and contraction of THERMOSETTING PLASTICS

thetwometalscausethestrip to flex and
indicate temperature fluctuations, are used in See plastics.
manyindustries as thermostats to control
temperatureincreases or decreases in an
industrialplant or duringmanufacturing
THERMOSPHERE
processes.Specialized thermometers such as
thermistorsandthermocoupleshave been See atmospheric layers.
developed to allow temperatures to be
measured when the more common types are THIRD WORLD
not suitable.
A term commonly applied to the developing
Further reading and non-aligned nations of Africa, Asia and
Linacre, E. (1992) Climate Data and Resources: A
Reference and Guide, London: Routledge. Latin America, to distinguish them from the
industrialnations of the ‘first world’with
THERMONUCLEARDEVICE their developed, capitalist economies, and the
communistnations of the‘secondworld’
with
their
centrally
planned
economies.
Apowerfulbombinwhichtheexplosive
Theremay also be anargumentforthe
force is created by the fusion of the nuclei of
presence of a ‘fourth world’ made up of the
hydrogen atoms - hence the name ‘hydrogen
oil-rich nations which are not developed in
bomb’.Theexplosion is initiated by the
the conventional sense, but do not face the
detonation of a fission bomb embedded in a
economicproblems of theThirdWorld.
hydrogen-richcompoundsuch as lithium
ThirdWorld nations
face a number of
deuteride. This creates the high temperatures
dilemmasassociated
with
the
conflict
necessary for the fusion processto begin. The
between their need to develop economically
power of such a bomb is equivalent to
and the environmental consequences of that
megatons(millions of tons) of TNT. The
development. The destruction of the tropical
detonation of hundreds of these devices over
rainforest in LatinAmericaandsouth-east
a shortperiodwasconsideredcapable of
Asia to produce revenue or to allow mining
bringing on nuclear winter.
and agricultural activity is indicative of that
conflict. Environmental regulations are often
See also
Atomic bomb, Nuclear fission, Nuclear fuslon. less stringent, or less stringently applied, in
theThirdWorld,allowingpollutionfrom
Further reading mining and manufacturing plants to become
Morland, H. (1981) The Secret thatExploded, a serious problem in some areas.
This
New York: Random House. encouragescompaniesfromthedeveloped
Pittock, A., Ackerman, T., Crutzen, P,, MacCracken, nations to follow double standards in which
M.,Shapiro,C.and Turco, R. (1986) Ewiron-
mentalConsequences o f NuclearWar: Vol. 1, environmentalcontrolsfortheemission of
Physrcaland AtmospherlcEffects, NewYork: pollutants or the disposal of waste in their
Wiley. plants in Third World countries are more lax
thanthoserequiredintheirhomeplants.
THERMONUCLEAR REACTION Conflicts between developed and developing
nations also occurwhenglobalenviron-
See nuclear fusion. mental issues are considered. The reduction
in rainforest exploitation, for example, or the
THERMOPLASTICS proposed imposition of a carbon tax, seen by
the developed nations as necessary to control
See plastics. global warming, are regarded by Third World
nationsas
deterrents to theireconomic
development.Througheventssuch as the
UNCED and the activities that stemmed from
3 0 PER CENT CLUB 402

it, Third World nations are being encouraged time he spent living naturally at Walden Pond
toworktheirwayout of theirproblems near Concord, Massachusetts, Thoreau also
through
sustainable
development,
using kept a journal in which for twenty-four years
appropriate technology scaled to local needs he recorded his philosophical and scientific
and local resources.
Many
development observations. An ecologist in all butname,
studiesnow refer to countrieswithThird his observationsmadehimaware of the
World attributes as the‘South’, as opposedto concept of forest succession, and as early as
the‘North’withitsdevelopedandindus- 1859 he advocated the creation of wilderness
trialized nations. parks for the preservationof nature.

Further reading Further reading

Chandra, R. (1992) Industrralizution and Deuelop- Thoreau,
H.D. (1854) Walden, Boston, MA:
nzent ttr the Third World, London: Routledge. Ticknor and Fields.
Gupta, A. (1988) Ecology and Deuelopmetzt r n the Torrey, B. and Allen, EH. (eds) (1906)Thelournu1
Thrrd World, London: Routledge. of Henry D. Thoreau, Vols 1-14, Boston, MA:
Sachs, 1. (1976) The Drscouery ofthe Third World, Houghton Mifflin.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Cox, G.W. (1993) Conservation Ecology: Bio-
Weatherby, J. (1997) The O t h e r World: Issues and sphereand Biosururual, Dubuquc, IA: Wm C.
Politrcs of the Developtng World (3rdedition), Brown.
New York: Longman.

30 PER CENTCLUB THORNTHWAITE, C.W.

(1 899-1 963)
A group of thirty-five nations - mainly from
the
European Community, but
including An American appliedclimatologist who
Canada and the United States -which agreed pioneeredenvironmental
water
balance
in 1979 to reduce transboundary emissions of studies,and
introducedthe
concept of
sulphur dioxide (SO,) in an attempt to deal potential
evapotranspiration(PE).
His
with the growing problem of acid rain. The book-keepingapproach to waterbalance,
agreement was not legally binding, however, whichincludedregular
observationand
and it was necessary to prepare an additional comparison of inputs, outputs and storageof
protocol in 1985 by whichthesignatories moisture, allowed the estimation of moisture
were
required to reduce transboundary deficits and their relief
by controlled
emissions of sulphur dioxide by 30 per cent irrigation. The same approach allowed him to
(of their 1980 level) by 1993. Many classify drought. Although perhapsbest
subsequentlyimproved on the30percent known for his pioneering water
budget
requirement,butfourteen of theoriginal studies,Thornthwaite also worked on the
thirty-five signatories refused to sign, among role of the heat budget in plant development.
themtheUnitedStatesandBritain.Both He found that by using climate normals, he
subsequently
became
embroiled
with was able to calculate the energy available to
neighbouringstateswhichhadsignedthe cropsduringthegrowingseason.Knowing
protocol. the energy required by specific crops, it was
possible to calculate the time required by the
Further reading crop to reach maturity. From thls he was able
Park, C.C. ( 1987) Acrd Rain: Rhetorrc and Reality, todevelop a techniqueforplanningthe
London: Mcthucn. planting and
harvesting of crops
which
improved efficiency and allowed the crops to
THOREAU, H.D. (1817-1862) be harvested a t thepeak of theirquality.
Thornthwaite producedtwo
systems of
A protCgC of R.W. Emerson, HenryDavid climate classification. In 1931, he developed
Thoreau rejected materialism and sought to the concept of thermal efficiency, based on
improve the quality and meaning of life by mean monthly temperatures,which he
the
contemplation
and
study of nature. combinedwith a precipitation effectiveness
Perhaps best known for his account of the element to distinguish his climate regions. By
403 TIDAL POWER

1948, PE, itself basedultimately on temp- damaged reactor

and
the
major
costs
erature,wasbeing used as ameasure of associatedwiththeclean-up.Theaccident
thermal efficiency in his second classification. also brought about a new focus on nuclear
safety, but confidence in the nuclear industry
See also declinedsignificantly, andtherehas been
Contingent drought, Invisible drought, Pcrmanent little additional development of the nuclear
drought, Seasonal drought. energy programme in the United States since
then.
Further reading
Thornthwaitc, C.W. (1931) ‘The climate of North
Americaaccording
new
ato
classification’, See also
Geographical Revrew 21: 633-SS. Chernobyl,
ChinaSyndrome,
Nuclear
reactor,
Thornthwaite, C.W. (1947) ‘Climate and moisture Radiation sickness.
conservation’, Anrzals the of Assocrattorz of
Amerrcan Geographers 37(2):87-100. Further reading
Thornthwaite, C.W. (1948) ‘An approach towards Gofman, J.W. and Tarnplin, A.K. (1979) Poisoned
a rational classification of climate’, Geograph~cal Power: The Case Against N~tclear Power Platzts
Review 38: SS-94. Before and After Three Mile Island, Emmaus, PA:
Thornthwaite, C.W. and Mather,
J.R. (1954) Rodale Press.
‘Climate in relation to crops’, Meteorological Megaw, J. (1987) H o w Safe? Three Mile Island,
Monographs 2(8): 1-10, Chernohyl and Beyond, Toronto: Stoddart.
President's Commlssion o n the Accident at Three
Milc
Island (1979) Report o f the President's
THREEMILEISLAND Commlssiotz on the Accldent at Three Mile Island,
Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
The site of anuclearpowerplant onthe
Susquehanna River nearHarrisburg,Penn- TIDALPOWER
sylvania, which
at a combination of
mechanical failure and human error causeda Power that
can be generated in coastal
major accident i n March 1979. As a result of locations from the twice-daily ebb and flow
a loss o f coolant and the subsequent rise in of thetides.Generation is most effective
temperature, almost half of the reactor core where the tidal range is 5 to 10 m or more,
melted, leading to the build-up of high levels which restricts the number of available sites.
of radioactivity in the containment building. Currently tidal power plants are operating in
The latter functioned as designed, and only France, Canada,China
and
Russia, all
small amounts of radioactivity escaped into involvingthedamming of tidalinlets to
environment.
the Emergency
measures create a head of water. As the tide rises water
brought the system under control again after is allowed to flow through gates in the dam to
about sixteen hours. Because of the threat of fill the basin behind it. At high tide the gates
acompletemeltdown, however, morethan are closed andas the tide falls the waterin the
100,000 peoplefledtheimmediatearea or basin is retainedbehindthedam.Oncea
were evacuated. Some were exposed to higher sufficient head of water is built up, the water
than normal levels of radiation as the result behind the dam is released and the potential
of the releaseof radioactive materials into the energy it possesses is converted into kinetic
atmosphere and into theriver, but authorities energywhichdrivesgenerators to produce
claimed thatexposurewassufficientlylow electricity. The world’s first, and still largest,
that they were unlikely to suffer any serious commercialtidalpowerplantwasbuilt on
effects. Otherstudieshavedisputedthat the estuary of La Rance in Brittany, France,
claim, and haveprovidedevidence of an wherethetidalrange is 13 m. I t hasan
increase in the numberof fatal casesof cancer installed capacity of 240 MW, and includes
and leukemia.ThreeMileIslandwasthe reversible generators which allow electricity
most serious nuclear accident in the United to be producedastheincomingtideflows
States up to that time. The power company into the basin. The Bay of Fundy in eastern
runningtheplantsufferedfinanciallyasa Canada, where the tidal range of 17 m is the
result of the loss of revenue from
the largest
the
in
world,
has
considerable
TIDES 404

potential
tidal
as
a powersite. Several maximum demand. The latter problem can be
schemes have been proposed with a potential overcome by includingapumpedstorage
installed capacity of 5 GW, but as yet only a system in the operation, but that increases the
demonstration project is operating. An overall cost of the scheme.
estimated twenty-five to thirty sites are avail-
ablefordevelopmentinlocationssuch as See also
PatagoniainSouthAmerica,theEnglish Renewable energy.
Channel,theMurmanskcoast in northern
Russia and the Sea of Okhotsk in the north Further reading
Aubrecht, G. (1989) Energy, Columbus, OH:
Pacific. Tidal power has the advantage thatit Merrill.
is renewable,non-pollutingandhaslow Baker, A.C. (1991) Tidal Power, London: Peregrinus.
operatingcosts.Disadvantagesincludethe Boyle, G . (ed.) (1996) Renewable Energy: Power
limited
number of suitable
sites,
high for a Sustatnable Future, Oxford: Oxford
constructioncosts,disruption of shipping University Presslopen University.
andtheecologicaldisturbancecaused by
changes in thenormaltidal flow.Supply TIDES
problems also occurbecausetheoutput of
electricity varies with the tidal flow, and the Twice-daily rise and fall of sea level caused by
periods of maximumelectricityproduction the effect of thegravitational pull of the
do not always coincide with the periods of moon, and to a lesser extent the sun, on the

Figure T-6 The method by which electricity is generated using tidal power

dam
control I
I

......_..
.. _.
.. .\ _. F,-.:;. :
;,

rising tide high tide

electricity generated

falling tide low tide

electricity generated
405 TORNADO

oceans. The difference between high tide and chemical

precipitation of insoluble
an
low tide is the tidal range. Tidal ranges are substance. The level of acidity in a solution
higher than normalduringthe
so-called can be obtainedthroughtitrationwithan
‘springtides’becausetheforcesexerted by alkaline solution, and the process has been
the sun and moon complement each other. At used to study the acidityof precipitation.
the ‘neap tides’, the gravitational pull of the
sun tends to offset that of the moon and the See also
tidal range is lower. Differences in the timing Acid rain.
of the rotation of the earth and the orbit of
the moon cause high and low water to occur
fifty minutes later on eachsuccessive day, and
create a tidal cycle of approximately twenty- Trinitrotoluene, a yellow,crystallinesolid
seven days. widely used as a high explosive.

See also TOPSOIL

Gravity, Tidal power.
Further reading
Russell, R.C.H. and Macmillan, D.H. (1970)
Waves u r d Tides, Westport, CN: Greenwood Press.
TITRATION
The addition of measuredamounts of one
solution to a specific amount of a second
solution until the chemical reaction between
them is complete.Thecompletion of the
reaction may be indicated by a change in the
colour of thesecondsolution or by the
The uppermost layer of the soil containing
the bulk of its organic material, nutrients and
living organisms. It is the most fertile part of
the soil, and its loss through erosion creates
problemsforagricultureandmaylead to
desertification.
TORNADO
An intenserotatingstormusuallynomore
than 100 to 500 m in diameter, accompanied
by windsthatcommonlyexceed 200 kph.

Figure T-7 The distribution of tornadoes in the United States in 1995

Source: Coutesy of the NSSLDJOAA Storm PredictLon Center Web Page

TOXIC WASTE
Tornadoes originate in areas where cold and
warm, moist air masses collide, creating steep
temperature gradients, and causing thunder-
storms. They are also associated with hurri-
canes. The most obvious characteristic of a
tornado is the funnel cloud that descends to
the ground from the baseof a severe thunder-
storm to produce some of the most violent
weather in the natural environment. Torna-
does area major natural hazardin the central
plains of the United States, from Texas north
to Nebraska,withTexasexperiencing in
excess of a hundred in some years. Elsewhere
they are less frequent, but tornadoes d o occur
inall
other
states,
andnorth
into
the
Canadian plains they areless common but no
less deadly. Even in normal years, tornadoes
causeseveraldozendeathsandmillions of
dollars’ worth of damage, and in some years
these amounts can be exceededin a single
tornado outbreak.
Further reading
Robinson. A. ( 1 993) Earthshock:Climate,
Conzplexlty and the Forces of Nature, London:
Thames and Hudson.
TOXIC WASTE
See waste classification.
TRACE ELEMENTS
Elements thatare essentialfortheproper
well-being of an organism,butareneeded
only in very small quantities. They are often
constituents of vitamins and enzymes. Plants
need traces of such elements as copper (Cu),
zinc (Zn) andmanganese(Mn).Cattleand
sheep fall ill if they become deficientin cobalt
(CO).
Further reading
Kabata-Pcndias, A. and Pendias, H. (1984) Trace
Eletnetzts u t Soils ntrd Plants, Boca Raton, FI.: CRC
Press.
‘TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS’
The title of a n essay by GarrettHardin,
published in 1968. It consideredhowthe
historical concept of the commons (property
available to all) was no longertenable in
406
modern society,mainly as a result of rapid
population growth. Threats to the commons
wereseen to bedirect - forexample,the
impact
on
national
parks of rapidly
a
increasing number of users - or indirect- the
addition of waste to air and water. Hardin
considered two possible choices to deal with
the problem, both involving the infringement
of personal freedoms. Freedom of access to
the commons would have to be restricted, but
thatwas unlikely to be enoughwithout
societyrelinquishingits‘freedom to breed’.
By reducing the rate of population growth,
thelatterwouldreducethethreat to other
moreimportantfreedoms.Hardin’s essay
attractedwidespreadattentionandspurred
debate on the broad issues of population and
environmental ethics.
See also
Population - environmental impacts.
Further reading
Hardin, G. (1968) ‘The tragedy of the commons’,
Scletlce 162: 1243-8.
Hardin, G. and Baden, J. (eds) ( 1 977) Mattagrtzg
the Cornmom, San Francisco: Freeman.
TRANS-ALASKA PIPELINE
A 1200 km long
pipelinebuilt
between
Prudhoe Bay on the North Slope of Alaska
and Valdez onthesouthshore to bring
Alaskan oil to market in the United States.
From Valdez the oil is transported by tanker
to refineries in the Pacific North-west and
California. Construction began in 1974 and
was completed in 1977 at a cost of some $7.1
million. Although both ends of the pipeline
are at sea level, it rises some 1600 m above
Prudhoe Bay to passthroughtheBrooks
Rangeandcrossessomethirty-fourmajor
rivers before proceeding through the Alaska
Range at 1200 m and descending to sea level
again a t Valdez. During construction and in
its operation, the pipeline faced major phy-
sical andenvironmental constraints. To
reduce damage to the fragile ecological balance
of the tundra and the underlying permafrost,
for example, most of theconstructionwas
confined to the winter months. The presence
of permafrost also necessitated construction
techniques not normally required in temperate
407 TRANSIENT MODELS

Figure T-8: The route followed by the Trans-Alaska pipeline

ALASKA

BEAUFORTSEA

regions. The buried pipe had to be insulated valves tostopthe flow of oil following a
topreventtheheatfromtheflowing oil break in the line plus regular inspections have
meltingthesurrounding ice, andinplaces, been able to cope and asyet there have been
wherethe
permafrost
was
particularly no seriousspills associated with the operation
unstable,
the
pipe
required
additional on
land.
Although
it is impossible to
refrigerationor
hadto
be
raisedabove undertake a project of the magnitude of the
ground on trestles. Near its southern end the Trans-Alaska Pipeline withoutalteringthe
pipelinecrosses
several
earthquake-prone environment to someextent,afternearly
areas. There the pipe had to be placed on a twenty
years of operation it has been
series of elevatedmoveablesaddleswhich remarkably problem free.
would allow it to flex without breaking in the
event of an earthquake. During the planning See also
stage,environmentalistsexpressedmajor Exxon Valdez, Oil pollution.
concerns
about
impact
the of the
construction and operationof the pipeline on Further reading
thewildlifepopulation of thearea.The Coates, P.A. ( 1 991) TheTrans-Alaska Pipelirze
Controversy:Technology, Conservatrotz andthe
pipeline
crosses a number of caribou Frontrer, Bethlehem,PAlLondonl<:ranberry, NI:
migrationroutes,and it was felt thatthe Lehigh
University
PresslAssociated
University
activity and noise associatedwith
the Presses.
operation would cause the animals to change Roscow, J.P. (1977) 800 miles to Valdez: The
Buildirrg of the Alaska Pipelitre, Englewood Cliffs,
theirmigrationpatterns,affectingnotonly NJ: Prentice-Hall.
theviability of the herds,
but
also
the
livelihood of theindigenouspeoples of the
region who depended upon them as a food TRANSIENT MODELS
source. Similarly, theupheavalcausedat
pipeline river crossings was seen as likely to Generalcirculationmodelsthatattemptto
damage fish habitat such as spawning beds.A provideinformationatintermediatestages
major concern was the possible rupture of the duringthemodelrun,unlikeequilibrium
line, and theescape o f thousands of barrels of models which provide only one final result.
oil into and onto the tundra. The inclusionof Most current transient models incorporate a
TRANSLUCENT 408

coupled oceadatmosphere system with full TRANSPIRATION

ocean
dynamics,
but
retain
coarse
a
resolutionbecause of inadequatecomputer The loss of water fromvegetation to the atmos-
powerand high runningcosts. Since the phere by its evaporation throughleaf pores or
conditionsassociatedwithclimatechange stomatainindividualplants.Thereplace-
may
well
have importantenvironmental ment of transpired water by way of the root
impacts long before equilibrium is reached, system helps to carry nutrient solutions through
there
has been move
a towards
the the plant tissues.
development of transientmodels. In the
second assessment of the IPCC in 1995, for See also
example, ten transient experiments were run Evapotranspiration, Hydrological cycle.
compared to only one in the 1990 assessment.
TREE DIEBACK
Further reading
IPCC (1990) Climate Change: The IPCC Scientific The gradual wastingof a tree from the outer-
Assessment, Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.
IPCC (1996) Climate Change 1995: The Science of most leaves and twigs inwards. Leaves turn
Climate Change, Cambridge: Cambridge University prematurely yellow, dryoutand fallwell
Press. before autumn.Theaffectedbranchesmay
Russell, G.L., Miller, J.R. and Rind, D. (1995) ‘A fail to leaf out in the following spring. Over
coupledatmosphere-oceanmodelfortransient several seasons,thetreeweakens, becomes
climatechangeexperiments’, Atmosphere-Ocean
33: 683-730. vulnerableto insect attack, disease and
weather,andeventually dies. Diebackhas
TRANSLUCENT been linkedtothe effects of acidprecipi-
tation, but there is no conclusive proof that
Permitting the passageof light, but not without this is the only factor involved.
somescattering or diffusion. As aresult,
See also
objects viewed through a translucent medium Waldsterben.
such as frosted glass cannot be seen clearly.
Further reading
See also Blank, L.W., Roberts, T.M. and Skeffington, R.A.
Scattering of light, Transparent. (1988)
‘New perspectives
on
forest decline’,
Nature 336: 27-30.
Ulrich, B. (1983) ‘A concept of forestecosystem
TRANSMITTANCE stability and of acid deposition as driving force for
destabilization’, in B. Ulrich and J. Pankrath (eds)
A measure of the reduction in the intensity of Effects of Accumrrlatrotz of Alr Pollutants in Forest
electromagnetic radiation asit passes through Ecosystems, Dordrecht: Reidel.
a medium. It is the ratio of the intensity of the
radiation after it has passed through a unit TREE RINGS
distance of the medium to theoriginal intensity.
See Dendrochronology, Dendroclimatology.
See also
Opacity. TRIATOMIC OXYGEN
TRANSPARENT The gas ozone (03), in which each molecule
consists of three atoms of oxygen (0).
Permitting the passage of light without dis-
ruption. As a result, objects viewed througha TRICHLOROMETHANE
transparent medium such as clear glass are
clearly visible.
See chloroform.
See also
Translucent.
409
TRITIUM
A radioactive isotope of hydrogen (H).With
a mass number of 3 it is three times the mass
of ordinary hydrogen. Tritium is not abun-
dant
nature
in butcan be produced
artificially in nuclear reactors.
See also
Deuterium, Radioactivity.
TROPHIC CHAIN
See food chain.
TROPHIC LEVELS
Energy levels within a trophic chain or food
chain. The energy assimilated a t each trophic
level declines from the primary producers a t
the base of the chain through the herbivores
to the carnivores. Someof the primary energy
consumed is used to allow the consumers to
function,forexample,and is lost to the
environment in the form of heat. A general
rule of thumb is that 10 per cent of the energy
available at any onelevel is transferred to the
next level up the chain, but the actual value
mayrangefrom 5 to 20 percent.The
relationship between trophic levels is usually
represented in the form of a pyramid, with a
broad base providedby the primary producer
level and afew top carnivores forming the
narrow apex.
See also
Ecosystem, Food chain, Food web.
Further reading
Enger, E. and Smith, B. F. (1995) Envrronmental
Science: A Study of Interrelationshlps, Dubuque,
IA: W.C. Brown.
Kormondy, E.J. (1984) Concepts of Ecology (3rd
edition), Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
TROPICAL CYCLONE
A generic name for a type of violent tropical
storm, known as a hurricane in the Atlantic
and
Caribbean,typhoon in the
western
Pacific and cyclone in the Indian Ocean and
Bay of Bengal. In all of these, the atmospheric
T R O P I C A L CYCLONE
pressure is low (typically 92-95 kp) and the
circulationpattern is cyclonicwiththeair
flowing in towards the centre of the storm.
Thick banks of clouds form a circular pattern
around a central area - the eye of the storm -
in which skies are clear, winds are light and
there is noprecipitation.Tropicalcyclones
may be 500-600 km in diameter and reach
10-15,000 m into the atmosphere. They are
accompanied by extremewinds,routinely
exceeding 160 k d h o uarn d sometimes
reaching as much as300 k d h o u r , plus heavy
rain in amounts ranging from30-50 cm over
the duration of the storm. Tropical cyclones
form between 10-15" north and south of the
equator,wheretheconditionsthatsupport
their development - sea surface temperatures
above 27"C, highhumidityandunstable
lapserates - aremostcommon.Theyare
absentfromtheimmediatevicintity of the
equator, probably because there the Coriolis
effect is too small to initiatethenecessary
circulation.Onceformed,tropicalcyclones
tend to travelfromeast to west,before
tracking north (in the northern hemisphere)
or south (in the southern hemisphere) as they
mature. Every yeartropicalcyclonescause
extensivedamage to the
environment.
Coastlinesareerodedandtreesareblown
down by thestrongwinds,andtheheavy
precipitationcombinedwithstormsurges
from the sea causes serious flooding. Damage
to propertycancause losses amounting to
billions of dollars and major loss of life is
commonparticularly in low lying,heavily
populated areas such as Bangladesh. Nothing
canbedone to preventsuchstorms,but
improvedforecasting,forexample,using
satellite
imagery, and
better
emergency
planning have at least reduced theloss of life
from such storms. Thereis some concern that
with the projected global warming, stormi-
ness in the environmentwill increase. Thereis
some evidence that the frequency and inten-
sity of tropicalstormshasincreased in the
first half of the 1990s, but records are as yet
insufficent to prove or disprove that.
Further reading
Eagleman, J.R. ( 1 985) Meteorology: The
Atmosphere rn Action, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Pielke,
R.A. (1990) The Hurrrcune, London:
Routledge.
T R OGP
OLA
IC
AC
ONE
TA
BDM
ALAN
OLS PPHREORIEE C T 410

TROPICAL OCEAN AND GLOBAL earthquake activity or volcanic eruptions. On

ATMOSPHERE PROJECT (TOGA) theopenocean,tsunamistravelatseveral
hundredkilometres
per hour, butwith
Aproject of theWorldClimateResearch relatively lowwaveheights(c.1m).When
Program,TOGAwassetup in 1992 to they reach shallower coastal waters,however,
examine
relationship
the between
the the individual waves close up, heighten and
behaviour of thetropicaloceansandthe become steeper and their energy is concen-
globalatmospherewitha view to deter- trated
to
produce extremely
destructive
mining the predictibility of the system. Basic wavesseveralmetreshigh.Offshoreearth-
datahave been
collectedusing
satellites, quakes in Japan and Alaska have generated
instrumentedaircraft,
surveyships
and damaging tsunamis in the past, as have major
oceanographicbuoys,andthesearenow volcanic eruptions such as that of Krakatoa.
beingusedinacoupledocean/atmosphere Pacific Ocean coasts are particularly proneto
response experiment (TOGA-COARE) from tsunamis, and since potential loss of life and
which a predictive model can be developed. property damage is high there is now a system
of tidegauges andseismographs to give
advanced warning of their occurrence.
TROPICAL RAINFOREST
Further reading
See equatorial rainforest. Bernard, E.N. (1991) Tsrruarnr Hazard: A Practrcal
Gurde t o Tsutranzi Hazard Reducttort, Dordrecht:
TROPOPAUSE Kluwer.
Murty, T.S. (1977) SersmrcSea Waves: Tsrrtramrs,
Ottawa:
Department of Fisheries and the
The upper boundary of thetroposphere. It Environment.
varies in height from about 8 km at the poles
to 16 km at the equator. TTAPS SCENARIO
See also
The scenario developed to explain the onset
Atmospheric layers.
of nuclear winter. TTAPS is an acronym based
on the initials of the scientists who developed
TROPOSPHERE the
original
hypothesis - Turco,Toon,
Ackerman, Pollack and Sagan.
The lowest layer of the atmosphere, in which
temperatures decrease with altitude at a rate Further reading
of about 6.5”C per
kilometre, to reach Turco, R.P., Toon, O.B., Ackerman, T.P., Pollack,
between -50°C and -6O’C at the tropopause. J.B. and Sagan, C. (1983) ‘Nuclcar wmter: global
The troposphere contains as much as 75 per consequences of multlple nuclear explosions’,
Science 247: 166-76.
cent of the gaseous mass of the atmosphere
and is thezone in whichmostweather
systemsdevelop.It is alsothepart of the
TU- 144
atmosphere which suffers most human inter-
vention,whichensuresthatmanycurrent A supersonic transport developed by Tupolev
globalenvironmentalproblemshavetheir in the Soviet Union in the 1970s. Similar to
origin in the troposphere. the Anglo-French Concorde, but less success-
ful as a commercial venture, it aroused the
See also same environmental concerns. The type is no
Atmosphcric laycrs. longer in operation.

TSUNAMI TUNDRA

Popularly referred to as tidalwaves, tsunamis A major biome located polewardso f the taiga
are sea waves propagated by submarine or boreal forest. Tundra-like ecosystems are
41 1 TURBULENT FLOW

Figure T-9: The global distribution of tundra

""

also found above the treelinein mountainous season,damage to the tundra ecosystem is
areas - alpine tundra. The vegetation in the slow to repair, and exploration for minerals
tundraconsists of lichens,mosses,grasses and petroleum, the development of mines or
andshortherbaceousperennialssuchas the construction of pipelines must be under-
heathsandvariousberrybushes.Mosses, taken with great care.
sedges and dwarf willows are common where
the tundra is wet or swampy. The tundra is Further reading
underlain by permafrost which restricts soil Bliss, L.C., Heal, D.W. and Moore, J.T. (eds)
developmentandhampersdrainage.Com- (1981) Erndra Ecosystem: A Comparative
Analysts, CambrIdgelNew York: Cambridge
binedwiththelowsummertemperatures, University Press.
limited precipitation - c. 25 mm per year - Smlth, R.L. ( 1980) Ecology a d Field Biology (3rd
and strong winds, the poor soil and drainage edition), New York: Harper & Row.
effectively prevent the growthof trees, except
in a few sheltered locations where favourable TURBIDITY
microclimaticconditionsmayallowdwarf
versions of birch andwillow to survive. See atmospheric turbidity.
Duringtheshortsummers,theupper few
centimetres of the tundra thaw, but since the TURBULENTFLOW
water is unable to drain it remainsonthe
surface,producingwaterlogged soils and Irregular,unco-ordinatedmotion in afluid.
shallowponds.Thetundrasupportsfew Duringturbulentflowthedirectionand
permanent animal
residents.
Onlymusk velocity of the particles in a fluid
vary
oxen,caribou,
Arctic
hare,
Arctic
foxes, continuously.Turbulentflow is common In
wolves and various small rodents are hardy the natural environment, whereit contributes
enough to survive the
winter.
The
bird to mixing in flowing waterand in the
population is mainly migratory, with a large atmosphere.
influx of ducks and geese taking place every
summer when melting creates a large number See also
of ponds and abundant insects are available Eddy diffusion, Laminar flow.
for
food. Because of theshortgrowing
T Y N D A L L , J. 412

TYNDALL, 1. (1 820-1 893) See also

Arrhenius, S.
British
scientist
whodescribed
how
the
scattering of light by particlesin its path TYPHOON
causesavisiblelightbeam to form - the
Tyndall effect. Hewasalso
one of the
first
to See cyc1one*
investigate
the
link
between
increasing
atmospheric carbon dioxide(CO,) and global
warming.
 U
ULTRASONICWAVES organisms. It also has a rolein the formation
of photochemicalsmog.Most of the W
radiation which reaches the earth from the
Waves thatare similarinform to sound
sun is absorbed by theozonelayerinthe
waves,but
have
frequencies
above
the
stratosphere.Thinning of theozone layer,
audible range. Ultrasonic scanning is widely
however,hasincreasedtheproportion of
used
in the
medical field, where
other
ultravioletradiation - particularly W - B -
methods of diagnosis might cause damage to
reachingtheearth’ssurface,giving rise to
theobjectbeingexamined.Ultrasoundhas
fears of an increasing incidenceof skin cancer
replacedexploratory surgery, forexample,
and other radiation-related problems.
for the examination of soft tissue or internal
organs and is much safer than X-rays for the
See also
observation of foetuses in the womb. Ultra- Antarctic ozone hole, Melanoma, Ozone depletion.
sonicwavesareused in industry to clean
objects too delicate for normal cleansing and Further reading
ultrasonic scanners are used to examine the Cutnell,J.D. and Johnson, K.W. (1995) Physics
integrity of metal objects. Pipeline welds are (3rd edition), New York: Wiley.
routinely
tested
using
ultrasound,
for Gribbin, J. (1993) The Hole in the Sky (revised
example. edition), New York: Bantam.

Further reading
UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE
Ensminger,D. (1988) Ultrasonrcs:Fundamentals, ON DESERTIFICATION (UNCOD)
Technology
and
Applications, NewYork:
M.
Dekker. A conference held in Nairobi, Kenya in 1977
that established the modern approach to the
ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION problem of desertification. The roleof human
activitiesincreatingthelanddegradation
Highenergy,
short-wave radiation lying which led to desertification was consideredto
betweenvisiblelightandX-rays in the be firmly established and the contribution of
electromagneticspectrum. It is usually climate change through drought was seen as
divided
into
ultraviolet-A ( W - A ) with secondary.Overaperiod of fifteenyears
wavelengths of 320-400nanometres(nm), followingtheconference,some$6million
ultraviolet-B ( W - B ) withwavelengths of were spent
through the
UnitedNations
280-320 nm and ultraviolet-C (UV-C) with Environment Program (UNEP) in an attempt
wavelengths of 200-280 nm. Ultraviolet rays to alleviatetheproblem,butfew of the
are
an
importantcomponent of solar countermeasures were effective. Current
radiation. At normal levels it is an important thinking on desertification suggests that the
germicide and is essential for the synthesis of data on which UNCOD’s findings were based
Vitamin D in humans. At elevated levels, it were flawed. In concentrating on the human
causes sunburnandskincancer,andcan element, they failed to give sufficient weight
produce changes in the genetic make-up of to natural factors such as rainfall variability
UN CONFERENCE O N ENVIRONMENTDEVELOPMENT
AND 414

andtheextent of annualfluctuations in organizations (NGOs) - the Global Forum -

vegetationboundaries.Thenetresultwas was held at the sametime.
that the extent of irreversible desertification
was overestimated. Failure to appreciate the Further reading
variouspotentialcauses of desertification Parson, E.A., Hass, P.M. and Levy, M.A. (1992) ‘A
mayalsohavelimitedtheresponse to the summary of themajordocumentsslgnedatthe
Earth
Summit
Global
the
and
Forum’,
problem.Differentcauseswouldnormally Etzvirontnent 34: 12-15 and 34-6.
elicit different responses, and UNEP’s appli- Hass, P.M.,Levy, M.A. andParson,E.A. (1992)‘The
cation of thesocietalresponse to allareas EarthSummit - How should we judge UNCED’s
without distinguishing the cause may in part success?’, Environment 34: 7-1 1 and 26-33.
explain the lack of success in dealing with the
problem. UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE
ON THE HUMAN ENVIRONMENT
See also [UNCHE)
Desertification Convention.
Held in Stockholm, Sweden in 1972, UNCHE
Further reading ushered in the modern era in environmental
Hulme, M. and Kelly, M. (1993) ‘Exploringthe studies. Participants in the Conference recog-
links between desertification and climate change’,
Emuronment 35: 4-11 a n d 3 9 4 5 . nized that steps had to be taken to deal with
Nelson, R. (1990) DrylandManagement: The growingthreats to theenvironment,and
DesertificatronProblem,World BankTechnrcal formalized thatrecognition by signing a
Paper No. 1 6 , Washmgton, DC: World Bank. Declaration of the Human Environment.
UNCHE also established the United Nations
UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE Environment Program (UNEP) and initiated
ON ENVIRONMENT AND a number of programmes aimed at gathering
DEVELOPMENT (UNCED) therawdatarequired to understandthe
nature of the environmental issues facing the
An international conference - the
Earth world at that time. Projects were developed
Summit - held in RiodeJaneiro, Brazilin to examine air and water pollution, climate,
1992, with the theme of sustainable develop- drought forecasting,desertification
and
ment,based on economically andenviron- water resources. UNCHE was the first of a
mentally sound principles. To upholdthat series of UN initiatives, including the World
theme,UNCED established
Sustainable
a Commission on EnvironmentandDevelop-
Development Commission and produced two ment, which led ultimately to the Earth Summit
maindocuments - theRioDeclarationand in Rio in 1992. A public Environment Forum
Agenda 21 - plusavariety of treatiesand anda People’s Forum,organized by con-
conventions on topicsrangingfromclimate cernedenvironmentalists,were held a t the
change to biodiversity, reached as the result of same time as UNCHE, but separate fromit.
compromise amongthe 150 participating
nations. Many of the agreements currently lack Further reading
the legal and financial commitment required Frlends o f the Earth(1972) The
Stockholn?
Conference - Only One Earth: A n Introdrrctron to
for successful implementation,butthewide- the Politrcs of Srrrvrvul, London: Earth Island.
spreadparticipation in theConference by Kowland, W. (1973) T l ~ ePlot to &we the World:
politicians and scientists and its reporting by T/JCLife and Times of‘thc Stockholm Conference on
journalists added momentum to the growing the Huntan Environmcnt, Toronto: Clarke, Irwin.
concern
for
global
environmental issues
without which futureprogress will not be UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION
possible. UNCED was essentially a conference TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION
dominated by heads of state and government (UNCCD)
ministers, but to diversify the discussion and to
illustrate the depthof concern for the environ- The United Nations Conference on Environ-
ment, a parallel conferenceof non-government ment and Development (UNCED) held at Rio
41 5 UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAM

in 1992 includeddiscussion on aproposal Further reading

aimedataddressingtheproblems of those Starke, L. (1990)Signs o f H o p e : Workurg Towards
O w Cornn~otzFuture, Oxford/New York: Oxford
areas
suffering
fromdesertification.
Sub- University Press.
sequent negotiation led to a UN Convention
to Combat Desertificationbeingsigned by
UNITED NATIONS
110
nations in 1994. The
Convention
EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND
recognizes the importance of both local and
CULTURAL ORGANIZATION
internationalactivities in thefightagainst
(UNESCO)
desertificationandemphasizestherole of
education,trainingandparticipationat all
levels in that fight.Developednationsare A UN agency established in 1945 to promote
expected to mobilize funding for action pro- collaborationamongmemberstates in the
grammes which will involve co-ordination of areas of education,scientificresearch,the
their activities with those of the recipients. In arts
andother
aspects of culture.
It is
thelongerterm,themovement to combat affiliated with the UN Environment Program
desertification is seen to be part of the (UNEP) andcontributes to environmental
broaderobjective of attainingsustainable studies
through its promotion of such
development espoused at Rio. activities as theManandtheBiosphere
Program (MAB) which was launched in 1971
See also to study human impact on the biosphere, the
UN Confcrence o n Desertification. InternationalGeologicalCorrelation
Pro-
gram(IGCP)formed in 1972toencourage
Further reading international collaboration for the solutionof
Pearce, F. (1992) ‘Miracle of the Shifting Sands’, geological
problems,
International
the
New Scient~st136 ( I851 ): 38-42. Hydrological Program (IHP) formed in 1975
Williams,M.,
McCarthy, M. and Pickup,
G.
(1995)‘Desertification,
droughtand
landcare:
to improvethemanagement of waterre-
Australia’s role in an International conventlon to sources and the Intergovernmental Oceano-
combat desertification’, Austrulian Geogrnpher 26 graphic Commission established in the early
(1): 23-32. 1960s to co-ordinateglobalocean science
programmes.
UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT
PROGRAM (UNDP) Further reading
H a ~ n a i ,P. (1983) G u t d e to UNESCO, London/
A UN agency established in 1951 to provide New York: Oceana Puhlications.
developmentaidforThirdWorldnations.
Initially,its approachwas to providetra- UNITED NATIONS
ditional
economic and
technical
aid to ENVIRONMENT PROGRAM
advancetheeconomies of thedeveloping (UNEP)
countries and in so doing help to eradicate
poverty. In recentyears it hasadded an Formed at the UN Conference on the Human
environmentalelement to itsaid,regularly Environment (UNCHE) in 1972, UNEP co-
fundingprojects aimed at
dealing
with ordinatesinternationalmeasures for moni-
environmentalproblems. It alsoencourages toring and protecting the environment. It is
funding of projects that have the potential to responsiblefortheEarthwatchprogramme,
advancesustainabledevelopment. In con- which
collects
environmental
data
and
junctionwithotheragenciessuchasthe monitors trends, and supports Earthscan, an
World Bank andthe U N Environment environmental news and information agency.
Program (UNEP), UNDPalso provides funds Its mandate is broad,producingaffiliations
to offset the extra costs often faced by Third with the World Health Organization (WHO),
World nations when they embarkon schemes the
Food
and
Agriculture
Organization
for the protection and rehabilitation of the (FAO),
the
World
Conservation
Union
environment. (IUCN)andtheWorldClimateProgram
( U N I T EDEPARTMENT
D STATES) OF ENERGY 416

(WCP). Together with the World Meteoro- to theenvironment,exceptinthe1980s,

logicalOrganization(WMO),UNEPspon- when the Reagan and Bush administrations
sored
the
Intergovernmental
Panel on installed
Secretaries of the
Interior
who
Climate Change (IPCC), whose 1995 report advocated greater development of resources
onclimatechangewasarguablythemost in areas controlled by the Department.
comprehensiveaccount of theimpact of
society on past, present and future climates.
It See also
wasalso involved in thedevelopmentand Conservation.
implementation of theMontrealProtocol.
The UNEP is based in Nairobi, Kenya with further reading
Smith, Z.A. (1995) TheEnvironmental Poky
numerous regional offices in otherUN Paradox, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
member nations.
(UNITED STATES FOREST
(UNITED STATES) DEPARTMENT SERVICE) MULTIPLE USE
OF ENERGY (DOE) SUSTAINED YIELD ACT (MUSYA)

Created in 1977, through the amalgamation Passed in 1960, MUSYA was the first of a
of a number of other agencies involved with series of legislative attempts to deal with a
energy matters, the Department of Energy is growingconflict in the use ofUS national
responsibleforawiderange forests.Intheact,thetraditional
of activities use of
including the regulation of energy prices, the forests - lumbering - was seen as only one of
enforcement of conservationmeasuresand several activities that had to be considered in
the
control of licences and permits. balanced
In forestmanagement. Theother
addition toits involvement with conventional activities
recognized important
as were
fuels, theDOE is responsibleforthe USwatershed management, wildlife habitat
nuclearenergyprogramme.Many of thesepreservation and recreation,all of which had
activities involve an environmental element, to be taken into account when forest manage-
and the department’s interest in that area is mentplanswere being developed.Timber
reflected
in
its research
projects,
which harvesting was still considered important, but
include the investigation of solar, geothermal it had to be conducted in such a way as to
andotherrenewableenergysources,clean allowasustained yield. TheForestand
coal technology, nuclear waste disposal and Rangeland Renewable Resource Planning Act
energy conservation. It also supports research (FRRRPA) of 1974 and the National Forest
ontechnologiesandstrategiestomitigate Management Act (NFMA) of 1976 clarified
increase in carbon dioxide (CO,) and other and
developed the
elements set
out
in
energy-related greenhouse gases. MUSYA. Both of theseactsprovidedmore
practical guidance on how the provisions of
(UNITED STATES) DEPARTMENT MUSYA could be met. In NFMA, for
OF THE INTERIOR example, the extent of clear cutting, harvest
rates and the preservation of stream corridors
were
considered and
wilderness reviews
The Department of the Interior comprises the
established,allwiththebasicpurpose of
US National Park Service,the US Fish and
reconcilingthe
concerns and
needs
of
WildlifeService, the US Geological Survey,
environmentalists, timbercompanies and
the Bureau of Land Management, the Min-
recreationalists.
eralsManagement Service, theOffice of
Surface Mining, the Bureau of Mines and the
See also
Bureau of Reclamation. As such it has a wide- Conservatmn, Sustainable development.
ranging
responsibility for environmental
issues in the UnitedStates.Formost of its Further reading
existence, the Department of the Interior has Cutter, S.L., Renwick, H.L. andRenwick, W.H.
been broadly conservationist in its approach (1991) Exploitatton,Conservatton,Preservation:
41 7 URANIUM

A Geographrc Perspectrue onNaturalResource tunities for solitude and primitive recreation

Use, New York: Wiley. andinclude physicalfeatures of scientific,
scenic, educational or cultural value. Most of
UNITED STATES GLOBAL CLIMATE theareasinitiallydesignatedaswilderness
PROTECTION ACT (1987) were in the western states, with the largest in
Alaska, but in 1974 an additional act allowed
An act aimed at supporting research into the forthecreation of wildernessareasinthe
nature,timingand likely impact of global eastern states where the human impact on the
warming.Despiteitstitle, it containedno environment is generallygreaterandthe
practicalproposalsforclimateprotection, potential wilderness areas therefore smaller.
andwasquitetypical of theapproachto The totalofficially designated wilderness area
globalwarmingatthattime,whichadvo- in the United States now exceeds 90 million
cated
‘business-as-usual’
until
additional acres (36millionhectares),andenviron-
research had been done. mentalgroups continue
to
pushfor
an
increase in that total.
See also
‘Business-as-usual’ scenario, ‘Wait-and-see’ scenario. See also
Muir, J., Sierra Club.
UNITED STATES NATIONAL PARK
SERVICE Further reading
Frampton, G.T. (1988) ‘Wilderness Act, 25 years’,
Wilderness 5 2 (183): 2.
The National Park Service was established in
1916 to administer previously
existing UPPER WESTERLIES
national
parks
such
as
Yellowstone and
Yosemite and to promote and regulate the use Westerly winds that
blow in the
upper
of new parks. Central to its mandate was the
atmosphere close to the tropopause in mid- to
conservation of thenatural beauty,history
high latitudes. It is in these upper westerlies
and
flora
and
fauna of theparksand
thatRossby waves formandthechanging
monuments under its control, in such a way
paths that they follow are responsible for the
thattheymight be enjoyed by theexisting
zonalindex.Fasterflowingsectionsinthe
populationandalso by futuregenerations.
upper westerlies make up the jet streams.
Whenpopulationsweresmalland access
more difficult, this potential conflict between
preservationand use caused few problems, URANIUM (U)
but it now creates major headaches for the
Service in many areas. A
naturally
occurring
radioactivemetal,
which is theprincipalelement used in the
Further reading production of nuclear energy. Its principal ore
Cox, G.W. (1993) Conseruutron Ecology:Bio- is pitchblende,in
whichthe
uranium is
sphereand Biosuruiual, Dubuque, IA: W m C . present in the form of uranium oxide (UTOS).
Brown.
Natural
uraniumconsists of two main
isotopes W
’ (99.28 per cent) and 23sU (0.7
UNITED STATES WILDERNESS ACT per cent) with very small amounts of other
(1 964) isotopes such as 234U.Only 23sUis capable of
sustaininganuclearchainreaction,and is
Anactthatcameinto beinginlarge part thereforeimportantasa fuel fornuclear
because of pressure fromenvironmental reactorsandnuclearweapons. ’W can be
groups in the 1960s to preserve wilderness. treated or enriched so that it becomes fission-
As defined by the act, wilderness areas had to able, after which it can be used as a nuclear
be largeenough ( B 5000 acres)tomake fuel. The Canadian CANDU nuclear reactor
preservation practicable, have no noticeable has been designed so that it can use natural
humanimpact, possess outstandingoppor- uraniumwithouttreatment or enrichment.
URANIUM MILL TAILINGS 418

Figure U-l Radioactive waste production URANIUM MILLTAILINGS

during the mining, refining and utilization
of
uranium Radioactivewastematerialcreatedduring
theprocessingandproduction of enriched
open-plt uranium (U) fromuraniumore. For every
mining kilogram of reactor fuel produced, between
500 and 900 kilograms of waste are
produced.Inthepastthiswascommonly
piled up on the mill property where it could
be picked up by water or wind and carried
away to contaminate the surrounding area. In
someplacesthewastewasusedinroad
construction or as landfill in residential and
recreatlonalareas.Althoughthe levels of
uranium mill Settlement and radioactivity in the tailings arelow, such uses
treatment ponds
have now been discontinued, since there is
someconcernthatexposuretoevenlow
levels of radioactivity can have cumulative
effects leadingto illness.

Further reading
Rltcey, GM. (1989) Tailings
Management:
Problems and Solutions m the Minrng Industry,
Amsterdadew York: Elsevier.

URBAN HEAT ISLAND

The name given to the situation in which at
certaintimesthetemperatureswithinthe
urban built-up area are higher than those in
the surrounding rural areas. Average values
of the temperature difference range between
1-3"C, withmaximumrecordedvaluesin
excess of 10°C. The heat islandis a night-time
phenomenon,bestdevelopedwhenwind
speedsarelowandskies clear, andmost
commoninthesummer.Itsdevelopment
comes about as a result of changes produced
low level radioactivewast
lghly radioactive spent fu
when the built environment is created. The
replacement of vegetation and soil by brick,
concrete and asphalt changes the heat budget
of the area. The new materials have a greater
Onekilogram of uranium
contains
the heatcapacitythanthenaturalones,and
thermal energy equivalent of about 12,000 overnight they continue to release heat into
barrels of crude oil. the urban environment for some time after
the natural surfaces. In addition, evaporation
See also and transpiration rates in the built-up area
Nuclear fisston, Radioactivity. are lower than in the surrounding rural area,
because of thelack of vegetationandthe
Further reading
rapid
surface runoff, which leaves
little
De Vivo, B. (1984) Uranrum Geochemrstry,
Mineralogy, Geology, Exploratron and Resources, surfacewaterinthe city. As aresult,the
London: Institution of Mining and Metallurgy. energy normally requlred for these processes
 419 RENEWAL URBAN
~~

Figure U-2 The morphology of an urban heat island

-I dome of warmair

central business

rural : suburban
I
I urban :suburban: rural

is available for raising the temperatureof the plus reconsideration of such urban elements
urban air. Urban areas also release heat from as the road network or open spaces such as
the
combustion of fossil fuels and
the parks or plazas.If successful, the net effectof
ventilation of buildings which contributes to urban renewal is an overall improvement in
the heat island. the
urbanenvironment, an
increase
in
residential property in the downtown area,
Further reading therevitalization of theretailandservice
Landsberg, H. (1981) TheUrbanClimate, New sectorsandanexpansion of the city’s tax
York: Academic Press.
Oke, T.R.(1987) Boundary Layer Climates (2nd base. The urban renewal approach can also
edition), London: Methuen. be applied t o industrial areas, to replace the
facilities used by heavy industries with new
URBAN RENEWAL units
which
supportmodern‘high-tech’
companiesinvolved
electronics
the
in
The renewal or redevelopment of rundown industry other
orlight
manufacturing
urbanareas.Itappliesparticularlytothe enterprises.
centralbusinessdistricts of larger cities,
Further reading
wherebuildingshavebeenabandonedor Gibson, M.S. and Lanfstaff, M.J.(1982) An
allowed to deteriorate. Renewal involves the Introductron to Urban
Renewal, London:
renovation of existingbuildings or their Hutchinson.
replacement by completelynewstructures
VACUUM See also
Magnetosphere.
A space thatis completely empty of molecules
Further reading
or atoms. Sucha situation is impossible to Roederer, J.G.
(1970) Dynamics of Geo-
achieve, and in mostcases the term indicates a magnetically
Trapped
Radiation, Berlin/New
spacecontainingair or a gas a t very low York:Springer-Verlag.
pressure. Vacuum pumps and distillation units
that take advantage of that low pressure are VAPOUR
used in industry and vacuumfilters are used to
dewater sludge during sewage treatment. A substance in a gaseous state.

VALENCE See also

Valency. measure
A of the
combining
capacity of an atom, usually defined as the
number of hydrogen (H) atoms that an atom
will combine with or replace. The valence of
oxygen (0)asindicatedwhen it combines
with hydrogen, for example, in water (H,O)
is two, and for carbon (C) as indicated when
it combines with hydrogen in methane (CH,)
is four.
Further reading
Winter, M.J. (1994) Chemrcal Bonding, New York:
Oxford University Press.
VAN ALLEN RADIATION BELTS
Two belts of charged particles trapped by the
earth’s magnetic field a t heights of 3000 and
16,000 km above the earth’s surface. Particles
in the inner belt are probably created when
cosmicradiation
strikes
the
atmosphere
whereasthoseintheouter layer originate Humidity.
from the sun. The belts werediscovered in
1958 by James Van Allen using data provided
by some of the firstsatellitesandspace
probes sent through the upper atmosphere
Gas, Gas laws.
VAPOUR PRESSURE
The pressure exerted by vapour. In the atmos-
phere, for example, atmospheric pressure
includes the pressure exerted by water vapour.
Close tothe surface, it contributesapartial
pressure of between 0.5 and 3.0 kilopascals
(kpa) to thetotalatmospheric pressure. For
any given temperature, there is a limit to the
amount of water vapour the atmosphere can
hold, which creates an upper limit for vapour
pressure. This is the saturated vapourpressure.
Above this level, the introduction of additional
vapour will produce condensation. Saturated
vapour pressure is
linked totemperature,
however, and any increase in temperature will
allow it to increase. Conversely,any decrease in
temperature will reduce the saturated vapour
pressure and cause condensation to occur.
See also
Further reading
Peixoto, J.P. and Oort, A.H. (1992) I‘hys~cs of
Climate, New York: American Institute of Physics.
421 CONFERENCE VILLACH

VARVE5 Plerstocene Depostts and them Problems, St John’s,

Nfd: Geological Society of Canada.
Thornes, J.B. andBrunsden, D. (1977) Geomor-
Thin layers of laminated sediments depositedin phology and Time, London: Methuen.
waterbodies in glacial environments. Each varve
consists of two layers, which together represent VARVE DATING
deposition over one year. The lower and slightly
thicker layer consists of relatively coarse-grained
See varves.
sandor silt, produced by greatermeltwater
activity during the warmseason. It grades into
athinner layer of finersilt and clay, which VELOCITY
representsthesettling out of sedimentsin
suspension during the cold season, when the A combination of speed and direction. The
streams which would normally carry sediment velocity of wind,forexample, is thewind
into the waterbody arefrozen. Since varves are speed and the direction from which it flows.
formed annually, they can be used for relative In popular usage, velocity is usually taken to
dating in much the same way as tree rings. The refer to speed alone.
techniquewasdeveloped by aSwedishgeo-
morphologist, GerardDe Geer, who in the early VIENNA CONVENTION FOR THE
part of thetwentiethcenturyestablisheda PROTECTION OF THE OZONE
chronology of glacial retreat in Sweden based LAYER
on the counting of varves. Varve-like laminated
sediments with an annual periodicity are also Theproduct of ameetingheldinVienna,
depositedinotherenvironments.Theyare Austriain 1985. Signed by twentynations,
usually referred to as rhythmites. it promised internationalco-operation in
research,monitoringandtheexchange of
Figure V - l The correlation of varve information
on
the
problem of ozone
sequences depletion.
Discussionarisingout of the
convention led ultimately to the signingof the
VARVE SEQUENCES MontrealProtocolon
Substances which
(from cores or exposed sections) Deplete the Ozone Layer in 1987.

VILLACH CONFERENCE

The first of the major, modern environmental

conferences to deal with the rising levels of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and their
impact on climate, held at Villach, Austria in
1985. Organized by the WMO, UNEP and
ICSU, it examined existing data on the role of
carbon dioxide (CO,) and other greenhouse
gasesinclimatevariation,recognizedthat
understanding of the problem
was
in-
completeandsuggested
waysin
which
scientists,policymakersandgovernments
winter deposition should proceed in dealing with the issue. An
Advisory Group on
GreenhouseGases
0summer
deposition
(AGGG) was established to ensure that the
Further reading recommendations of theConferencewere
Flint, R.F. (1971) Glacialand Quatertlary Ge- followedup,
andsponsored technical
a
ology, New York: Wiley. workshop atVillach in 1987 to encourage the
Rutter, N.W. (ed.) (1985) Datrng Methods of development of policiesforresponding to
L VILLACH WORKSHOP 422

climate change. The Villach Conference, the Virology, San Diego, CA: Acadernlc Press.
AGGG and the Villach Technical Workshop Murphy, W.B. (1981) Coplng wltk fbr Common
Cold, Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books.
laid the groundwork for theincreasing number
of studies of global warming in succeeding years
which led directly to the production of the
VISCOSITY
first IPCC climate change assessment in1990.
A measure of theresistance of a fluid to
internal flow. The viscosity of a fluid reflects
VILLACH TECHNICAL thestrength of theforcesthatholdthe
WORKSHOP (1987) molecules together and give it substance. The
greaterthestrength of theintermolecular
See Villach Conference. forces,the
greater will be the viscosity.
Viscosity varies from fluid to fluid - compare
water with treacle,forexample - and also
varieswithtemperature,being less when
Sub-microscopic,non-cellularparticleswhich temperatures are higher.Since it determines
causedisease.Theyaregenerally less than the flow rate of fluids, viscosity has practical
200 nanometers in diameterandareonly environmental implications. The viscosity of
visible using an electron microscope. Viruses oil
in oil spills the
or
environmental
consist of a core of nucleic acid covered by a conditions underwhich the spill occurs -
coating of proteins.Theyareintracellular arctic or tropical - mayinfluenceitsinitial
parasites that cannot reproduce outside living impact or place constraints on the methods
cells, and each type of virus requires its own available for clean-up.
host. The tobacco mosaic virus infects only
plants cells, for example, and the rabies virus See also
Oil pollution.
only mammals. Some viruses are particularly
specialized and will only infect specific cells, Further reading
such as liver cells, spinal nerve cells or blood Whlte,EM.(1991) Viscous F l r r l d Flow (2nd
cells. They are spreadby insects, direct contact, edition), New York: McCraw-Hill.
droplet infection and the exchange of body
fluids, and cause a great variety of diseases, VISIBLE LIGHT
including mosaic diseases of cultivated plants,
myxomatosis and
foot-and-mouth disease Radiationfromthatpart of thespectrum,
among animals, the common cold, measles, wlthwavelengthsbetween 0.4 pmand 0.7
and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome pm,towhichthehuman eye is sensitive.
(AIDS) among humans. Viral diseases can be Visiblelightvariesincolour, theshorter
controlled in society by preventingtrans- wavelengths being blue and
the
longer
mission or by using vaccines and a range of wavelengthsred,indicative of its position
newantiviraldrugs.Manyvirusesmutate between ultraviolet and infrared radiation in
quite rapidly and regularly, however, making the electromagnetic spectrum.
it difficult to combat them. The eradication
of the smallpox virus was a spectacular success
for modern disease control, but the AIDS virus
continues to evade control and even common
Organicsubstanceswhichareanecessary
viruses such as those that produce colds and
part of thehumandiet.Thirteenessential
flu remain difficult to deal with.
vitamins contribute to a variety of functions
including the formationof red blood cells, the
See also
Bacteria. metabolism of carbohydrates andamino
acids,
the
fixing of calcium(Ca)
and
Further reading phosphorus (P) for bone development and the
Matthews, R.E.F. (1 992) Fundun~errtulsof P/unt maintenance of cell membranes. All vitamins
423 VOLCANO

are available from planto r animal tissue - for See also

example,vitamin B, frombeans,peasand
yeast, vitamin B12from liver, vitamin C from
citrus fruits, vitamin E from cereals and green
vegetables - and In additionvitamin D is
manufactured in body surfacetissuesfol-
lowing the absorptionof ultraviolet radiation
by the skin. Although vitamins are required
in only small quantities for the normal health
and developmentof the body, deficiencies can
lead to a variety of diseases.Insufficient
vitaminC,forexample,leadsto scurvy,
vitamin B l 2 deficiency cancausepernicious
anaemia and inadequate amounts of vitamin
D, particularly in children, cause rickets and
otherbone diseases. Some of thehealth
problemsassociatedwithmalnutrition in
Third Worldnationsarecompounded by
vitamin deficiencies. Vitamins are
readily
available in the form of pills or tablets and
vitamin therapy has become an integral part
of a healthy lifestyle for many individuals in
developed nations.
Further reading
Carpenter, K.J. (1986) The History of Scuroy and
Vitatnrtr C, CarnhrldgelNew York: Cambridge
University Press.
VOLATILE
Changing easily into a vapour. Many organic
compounds are volatile and contribute to air
pollution either directly or indirectly through
combination with
othersubstances after
vaporization.Volatileorganiccompounds
(VOCs) includeacetone,ethylene,benzene
andpropylene.When used as solvents in
cleaning fluids, paints and varnishes and in
industrial
processes,
VOCscan be a n
important
source of indoorpollution,
possiblycontributingtotheso-calledsick
building syndrome.
Dust veil Index, Glaclological volcanic Index.
Further reading
Chester, D.K. (1988) ‘Volcanoesand
climate:
recentvolcanologicalperspectives’, Progress rtz
l’hysrcal Geography 12: 1-35.
Newhall, G.C. and Self, S. (1982)‘Thevolcanic
explosivityindex (VEI): anestimate of the
explosive magnitude for historical vulcanism’,
lorrrtzal of Gcophysrcal Research 87: 1231-8.
VOLCANO
A vent o r fissure in the earth’s crust through
whichmagma, gasesandsolids
such as
volcanicashareejectedduring a volcanic
eruption.Theproportions of thesevarious
productsandtherateatwhichtheyare
ejected is quite variable. The volcanoes of the
Hawaiian Islands, for example, produce quiet
eruptions characterized by large amounts of
mobilelavaandsome gas, whereasothers
suchasMount Vesuvius erupt explosively,
resulting in lava, dust, ash and cinders being
ejected to greatheights in theatmosphere.
Volcanoes are associated with zonesof weak-
ness in the earth’s crust, such as those along
tectonic plate boundaries (see Figure P-10).
They contribute directly to landscape forma-
tion through the materials they bring to the
surface, creating the typically conical shapes
associatedwithdepositionaroundvolcanic
vents orthemoresubduedlandscapes of
fissure eruptions and the resultant extensive
lavaflows.Volcanoescanalsodisruptthe
energy flow in the earthhtmosphere system,
throughtheircontribution to atmospheric
turbidity,
and
thusbring
aboutclimate
change. In human terms, volcanoes havebeen
the causeof major disasters with considerable
loss of life, but at the same time volcanic soils
areoften veryfertile andcansupport a
variety of arable agricultural activities.

VOLCANIC EXPLOSIVITY INDEX See also

(VEI) Dust veil index, Igneous rocks. Krakatoa, Mount
Agung, Mount Pinatubo, MountSt Helens, Mount
Tambora, Plate tectonlcs.
An index for comparing individual volcanic
eruptions. It is based on volcanological
Further reading
criteria such as the intensity, dispersive power Chester,
D.K. (1993) Volcutroes and Socrety,
and destructive potential of the eruption, as London: Edward Arnold.
well as the volume of material ejected. Decker, K. and Decker, B. ( 1995) Volcanoes,
VOLCANO 424

Source: After Goudie, A. (1989) The Nature ofthe Enurronment (2nd edition), Oxford: Blackwell
 W
‘WAIT-AND-SEE’ SCENARIO WALKER CIRCULATION

The maintenance of the status quo until the
nature and extentof an environmental change
can be verified. It has been applied particularly
to global warming, in which causes, timing
andpotentialimpactstillincludeacon-
siderabledegree of uncertainty.Giventhe
uncertainty involved, it can be argued that a
prematureresponse, in bothenvironmental
andsocioeconomicterms,might d o more
harm than good. However, responding only
when all uncertainties have been resolved may
allowdetrimentalimpacts to becomewell
established, making mitigation more difficult
and costly. The ‘wait-and-see’ scenariohas
much in common with the‘business-as-usual’
scenario in which problems are not considered
A strong latitudinal or zonal circulation in
theequatorialatmospherewhichcontrasts
with the normal meridional circulation. It is
particularly well marked in the Pacific Ocean
where it was first recognized by Sir Gilbert
Walker in the 1920s as he sought to develop
methods for forecasting rainfall in the Indian
monsoon. The fluctuations in pressure that
drive the Walker Circulation are referred to
as the Southern Oscillation.
Figure W-l The changing natureof the
Walker Circulation and its influence onEl
Niiio events
NORMAL
Hbh allllude

significant enough to warrant any change in Rlslnp air! ‘low 1m-w alr
c /
existing activities.
OUATOR

Further reading
IPPC (1990)Climate Change: The IPCC Screntific
Assessment, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Waterstone, M. (1993) ‘Adrift sea ain 120’ of180’ 120’ 60’
platitudes. Why we will notresolve the greenhouse
issue’, Environmental Management 17:141-52. EL NlNO

WALDSTERBEN

The destruction of the forests. A term coined PACIFIC OCEAN

in Germany to describe the damage caused to
forests by acid rain.
120’ 180’ 120’ M)‘

See also
Tree dieback.
Source: After Goudie, A. (1989) The Nutweof
the Envrronment (2nd edition)Oxford: Blackwell
Further reading
Ulrlch, B. (1990) ‘Waldsterben forest decline In
West
Germany’, Environmental Scrence and See also
Technology 24 ( 5 ) :43641. El Niiio, ENSO,La Niiia.
WASTE 426
Further reading Governmentorganizations also develop
Goudie, A. (1989) The Nature oftheEhrronmerlt classifications for specialpurposessuch as
(2nd edition), Oxford: Blackwell. waste management, pollution control,safety or
Lockwood,J.G.
(1979) Causes of Climate,
London: Edward Arnold. taxation. Oneclass of waste that receives much
attention is that of hazardous waste,defined as
waste particularly harmful to the environment
WASTE or to society. Hazardous wastes may be
dangerous because they are toxic, biologically
Any material, solid, liquid or gas, that is no active, flammable, corrosive, radioactive or a
longer required by the organism or system that combination of these factors. The extentof the
has been using it or producing it. Waste is an hazard posed by the waste will depend on the
integralpart of theenvironment,andthe amount involved, its durability - for example,
environmenthasdeveloped a series of very short-termor long-term
toxicity - and
efficient waste disposal systems which involve particularly on the methods used to store or
the recycling of the products. Organic waste, dispose of it. Most problems
caused by
such as that producedby animals, is reduced by hazardous waste can be traced to ignorance of
insects and bacteria
into its constituent or disregard for these factors.
chemicals which are
reabsorbed intothe
environment.The leaves
discarded by See also
deciduous trees in the autumn are treated in a Carclnogen,
Domestlc
waste,
Garbage,
Radio-
similar
fashion,
the
and process of activity.
photosynthesisprevents a build-up of the
carbon dioxide (CO,) given off as a waste gas Further reading
by animals.Problemsarisewhenwaste is Berkhout, F. (1991) Radioactrue Waste: Politrcs
and Technology, London: Routledge.
produced in suchquantitythatthenormal Nemerow, N.L.
and
Dasgupta, A. (1991) In-
disposalsystemscannotcopeorwhenthe dustrlalandHazardousWaste, New York: Van
waste takes such a form that existing systems Nostrand Relnhold.
can dispose of it only slowly or in some cases
not at all. Populationgrowth,new lifestyles WASTE DISPOSAL
and a rapidly changing technology have contri-
buted to an increase in the generation of waste The storage or destruction of waste materials
and created serious wastedisposal problems. in such a way that the impact on the environ-
ment and on society is minimal. Dumping and
See also incineration are well-established methods of
Recycling, Sewage, Waste classificatmn.
wastedisposalthat havebeenmodified to
meet modern standards. In the past, domestic
Further reading
Jones, B.E andTinzmann, M. (1990) Too Much sewage was dumped directly into lakes, rivers
Trash?, Columbus, OH: Zaner-Bloser. andthe sea and natural processes
were
I’ackard, V. (1968) The Waste Makers, Harmonds- allowed to integrate it back into the environ-
worth, Middlesex: Penguin Books. ment. Today, the volumes of sewage produced
are so great that natural disposal is no longer
WASTE CLASSIFICATION anoption,and ithas to be treatedmech-
anically and chemicallybefore it is released.
Since almost any substance can become waste, Similarly, the uncontrolled dumping of solid
there are aninfinite number of ways of classify- waste in gravel pits, on waste land and at sea
ing it. Therearesomecommongroupings, hasbeenreplaced by disposal in sanitary
however. Wastes can be classified according to landfill sites. Modern incinerators can attain a
their
origin (for
example, clinical waste, higher combustion efficiency and can be fitted
domestic refuse, agricultural waste, industrial with
scrubbers
or filters to eliminate
waste, nuclear waste), form (solid, liquid, gas), hazardous emissionsandreduce
the air
or properties (inert, toxic, carcinogenic). Most pollution that was once characteristic of waste
wastes will fit into a number of such groupings. incinerators.
Waste
disposal
and
energy
427 INCINERATOR WASTE-TO-ENERGY

Figure W-2 Approaches to waste minimization

WASTE MlNlMlzAT O N
I
I
Recycling
l
Source reduction Treatment
(on site or off site)

I
I I
Reclamation
Use or reuse
Processingto rewver
Ingredient in process
Elfective substilute .,&e
l
Regeneration

Source
I
Product
control subslitution

Good houskeeping Technology

practices Input material modification
*Waste stream segregation modiiilion Improved controls
- Inventory control
* Employee training Input purifiition
Process r o d i i t i o n s
Equipment changes
Spill and leak prevention Input substitution Energy conservation
* Scheduling improvement Water mservatbn
+

production are combined in waste-to-energy Inclnerattorr, Washington, DC: Island Press.

incinerators. Certain hazardous wastes require Harrison,R.M.andHester, K.E. (1995)Waste
Treatment
and
Dtsposal, Cambridge:
Royal
specialdisposaltechniques.Hospitalwaste Soclety of Chemlstry.
and PCBs, for example, are burnedin specially Kharbanda, O.P. andStallworthy, E.A. (1990)
developedincinerators,whilenuclearwaste Waste Management:Toward a Szrstai~tableSocrety,
requires its own unique systems to prevent the New York: Auburn House.
escape of radioactivity. Waste
disposal is Kupchella, C.E. and Hyland, M.C. (1993) Enuiron-
nrental Screttce: Ltvnzg withtn the System of Nature
frequentlycombinedwithrecycling.Glass, (3rd edition), Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
metal and plastic can often be reused, and are
removed from the waste before final disposal,
which eases pressure on sanitary landfill sites WASTE-TO-ENERGY
andreducestheamount of incineratorash. INCINERATOR
Another approachdesigned to reduce the need
forwastedisposal is wasteminimization in An incineratorthatuseswasteproductsas
which anattempt is madetoreducethe fuel, to provideenergyforspaceorwater
amount of waste produced in the first place. It heating.Varioustypes of refuseareused,
mayinvolve recycling or waste-to-energy fromsimplepaperproducts to plasticand
incineration,butminimizationcanalso be scrap cartyres. In many cases they areused as
achieved by re-engineering theprocessthat fuel supplements,since on their own they
generatesthe
waste
or redesigning the have an energy content that may be only 30
product. to 50 per cent that of solid fuels. Advantages
include
the
reduction of waste products
Further reading deposited inlandfillsites and reduced
a
Denison, R.A. and Ruston, J.(1990) Recyclingatzd demandforconventional fuels.
However,
WASTE MINIMIZATION 428

Theincineration of wasteoilorsolvents
contaminatedwith PCBs canleadtothe WASTE MINIMIZATION
emission of dioxins, for example.
See waste disposal.

WATER (H,O)

jure water is a colourless, odourless liquid Some 97 per centof the world's water is in the
hat is a compoundof hydrogen and oxygen oceans, while a further 2 per cent is in the
H,O). Natural water in the environmentis form of ice and snow, which leaves only 1per
leverpure,but
contains
variety
a of cent available as fresh water for plants and
lissolved substances.Sea water, for example, animals. Survival on such a small amount is
S asolution of sodiumchloride(NaCl - made possibleby the natural recycling of the
:ommon salt) and other salts; rainwater can water in the hydrological cycle, which not
)e acidicbecause of the carbon dioxide only replaces the water once it has been used,
CO,) that it contains and the water in rivers but also cleansit.
nayincludemineralsdissolvedfromthe Thedemandforwater is growing so
:ocks over and through whichit has flowed. rapidly that in some areas the hydrological
Water can exist as a solid (ice), liquid (water) cycle cannot replace it fast enough to meet
x gas (water vapour) and changes readily theneeds of domestic,industrial,agri-
kom one to the other, either releasing or
:aking up energy asit does so. This property Figure W-3 The physical distributionof the
D f water allows it to contribute significantly world's water
to the earth's energy budget.
Water is the largest constituentof all living lakes and rivers (0.53%)
atmosphere (0.03%)
organisms - human bodies comprise about
65 per cent water. It helps cells to maintain
their form, and the chemical processes that
are involved in metabolism take place in a
waterysolution.Thedigestionoffood in
mammals, the
transportation of bodily
wastes and the maintenanceof a stable body
temperature through
perspiration
and
evaporation all require water. Plants require
water to carry nutrients from the root zone
intothe
body of theplant, t o allow
photosynthesis to take place and to support
transpiration. Without a regular supply of
water, organisms are unable to survive, asis
evidentduringprolongeddrought,when
(97%)
plants and animals become dehydrated and
die. Water is not evenly distributed across the
earth's surface. In some places there is too
little, in others too much, and humanbeings
spend much time, money and energy redistri- Source: Based on data in Pelxoto,JP. and Ali
buting it. Themajordemand is forfresh Kettani, M. (1976) 'The control of the water
water, but the proportion of fresh water on cycle', in F. Press and R. Seiver (eds) Planet
and in the earth's surface is severely limited. Earth, San Franasco: W.H. Freeman
429 STANDARDS QUALITY WATER

cultural,transportationandrecreational AmericanWaterandPowerAlliance,Water
consumers. Nor is it able to deal with the quality.
pollution created by them. Local schemes to
Further reading
offsetthelimitedavailabilityandpoor
Agnew, C. and
Anderson, E. (1992) Water
quality of water are not uncommon, but the Resources In the And Realm, London: Routledge.
dimensions of the problem are nowso great Gleick, P.H. (1994) ‘Water, War and Peace in the
thatcontinental scale water diversions are Middle East’, Environment 36(3): 6-15 and
being considered.Disputesover water can 35-42.
Postel, S . (1995)‘Facingfuture
a of water
become so serious that they lead to conflict or scarcity’, in J.L. Allen (ed.) Envrronment 95/96,
aggravate existing conflicts between states. Guilford, CN: Dushkin Publishing.
Speidel,D.H.(1988) PerspectivesonWater:
See also Uses and Abuses, New York: Oxford University
Acid precipitation,Evapotranspiration,North Press.

WATER BALANCE
Water quality is under threat everywhere.
Abook-keepingapproachtothemoisture Even in remote areas the chemical properties
budget, involving the comparisonof moisture of waterare being changed by acid
input(precipitation)and
output
(evapo- precipitation. Pollutionby domestic sewageis
transpiration and runoff) to provide a value ubiquitous
andalthough
the release of
for the net surplus or deficit of water at a industrial
effluents
into
waterbodies is
specific location. Although some of the subjecttoincreasingcontrol, it remainsa
elements involved are difficult to measure or seriousproblem.Waterqualitycanalso be
estimateaccurately,waterbalancedataare reduced catastrophically as a result of major
useful in water resource planning. chemical spills,oilspills or theaccidental
release of untreated sewage.
See also
Lysmeter,
Moisture
deficit, Molsture Index, Further reading
Thornthwaite, C.W. Gray, N.F. (1994) Drinking Water
Quality,
London: Wiley.
McDonald, A. and Kay, D. (1988) WaterRe-
WATER CYCLE sources: lssrres and Strategres, Harlow: Longman.
Maybeck, M., Chapman, D.V. and Helmer, R. (eds)
See hydrological cycle. (1990) Global Freshwater Quality: A First
Assessment, Cambridge, MA:
WHOKJNEPI
Blackwell.
WATER POLLUTION
WATER QUALITY STANDARDS
See environmental pollution.
Acceptable standards for water quality have
WATER QUALITY beendeveloped atboththenationaland
international level. The World Health
The definition of water quality will vary to Organization (WHO) haspublished guidelines
someextentdependingupontheproposed for drinking-water quality, for example, and
use. Waterintended for irrigationorfor theEuropeanCommissionhasproduceda
certain industrial purposes will not have to directive which applies to the quality of water
meet thesamequalitystandardsaswater intended for human consumption. Elsewhere,
intended for drinking, for example.However, allthedeveloped nations haveestablished
there are certain factors that determine water standards for waterquality, and some progress
quality
whateverthe use. Theycan be has been made among the developing nations.
classified
as
physical properties,chemical Published standards typically
include
properties and biological properties. maximumallowableconcentrations(MACS)
 WATER 430

Table W - l :Properties that determine water quality

PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES
CHEMICAL
PROPERTIES
BIOLOGICAL
colour: not necessarily harmful;
aesthetic concern; streams
flowing through peat often
brown
turbidity: cloudiness caused by
silt or bacteria; may require
treatment such as filtration
before use
tasteand odour: presence of
dissolved solids of biological,
mineral or human origin; very
small amounts of some
chemicals make water
unpalatable
temperattire: influences the
dissolved oxygen content
PROPERTIES
acidityandalkalinity: fresh micro-organismcontent:
watertends to be neutralpresence of algae and
( p H 6-7); deviation from that bacteria can make water
may indicate contamination unusable; E. coli bacterium
indicates faecal contamination
hardness: caused by the
presence of dissolved calcium
and magnesium compounds;
prevents soap from lathering
and causes scale buildup in
boilers
dissolved oxygen: important
for biological and chemical
processes; levels indicated by
chemical and biochemical
oxygen demand

Table W-2 Drinking water quality objectives of specific toxic elements- for example,heavy
for selected substances - Ontario, Canada metals - andguide levels (GL)forthose
considered less harmful - for example, acidity
or calcium (Ca). There is noguarantee,
SUBSTANCE LIMIT
however, thatestablishedstandards willbe
Nitrate 10 pprn (MAC) attained or enforced. In China, for example,
Sodium 20 ppm (AO) standards for drinking-water are in place, but
Chloride 250 ppm (AO) tap water is seldom safe for human consump-
Hardness 80-200 ppm ( O G ) tion.Waterqualitystandardscanonly be
Iron 0.3 ppm (AO) made to work if they are established in con-
Manganese 0.05 ppm (AO) junction with pollution control programmes.
In Britain, the UK Environmental Protection
Coliforms
Act (1990) and the Inspectorate o f Pollution
Total
coliforms 1 CFU/100 m1
work to deal with such problems and in the
Fecal coliorms 0 CFU/100 m1
UnitedStatestheSafeDrinking-WaterAct
Petroleum hydrocarbons (1974), the Water Quality Act (1987) and the
Benzene 0.005
(MAC) ppm Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) serve
ppm 0.024
Toluene (AO) similar
functions.
Althoughwater
quality
Ethylbenzene
(AO)
ppm
0.0024 standardsareconsideredmainly in human
m, p-Xylene 0.30(AO)
ppm terms,theyare also applied to agriculture,
o-Xylene 0.30 pprn (AO) fisheries and certain industries.

ppm = parts per million CFU = colony forming Further reading

units Edmonds, R.L. (1994) Patterns of C ~ I ~ I,ost
J L I ~
MAC = maximum acceptable concentration Harnzony, London: Koutledge
A 0 = aesthetic oblectlve Keller, A.Z. and Wilson, H.C. (1992) Hazards t o
43 1 WEATHERING

Drrrrking Water Supplies, LondonlNewYork: elements. Currently this is the most common
Springer-Verlag. method of weather forecasting ranging from
Wheeler, D., Richardson, M.L. and Bridges, J. (eds) periods of several hours to five or six days
( 1989) Watershed 89. The Futrtre for Water Qtrality
111 Europe, V o l l l , Oxford: Pergamon Press. ahead.Thequality of theresults is con-
strained by thecompromisethathasto be
WATERSHED struck between the accuracy required and the
cost of running the programme.
See catchment.
See also
Richardson, L.F.
WATER TABLE

The upper level of the saturated or ground- WEATHER MODIFICATION

waterzone in therocksbeneaththe earth’s
surface. In general, the shapeof the water table Any change in weather conditions caused by
follows thatof the surface, butin places it may human activity, whether by design o r
reach the surface, creating ponds or natural accident. Rain making by seedingclouds is
springs. The depth of the water table in any one of the most common attempts at bringing
one areavaries with such factorsas input from aboutintentionalchange in theweather,
precipitation, loss throughsub-surfaceflow while the development of smog as a result of
and pumping of groundwater fromwells. air pollution is an example of unintentional
weather modification. The building of cities
WATER VAPOUR and the flooding of reservoirs can also cause
local weather modification.
Water initsgaseousstate,producedfrom
liquid water by evaporation or by respiration See also
from animals and transpiration from plants. Urban heat island.
Its presence in the atmosphere contributes to
humidityandthroughsubsequentconden- Further reading
Dennis, A.S. (1980) Weather Modificatrort by
sation to precipitation. Water vapouris also a
Cloud Seeding, New York: Academic Press.
greenhouse gas. Oke, T. R. (1987) Bortndury Layer CIinzates (2nd
editmn), London: Mcthuen.
WATT
WEATHERING
The SI unit of power, equivalent to 1 joule per
second. The physical (mechanical),chemical
and
biological breakdown of rocks at the earth’s
surface,broughtabout by exposure to air,
WEATHER water, temperature change and organic activity.
It is essential for the formation of soil. The
Thecurrent
or
short-term
state of the weatheringprocessdoesnot involve trans-
atmosphere expressed i n terms of such portation o f the rock particles except under
variablesastemperature,precipitation,air- the effects of gravity - for example, ona slope
flow and cloudiness. - but by destroying the integrity of the rock
surface, weathering provides material that can
be readily removed by agents of erosion, such
WEATHER FORECASTING as water, wind and ice. Physical and chemical
MODELS weatheringworktogether,but at different
ratesgoverned by suchfactors as climatic
Modelswhich use fundamentalequations conditions and the natureof the rock surface.
representingatmosphericprocessestopre- Weatheringratesaregreatest in hot,moist
dictshort-termchanges in meteorological conditions and least in cold, dry conditions.
WET DEPOSITION 432
See also under the terms of the Ramsar Convention,
Hydrolysis. more than 400 wetland areas covering more
than 193 million hectares had been designated
Further reading
as worthy of protection. Wetlands which are
Colman, S.M. and Dethier, D.P. (eds) (1986)Rates
of Chemzcal Weathering of Rocks and Minerals, not considered internationally important are
Orlando, FL: Academic Press. being preserved or rehabilitated by conserv-
Kittrick, J.A. (1986)Soil Mineral Weathering, New ation authorities or environmental groups.
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Further reading
WET DEPOSITION Williams, M. (ed.) (1990) Wetlands: A Threatened
Landscape, Oxford: Blackwell.
The most common form of acid precipitation, Cox, G.W. (1993) ConservationEcology:Bio-
sphereandBiosururval, Dubuque, IA: WmC.
in which the acids are present in solution in Brown.
the atmosphere and reach theearth’s surface
in rain, snow, hail and fog.
WILDERNESS
See also
Dry deposition. An area still in its natural state, that has not
been significantly disturbed by humans. Very
WETLANDS fewsuchareasexist,sincemoderntech-
nology allows human activities to take place
Swamps,marshes, fens,
tidal marshes, anywhereonthe earth’ssurface.However,
peatlandsandotherecosystemswhichare some areas - for example, the high Arctic or
dominated by water. The presence of water mountainous areas such as the Himalayas -
may be permanent,temporaryorseasonal are sufficiently remote or difficult of access
and it may be fresh or salt, but the plant and thathumansareonlytemporaryvisitors,
animal organisms in wetlands have adapted often
recreational
for purposes.Once
to thatsituation to create uniquecom- designatedaswildernessareastheycan be
munitiesthat reflect theconditionsata protected, and any change away from their
specific site. Wetlands provide habitat for fish natural state prevented.
and wildlife, act as staging areas for migrating
wildfowl,
filter
sediments
and
control Further reading
flooding in streamsystemsandprotectthe Hendee, J.C., Stankey, G.H. and Lewis,R.C.
shore from erosionin coastal areas. In human (1990) Wilderness Management, Golden,
CO:
North American Press.
terms they have oftenbeen considered of little Oelschlager, M. (ed.) (1992)The Wilderness Corz-
value, providing breeding grounds for insects dition: Essays on EtzvzronmentandCivilizatzotz,
such as mosquitoes, restricting overland and Washington, DC: Island Press.
water transportation, reducing the amount of
land available for agriculture and limiting the WILDERNESS ACT (1964)
growth of settlements. As a result, wetlands
have beenextensivelydrainedand filled or See United States Wilderness Act (1964).
reclaimed for humanuse. In the United States
alone,some 4 millionhectares of interior WILDERNESSSOCIETY
wetland were lost between 1955 and 1975.
Major wetlands suchas the Florida Everglades Founded in theUnitedStates in 1935,the
in the United States, the Camargue in France WildernessSocietypromotestheconserva-
and
the
Okavango Delta in Botswana tion of wilderness areas. It has been partic-
continue to survive, but they are under threat, ularly successful in lobbying the government
and in 1971 aList of Wetlands of Inter- to designate areas suitable for preservation.
nationalImportance wasproposed at a The society’s mandate also includes support
conference held under the auspices of IUCN of otherconservationandenvironmental
andUNESCO inRamsar,Iran. By 1989, issues.
433 WIND ENERGY

See also atmosphere, reflects theinterplayamong

Leopold, A., Thoreau, H.D., United States Wilder- pressure differences, the Coriolis effect and
ness Act ( 1 964). friction.Superimposedontheglobalwinds
arelocalandregionalphenomena,ranging
WILDLIFE AND COUNTRYSIDE from land and sea breezes or mountain and
ACT (1 985) valley winds, which are normally harmless, to
tornadoes and hurricanes, where windspeeds
An act designed to improve the protection of regularlyexceed 150-200 kphandcreate
wildlife andtheconservation of naturein extremely hazardous conditions. Wind has an
Britain. It provides information on protected impactonenvironmentalconditionsatall
species, for example, and
includes
con- scales. The heat and moisture transported by
sideration of existingnationalparksand global winds play an important role in the
countrysideparks.Morecontroversially, it earth'senergybudget,andinfluencethe
provides a financial compensation system for distribution of majorecosystems.Winds in
farmers and landowners who take care not to the upper atmosphere - for example, the jet
damage valuable sitedhabitats known as sites streams - also help to redistribute energy and
of specialscientificinterest (SSSI) ontheir they transport aerosols such as those emitted
land. during major volcanic eruptions. The upper
westerliesinthenorthernhemispherehave
WIND also been implicated in the transportation of
acidrain. In urbanareas,calmconditions
Air in motionovertheearth'ssurface.Its encouragethebuild-up of airpollution,
main component is horizontal,butvertical whereas turbulence aids mixing and helps to
airflowcan
also be involved.Wind is dilute pollutants. The important roleof wind
produced as a resultof pressure differences in in the human experience isreflected in the
theatmosphere,anditsstrength is deter- wayin
which specific winds have been
mined by the magnitude of the difference and named. The Chinook and Santa Ana of North
the distance over which the difference occurs America, the Sirocco,Bora and Mistral of the
- the pressure gradient. Wind direction (the MediterraneanortheHarmattan of West
directionfromwhichthewindblows) is Africa, for example, have had sufficient impact
initially
determined by these
pressure on human activities in the areas in which they
differences, withtheairflowingfrom high blow to merit special identification.
pressure to low pressure. Once the air begins
to move, however,it comesunder
the Further reading
influence of the Coriolis effect, which causes Ahrens, C.D. (1994) Meteorology Today (5th
it to deviate from the pressure gradient path. edition), MinneapolislSt Paul: West Publishing.
Whenthepressuregradientforceandthe
Coriolis force balance each other, the air will WIND ENERGY
tend to flow parallel to the isobars. This is
referred toasthegeostrophicwind. Below Windmills have longbeen used to convert the
about 500 m, friction between the moving air kineticenergyavailable in thewindinto
andthe earth's surfacecomesinto play. mechanicalpower,thatpowerthen being
Frictionslowsthe
airflowandtends to used togrindgrainorpumpwater.More
counteracttheCoriolis effect. As a result, recently, the energy in moving air has been
nearthesurfacethewindsdonotblow converted into electricity, by using the wind
parallel totheisobars,butatanangle of to turn electrical generators. Wind energy has
between 1 0 and 30" tothem,theimpact anumber of advantagesoverconventional
beinggreaterovertheland thanoverthe forms of energy.It is pollution-free and
oceans. Friction also contributes to turbulent renewable, for example, and once the costs of
flow in the lower layers of the atmosphere. buildingandmaintainingawindmillhave
Onaglobal scale,thecirculation of the been covered, the wind energy is available a t
atmosphere, at the surface and in the upper no direct cost. Problems occur because winds
WINDBREAK 434

blow only intermittently and may not be able WORLD CLIMATE APPLICATIONS
to supply the demand for power at any given PROGRAM (WCAP)
time. Modernwindsystemscanovercome
this problem to some extent by using storage See World Climate Applications and Services
batteries or by using electricity to compress Program (WCASP).
airfor use whenthewind is not blowing.
Most windmillsare usedby individuals to WORLD CLIMATE APPLICATIONS
pump water or to provide enough electricity A N D SERVICES PROGRAM
forlighting or poweringsmallappliances. (WCASP)
Such generators typically have a capacity of
10-12 kilowatts. Much larger wind turbines A component of the WCP, developed in 1991
areratedatmorethan 100 kilowatts,and by the expansion of the WCAP, and designed
some have been designed with capacities of to assistin the collection andanalysis of
severalmegawatts. Set upinperpetually climatedatathatmight be applied to such
windy areas, such as mountain passes, ridges socioeconomic sectors as agriculture, forestry,
or the sea coast, groups of such generators - fisheries, water resources, energy and health.
wind farms - can make a significant
contribution to the production of electricity.
Where they are already in place, they have
WORLD CLIMATE PROGRAM
produced complaints about noisepollution
(WCP)
and
the
aesthetic
deterioration of the
landscape. By the middle of the twenty-first Established in 1979 under the auspicesof the
century, wind could supply some 10 per cent WMO, UNEP, IOC and ICSU, the WCP has
of the world’s electricity. Currently, although terms of reference which include improving
the
generation of electricity using
wind knowledge andunderstanding of global
energy is important locally, for example, in climate
processes
and
facilitating
the
Britain, Denmark, Germany and California, application of suchinformation to human
itsglobalimpact is likely to remainsmall activities.
scale in the foreseeable future, at least until
thedirectandindirectcosts of fossilfuel See also
World Climate Research Program, World Climate
generation are judged to be too high. Applications and Services Program.

Further reading WORLD CLIMATE RESEARCH

Johnson,
G.L.(1985) Wind Energy Systems,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Park, J. (1981) The Wind Power Book, Palo Alto,
CA: Cheshire Rooks.
Spera, D.A. (ed.) (1994)Wind Turbtne Technology,
New York: ASME Press.
WINDBREAK
A row of trees or shrubsplantedatright
angles to the prevailing wind. The consequent
reduction in windspeed helps to protect sen-
sitive plants, reduces the rate of evapotrans-
piration and helps to prevent soil erosion.
WORLD BANK
PROGRAM (WCRP)
One of thecomponents of theWCP,the
WCRP is concernedmainlywithresearch
into the dynamic and physical aspects o f the
earth/atmosphere system. It complements the
activities of the IGBP which concentrates on
thebiologicalandchemicalaspects of the
system. The main aims of the WCRI’ are to
determine the extent to which climate can be
predictedandthedegree to whichhuman
activities influence climate.
See also
TOGA.

See InternationalBankforReconstruction
and Development.
435 WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION

WORLD COMMISSION ON To that end, it proposed a major international

ENVIRONMENT AND conference to deal with the issues involved,
DEVELOPMENT which led directly to the UNCED in Rio de
Janeiro in 1992. Thecommission’s final report,
Acommissionsetup in 1983 by theUN O u r Common Future, wasmadepublic in
General Assembly to consider issues
in- April 1987andpresentedtotheGeneral
volvingtherelationshipbetweenenviron- Assembly of the United Nations later that year.
ment and development.It was chairedby Gro
HarlemBrundtland,theNorwegianPrime Further reading
Starke, L. (1990)Signs ofHope: Workrng Towards
Minister, andas aresultbecame known our Common Future, OxfordlNew York: Oxford
popularlyastheBrundtlandCommission. Unlversity Press.
Economy and
environment
werefirmly
combined through its promotion of the
concept of sustainable development. Part of WORLDHEALTH
theCommission’smandatewas to explore ORGANIZATION (WHO)
newmethods of internationalco-operation
that
would foster
understanding of the A UN agencycreated in 1948 to deal with
concept and allow it to be developed further. global health issues and to achieve as high a

Table W-3 Summary of the main recommendations of the World Commission on

Environment and Development (1987)

Revive growth: Stimulate growth to combat poverty, particularlyin developing

nations. Industrialized nations must contribute.
Change the quality Growth to be sustainable and related to social goals such as
of growth: better income distribution, Improved health, preservation of
cultural heritage.
Conserve and enhance Conserve environmental resources - clean air, water, forests and
the resource base: soils. Improve the efficiency of resource use and shift to non-
polluting products and techniques.
Ensure a sustainable Population policies to be formulated and integrated with
level of population: economic and social development programmes.
Reorient technology Capacity for technological innovation to be enhanced in
and manage risks: developing countries. Environmental factors to receive more
attention in technological development. Promotion of public
participation in decision-making involving environment and
development issues.
Integrate environment Responsibility for impacts of policy decisions to be enforced to
and economics in preserve environmental resource capital and promote
decision-making: sustainability.
Reform international Basic improvements in market access, technology transfer and
economic relations: international finance to allow developing nationsto diversify
economic and trade bases.
Strengthen international Higher priorities to be assigned to co-operation on environmental
co-operation: issues and resource management in international development.

Source: Based on information in Starke (1990)

AENOIRZ O
A LT O
IO
WGNO
I CRALLD 436

level of physical, mental and social well-being undertakesanalysis of thedata,

anda
as possible for the peoples of the world. It is telecommunications unit, which provides for
involved
variety
ain of environmental the rapid exchange of observational data as
studies,
including
the
impact of climate well as analyses and forecasts produced by
changeandozonedepletiononhealth, in the
data-processingunit. Together,
these
conjunction with other agencies such as the provide the information required for general
W M O a n dUNEP. and specialized weather
forecasts
and
contribute to the longer range requirements
WORLD METEOROLOGICAL of other WMO activities, such as the World
ORGANIZATION (WMO) Climate Program (WCP). Research on global
environmental issues such as those involving
A specializedagency of theUN basedin pollution or foodandwatersupplyalso
Geneva, Switzerland, the WMO was created dependsupondata
supplied by World
in 1951 to co-ordinateworldwideweather Weather Watch.
data collection and analysis. It facilitates co-
operation and
exchange of information WORLDWATCH INSTITUTE
among national meteorological organizations
andamong hydrological and geophysical AUnitedStates-basedorganizationwhich
agencies which provide observations related monitorstheimpact of economicdevelop-
to meteorology. The WMO promotes stan- mentontheenvironmentandtheworld’s
dardization in the observation and publica- progress towards sustainable development. It
tion of meteorological data and encourages is fundedmainly by private trusts
and
research andtraining in meteorologyand foundations.
The
Worldwatch
Institute
relatedfields. Through its sponsorship of publishestheresults of itsresearchin a
such programmes as the WCRP and IPCC, bimonthlyjournaland,since1984,inan
the W M O has also become involvedin annual report entitledState of the World.
climate change research.
Further reading
Brown, L.R. (1997) State of the World 1997, New
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE York: W.W. Norton

Anorganizationfunded by theUN,some WORLDWIDE FUND FOR NATURE

national
governmentsandprivate
organ- (WWF)
izations to studytherelationshipbetween
economicdevelopmentstrategiesanden- A private international organization founded
vironmental issues. in the 1960s as the World Wildlife Fund, it
has been primarily concerned
with
the
WORLD WEATHER WATCH survival of endangered species - both plant
(WWW) andanimal - buthasnowexpanded its
interests to include all aspects of conser-
A system set up by the WMO for the global vation.The WWF currentlyhasprojects
collection,
analysis
and
distribution of ongoing in over 130 countries ranging from
information
on
the
weather
and
other Hong Kong to Northern Europe. It merged
environmentalelements.Itconsists of an with the Conservation Foundation in 1990,
observing unit, which collects ground-based and now claims some five million supporters
and satellite observations, a data-processing worldwide, working to stop the accelerating
unit,
which
managesthe
database
and degradation of the natural environment.
 x, Y, z
XENON todesigned
adaptations
areOther
stored.and
reduce moisture loss by transpiration. These
See inert (gases). include leaves with thick skins and sunken
pores,leavesreplaced by thornsandthe
development of thick bark or outer skin on
XEROPHYTIC VEGETATION
thetrunksandstems of treesandother
plants.
Plantsadapted for life inaridconditions.
Adaptationsmayincludelong or enlarged Furtherreading
leaves and
and fleshy which Hocking, D.(ed.) (1993) Trees for Drylands, New
as much moisture as possible to be obtained York: InternationalSciencePublishers.

Figure X - l Cactus and sage brush in Arizona desert

Photograph: Courtesy of Susan and Glenn Burton

XEROSPHERE 438

XEROSPHERE of habitats.Theyarecommon in soil, for

example,
wherethey
contribute to the
The partof the earth’s surface coveredby hot decomposition of dead plant materials. Some
orcolddeserts. It is characterized by arid yeasts cause skin disease and irritation of the
conditions, and supports flora and fauna that mucous
membrane in humans.Under
have adapted to the dryness. anaerobicconditions,
certain
yeasts
en-
courage
fermentation,
and
commercial
See also strains of Saccharomyces cervisiae -brewers’
Xerophytic vegetation. or bakers’yeast - havelong beenused to
ferment the sugars in rice, wheat, barley and
Further reading maize to produce alcohol
(ethanol).
In
Furley, P.A. and Newey, W.W. (1983) Geography
of the Biosphere, London: Butterworth.
baking, sugars are decomposed under aerobic
conditions to producewaterandrelease
X-RAYS carbon dioxide (CO,), the process being used
to cause bread dough to rise.
High energy electromagnetic radiation with a
Further reading
wavelength between 0.006 and 5 nanometres. Harrison, J.S. and Rose,A.H. (eds)(1987) The
They were discovered by Wilhelm Roentgenin Yeasts (2nd edition), London: Academic Press.
1895.X-raysareproducednaturallywhen
high energy particles such as electrons collide YELLOW-CAKE
withotherparticles or atoms.Theycan be
produced artificially by accelerating electrons
Concentrateduraniumoxide(U,O,).The
from a heated cathode through a vacuum tube
first stage in the refinement of uranium ore.
to strike a metallic anode. When the electrons
Yellow-cake is usually produced at the mine
striketheatoms in theanode,X-raysare
site before being shipped to the nuclear fuel
emitted. In general, X-rays canpenetrate
manufacturer.
solids, but that abilityvaries with the natureof
thematerial.Matterthat is less dense, for See also
example, is more transparent to the rays. As a Beneficiatlon, Nuclear reactor.
result, it is possible to prepare X-ray photog-
raphy of human bones, because they are more ZERO POPULATION GROWTH
densethanthesurrounding flesh. Similarly (ZPG)
this ability to penetrate and reveal the internal
structure of materials has been usedin Acondition in whichthecrudebirthrate
industry to locate structural defects that are equalsthe
death
rate
and
result
as
a
invisible to thenaked eye. Radiography is population becomes stable. I t was a popular
widely used as a diagnostic tool in medicine concept in the 1960s and early 1970s and led
and dentistry, and is applied therapeutically in to the creation of a group in the United States
the treatment of certain types of cancer. How- called Zero Population Growth. Its main aim
ever, X-rays are a form of ionizing radiation was to draw attentionto problems of resource
and overexposure can causetissue damage. depletion, human suffering and environmental
degradation associated with rapid population
See also
growth,and it advocatedplannedprogress
Electromagnetic spectrum.
towards stability.Technological and lifestyle
Further reading
factors complicate the relationships between
Cutnell, J.D. and Johnson, K.W. (1995) Physics, populationgrowth and
resource use or
New York: Wiley. environmental impact, however, and zero
population growth onits own cannotsolve the
YEAST problems.
Amongrapidly
the growing
nations, both India and China have instituted
Single-celled fungi that occupy a wide range family
planning
programmes to reduce
439 Z O N A L INDEX

populationgrowth.Therehas been some Zinc is used in alloys such as brass, and as a

success in both countries, but they remain far
from zero population growth. Several nations
in Europe, however, - for example, Denmark,
France, Germany - have attained unplanned
zero population growth.
See also
Carrylng capaclty, Malthus.
Further reading
Ehrlich, P.R. and
Ehrlich,
A.H. (1990) The
Populrltion Explosion, New York: Simon &
Schuster.
Mesarovich, M. and Pestel, E. (1975) Mankind at
the Turnlng Point, London: Hutchinson.
ZINC (Zn)
A hard, bluish-white metal. The common ores
of zinc are zincite, calamine and zinc blende.
coatingon iron (Fe) to producecorrosion-
resistantgalvanizediron. Zinc is also an
important micronutrient or trace element.
ZONAL CIRCULATION
The movement of air in the atmosphere in an
east-west or west-east direction, i.e. parallel
to the lines of latitude.
See also
Meridional circulation, Zonal index.
ZONAL INDEX
A measure of the intensity of the mid-latitude
atmosphericcirculationpattern.During a
period of high zonal index, the airflowis west
to east or latitudinal. A lowzonalindex

Figure Z-2 The index cycle associated with the meandering of the mid-latitude westerlies in
the northern hemisphere
COD COLD

zonal

WARM

2 zonal

c COLD

3 zonal
WARM

High
zonal
index

Source: Kernp, D.D. ( I 994) Global Enurronmerztal Issues: A Clirnatologd Approach, LondonMew York:
Routledge
ZOOPLANKTON 440

involvesa south-north-south or meridional shellfish. Some graze upon phytoplankton and

component as a result of waves forming in occupy thefirst consuming stagein the aquatic
the airflow. Over a period of between three food chain. These primary consumers are in
and eight weeks, the indexcycles from low to turn consumed by other zooplankton through
high and back to low, and the net impact of a series of three or four trophic levels, before
this
changing
circulation
pattern is a fish andaquaticmammalsenterthechain.
significant latitudinal energy transfer. Some zooplankton, such as krill which occur
in heavy concentrations,areanimportant
Further reading element in the dietof certain whales, and some
Barry, R.G. and Chorley, R.J. (1992) Atmosphere, thought has been given to harvesting them for
Weather and Climate (6th edition) London:
Routledge. human use also. However, the
economic
feasibility of such an operation, and concern
ZOOPLANKTON for thepotentialdamage toaquaticfood
chains has as yet prevented it.
Microscopicanimalplankton, whichlive in
Further reading
the
upper layers of fresh and salt-water Parsons, T.R. (1980) ‘Zooplankton production’, in
environments.Zooplankton includesmicro- R.S.K. Barnes and K.H. Mann (eds) Fundamentals
scopic crustaceans, shrimp-like forms such as of Aquatrc Systems, Oxford: Blackwell Scientific.
krill and the eggs and larvae of a variety of
 NAME INDEX

Aber, J.D. 397 Austin, J. 219

Abrahams, A. 95 Australian Environment Assessment Branch
Action Plan for the Protection of the (AEB) 37
Environment 64 Australian Nature Conservation Agency
Adams, W.M. 80 (ANCA) 37
Adetunji, J. 185
Adger, W.N. 157 Baarschers, W.H. 30, 38, 59, 288, 312, 325,
Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases 369
(AGGG) 11,208,421 Bach, W. 59
African Centre of Meteorological Bacon, P.E. 145
Applications for Development (ACMAD) Bagchi, A. 358
13 Bailey, P.D. 262
Agassi, M. 344, 354 Baker, H. 369
Agnew, C. 429 Baker, J.P. 9, 383
Ahearne, J.F. 267 Ball, T. 330
Ahrens, C.D. 26, 31, 246, 433 Bamforth, D.B. 176
Alfrey, J. 201 Banarjee, B. 68
Alkali and Clean Air Inspectorate (UK) 42 Bansal, R.C. 10
Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS)20, Barbier, E.B. 44
173 Barbour, I.G. 26
Allsop, D. 44 Barjac, H. de 39
Alters, S. 102, 131 Barrett, E.C. 348
Alvarez, L.W. 246 Barrie, L.A. 28, 387
Amjad, Z . 289 Barry, R.G. 17, 33, 71, 105, 115, 136, 183,
Andersland, O.B. 310 190,324,354,382,397,440
Anderson, S.H. 127 Barry, R.J. 186
Anisirnov, O.A. 310 Bartok, W. 77
Anspaugh, L.R. 66 Bates, T.S. 387
Anthes, R.A. 155 Bazzaz, EA. 318
Appleby, L. 380 Beaumont, P. 29
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge 257 Becht, J.E. 353
Argue, R. 204 Becquerel, Henri 42
Arrhenius, S. 29 Bejan, A. 81
Ashford, O.M. 353 Bell, L.H. 265
Ashton, J.S. 201 Bergeron, Tor 16
Ashworth, W. 135 Berglund, B.E. 300
Atomic Energy of Canada 270 Berkhout, F. 426
Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) 36 Berkovitz, N. 75
Aubrecht, G.J. 46, 125, 147, 310 Bernabo, J.C. 303
Audubon, John James 255 Bernard, E.N. 410
NAME INDEX 442

Berner, E.K. 196 Brown, R.D. 257

Berry, R.S. 124, 127 Brown, Robert 51
Bettinger, R.L. 190 Brundtland Commission 52, 435
Birchall, G. 328 Brundtland, Gro Harlem 435
Bisset, K.A. 40 Bryan, R. 267
Blaikie, P. 258, 376 Bryson, R.A. 254, 356
Blake, D.R. 246 Buchholz, R.A. 115
Blank, L.W. 9 , 4 0 8 Burch, E.S. l 9 0
Blaskett, D.R. 226 Burdett, N.A. 229
Bliss, L.C. 41 1 Burroughs, W.J. 109,252
Boag, S. 179 Burrows, C.J. 386
Boeker, E. 21 1 Burton, B. 267
Bohren, C.F. 337,344 Burton, 1. 258
Bolen, E.G. 116 Butt, J.B. 61
Bolin, B. 29, 45, 58, 178, 263, 360 Byrne, J. 124
Bolle, H.J. 179
Boney, A.D. 317 Calder, N. 72, 185, 249
Bonham Carter, G. 166 Calvert, B. 380
Boo, E. 118 Canadian International Development
Borchert, J.R. 99 Agency 142
Borg, K. 243 Carey, A. 146
Bormann, Herbert 229 Carlile, M.J. 159
Born, M. 102 Carlson, T. 247, 274
Botkin, D.B. 61 Carozzi, A.V. 364
Bod, S.W. 374 Carpenter, K.J. 423
Boulding, Kenneth 381 Carpenter, R. 254
Bourlikre, F. 175, 360 Carson, Rachel 61, 102, 369
Bourman, R.P. 225 Carter, R.G. 120
Bouwman, A.F. 263 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Bowen, R. 82 226,227
Bowman, I. 176 Central Electricity Generating Board
Bowman, S. 340 (CEGB) 62-3
Boyle, G. 350 Centre for Social & Economic Research on
Boyle, R.W. 174 the Global Environment (CSERGE) 63
Bradley, R.S. 72, 91, 300, 330, 333 Chambers, R.D. 151
Brady, N.C. 226, 377, 378 Chandler, A.M. 11 4
Brakke, D.F. 9 Chandler, T.J. 49
Brandt, J.C. 378 Chandra, R. 402
Brasseur, G. 252, 298, 387 Chang, C.P. 251
Brewer, R. 79 Chapman, J.D. 126,314
Briffa, K.R. 301 Chapman, K. 314
Briggs, D. 196, 374 Charlson, R.J. 103, 387
Briggs, S.A. 312 Charney, J. 46
Brimblecombe, P. 233, 371 Chatterjee, A. 371
British Nuclear Fuels (BNF) 51 Cheraskin, E. 220
Broecker, W.S. 276, 340 Cheremisinoff, P.N. 145
Brookins, D.G. 188 Cherfas, J. 137
Brooks, G.T. 287 Chester, D.K. 141,423
Brown, A.G. 181 Chiras, D.D. 1, 3, 60, 139, 234, 249, 291,
Brown, G.C. 84 357
Brown, J.H. 45 Choppin, G.R. 215
Brown, L.R. 27, 177, 238, 290, 390, 436 Chorley, R.J. 143, 166
443 NAME

Cicerone, R.J. 298 Day, M. 43

Coates, P.A. 407 Day, R.H. 177
Coch, N. K. 149 De Geer, Gerard 421
Coghlan, A. 24 De Montalembert, M.R. 158
Cohn, J.P. 123 De Vivo, B. 418
Colchester, M. 87 DeBlij, H.J. 114, 277
Cole, H.A. 268 Decker, R. 423
Cole, H.S.D. 230 Degobert, P. 31 6
Cole, M.M. 142 Del Moral, R. 386
Colella, A. 88 Delmas, R.J. 199
Colman, S.M. 431-2 Delwiche, C.C. 263
Colwell, J.D. 145 Denison, R.A. 427
Commonwealth Expert Group on Climate Dennis, A S . 431
Change 78-9 Deshler, T. 298
Concar, D. 242,298,371 Desmond, A. 85
Condie, K.C. 320 Deudney, D. 191-3
Cook, L.M. 163 Deynoux, M. 206,322
Cooke, R.U. 95 Dilworth, M.J. 227, 263
Coope, G.R. 301 Dinga, G.P. 193
Costello, M.J. 131 Dobson, A. 176
Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) Domino, EA. 427-8
256 Dott, R.H. 135
Coupland, R.T. 175 Dotto, L. 61, 298
Coveny, P. 64 Douglas, A.E. 91
Cox, B.C. 230 Downing, R.C. 67, 152
Cox, C.B. 45 Drake, J.A. 116
Cox, G.W. 50,121, 129, 154, 156,182, Dregne, H.E. 99
347,370,402,417,432 Driscoll, C.T. 9
Craddock, P.T. 371 Driscoll, D. 210
Crawley, M.J. 188, 304 Drlica, K. 92
Critchfield, H.J. 22 Drukker, W. 101
Croll, James 247 Duff, P.M.D. 288
Cronan, C.S. 21 Dugas, H. 131
Crowley, T.J. 300 Dyer, A.J. 251
Crum, H.A. 306
Crutzen, P.J. 298 Eagleman, J.R. 217, 409
Cunningham, W.P. 133 Eddy, J.A. 240
Curie, Marie 84 Edmonds, R.L. 70,431
Cusbach, U. 143, 165 Edwards, R. 188
Cutnell, J.D. 162, 184,438 Ehrlich, P.R. 89, 116, 238, 326, 439
Cutter, S.L. 223, 279, 353, 416 Elias, H-G 318
Elliott, J. 390
Danielsen, A.L. 287 Ellis, E.C. 9, 150, 151, 364
Darmstadter, J. 350 Ellis, S. 375
Darnell, J.E. 62 Emerson, R.W. 121,402
Darwin, Charles 85, 137, 138, 160, 222, Enger, E.D. 49, 335, 409
259 Ensminger, D. 413
Das, A. 36, 184, 260 Environment Canada 251,298,358
Davidson, A. 101, 140 Environmental Change Research Centre
Davidson, K. 114 (ECRC) 127
Davies, J.E. 102 Environmental Consequences of Nuclear
Dawson, A.G. 199,206,249 War (ENUWAR) 1 2 7 , 3 6 0
NAME INDEX 444

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Gilpin, A. 128

122,131,200,255,319,351,388,430 Gish, D.T. 137
Estrin, D. 272 Glantz, M.H. 99, 108,121,356
European Commission 49, 429 Glassby, G.P. 127
Expert Advisory Committee on Amino Acids Glasson, J. 128
(Canada) 22 Gleick, J. 64
Gleick, P.H. 429
Faegri, K. 303 Glenn-Lewin, D.C. 386
Fahrenheit, Gabriel Daniel 141 Gobbi, G.P. 252
Farman, J.C. 24,298 Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS)
Faughn, J.S. 49, 120,202, 308,336 170,174
Fearnside, P.M. 351 Godish, T. 1 8
Felch, R.E. 108 Godwin, H. 306
Fell, N. 103 Gofman, J.W. 403
Fennelly, P.F. 35, 305, 363 Golde, R.H. 229
Fenner, F. 254 Goldfarb, T.D. 324
Ferguson, K. 332 Goodland, R.J.A. 390
Ferrel, William 144 Gordon, J.E. 333
Fincham, J.R.S. 165 Gordon, R.C. 177
Findley, R. 252 Gotto, R.V. 78
Fishman, J. 292 Goudie, A. 117, 166, 367, 425
Fitter, A. 132 Gough, M. 103
Fitzgerald, J.J. 395 Grant, V. 222
Flavin, C. 173,242,287, 399 Graves, J. 53, 249
Fleck, R.F. 253 Gray, D.M. 372
Flint, R.F. 135, 199, 322, 333, 421 Gray, N.F. 429
Flohn, H. 209 Green, C. 59
Folland, C.K. 362 Greenpeace 179, 207
Follet, R.F. 84 Gregory, K.J. 81
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Gribbin, J. 24
415 Griffin, H. 7 3
Foreman, J.E.K. 380 Griffith, W.T. 105
Forsgate, J.A. 235 Griggs, G.B. 3, 284-5, 385
Foyer, C.H. 317 Griggs, N.S. 206
Frampton, G.T. 417 Gritzner, J.A. 356
Freedman, B. 131 Groisman, P.Y. 36, 305
French, H.M. 307 Grove, A.T. 99
Friedman, A.M. 9 Grove, J.M. 232
Friends of the Earth (FOE) 132, 133, 158, Grower, R. 187
351,414 Gupta, A. 402
Fritts, H.C. 91 Gurney, R.J. 348
Fritz, J.J. 191-3 Gutmann, V. 184
Fuller, M. 146
Furley, P.A. 48, 343,438 Haberman, A. 144
Hadley, George 3 1, 182, 183
Gaston, K.J. 44 Haeckel, Ernst 116
Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Hale, M.E. 228
(GFDL) 166 Hallwood, P. 287
Getis, J. 26 Hamilton, R.A. 21 1
Gibson, M S . 4 1 9 Hammond, A.L. 194,298
Gilbert, C.G. 355 Handmet, J. 149
Giller, P.S. 260 Hanink, D.M. 180,284
445 NAME

Hansen, J. 170, 173, 252 Howes, R.H. 124

Hansen, L.D. 59 Hudicky, M. 290
Hardin, G. 326 Hudson, P. 201
Hardin, Garrett 406 Huggett, R.J. 48, 392
Hargrave, B. 287 Hughes, J.D. 144
Harman, J.R. 354 Hulme, M. 8 7 , 9 9 , 1 7 4 , 3 5 6 , 4 1 4
Harmon, J.R. 217 Hunter, R. 180
Harper, R. 277 Huntley, B.J. 360
Harris, S.A. 310 Hutchinson, T.C. 243
Harrison, G.A. 237 Hutchison, G. 249
Harrison, J.S. 438 Hutzinger, 0. 325
Harrison, R.M. 366,427 Hyndman, D.W. 225,236
Hart, J. 168
Harvey, H.H. 9 Ingold, C.T. 382
Harvey, L.D. 199 Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Harwell, M.A. 127 Commission (IOC) 206,415
Hass, P.M. 414 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Hassett, J.J. 323 (IPCC) 206-7,416
Hatch, J.A. 21 Interim Multilateral Fund 251
Hauhs, M. 9 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
Hawksworth, D.L. 44 207-8
Hay, N.E. 76, 257 International Bank for Reconstruction and
Haynes, R.J. 262 Development see World Bank
Healy, J.H. 104 International Commission on Radiological
Hearney, P.J. 334 Protection (ICRP) 241
Heath, M. 247 International Council of Scientific Unions
Hecht, S.M. 92, 184,272 (ICSU) 1 2 7 , 1 6 9 , 2 0 8 , 3 6 0 , 4 2 1 , 4 3 4
Heggelund, M. 122 International Development Association
Hendee, J.C. 432 (IDA) 208
Henderson-Sellers, A. 84, 165, 173 International Geographical Union (IGU) 208
Hendrey, G.R. 9 International Institute for Applied Systems
Hengeveld, H.G. 165, 303 Analysis (IIASA) 208, 209
Herman, R. 268 International Join Commission (IJC) 209
Herr, R.A. 24 International Meteorological Congress
Hester, R.E. 200 209-10
Hickman, C.P. 360 International Meteorological Organization
Hidore, J.J. 92, 399 (IMO) 209-10
Hoagland, M.B. 92 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 210
Hocking, D. 437 International Nickel Company (INCO) 210,
Hodgson, E. 203 394
Hofmann, D.J. 324 International Oceanographic Commission
Holland, H.D. 127 (IOC) 169,434
Holmes, G. 122 International Panel on Climate Change
Hon, D.N. 62 (IPCC) 72, 108, 135, 157, 164, 165, 170,
Horan, N.J. 367 171, 173, 174, 207, 212, 362, 408,422,
Horn, D. J. 204 424,436
Hoskins, W.G. 15 International Social Science Council (ISSC) 189
Houghton, J.T. 52, 303, 338 Ives, J.D. 149
Houghton, R.A. 58 Iwata, S. 377
Howard, Luke 73
Howard, R. 131, 394 Jacobsen, T. 357
Howes, R. 350 Jahnke, R.A. 315
NAME INDEX 446

Jansen, R.B. 85 Kupchella, C.E. 319, 427

Jeffries, D.S. 383 Kurland, L.T. 249
Jenkins, D.G. 333 Kwon, 0.-Y. 45
Jenkins, R.H. 280 Kyte, W.S. 63, 151
Johnson, B.J. 24
Johnson, D.L. 266 LaBastille, A. 9
Johnson, D.W. 220, 372 Laird, M. 203
Johnson, G.L. 434 La], R. 376
Johnson, S.J. 215 Lamarck, Jean Baptiste de 137,222
Jones, B.F. 161,426 Lamb, H.H. 3 6 , 7 2 , 1 0 9 , 2 1 9 , 2 2 2 , 2 3 2 ,
Jones, H. 384 252,253,424
Jones, R. 322 Lamberg-Karlovsky, C.C. 14
Joseph, L.E. 161 Landsberg, H. 419
Judd, A.M. 268 Langford, T.E.L. 399
Larsen, J.A. 393
Kabata-Pendias, A. 406 Lauffer, R.B. 212
Kakah, S. 80 Lawler, A. 111
Kanakidou, M. 191 Lawrence, C. 119
Katz, R.W. 108 Lawson, M.P. 176
Kaufman, D.G. 48, 1 5 6 , 2 3 5 , 2 8 6 , 3 5 5 Le Houerou, H.N. 108
Kauppi, P.E. 157 Le Roy Ladurie, E. 315
Kearey, P. 320 Leigh, J. 123
Keeble, J. 140 Leith, H. 260
Keleti, C. 261 Lenssen, N. 271
Keller, A.Z. 431 Leopold, Aldo 227
Kellogg, W.W. 109, 174 Levenson, T. 256
Kemp, D.D. 9,34,128,142,165,174,207, Lewin, B. 163
251,298 Lieth, H. 115
Kerr, J.B. 298 Light, A. 329
Kershaw, H.M. 260 Likens, Gene 229
Ketchmer, N. 56 Linacre, E. 1
Keys, J.G. 188 Lindzen, R.S. 174
Kharbanda, O.P. 427 Linnean Society 85
Khouja, M.W. 284 Lipscombe, D.M. 264
Kiernan, V. 252,298 Little, C.E. 286
King, C.A.M. 277 Livingston, J. 314
Kirkby, A.V. 213 Lloyd, R. 383
Kister, H.Z. 105 Lloyd, W.F. 238
Kittrick, J.A. 431-2 Lock, G.S.H. 225
Kleinbach, M.H. 75, 76, 126, 167, 195, Lockwood, J.G. 3 8 1 , 3 8 8 , 4 2 5
236,268,281 Long, R. 124
Klekowski, E.J. 254 Lorenz, E.N. 33, 64
Knox, J.L. 49 Lorius, C. 330
Kormondy, E.J. 409 Lourenz, R.S. 109
Kovacs, G. 137 Louw, G.N. 95
Kramer, P.J. 377 Lovelock, James E. 128, 160, 161, 235
Krausekopf, K.B. 270 Lowe, J.J. 210
Krebs, C.J. 116 Lowe, J.T. 300
Kronberg, B. 45 Lutgens, F.K. 41, 229, 341
Kryter, K.L. 264 Lyell, Charles 85, 137
Kuhr, R.J. 56
Kummer, D.M. 87 Mabberley, D.J. 343
447 NAME INDEX

McArdle, J.L. 226 Monastersky, R. 87

McBirney, A.R. 199 Monteith, J.L. 15, 136
McCormick, J. 169,310,316 Moore, B. 370
McCutcheon, S. 191-3 Moore, P.D. 232,303,317, 343
McDonald, A. 429 Moore, R.J. 109
MacFarlane, M. 225 Moore, T.G. 189
McGowan, B. 301 Moran, J.M. 31, 80
McGucken, W. 101 Morgan, R.P.C. 375, 376
McIlroy, R.J. 56 Morisawa, M. 152
McIlveen, J.F.R. 128 Morner, N.A. 135
McIntosh, P.S. 378 Morris, R.J. 201
MacKenzie, D. 51, 59,247, 251, 298 Mosely-Thompson, E. 199
Mackie, R.M. 371 Mottet, N.K. 305
McKinney, R.W.J. 347 Muir, John 253, 369, 389
McLaren, D.J. 245 Mungall, C. 60
McNeil, D. 100 Murphy, W.B. 422
Maddox, J. 271 Murray, R.L. 188, 267
Mader, S.S. 103 Murray, W.A. 155
Maguire, D.J. 166 Murty, T.S. 410
Maini, J.S. 70 Mushrush, G.W. 314
Malthus, Thomas Robert 85, 138, 237, 389 Musk, L. 21 1
Mannion, A.M. 15,189, 199,206,232,333 Myers, N. 184
Marcus, A.A. 38, 129
Margulis, L. 137 Nagda, N.L. 341
Marion, J.B. 335 Nathwani, J.S. 124
Marsh, G.P. 240 National Academy of Sciences 51, 237, 258,
Martin, D. 166 267,3 16
Mason, B.J. 9, 231, 341 National Audubon Society 50
Masood, E. 207 National Center for Atmospheric Research
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (NCAR) 250,255-6
(MIT) 230 National Coordinating Group on Climate
Mather, A S . 8 7 Change (NCGCC) 108, 174
Mather, J.R. 186, 301 National Research Council 38, 354
Matthews, R.E.F. 422 National Wildlife Federation 257
Maunder, E.W. 240 Natural Resources Canada 126
Mauseth, J.D. 10 Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC)
Maybeck, M. 429 258
Mayer, L. 149 Nature Conservancy Council (NCC) 259
Meadows, D.H. 74,180,230,390 Nature Conservancy, The (TNC) 259
Megaw, J. 403 Naveh, Z . 223
Mendeleev, D.I. 307-8 Nebel, B.J. 43
Menzies, J. 168 Neidhardt, F.C. 77
Mesarovic, M. 239, 439 Nelson, R. 99,208, 367,414
Meteorological Office (UK) 74 Nemerow, N.L. 291, 426
Meyer, B. 387 Newell, R.E. 59
Miall, A.D. 21 Newhall, G.C. 423
Milbrath, L.W. 390 Newman, A.A. 1 8 2 , 3 9 7
Miller, A.E. 187 Newson, M. 131
Miller, E.W. 161 Nieuwolt, S. 239
Miller, G.T. 38, 43, 84, 123, 181,200, 280, Nimmo, W.S. 5 7
290,312,366 Nisbet, E.G. 76, 246
Molina, Mario J. 67, 294, 295, 298 Normile, D. 114
NAME INDEX 448

North American Water and Power Alliance Peixoto, J.P. 420

(NAWAPA) 205,266-7 Petts, G.E. 85
Norton, P.W. 9 Pfeffer, J.T. 161, 204
Nriagu, J.O. 243 Philander, G. 221
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (US) 36 Phillips, D.W. 108
Nutman, P.S. 227 Pianka, E.R. 218
Pickard, G.L. 2
Odum, E.P. 116, 117, 260 Pickering, G.T. 178
Oelschlager, M. 432 Pickering, K.T. 328
Oguntoyinbo, J. 108 Pierzynski, G.M. 375
Oke,T.R. 35,56, 105, 118, 137, 158, 322, Pimental, D. 376
419,431 Pitt, D. 157
Ong, C.A. 15 Pittock, A.B. 174
Oppenheimer, S.M. 55 Place, S.E. 133
Ore, C. 145 Plant, J. 390
Organization for Economic Co-operation Platt, T. 317
and Development (OECD) 141,286-7 Plotkin, S.E. 344
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Poirier, JP. 239
Countries (OPEC) 280, 281,283-4, 287, Polprasert, C. 79
313,349 Porcella, D.B. 9
Ottar, B. 234 Porteous, A. 93
Owen, J.A. 362 Postel, S. 332, 429
Owen, M. 397 Powelson, D.R. 319, 347
Owen, OS. 26, 80, 117, 213 Pozos, R.S. 197
Priest, J. 124
Packard, V. 426 Probstein, R.F. 391
Pain, S. 280 Pye, K. 233
Palmer, W.C. 301 Pyle, J. 28, 134
Panadian, T.J. 244
Paoletti, M.G. 273 Qasim, S.R. 226
Park, C.C. 2, 9, 66, 111, 133,229,230, Quinn, W.H. 121
275, 343, 360, 367, 371, 381, 390, 394,
402 Rabinowicz, E. 158
Park, J. 434 Ramage, J. 151,187,268,332
Parnwell, M. 89 Ramanathan, V. 165
Parry, M.L. 72, 142, 174, 240, 254 Rapaport, R. 122
Parson, E.A. 13,44, 169,414 Rasid, H. 149
Parson, T.R. 440 Rasmussen, E.M. 121
Pasqualetti, M.J. 86, 271 Rasmusson, E.M. 381
Pasquill, F. 322 Ratcliffe, J.A. 212, 237
Patai, S. 243 Rayleigh, Lord John William Strutt 344
Paton, T.R. 323, 374 Reed, S.C. 367
Patterson, D.J. 371 Rees, J. 266, 353
Paul, C.R.C. 156,301 Reid, W.V. 44
Pavel, P. 228 Reisner, M. 95, 213
Payne, K.R. 100 Revelle, C. 280
Pearce, D.W. 350 Reynolds, W.C. 219,384
Pearce, F. 9,20, 91, 99, 115, 118, 135, 174, Rice, S.K. 322
221,280,283,306,351,354,367,383 Richards, J.F. 87
Pearson, E.A. 354 Richards, K.S. 152
Peczkic, J. 328 Richardson, L.F. 353
Pegorie, J. 15 Ricketts, J. 125
449 NAME INDEX

Ridley, M. 361 Selley, R.C. 230,257

Riehl, H. 211 Servos, M.R. 332
Ritcey, G.M. 394 Shabecoff, P. 129
Ritter, D.F. 21, 88, 134, 135, 150, 166, 214, Shannon, R.H. 399
364 Sharp, R.P. 168, 199
Roberts, N. 189 Shaw, R.W. 12,109
Robertson, J.A.L. 55 Shaw, W.S. 220, 372
Robinson, A. 406 Shea, C.P. 299
Robock, A. 199 Shine, K. 188, 298, 324, 338
Rodriguez, J.M. 298 Shrivastava, P. 43
Roederer, J.G. 420 Shugart, H.H. 386
Roentgen, Wilhelm 354,438 Shwandran, B. 314
Rogers, D.F. 222 Sierra Club 70, 253, 369
Roscow, J.P. 407 Simmons, I.G. 15, 127
Rosenberg, N.J. 108, 110, 330 Simmons, O.G. 89
Rossby, Carl 354 Simonich, S.L. 287
Rossotti, H. 146 Simons, M. 206
Roth, H. 374, 377 Simons, P. 174
Round, R.G. 101 Singh , G. 185
Rowe, R.K. 226 Sissons, J.B. 214, 301
Rowell, D.L. 377 Skinner, B. 80-1
Rowland, Sherwood 294,295 Slater, M.J. 211
Rowland, W. 414 Sloggett, G. 181
Ruderman, M.A. 83 Smalley, I.J. 233
Rujigrok, G.J.J. 266 Smith, A.T. 246
Russell, G.L. 408 Smith, D.W. 397
Russell, R.C.H. 404-5 Smith, C.J. 56
Ruthven, D.M. 11 Smith, J.W. 395
Rutter, N.W. 421 Smith, K. 258
Rylander, P.N. 147, 195 Smith, R.A. 371
Smith, R.L. 411
Sachs, I. 402 Smith, S.R. 145
Sagan, C. 271 Smith, Z.A. 18,70, 122, 257,258, 351,
Sawyer, D.T. 291,292 388,416
Schaffer, D. 397 Society of Automobile Engineers 162
Schimel, D.S. 58 Solarski, R.S. 6 7
Schindler, D.W. 267 Solomons, T.W.G. 134
Schneider, S.H. 108, 137, 161, 250, 303 Sparks, B.W. 92
Schobert, H.H. 191 Speidel, D.H. 429
Schosberg, R.H. 76 Speight, J.G. 64
Schulman, E. 91 Spencer, H. 360
Schumacher, M.M. 395 Spencer, R. 209
Schwartz, R.A. 242 Sprent, J.I. 263
Schweingruber, F.H. 90 Spretnak, C. 176
Scientific Committee on Problems of the Spurgeon, D. 1 3
Environment (SCOPE) 127,208,360 Stamp, L.D. 301
Scott, G.A.J. 259 Stanley, S.M. 139
Seager, J. 220 Starke, L. 287, 289,415,436
Seigel, R. 336 Steilla, D. 377
Seinfeld, J.H. 311 Steinbeck, John 283
Selikoff, I.J. 30 Steinhart, C.E. 359
Selke, SE. 347 Stevenson, Adlai 381
NAME INDEX 450

Stiling, P.D. 48, 73, 85, 104, 117, 139,222 Ulrich, B. 9,408, 424
Stoye, D. 379 UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Strahler, A.H. 2, 166, 196, 276, 374, 400 Organization (UNESCO) 206,209,238,
Stuiver, M. 340 362,415,432
Sugden, D.E. 168 UN Food and Agricultural Organization
Summerfield, M.A. 92, 166, 320 (FAO) 390
Supp, E. 7 6 , 2 4 7 , 3 9 1 UN World Food Commission 220
Sustainable Development Commission 390 United State Agency for International
Susuki, D.T. 163 Development (USAID) 96
Sweeting, M.M. 54, 379 US Bureaux of Land Management/Mines/
Reclamation 416
Tansley, A.G. 117 US Department of Energy (DOE) 416
Tarbuck, E.J. 288 US Department of the Interior 416
Taylor, H.F.W. 54 US Fish and Wildlife Service 416
Tchobanoglous, G. 365 US Forest Service 146, 416
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) 396-7 US National Academy of Sciences (NAS)
Thackery, T.O. 70 295
Thomas, D.S.G. 99 US National Aeronautics and Space
Thomas, W.L. 239, 240 Administration (NASA) 174
Thompson, S.L. 204, 271 US National Park Service 416, 417
Thoreau, H.D. 402 US Office of Surface Mining 416
Thornes, J.B. 134,421
Thornthwaite, C.W. 81, 211, 250, 310, 327, Van den Bosch, R. 204
362,398,402-3 Van Kooten, G.C. 370
Thwaites, R.G. 301 Van Royen, W. 108
Tickell, 0. 298 Van Strum, C. 14
Tilton, J.E. 245 Van Ypersele, J.P. 99
Titus, J.G. 174 Vandenbosch, R. 267
Todd, D.K. 310 Vatavuk, W. 131
Toole, K.R. 385 Velde, B. 69
Toro, T. 177 Verstraete, M.M. 99
Torrey, B. 402 Vincent, J.D. 202
Toy, A.D.F. 288,315 Vink, A.P.A. 223
Traverse, A. 303
Trendall, A.F. 212 Waldbott, G.L. 151
Trethewy, K.R. 83 Walker, G. 43
Trewartha, G.T. 38, 49 Walker, Sir Gilbert 424
Tromp, S.W. 48 Wall, D. 129
Trudgill, S.T. 41 Wallace, Alfred Russel 85, 137
Tudge, C. 116 Wallace, B. 227
Tullett, M.T. 328 Walling, D.E. 92
Turco, R.P. 2, 131, 191,271,272,410 Walter, H. 48
Turner, A.K. 240 Walton, W.C. 310, 344
Turner, F.J. 245 Wampler, T.P. 332
Turner, J.E. 241 Ward, A.D. 196
Turner, J.G. 212,337 Ward, O.P. 144
Tyndall, J. 412 Ward, R.C. 150, 196
Tzedakis, P.C. 303 Ware, G.W. 312
Warrick, R.A. 174
UK Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA) 51 Washburn, A.L. 307
UK Economic and Social Research Council Washington, W.M. 143, 165, 250
63 Weatherby, J. 402
45 1 NAME INDEX

Wheatley, A. 40 Woodward, F. 73, 182,259

Wheeler, D. 431 World Bank 46, 105, 134, 208, 209, 210,
Whelan, P. 146 369,390,391,415,434
Whelan, T. 118 World Commission on Environment and
White, EM. 422 Development 64, 289, 389,414,435
White, I.D. 392 World Conservation Union (IUCN) 347,
White, L. 129 415,432
Whitmore, T.C. 133, 343 World Health Organization (WHO) 60,
Whittaker, R.H. 260 243,415,429,435
Wiegert, R.G. 115 World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
Wilderness Society 227, 432-3 39, 74, 147, 168, 169, 206,210, 362,
Williams, M. 432 416,421,434,436
Williams, P.J. 307, 310 World Resources Institute 182,436
Williamson, S.J. 104, 118, 157 World Weather Watch (WWW) 436
Wills, B.A. 42 World Wildlife Fund 436
Wilmut, I. 73 Worldwatch Institute 290, 436
Wilson, C. 240 Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF) 436
Wilson, J. 36 Worster, D. 110, 129
Winter, M.J. 420 Wurster, 102
Wofsy, S.C. 67, 298
Wohletz, K. 167 Young, R.J. 325
Wolf, N.318
Wood, C. 128 Zhang, D. 232
Woodroffe, C. 361 Zumdahl, S.S. 19, 184, 214, 289, 308
 SUBIECT INDEX
Main entries in bold.
absolute humidity 1, 189-90
absorption 1 , 2 , 4 9 , 7 3
acid gas emissions 62-3, 75, 82, 191, 399,
402; bufferdcontrol 52, 150, 151, 229,
360
acid rain 3-9, 186, 201,255,274-5;
environmentlhealth issues 261,408; and
erosion 134, 199, 323, 328
aciddacidity 2-3,20, 32, 75, 272; pH scale
3-4,52,189,314
actinides 9, 270, 322
activated carbon 9-10, 11
actuarial weather forecasts 10, 108
adiabatic processes 10, 34-5, 101, 128, 359,
396
adsorption 11, 145
aerobic organisms 11-12,79, 353
aerosols 12,24,27-8, 35, 185,287, 329,
363
aesthetic degradation 12-13, 38
Agenda 21 13-14,353,414
Agent Orange 14, 103, 187,397
agrarian civilizations 14, 144, 149, 184-5,
356
agriculture/agricultural practices 15-16,
222, 266, 374; arable 83, 97, 374, 375;
cash cropping 61, 342-3; dry farming
108-9; land clearance 134, 184,342-3;
pastoral 106, 305, 356, 374, 375;
slash-and-burn 367; strip-cropping 384;
subsistence farming 386; sustainable
farming 237, 286
agroforestry 15,46, 109, 110, 175
air convectiodmovement 11, 34, 105,
154-5
air masses 10, 16-17,43, 82, 93, 114, 274,
333,359,362,380-1,389,424;
continental 16, 81, 185; cyclonic 250-1,
354, 405-6; maritime 16, 185, 239; polar
16,323-4
air pollution 19, 34-5, 38, 161, 272, 285,
331; control 10,42, 394; smog 391, 431
air quality 17-18, 69, 255-6
aircraft/airports 264-5, 379-80, 389, 410
airsheds 18, 130
albedo 18, 143
alcohols 18-19, 134, 144, 397; fuels 247,
391
algae 19, 84, 101, 1 3 5 , 2 2 8 , 3 1 7
algal blooms 19-20, 115, 135, 317
alkalis/alkalinity 3, 20, 314
alleles 162, 163
allergic reactions 25, 253
allotropes 20,291
alloys 20, 42, 82,226, 244
aluminum 21, 285
amino acids 21-2, 329
anaerobic decay 22,305-6
animals 73, 142, 163,266, 321;
communities 23, 317, 342, 393,411;
diseasedhazards 107, 246,254, 303,
380; endangered species 122, 138,436;
and food chains 155-6, 386; herbivores
187-8,359-60
anions 23, 119
anodes 23,438
Antarctic ozone hole 23-4, 68-9, 188,297,
324
Antarctic Treaty 24
antibiotics 24,40, 159, 165
anticyclones 25,49, 105, 183, 396
aquatic ecosystems 249,278-9
aquatic habitats 48, 101, 127, 154, 205,
289; biota 26, 317; contamination 2, 3,
6,331,366; damage 21,243,358-9,
376; food chains 156,440; hazards 26,
258,383,385
aquifers 26, 94, 180, 229-30, 310, 344
453
arable farming 83, 97, 141, 374, 375, 384
Arctic haze 27-8, 130, 387
Arctic ozone hole 28
Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty
(AONB) 28
argon 201,250
aridity 28-9, 93-4, 106; see also deserts;
drought
atmosphere/atmospheric environment
15-16, 30-1, 33, 34-5, 163, 172; air
masses 25, 31-3; humidity 189-90, 389;
layers 33-4, 243-4; models 34, 161, 3.11;
pollution 4, 5 , 185, 258, 310, 322;
research 255-6; turbidity 12, 35, 75,
110, 186, 199,232, 423; winds 33,
166-7,275-6
atmospheric pressure 34, 40-1, 328-9,420
atomic numbers 36, 120, 214-15, 272,308,
329
atoms/atomic structure 57, 84, 120, 260,
267-71,329,386-7,438
aurora 236, 334, 378
automobiles 37-8, 38, 61
Background Air Pollution Monitoring
Network (BAPMON) 39
bacteria 38, 39-40, 68, 76-7, 86, 115, 150,
165,247,262,263,305
barometers 40-1, 243
batholiths 42, 322
beneficiation 42, 385
Bergeron-Findeisen theory 341
bioaccumulation 43, 46,203, 243
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) 19-20,
43,135,291,331
biodiversity 44,46,238-9, 342-3
Biodiversity Convention 44
biogeochemical cycles 44-5, 360
Biological Aspects of the Hydrologic Cycle
(BAHC) 208
biomass 46, 95, 132,260
biomes 46-8, 48, 132-3, 150, 174-5,
359-60,393,410-11
bioremediation 48, 139
biosphere 48, 116, 160, 238-9,415
biota/biotics 26,48, 49, 182
birdslbird populations 50, 139, 255, 393;
migration 152-4, 411
black bodies 2, 49
blue-green algae 50, 84
Blueprint for Survival 50
bogs 50,305-6; see also peatlands
SUBJECT INDEX
boreal forests 47,49, 50, 70, 86, 172-3,
393,410
boreholes 50, 180, 188
Boundary Water Treaty 209
Boyle’s law 161-2
British Antarctic Survey 23, 295
bromine 51, 184
bromofluorocarbons (halons) 51, 294
bufferdbuffering 8, 13, 52, 54
buildings: pollution 8, 368-9, 379
cadmium 53,215
calcium 2 0 , 5 3 4
cancers 55, 66, 73,241-2, 253-4, 325, 370;
carcinogens 60, 103, 261, 287; radiation
119,161,335-7,339,340,403,413
carbamates 43, 56,202-3
carbohydrates 56, 62, 144, 174, 383, 386-7
carbon 3,57, 75, 183, 386-7; activated
9-10, 64; sinks 58, 87; tax 59,401
carbon cycle 45, 57, 58, 62, 317; models 53,
83, 164
carbon dating 70
carbon dioxide 58-9,290, 316; emissions
64,164,170,341,343
carbon monoxide 59,77, 191
carbon tetrachloride 59, 251
carcinogens 14, 55, 60, 68, 187,288,
324-5,370
carrying capacity 60, 138, 182,230, 290,
326
cash cropping 61,342-3
catabolism 22, 61, 218
catalytic chain reactions 194, 293, 294
cathodes 61,438
cations 41, 61-2, 69, 77, 119
cells 62, 68, 73, 92, 165, 288-9, 329;
damage 119,335-7
cellulose 2, 56, 62, 325
Celsius scale 62, 141
CFCs see chlorofluorocarbons
chain reactions 63, 83, 194, 267, 293, 294
chalk 5 3 - 4 , 6 3
Changing Atmosphere Conference 64
charcoal 9-10,64, 145
Charles’s law 161-2
chemical oxygen demand (COD) 64-5
chemicals 43, 64-5, 123, 145, 162, 188;
hazardous 62,284; models 164
Chernobyl65-6,208,304
chlorinated hydrocarbons 66, 202-3, 311,
324-5; see also organochlorides
SUBJECT INDEX
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 67-8, 109, 154,
178, 184, 191, 235,294-7, 325; controls
23-4, 109, 233, 251;see also Freon
chloroform 68, 247,408
chlorophyll 68, 101, 316
chromosomes 68, 162, 165,253-4
circulation (atmospheric) 31-3, 424, 439;
models 34,164,247-8,371,381-2,
407-8; see also general circulation
models (GCMs)
clay 69, 121, 310, 377
Clean Air Acts (UKAJS) 69-70,369
Clean Water Act 369
clear cutting 70, 86, 331, 375
climate 47, 71-3, 266; data 169, 199, 207,
436; models 71-2, 163, 180, 303, 328,
338, 361, 381,410, 431; studies 48,
90-1, 174,250,300,315,402,434-5
climate change 71-2, 90-1, 92-3, 300, 303,
328, 333, 421, 436; conferences 355,
362-3; impact 96,143,189,219-20,
255,342,413; studies 72-3,206,222,
329-30,385,416
Climate Impact Assessment Program (CIAP)
72
Climate Long-range Investigation Mapping
and Predictions Project (CLIMAP) 72
Climate Monitor 72-3
Climate Research Unit (CRU) 72-3
Climatic Optimum 71, 72, 134-5, 172, 189,
197,206
climatology 13, 15, 16, 34-5, 56, 210,300
climax communities 46-7,73, 146,259,
386
clouds 18, 164, 188, 274, 341,406;
formation and types 73-4, 81, 101, 297,
324, 466; precipitation/seeding 328,
341-2,370,431
Club of Rome 7 4 , 2 3 0 , 2 3 9 , 3 8 9
coal 75-6, 124, 156,201; combustion 151,
398; processing 76, 100, 147, 150,
194-5,352
coastal regions 173, 361, 432
coke 64,76,100
Cold War 76, 293
colloids 77, 147
combustion 77,146,151,199-200,398;
by-products 19, 191; energy 123, 383-4;
fossil fuels 151, 387-8, 399,418-19
communities 23,79, 117,206,302,317-18,
432; climax 46-7, 73, 146, 259, 386; see
also ecosystems; environments; habitats
454
composts 78, 79, 145
compounds 41,79,213-14,286,372
computer models see models
condensation 73, 79-80, 185, 389
conduction 80, 185-6,203
Conference of the Parties (COP) 157
conservation 80, 129; environments 253,
259, 369,402, 452-3; legislation 351;
organizations 347,436; resources 125,
180,319,331,345-7,349,390,402
Conservation Foundation 436
contamination 77, 261, 303-4, 331, 368-9;
food chains 43, 102, 243, 277-80, 287,
324; water 104, 278,281, 355, 360
continental air masses 16, 81, 185
contour ploughing 81, 374-5
convection 11, 31, 81, 182, 185-6, 320
Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species (CITES) 81-2, 122,
128
coolants 82, 187, 268, 287, 372, 398
copper 82,285
Coriolis effect 31, 82, 144, 166, 275, 354,
409,433
cosmic radiation 83, 119, 161, 389,420
coupled models 83, 163, 164
Coupled Ocean/Atmosphere Response
Experiment (COARE) 410
critical mass 36, 83
crops 83, 141, 327;see also agricultural
practices
crystals 84, l 9 9
currents see convection; oceans
cyanobacteria 50, 84
cycles 44-S, 262-3, 291, 317, 360, 388; see
also earth/atmosphere system;
hydrological cycles
cyclones 84, 190, 323,354,409; models 247-8
dams 85,134, 192,350,396-7
data 340, 436; collection/analysis 166, 169,
353; proxy 300,329-30
DDT (dichlorodiphenyl-trichloroethane)
101-2,287,2203
Declaration of the Human Environment 414
decomposers/decomposition 86, 159, 305-6
defoliantsldefoliation 14, 103, 187
deforestation 20-1, 86-7, 148, 149, 178-9,
182,317
degradation 12-13,45,87, 99
deltas 88, 147, 321
demography 89-9,173,326
455
denaturing 89-90
dendrochronology 90-1,408,421
dendroclimatology 330, 340
density 91, 244, 348
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 68, 92, 162,
212,2534,272
deposition 88, 108, 141, 274-5, 432
depressions (low pressure systems) 84, 92,
274,3234,399
desalination 93, 101, 105, 288-9
Descent of Man, The (Darwin) 85
desertification 94, 96-9, 158, 356, 367,
384; and agroforestry 15,46, 109, 110,
175; conferences 413-14
deserts 28-9, 86, 93-5, 96-9, 321-2, 359,
438; locations 25, 176, 183, 355-6
destructive distillation 64, 280, 332
detergents 100-1, 154
deuterium 101, 193
dewpoint 80, 101, 154
diatoms 101, 317
dichlorodiphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT)
101-2,203,287
Die Griinen 176
dieback: trees 6-7, 102, 408
diffusion 102, 118
dinosaurs 245-6
dioxins 14, 103, 325, 331, 397
disasters: man-made 277-80, 281-3, 314,
358-9; natural 141-2, 148-9,406, 409,
423
diseases 162, 253,422-3, 438; in animals/
plants 142, 254,422; bacterial 39-40,
68, 115, 305; cancers 5 5 , 66, 370;
control 24, 25, 101-2; industrial 42,49,
53, 243, 249, 323; parasitic 237, 303-4,
305, 360; viral 115, 305, 422
distillation processes 76, 100, 104-5, 162
DNA 68,92, 162,212,2534,272
Dobson units 105,296
drainage basins 61, 149, 205, 321, 363-4
drought 106-8, 142, 173, 254, 327, 330,
388; classification 81, 211, 301, 310,
402; degradation-induced 45, 87, 96-9,
413; periodic 96, 176, 428; prediction
10, 107-8, 396; seasonal 106, 175, 185,
210,251,355-6,359,362
dry adiabatlc lapse rate (DALR) 10, 34-5
dry farming 106, 108-9, 141
dust veil index (DVI) 109-10, 219, 222
Dustbowl, The (USA) 93, 96, 107, 110, 176,
283
SUBJECT INDEX
dynamic equilibrium 107, 110, 391-2
Earth First 111
Earth Resources Technology Satellites
(ERTS) 111
Earth Summit 99, 11 1, 157, 383, 390, 414
earthhtmosphere system 44, 71-2, 163,
292, 304, 345-7, 370, 381, 388; cycles
44-5, 57, 58, 195-6,262-3; energy flow
34,123,334,335,3374,391-2
earthquakes 104,111-14, 131,257-8; and
flooding 149, 410; tectonic activity 288,
3 19-20
earth’s crust 84, 167, 199,288; magma 199,
236, 239,423; mantle 231,239, 319-20
earth’s energy budget 1, 30, 31, 136, 164,
199,253,433
Earthscan 415
Earthwatch 114, 169, 415
ecological balance 115, 116
Ecologrst, The 50
ecology 116, 223, 227, 300
ecosystems 117, 223-4; abiotidbiotic
components 1,48, 116, 118; damage/
hazards 173, 186,277-80,411;
succession 115, 386; types 342-3, 393,
432
edaphic factors 182, 259
effluent 118, 331, 366
El Niiio 108, 120-1, 126,221-2,276,381,
395,424
electrical conduction 80, 82
electrical energy 38, 123, 191-3, 403-4
electrodes 61, 118
electrolysisklectrolytes 61, 101, 104, 119,
147,193
electromagnetic spectrum 111, 119-20, 283,
316, 335, 337, 413; energy 102, 316,
335, 388,422; radiation 161, 202,
347-8,408,438
electrons 120, 438
elements 36, 120, 212, 315, 3 8 7 4 , 4 0 6 ;
periodic table 307-8
emissions 322, 387-8; control 121-2, 122,
150,151
endangered species 81-2, 122-3, 176, 249,
347,436
energy 46, 58, 123-4, 244; budgets 1, 18,
30, 31, 125, 136, 164, 199, 253, 433;
conservation/efficiency 125, 180, 203,
283, 398; electromagnetic 119-20, 335,
335-6, 378; flow 1, 34, 61, 80, 115, 123,
SUBJECT INDEX
energy continued
334,337-8,391-2; and food chains 155,
317, 409; fossil fuel 75, 77, 156,281,
312-13; generation 77, 156-7, 167, 191-
3,236,351, 383-4; kinetic 191-2, 218-
19,403-4,433-44; nuclear 267-71;
renewable 125, 192, 349; thermal 207,
219, 398-9; transfer 34, 185-6,224-5,
354,440; units 217, 218, 219
E N S 0 events see El Niiio
Environment Protection (Impact of
Proposals) Acts (1974, 1995) 37
environment/environmental issues 33, 107,
127, 172, 263, 326, 397; changes 38, 86,
88, 114,418-19; conservation 13, 176,
253,259; damage 5-6,27,146,287,
314, 324, 349, 350-1,409; degradation
12-13, 15,201; equilibrium 110, 127-8,
160; hazards 100, 115,242, 257-8, 318,
340-1, 395; legislation 128, 130-1,
256-7, 369; movements 111, 129;
pollutants 25, 77, 129-31,277-80;
recreational uses 117-18,253; reports/
studies 22, 128,256, 383, 385
environmental lapse rate (ELR) 10, 34-5,
128
Environmental Protection Act (UK) 131
enzymes 6 1 , 1 3 1
equilibrium 110, 127-8, 133, 383; models
133,164,407-8
equinoxes 133, 248, 328
erosion 133-4, 137,233, 432; see also soils
ethanol 134, 144, 162
European Arctic Stratospheric Ozone
Experiment (EASOE) 28,134
eustastic changes 134-5, 321, 361
eutrophication 19-20, 135, 145,263, 315;
in lakes 101, 273, 312
evaporation 136, 185-6, 327,408
evapotranspiration 136-7, 175,235,250,
356, 377; potential (PE) 301,327
evolution 76, 85, 137, 222
exfoliation 94, 137
extinction 138-9, 182, 321-2; species 81-2,
116,122-3, 132
extraction: ores 244, 285-6
Exxon Valdez oil spill 48, 139-40, 279, 282
Fahrenheit scale 141
fallout 109, 141
fallow land 109, 141
famine 141-2,237-8,254,290,356
456
farming practices see agricultural practices
fauna 24, 142, 321, 333, 351;see also
animals
feedback 45, 103, 133, 142-3, 160, 259,
327, 383; mechanisms 45-6, 87, 163,
164
fermentation 134, 144
Fernau glaciation 232
fertility see soils
fertilizers 144-5, 191, 327, 387;
nitrogen-based 263,293,294
fire 146, 228-9, 304; extinguishers 51, 59,
184, 294; forestslgrasslands 49, 117,
146, 173; hazards 38,51
First World Climate Conference 147
Fischer-Tropsch process 147, 195
fish populations 289-90, 317, 351,432;
damage/decline 6,27, 140, 243, 351,
376,407; pollution/poisoning 21, 249,
279
fission 36, 188,242, 267-71
flocculation 88, 147
floodplains 148, 149-50, 184-5, 228
floodslflooding 88,148-50, 345
flora 24, 150, 333, 351; see also plants;
vegetation
flue gases 1-2, 10, 150, 152;
desulphurization (FGD) 8, 150, 210
fluids 31 1, 422
fluvial processes 133-4, 152
foams 154,325
fodder 15, 154,227
fog 102,154-5,274,342
food chains 125, 155-6, 317,409, 440;
contamination 43, 102,243, 277-80,
287,324
food production 177, 195,213,316
forage 156,266,305
Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resource
Planning Act (FRRRPA) 416
forestslforestry 55-6, 70, 416; damage 6-7,
58, 375,424; fires 146, 173; sustainable
development 343,383,402; see also
deforestation
fossil fuels 45, 58, 75, 156-7, 178;
combustion 387-8,399,418-19
fossils 156, 300, 301,301-3, 305-6
Framework Convention on Climate Change
(FCCC) 71,72,157,173,207
Freon 67, 109, 151, 157
fuels 8, 76, 158, 190-1, 306; alcohols 19,
247, 391; and pyrolosis 38, 391
457
fuelwood 15, 158
fumigants 158,247
fungi 86,158-9,228,382,438
fungicides 56, 159, 243, 311-12, 387
Gaia hypothesis 160, 235
gamma rays 119,161,335
garbage 105, 161, 319, 346, 358;see also
waste
gas phase reactions 162, 297
gases 76, 250, 262-3, 263, 290-1,322;
inert 201-2, 263; laws 161-2; natural
190-1, 193, 230-1,257, 398; toxic 319,
340-1
gasohol 19, 162
gasoline 61, 151, 162, 312
Geiger-Muller counter 162
general circulation models (GCMs) 163-5,
169,170, 182,204
genes 1 6 2 - 3 , 1 6 5 , 2 5 3 4
genetic engineering 162, 165, 286
geomorphology 110, 114, 166
glaciations 134-5, 232, 300, 321, 333
glaciers 133-4, 167-8, 198, 306-7; melting
135,361
Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) 168
Global Climate Observing System (GCOS)
169
Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment
(GEWEX) 169
Global Environment Monitoring System
(GEMS) 114,168,169,170
Global Forum 169,414
Global Ozone Observing System (GOOS)
169-70
global warming 157, 160, 170-4;
contributors 29, 75, 87, 103, 132-3, 201,
306, 317, 343, 351, 399; controls 329,
401-2,417; effects 20, 53, 135, 255,
361, 362,409; predictions 52, 424
glucose 56, 62, 174, 387
gold 174,285, 286
Grapes of Wrath, The (Steinbeck) 283
grasslands 172, 174-5, 176, 206, 362;
agriculture 190, 305; biomes 359-60,
384; and fire 117, 146
gravity 175-6, 180, 240
Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement 209
Great Plains 93, 96-7, 107, 108, 110, 176,
180,259,283,375,384
Green Parties 176
Green Revolution 176-7
SUBJECTINDEX
greenhouse gases 126, 160, 177-8, 178-9;
contributors 58-9, 67, 87, 397, 399;
controls 11, 64,207,421-2; effects 173,
186
gridpoint models 163, 180
groundwater 26, 93, 180-1, 350, 356,431;
contamination 104,278, 355
growing seasons 172, 181
Gulf Stream Drift 181, 275
Gulf War 219-20,372
habitats 44, 88, 95, 182,260, 286, 306-7;
aquatic 26, 205, 289, 317, 331, 376,
407,440; bogs/wetlands 302,432-3;
destruction 70, 87, 342-3, 350-1; plants
317-18; rainforests 342-3
Hadley cells 25, 31, 81, 93, 182-3, 210, 217
half-lives 1 8 3 4 , 188, 270, 323, 339-40
halogens 51, 66, 151, 184, 211, 308
halons 51, 184, 294, 297,298, 299
harmattan 185,433
hazardous substances 42,59, 347
hazardous waste 185, 351,426-7; disposal
357,363,388
hazards: natural 257-8, 406
haze 27-8, 185
health issues 14, 27, 88, 189, 380; air
pollution 17-18, 37, 130, 233, 261,
368-9, 372; cancers 14,298-9, 325, 340;
carcinogens 60, 370; contamination 77,
261, 303-4; diseases 237, 305,323, 360,
325; genetic mutation 92, 98, 287, 298,
397; industrial problems 29, 244, 312,
331, 370; noise/odour pollution 263-5,
380; radiation 241, 335-7, 403,413,
418,422-3; toxins 29, 43, 53, 59, 68,
102,103,226-7,234,249,288,311
heat transfer 81,203, 364
heavy metals 53, 186-7,226, 243,267
heavy water (deuterium) 55, 101, 187, 268
herbicides 14,29, 56, 103, 187, 311-12
herbivores 187-8, 359-60
Holocene epoch 132, 188-9,206,300, 301,
320,322,333
Homo erectuslsapiens 322
hormones 165,189
Human Dimensions of Global
Environmental Change Program (HDP)
189
Human Genome Mapping Project, The 165
humidity 1, 189-90
humus 69,79,84,190,374
SUBJECT INDEX
hunter-gatherer societies 190, 351
hurricanes 84, 148, 190, 342, 409,433
hydration 190
hydrocarbons 184, 185, 190-1, 193,214,
280-1, 397; alcohols 18-19,246;
chlorinated 101, 103, 324-5
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) 109,
191,251
hydroelectricity 85, 191-3, 205, 332, 349,
3 96-7
hydrogen: production/processes 38, 50, 193,
194-5,268,409,428
hydrogen ion concentration see pH
(potential hydrogen)
hydrogen oxides 1 9 3 4 , 2 7 7
hydrological cycles 169, 195-6; man-made
85, 104-5, 213, 331, 350; in nature 136,
149,152,349,428
hydrology 192, 196,284-5,306,350
hydrolysis 174, 196
hypothermia 185,197
icehce sheets 168, 198-9, 306, 320, 361-2
igneous rocks 42, 84, 199, 236,245, 328,
333
incineration 161,200, 240, 319,427-8
indices 32,49, 250, 301; DV1 109-10,222;
GVI 168,423; NNI 265; zonal 201,
439-40
Industrial Revolution 29, 64, 75, 76, 201,
212,326,349,383
industryhndustrialization: accidents 43, 103,
395, 403; diseases 42, 49, 53, 243, 249,
323; pollution/waste 4-5, 186-7, 191,
331-2
inert gases 201-2,263
infections see diseases
insecticides 56, 102, 202-3, 204, 311-12,
332,354
insolation 33, 203, 248, 399
insulation 29, 125, 203, 325
interglacials 198-9, 206, 321
internal combustion engine 37-8, 59, 207
International Cloud Atlas 74
International Geological Correlation
Program (IGCP) 415
International Geosphere-Biosphere Program
(IGBP) 208,209,434
International Global Atmospheric Chemistry
Project (IGACP) 208, 209
International Hydrological Program (IHP)
209,415
458
interstadials 210, 321
Intertropical Convergence Zones (ITCZ)
105,210,356,362
iodine 211 , 2 7 0
ionshonization 119-20, 161, 162, 193,
211-12,335
iron 2, 83,212, 285,286
irradiation 212-13, 335
irrigation 14, 27, 95, 137, 213, 266-7, 350,
356
isotopes 214-15,226, 322-3, 340,409,
417-18
ita-itai disease 53, 215
jet streams 32, 114, 217-18, 324,433
Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS) 208
kerosene 218,312
kinetic energy 123, 191-2,218-19
Krakatoa 110,219,410
krypton 183, 201
lakes 8, 27, 305; acidityhtrients 110,
243-4, 283, 383; eutrophication 101,
135, 273, 312; pollution 21, 154;
temperature 131-2, 290
Lakewide Management Plans (LMPs) 209
land midmanagement 99,342-3,344,357
landfill sites 332, 358, 363
landforms 54, 300
landscapes/landscaping 53-4, 92,223-4,
284-5, 385; formation 385-6,423
lapse rates 224, 396
latent heat 80, 136,224-5
lava 225,236
leachates/leaching 225-6, 272-3, 281, 323,
358,363
lead 3 7 , 1 8 3 , 1 8 6 , 2 2 6 , 2 8 5
legislation: anti-pollution 69-70, 130, 299,
384, 417; conservation 128, 256-7, 351,
369,416, 417, 433; effhent/waste
control 331, 347, 388; water quality 355,
430
leguminous plants 83, 227, 263
levees 149,228
lightllight waves 102, 283, 344, 347-8, 408,
412; visible 119, 228, 360,422
lightning 228-9, 262, 290
lignin 229, 330
lime 8 , 1 4 4 , 1 4 5 , 2 2 9
limestone 3,53-4,63, 134, 150,229-30,
245,360,379
459
Limits to Growth (report) 74, 230
lithosphere 84, 231, 239, 319-20
Little Climatic Optimum 189, 206, 231-2
Little Ice Age 35, 71, 142, 144, 206,231-2,
240
Live Aid 232
loess 109, 233, 321
London Ministerial Conference on Ozone 233
London Smog (1952) 25,69,233,371
low pressure systems 82, 84, 92, 354, 399
lysimeters 235, 377
magma 1 9 9 , 2 2 5 , 2 3 6 , 2 3 9 , 4 2 3
magnesium 236, 290
magnetosphere 236, 378
malnutrition 156, 220, 237
Man and Biosphere Program (MAB) 238-9,
415
Man and Nature(Marsh) 240
Mankind at the Turning Point (report) 74,
239
Man’s Role in Changing the Face of the
Earth (MRCFE) 239, 240
mantle (earth’s) 231, 239, 319-20
maritime air masses 16, 185, 239
Mediterranean Desertification and Land Use
Research Project 72
meltdown 66, 242, 403
mercury 40-1,174, 18311,186,243,249,
331
mesophere 33, 34, 243-4, 384
metabolism 22, 61, 244
metals 3, 20, 244-5, 308; see also named
entries
metamorphic rocks 84, 245, 328, 333
meteorology 15-16, 48, 91, 111, 196, 246,
274,323,436
methane 19,22,57,103,188,246-7,306,358
methanol 19, 162, 247
methyl bromide 247, 251
microclimates 55-6, 87
migration: birdslfish 152-4, 351,411
Milankovitch hypothesis 199, 247-9, 328
Minimata disease 243, 249
mining 2-3, 75, 244, 284-6, 394-5;
open-pit 284-5, 384-5
Model Evaluation Consortium for Climate
Assessment (MECCA) 250
models 64, 83, 89, 137, 204,209, 250, 348,
370, 407-8,410; atmospheric 34, 161,
31 1; carboncycle 58, 83, 164; circulation
34, 164,247-8,371,381-2,407-8;
SUBJECT INDEX
climate 71-2, 163, 180, 303, 328, 338,
361, 381, 410,431; equilibrium 133,
164, 407-8; general circulation (GCMs)
163-5, 169,170,182,204; ocean 163-4,
276,361,410
molecules 11, 84, 92, 250, 329, 378
monsoons 114,173,239,250-1,395,424
Montreal Protocol 64, 67, 109, 128, 130,
191,233,251,297,299,416,421
morphology 302, 306,418-19
Mount Agung 110,251
Mount Pinatubo 35, 188, 252, 297, 304-5,
338
Mount St Helens 109, 141,252
Mount Tambora 232,253
mutation 162, 253-4
myxomatosis 156, 254, 422
Nairobi Declaration of Climate Change 255
National Acid Precipitation Assessment
Program (NAPAP) 255
National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS) 255
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
256-7
National Forest Management Act (NFMA)
416
National Strategy for the Conservation of
Australia’s Biological Diversity 44
natural disasters/hazards 141-2, 148-50,
2574,406,423
natural gas 190-1, 193,230-1,257, 398
neutrons 36,260
nickel 260-1,285
nitrogen 144, 201, 262-3; cycle 45,262-3,
291; fixation 147,263
noble gases 201, 263, 308, 340-1
noise pollution 130, 263-5, 272, 349, 358,
379-80,389
nomadism 266,305
non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
169,207,414
non-renewable resources 123-4,266, 352
Noordwijk Declaration 266
noxious substances 43, 89-90
nuclear energy 36, 123, 267-71,416-18;
fission 36, 63, 83, 147; fusion 159, 401
nuclear reactors 267-71, 323,417-18;
accidents 65-6, 242, 403; coolants 82,
187, 372; heavy water 5 5 , 101;
meltdown 242, 403; waste 86, 188,
268-70
SUBJECT INDEX
nuclear winter concept 127, 204, 271, 401,
410
nucleic acids 315, 325
nutrients 77,272-3; aquatic 135, 283; plant
145,315,327,428
oases 94, 274
oceans/oceanography 2, 276-7, 281-3, 428;
currents 181, 275-6; models 163-4, 276,
361,410; temperature 186,400; zones 2,
259-60,354
odours: obnoxious 19-20, 242, 272,277,
291,331,357
oil/oil industry 147, 277, 283-4, 304, 313,
398, 406-7; pollution/spills 44,48, 130,
139-40,277-80, 281-3,314,324,
358-9,429; shale 280-1, 313,394-5
ores 260-1,285-6,385
organic compounds 19,21-2,61, 134, 189,
190-1,242,286,287,290,423
organic wastes 48, 232,261, 332, 364-7,
426-7
organisms 22, 42, 353, 381, 428
organochlorides 66, 184,287
Origrn of Species (Darwin) 85
orogenesis 245,288, 319-20
oscillations (air masses) 43, 333, 380-1, 424
osmosis 288-9, 353
O u r Comnzon Future (report) 289,435
overfishing 26, 259-60, 289-90
overgrazing 45, 96, 156, 175, 188, 374, 375
oxides of nitrogen 22, 263, 290-1,293; and
pollution 3, 18, 389
oxygen 11-12,290-2,428
ozone layer 59, 105, 299; depletion 51,64,
83, 160, 184,247,263,291-9,293-9,
325, 389; holes 23-4,28
Ozone Protection Act 299
palaeontology 301
palynology 156, 324
parasites 237, 303-4, 305, 360
particles/particulates 86, 109, 141, 304-5,
328,387
pastoral farming 106, 305, 356, 374, 375
peat/peatlands 1-2, 75, 143, 302, 305-6,
382,432
periodic table 120, 307-8
permafrost 306,308-10, 374,406-7,411
permeability 200, 288-9, 310, 326-7
pest control/pesticides 66, 102, 158, 204,
247, 311-12; chemical 29, 43, 56, 287,
460
287-8; non-chemical 39, 177
petrochemicals 100, 312
petroleum 162, 190-1, 230, 277, 312-14,
388; resources 101, 124, 287, 352
pH (potential hydrogen) 2, 3-4,52, 193,
306,314,382-3
phosphoruslphosphates 101, 144, 315
photochemical smog 37, 157,291-2, 310,
31~16,413
photosynthesis 10, 56, 59, 68, 84, 101, 174,
187,316,317,343,428
phytoplankton 3, 103, 246-7, 317, 440
plankton 317,440
plants 53, 132, 150, 228, 305-6, 316, 335,
382, 386,422; breeding 73, 163;cells 62,
68; communities 206, 302, 317-18;
endangered species 123, 436; growth 41,
107, 181; habitats 94-5, 317, 342;
leguminous 83, 227, 263; nutrients
144-5, 272-3,428; xerophytic 310,437
plastics 2 , 4 4 , 318-19, 324, 325, 345, 401;
pollutiodwaste 44, 154, 191, 318-19
plate tectonics 288, 319-20
Pleistocene epoch 71,93, 132, 168, 188-9,
248,301,320-1,328,333
plutonium 9, 36, 268, 270, 322-3
podzols 323,373
poisonous substances 29, 215, 226-7, 243,
249
polar air masses 16, 323-4
pollens 300,301,301-3,305-6,324,330
pollutants: air quality 17-18, 18,256;
chemical 312,316, 324-5; concentrations
18, 240; dispersal 43, 103-4; emissions
18,37-8; hazardous 42,49,53,154,
340-1 ; oil 277-80
pollution 3-9, 38,, 102, 129-31, 324,
368-9; air 234, 272, 285, 331, 371,
371-2,399; aquatic 19-20, 104, 180-1,
281-3, 360; atmospheric 39, 310, 314;
control 4, 10, 11, 52, 61, 69, 121-2, 145,
266, 324, 426-7, 430; industrial 77,
186-7, 201, 207, 322; measurement 43,
64-5; noise 263-5,272,358; odour 272,
277; thermal 398,399
polymers 92, 229, 294, 318, 325, 329
polysaccharides 56, 66
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 318, 325
population growth 85, 115, 138,239, 335,
349, 406,426,438-9; changes 14, 15,
160, 177, 201, 238; viable 49, 88-9, 122,
230,249,389-90
46 1
populations 138-9, 165, 326; bird 50, 154,
255,407, 411; carrying capacity 60, 230,
290; fish 279, 289-90, 317, 351, 383,
407,432; mammals 107,407,411
potassium 144, 327
precipitation 1, 328, 341; chemical 65,
274-5; effects 81, 148, 180; natural
341-2, 344, 347, 372; see also acid rain;
rainfall/rain making
President’s Commission on the Accident at
Three Mile Island 403
pressure: atmospheric 34, 328-9, 380-1, 383
Principle of Population (Malthus) 238
propellants 151, 152, 287, 294
Protection of the Global Atmosphere
(declaration) 329
proteins 21-2, 68, 77, 325, 329
protons 36, 120, 329
protozoa 6, 329, 382
pulp and paper industry 242,277, 330-2,
393
pyrolysis 38, 332, 391
Quaternary period 132, 188-9, 199, 300,
302,320-1,333
radiant energy 123
radiation 66, 260; absorption 2, 49, 73;
electromagnetic 119-20, 161, 202, 367,
408,438; energy transfer 185-6, 304;
and health 370, 413; ionizing 212;
measurement 18, 162, 241, 348, 354;
scattering 109, 360; solar 83, 260, 378;
terrestrial 234, 251-3, 260, 397;
ultraviolet 241-2, 292, 294-5
radioactivity 36, 42, 323, 339; decay 86,
183; health problems 339, 403, 418;
nuclear waste 188, 269-70
radiocarbon dating 90, 303, 339-40
radionuclides 183, 339
radium 86, 183, 340
radon 86, 183, 201, 340-1
rainfallhain making 3-9, 106, 118, 341-2,
347, 370, 431; see also precipitation
Rainforest Action Network (RAN) 184, 344
rainforests 132, 132-3, 184, 342-3, 410;
conservation 344, 369; destruction 86-7,
146,351,401
recreation 117-18, 253
recycling 26, 244, 319, 345-7, 352, 358;
controls 49-50, 50-1; organic 44, 78, 86,
272-3, 426-7; plastics 2, 319; waste
SUBJECT INDEX
disposal 38, 161, 331-2, 332
refrigerants 151, 152, 177, 294, 295
Regional Acidification Information and
Simulation Model (RAINS) 209
relative density 348, 381
relative humidity 348, 389
Remedial Action Plans (RAPS) 209
remote sensing 335, 348
renewable energyhesources 123-4, 125,
167,192,349,350,352
reports 239, 289, 383,416, 435,436
research see studies
reserves 287, 350, 352
reservoirs 85, 192, 332, 350, 350-1
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
(RCRA) 351
resources 160, 266, 342-3, 350, 351-3,
391-2; conservation 180, 319, 331,
345-7, 349,402; energy 75, 125, 287;
non-renewablehenewable 266, 350; and
population 290, 326
Rio Declaration 353-4,414
rocks 288, 301, 306, 431; erosion 134, 328;
igneous 42, 84, 199,236, 245,328, 333;
metamorphic 84, 245, 328, 333;
permeability 200, 310, 326-7;
sedimentary 84, 156, 229-30, 240,
280-1, 333, 364; weathering 137, 315,
360,431-2
Rossby waves 3 2 , 4 1 7
Rowland, Sherwood 294,295
runoff 85, 152,354,382-3
Saarbrucken International Conferences
(1990) 355
Safe Drinking-water Act (SDWA) 355
Sahel 46, 96-7,210, 266, 355-6; drought/
famine 87, 175, 237
salinity/saiinization 14, 109, 213, 356
salt water 88, 147
salt/salts 357
sand/sands 94, 310, 357, 367, 368, 377,
3 94-5
sandstones 333
sanitary landfills 81, 161, 223, 346, 357-8
saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR) 10,
34-5
saturation 359, 389
savanna 175,359-60
Science 229
scree 94, 360, 394
scrubbers 8,54, 63, 150, 325, 360
SUBIECT INDEX
sea levels 134-5, 149, 173, 321, 361-2
seasonal drought 106, 175,185,210,251,
355-6,359,362
sedimentary rocks 84, 156,229-30,245,
280-1,333,364
sedimentation 109, 312
sediments 2, 20-1, 69, 88, 149, 357, 363-4,
364,421
seismic activity 112, 167, 320; see also
earthquakes; plate tectonics
sensors 202, 335, 348
sewage 68, 77, 145, 364-7; biodegradation
22,44; and eutrophication 19-20, 315;
treatment 10, 147, 154, 426
Silent Spring (Carson) 61, 102, 369
silica 100, 333-4, 370
silver 285, 370
Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) 259
smelting 152, 210, 244,260-1, 285-6, 371;
emissions 3, 82
smog 25,233,274,371,391,431;
photochemical 37, 157, 291,292, 310,
315-16,413
smoke 77,371-2,391
snow 18, 143, 148, 168,372,382-3
soils 118, 306, 323, 373-4, 386; bacteria
39, 262, 263; conservation 374-5, 375;
degradation 14, 56, 330; erosion 15,
20-1, 81, 87, 96, 134, 175,326, 330,
331, 342, 364, 375-6, 433-4; fertility
20-1,41, 69, 77, 144-5, 190, 323, 350,
374-5,423; moisture levels 84, 93, 141,
235, 250, 354, 359, 377; nutrients 91,
272-3, 323, 405; profiles 61, 69, 96,
121, 222, 376; structure 83-4, 202, 286,
374,375,377-8
solar energy 1, 46, 75, 123, 334, 349, 378
solar radiation 119-20, 136, 203, 241-2,
260, 336, 378, 413; attenuation 12, 35,
36-7, 39, 304, 337; and climate 87, 328;
feedback 136, 143, 185,195-6,316;
models 204, 247, 338; and pollution 387,
399
solar wind 236, 334
solstices 133, 379
solutions 8, 19, 103, 288-9, 379, 389
solvents 19, 42, 59, 66, 103, 134, 152, 379
soot 75,380
sound 105,283,379-80
Southern Oscillation 121, 380-1, 424
species 44, 76, 78, 321, 326, 381, 390-1;
endangered 81-2,116,122-3,132,139
462
specific gravity 244, 348, 381
specific humidity 1, 189-90
spores 158, 382
standards: air quality 69, 255-6; water
quality 355,429-3 1
starches 56, 174, 383
State of the Environment (SOE) reports 383
State o f t h e World (report) 436
steady state 110, 133
storms: tropical 105,405-6, 409
strategists 115, 218, 335
stratopause 33, 384
stratosphere 33, 34, 188, 291-2, 293, 324,
333,384
strip-mining 3, 344, 394-5
studies 99, 114, 206,250, 255-6; acid rain
8-9, 164, 255; climate 72, 72-3, 174,
204,315,329-30,385,402,434-5;
conservation 189,402, 416;
environmental 238-9,385, 415
Study of Critical Environmental Problems
(SCEP) 385
succession 386,402
sugars 19, 56, 174, 316,386-7, 387
sulphur, 387-8
sulphur dioxide emissions 3, 108, 387-8;
and acid rain 3, 8, 191,402; controls 18,
150
sulphuric acid seepage2-3
sunspot activity 108, 199, 240, 333, 334,
378,388
Superfund 79, 369, 388
supersonic transports (SSTs) 72, 79, 217,
293,294,379-80,389,410
sustainable development 133, 176, 389-90,
415, 435; controls/studies 50, 189, 416;
organizations 13, 287, 353,414; and
resources 230, 238-9, 343, 349, 381,
383,402
sustainable yields 241, 289
systems 64, 77, 165-6,257,285,383,
391-2; closed 73, 196; energy 125, 186,
192, 236; storage 332, 404; weather 64,
84,92
taiga 393,410
tailings 284, 394,418
tall stacks policy 4, 69, 210, 261, 394
tar sands 313, 394-5
taxes 59, 347, 388,401
tectonic plate activity 111, 114, 135, 361,
423
463
Teflon 151, 152
temperature 185-6, 197, 308, 381, 396; air
80, 128, 154, 182-3; global 170, 171-2,
253; inversions 33, 158, 211, 396;
measurement 1, 383,400-1 (scales) 1,
62, 141, 217, 218; sea surface (SSTs)
108,120-1,362
terpenes 185, 397
terrestrial environments 127, 258, 397
terrestrial radiation 12, 154, 178, 185, 202,
260,336,337-8,397
thermal electric power plants 76, 125, 151,
152,392,398-9
thermal energy 80, 123, 207,219, 398-9
thermoclines 197, 400
thermocouples 400,401
thermodynamics 10, 126-7, 161-2
thermometers 243, 400-1
thermonuclear devices 193, 401
thermoplastics 2, 318, 319, 325,401
thermosphere 33,34
Third World issues 218, 233, 238, 326, 390,
401-2; aid 208,415; pollution 5,251,
325
thorium 9, 183
Three Mile Island 242, 403
tidedtidal power 88, 148, 361,403-5,410
timber 15, 342, 351
topsoil 110, 405
tornadoes 405-6,433; see also cyclones
toxic substances 29, 38, 284; gases 319,
340-1; metals 3, 43, 53; waste 318,406
transpiration 327, 408
trees 14, 15, 86, 132-3, 146, 172-3, 330,
340; dating 90-1,408, 421; dieback 6-7,
102,408
trophic levels 3 17, 440
tropical air masses 16, 114, 323, 362,409,
412
Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere
Project (TOGA) 410
tropopause 32, 33, 183, 384,410,417
troposphere 33, 34, 39, 49, 73-4, 128,
291-2,397,410
tsunamis 149, 410
TTAPS scenario 271, 410
tundra 173,206,306-7,309,321,406-7,
410-11
turbulence 33, 411
typhoons 84,409,412
UK Water Resources Act 249
SUBJECT INDEX
ultraviolet radiation 119-20, 241-2, 292,
293,294,335-7,422-3
UN Conference onDesertification
(UNCOD) 97,413-14
UN Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) 13, 44,64, 111,
169, 207, 343, 353,363, 389, 390,
401-2,414-15,435
UN Conference on the Human Environment
(UNCHE) 414,415
UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
(1982) 290
UN Convention to Combat Desertification
(UNCCD) 99,100,414-15
UN Development Program (UNDP) 390,
415
UN Environmental Program (UNEP) 96,
97-9, 114,121, 169,206,362,390,413,
414,415-16,421,434,436
units 42, 296; energy 217, 218, 219; heat
51, 381, 398; SI 217, 218, 329, 368, 369
uranium 9, 36, 151, 183, 268, 340,417-18
urban environments 56, 105, 113, 127, 150,
418-19,419
urban heat islands 71, 186,399,418-19
US Clean Air Act (1970) 255
US Geological Survey 416
US Global Climate Protection Act (1987) 417
US Safe Drinking-Water Act (1974) 430
US Water Quality Act (1987) 430
US Wilderness Act (1964) 417,432
vegetation 53, 259, 3 8 6 , 4 1 1 , 4 3 7
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the
Ozone Layer 25 1,421
Vietnam War 14, 103, 187
Villach Conference 21,421-2
viruses 115, 138, 254, 305, 422
visible light 119, 228, 360, 422
volcanic activity 3, 319-20, 361, 410,
423-4; and dust 35,109,110, 141;
eruptions 35, 109, 110, 219, 225, 232,
251,252,253,297,304-5,338,410
Walker Circulation 381, 424
waste 160, 180, 244-5,426; hazardous 86,
188, 234, 406,418; organic 48, 232,
261,332,364-7,426-7
waste disposal 204, 357-8, 378,426-7;
incineration 161, 200, 240, 427-8;
problems 19, 226, 281; treatments 65,
104,196,332
SUBJECT INDEX
water 2,41, 136-7,288-9, 305-6, 327,
372-3,428-9; contamination 104,278,
281, 355, 360; drinking 261, 355; flow
56, 152,205,288-9; groundwater
180-1, 306, 355; irrigation 266-7, 350;
quality 42, 77, 184, 209,429-31,430;
runoff 85, 152, 354, 382-3; salinity 93,
276-7, 356; supplies 66, 205-6, 213,
249,274, 276-7, 308, 350; tables 180,
274,344,356,431; vapour 1, 80,154-5,
189-90,194,341,348,420,431
waves: atmospheric 380, 417
waves: ocean 354, 361, 410
Weather Prediction by Numerical Process
(Richardson) 353
weathedweather forecasting 10, 161, 353,
431,436; aids/data 41, 105,202, 340,
362; models 22, 34, 247-8, 381-2;
systems 64, 323,410
weathering 133-4, 137, 272-3, 315, 360,
379,385-6,431-2
wetlands 149, 239, 344, 357,432
wilderness 227, 402,416, 417,432-3
Wilderness Act 369
Wildlife and Countryside Act (1985) 433
wildlife ecology 70, 139-40, 203,227, 257,
407
windbreaks 375,434
winds 86, 88, 185,302, 378,433-4;
atmospheric 166-7,417; energy 124,
349,433-4; velocity 166,421; and
weather systems 68-9,250-1, 380-1,409
World Climate Applications Program
(WCAP) 434
World Climate Applications and Services
Program (WCASP) 434
World Climate conferences 362-3
World Climate Program (WCP) 147, 206,
415-16,434,436
World Climate Research Program (WCRP)
169,410,434-5,436
X-rays 226, 283,438
xerophytic vegetation 94-5, 310,437
yeasts 158-9,438
zero population growth 230,438-9
zinc 285,439
zones 167, 182,232,259-60,276-7,317,
357, 431; circulation systems 424, 439;
convergence 210,356, 362; transition
117,323-4
zooplankton 156, 317, 440