In My
Judgment
Water and Concrete:
A Love-Hate Relationship
P
apers about concrete, when they refer to water, usu-
ally consider only one relationship at a time. The most
common of these is the relation between water-ce-
ment ratio and strength. Another example is water
content and its influence on workability. At the more scien-
tific end of the scale, much work has been done on the hy-
dration reactions of cement and the state of water in the re-
sulting products of hydration: chemically combined, physi-
cally adsorbed, and so-called free water.
But water is not just a liquid used to make concrete: it is
involved in the whole life of concrete, for good or evil. Con-
crete in the environment is usually in contact, permanent or
intermittent, with water, in liquid or in vapor form. Most
actions on concrete in service, other than loading, involve
water, either pure or carrying salts or solids. There are nu-
merous relations between water and concrete, and even mul-
tifaceted interactions between these two materials.
I do not recall ever seeing a discussion, or even enumera-
tion, of all of these relations in a single paper. And yet, this
would be appropriate because water and concrete are the two
materials most used by mankind: water in the first place and
concrete in the second. I shall give the relevant quantities at
the end of this article that will briefly explore the connec-
tion, or indeed the numerous connections, between concrete
and water. This should dispel the notion that concrete is a
dry subject!
Part I: During construction
The opening observation, and perhaps the most obvious one,
is that you cannot make concrete, as usually defined, with-
out water. Thus, the first topic is mixing water.
Mixing water
There are three aspects of mixing water that should be con-
sidered. The first of these is its quality. The water should be
“good,” such as city supply water but, if it is not, what are
the effects of impurities on the properties of the resulting
concrete: setting time, gain of strength, discoloration, and
long-term durability? Relatively little is known about the
limitations on the suitability of water for mixing.
This point of view article was selected for reader interest by
the editors. However, the opinions expressed are not necessarily
those of the American Concrete Institute. Reader comment is
invited.
34
by Adam Neville
And yet, with an increasing scarcity of water in many parts
of the world and ecological considerations of impure water,
in making concrete we have to consider the use of treated
domestic sewage and industrial waste waters, as well as water
used to wash out concrete mixers and trucks, and ready-mix
concrete yards. Such waters must not be discharged into the
natural surface waters. The obvious solution is to recycle
the wash water by reusing it as a part of the mixing water.
As the wash water contains alkalies from portland cement
and also solid material in suspension, we need to know what
is acceptable. The entire issue of suitability of water for mix-
ing and curing was discussed in a previous article.1
The second aspect is the quantity of water in a unit vol-
ume of concrete. This can be expressed in liters per cubic
meter of concrete (or gallons per cubic yard). This is the so-
called water content, which greatly influences the workabil-
ity of the resulting mixture.
The third aspect is that it is also possible to express the
quantity of water in the mixture as the water-cement ratio,
nowadays always by mass, in decimal form (except by the
Japanese, who prefer percentages). Fortunately for those who
work outside the U.S., gallons per sack (which is an expres-
sion using inconsistent units) is just a thing of the past. That
the water-cement ratio greatly affects the strength of con-
crete has been well known since the pioneer work of Duff
Abrams more than 80 years ago. I have recently written a
short article on the usefulness of the water-cement ratio (w/c).2
Water of hydration
When concrete is mixed, the cement and water do not long
stay simply as neighbors. Cement powder is hydrophilic;
chemical reactions of hydration take place and various prod-
ucts of hydration are formed. They all contain water, but it
does not all exist in the same form. Some of the water be-
comes chemically combined, that is, it becomes a part of the
compound, such as calcium hydroxide. Some of the water is
physically adsorbed on the internal surfaces of those prod-
ucts of hydration that are in the form of gel. It would not be
appropriate in this article to discuss in detail the various forms
of water in hydrated cement paste; suffice it to say that the
energy of binding of water varies. It is therefore convenient
to distinguish evaporable water and nonevaporable water,
but the division is not absolute and depends on the method
of “evaporating” the water from a sample.
Not all the space in the mixture as placed becomes filled
with solid products of hydration (the term “solid” including
Concrete International
gel water). The excess space forms capillary pores that, at
least to begin with, are full of so-called free water. It is called
that because free water can be fairly easily removed from
the capillary pores; the pores can also be refilled. The pres-
ence of at least some water in the capillary pores is essential
for the hydration of the hitherto unreacted cement to take
place. The minimum vapor pressure is 80%.
It is useful to note that the products of hydration of ce-
ment have a very low solubility in water; indeed, it is the
essence, as well as the origin of the name, of hydraulic ce-
ment (and portland cement is its prime example) that it is
stable in water. Thus, at this stage, hydrated cement paste
and water exist side by side, at least to a large extent.
Bleed water
In addition to the various forms of water of hydration, in
concrete as distinct from cement paste, there may also be
trapped bleed water. This water appears to travel upwards
through the concrete mass but, in reality, it is the solid par-
ticles, which are heavier than water, that are subject to sedi-
mentation by gravity. If the bleed water reaches the top sur-
face of a concrete element, it may evaporate. The rate of
evaporation and the rate of “supply” of bleed water, between
them, influence the development of plastic shrinkage and
possibly plastic-shrinkage cracking.
If the bleed water, on the way up, is trapped underneath
large aggregate particles, this forms voids that may adversely
affect the durability of concrete in later life by providing a
preferential path for the ingress of aggressive agents. The
bleed voids are originally water-filled but, with time, the
bleed water may become used up in continuing hydration of
cement or migrates outwards. But even when it stays as wa-
ter, it provides a preferential path in the case of ingress of
aggressive agents into the concrete.
Whether a given mixture bleeds more or less depends on
some properties of the mixture, but whether the bleed water
becomes trapped depends on the aggregate size and, above
all, shape. Flaky particles are much more likely to intercept
water in its apparently upward motion than equidimensional
particles. Thus, we have an interaction between aggregate
shape and water in the mixture.
If the bleed water readily reaches the top surface of a con-
crete element and evaporation takes place, this lowers the
temperature of the concrete near the surface, which has to
supply the relatively large heat of evaporation of water. This
may be beneficial in a hot climate, especially as the tem-
perature of the concrete at the time of setting affects its longer-
term strength development. The temperature at the time of
setting affects also the development of thermal cracking: if
a concrete element adopts its final dimensions at a higher
temperature, then subsequent lowering of temperature may
induce cracking.
Water curing
The temperature of the concrete, once it has set, at its sur-
face is affected also by the application of externally sup-
plied water, that is, curing water. If this water evaporates,
heat is abstracted from the concrete. Moreover, if the curing
water is cold, the concrete is cooled by heat transfer. This
may be beneficial in a hot climate. Conversely, curing with
cold water can be dangerous if the temperature drops and
there is a risk of frost. Generally, water curing should start
very early and be continuous and prolonged.
It is obvious that curing water must not contain ions that
can attack concrete or the reinforcement within; aggressive
December 2000
waters are discussed in a later section. This precludes the
use of seawater for curing reinforced concrete elements.
It is worth observing that the requirements for mixing wa-
ter and curing water are not identical. For example, pure
water, such as distilled water or other desalinated water, is
perfectly suitable for mixing, but it would attack hardened
concrete, as discussed later on. Conversely, many waters
containing some organic compounds that might interfere with
the hydration of cement are harmless when used for curing.
The only exception is the case when these compounds may
cause discoloration of the surface of concrete that will be
exposed to view.
In passing, I should mention that, in the past, when high-
alumina cement was used in construction, strong cooling by
the application of water was recommended by the cement
manufacturers: the argument was that prevention of a large
temperature rise on hydration of cement would obviate the
process of so-called conversion of the products of hydration
with the concomitant loss of strength. We now know that
conversion cannot be prevented, and in most countries high-
alumina cement is no longer used in construction.
In considering the cooling of the surface of a concrete el-
ement by curing water, we should pay attention to a possible
differential in temperature between the surface and the inte-
rior: if the differential induces a large temperature gradient,
there may develop excessive thermal stresses and possibly
cracking.
It is well known that the supply of water to concrete by
means of curing is essential for the progress of hydration of
cement in mixtures with medium and low water-cement ra-
tios. In most cases, this aspect of water curing overshadows
the temperature aspects, but both show a clear interaction
between curing water and the quality of resulting concrete.
Part II: In service
The important role of water in concrete continues in service,
and there are many aspects of this role.
Drying shrinkage
When discussing the loss of water from fresh concrete, that
is, before its setting, I mentioned plastic shrinkage. Now,
the loss of water from hardened concrete may also lead to
drying shrinkage. It is not, however, all the water whose loss
leads to shrinkage: the loss of free water does not result in
shrinkage. It is only when, following the departure of free
water, adsorbed water is lost to the ambient medium that
contraction takes place. Under some circumstances, drying
shrinkage can lead to shrinkage cracking, which, in my opin-
ion, is the greatest shortcoming of concrete and the most
common cause of problems in concrete structures exposed
to air; this means all structures except those under water or
fully embedded in wet soil. Drying shrinkage thus repre-
sents a particularly important relationship between water in
hardened concrete and its deformation and deterioration.
Creep
Creep of concrete, which is a time-dependent deformation
under steady load, also involves movement of water, although
this is more complicated and less well established than in
the case of shrinkage. Nevertheless, we know that when con-
crete is drying while under a sustained load, the contraction
known as drying creep occurs. This drying creep is larger
than when no water movement in or out of concrete under
load takes place; the deformation under the latter conditions
is called basic creep. Thus, water plays a significant role in
35
 the time-dependent deformation of concrete under sustained
load. This is quite separate from the role of water in shrinkage
when no load is involved.
The mechanisms of the two types of creep are still not
well understood. Alas, there has been only limited progress
in this respect since the last major book on creep of con-
crete (as distinct from a collection of symposium papers)
was published in 1983.3 Creep continues to be studied, but
not so much in order to understand its mechanism as to
develop mathematical models for prediction, none of which
has consensual support.4 In my view, an understanding of
the mechanism of creep, including the role of water, should
precede reliance on complicated mathematical expressions.
Wetting and drying
Dry concrete in contact with water will rapidly imbibe it.
The water gradually penetrates deeper and deeper into the
concrete element: quite rapidly, total saturation is possible.
The process is reversible, but not at the same rate: drying
is extremely slow, so that those parts of a concrete element
that are more than, say, 500 mm (20 in.) from a drying
surface may never become completely dry, or at least not
in the lifespan of the concretor! Wetting and drying is a
means of ingress of salts because a solution enters, but
only water evaporates.
“ In high-performance concrete,
when the water-cement ratio is
extremely low, autogenous shrinkage
may develop, which has only recently
become recognized as a significant
factor in the behavior of concrete.
”
Water in high-performance concrete
In high-performance concrete*, when the water-cement ra-
tio is extremely low, autogenous shrinkage may develop,
which has only recently become recognized as a signifi-
cant factor in the behavior of concrete.5 Autogenous shrink-
age, like drying shrinkage, is due to the loss of water from
hydrated cement paste, but the loss is caused by the water
being used up in chemical reactions of continuing hydration,
and not by movement to the atmosphere.
High-performance concrete also presents a special problem
as far as water in the hydrated cement paste is concerned in
the case of fire. The very low permeability of such concrete
*High-Performance Concrete (HPC) is concrete that meets special com-
binations of performance and uniformity requirements that cannot always
be achieved routinely using conventional constituents and normal mixing,
placing, and curing practices. Thus, a high-performance concrete is a con-
crete in which certain characteristics are developed for a particular appli-
cation and environment. Examples of characteristics that may be consid-
ered critical in an application are: ease of placement, compaction without
segregation, early age strength, long-term mechanical properties, perme-
ability, density, heat of hydration, toughness, volume stability, and long
life in severe environments. (Editor)
36
(due to the extremely low w/c) means that water still present
within the hardened paste cannot readily escape. The high tem-
perature during a fire causes vaporization and the concomi-
tant increase in the volume of the original liquid water. The
change in phase and a high-vapor pressure can lead to burst-
ing of the outer zone of the concrete. In consequence, under
particular circumstances, what was intended to be a high-
performance concrete may result in a performance inferior
to that of ordinary concrete.
When fire is fought with cold water, the concrete whose
surface temperature has become very high in the fire, finds
itself suddenly subjected to quenching. This may have se-
rious consequences for the serviceability and strength of
concrete.
The preceding brief discussion shows that, although
its w/c is very low, high-performance concrete exhibits a
large sensitivity to water.
Autogenous healing
It is well known that the presence of cracks in concrete is
virtually unavoidable. However, when concrete at the
surface of a narrow crack is in contact with water, static or
slow-moving, healing of the crack is possible. This occurs
by hydration of the hitherto unhydrated cement or by the
formation of calcium carbonate from the leached-out
calcium hydroxide, if carbonation takes place.
Aggressive waters
Concrete in service may be exposed to aggressive waters. In
many countries, the most common deleterious ion is sulfate,
combined with one of several cations. In other waters, acids
and chemical by-products from industrial processes may be
present. In some locations, the water in contact with con-
crete is seawater or brackish water. The chlorides present in
such waters, if carried into the interior of the concrete, often
lead to corrosion of steel reinforcement.
It is important to remember that only salts in solution
attack concrete: a heap of calcium sulfate sitting on a dry
floor is harmless. So is a heap of common salt, that is, so-
dium chloride, except that it is deliquescent so that, if the air
is humid, the salt will eventually produce a solution in which
chloride ions will be present; they will then penetrate into
the concrete, but they can do so only in water.
Even pure water is not good for concrete in service: in
pipes and conduits, pure water leaches calcium hydroxide
from the hydrated cement paste. Rain, at least away from a
polluted atmosphere, is a reasonably pure water, and it also
leaches calcium hydroxide. If rain is followed by exposure
of the concrete surface to the sun, the leachate forms efflo-
rescence that, although not harmful in itself, is unsightly and
mars the appearance of the concrete.
The other extreme of rainwater is the so-called acid rain,
which is a highly harmful consequence of some industrial
exit gases dissolved in water in the atmosphere and carried
by wind. Acid rain contains mainly sulfuric and nitric acids
and can have a pH as low as 4.5 or even 4.0. These acids
etch the surface of the concrete.
Corrosion of reinforcement
Corrosion of embedded steel, whether of the general type or
chloride-induced, occurs only if the concrete is sufficiently
wet so that the pore water acts as an electrolyte. This per-
mits the development of an electrochemical cell. Thus, wa-
ter is necessary for corrosion to proceed.
Concrete International
Conduits for drinking water
Drinking water is not an aggressive water in usual terms,
but it causes leaching of concrete that, under some circum-
stances, may make the water harmful with respect to human
consumption. This situation arises primarily in small-diam-
eter conduits with a dead end, in which the rate of flow of
water is low so that the contact between the water and the
portland cement paste is prolonged. In consequence, with
waters of a very low alkalinity, that is, a very low calcium
carbonate content, the pH level of the water in the conduit
may rise above 9.5. Also, the amount of aluminum entering
the water may become excessive.
The amount of aluminum leached and carried by the water
may be particularly high in the case of concrete or mortar
made with high-alumina cement. This cement could be used
in repairs or linings when rapid rehabilitation of corroded
water mains is undertaken; however, such a use is question-
able or inappropriate.
I propose to develop the topic of the use of concrete in
conduits for drinking water in a future article.
Water-resistant concrete
It is sometimes asked whether attack by aggressive waters
can be prevented by using water-resistant concrete. I am not
using the term “waterproof,” which is not recommended in
British Standards, if only because impermeable concrete is
probably unattainable. What is possible is concrete that has
a high resistance to water penetration.
Why is this? By its nature, concrete is a porous material.
Porosity and permeability are not the same, but many pores
in concrete are interconnected so that transport of water into
and through the concrete is possible. Not only flow, but also
other transport phenomena are involved. The better com-
pacted the concrete and the fewer gross voids in it the more
difficult it is for water to travel through the concrete. Fur-
thermore, the exact structure of the hydrated cement paste
determines the ease with which water can move through the
concrete. Particularly important are the amount and
interconnectivity of pores; these are usually assessed by their
size distribution: the same volume of fine pores allows less
movement of water than when the pores are few in number
but large and interconnected.
Under many circumstances, the movement of water
through concrete is very small, but concrete, as we make it,
is not waterproof in the same way as a plastic membrane. In
most cases, this situation creates no problems. However, if a
virtually waterproof concrete is required, then we have to
consider the use of waterproofing admixtures, possibly those
that are also hydrophobic, or we may resort to special con-
cretes such as polymer concrete.
It is worth remembering that much depends on the ambi-
ent conditions to which a given concrete element is exposed.
For example, in the case of a basement wall with waterlogged
ground on the outside and dry space inside, there will be
some transport of water through the thickness of the wall. If
someone believes that installing a powerful air conditioner
in the basement will solve the problem, there will be disap-
pointment: the greater the difference in relative humidity be-
tween the two sides of the concrete wall the more water will
be transported. Likewise, the greater the head of water on
the outside (that is, if the basement is very deep) the more
water will be transported.
In any case, the exposure conditions and the quality of the
concrete are not the sole determinant of watertightness.
December 2000
However carefully constructed, concrete walls and floors are
rarely entirely monolithic and crack-free, and they may be
subjected to differential strains. If we wish to build a water-
retaining structure, we need, in addition to concrete of the
right quality, appropriate detailing of reinforcement and pos-
sibly a provision of water stops. This is the domain of struc-
tural design and not just concrete technology. May I empha-
size the term “watertight”: this is not the same as impermeable.
Freezing and thawing
The deleterious action of repeated cycles of freezing and
thawing on concrete is well known in many parts of the world.
For the purpose of this article, it is sufficient to note that
freezing and thawing involve water. The water may be that
originally present in the mixture or it may be water that
ingressed into the concrete; what is significant is that it is
water that leads to damage, and it does so with a vengeance.
Damage by repeated cycles of freezing and thawing is quite
distinct from damage of fresh concrete by the action of frost
on fresh or very young concrete. Here, the expansion on con-
version of liquid water into ice disrupts the concrete; gener-
ally, the damage is irreparable. So is, of course, damage by
cyclic freezing and thawing.
What is relevant to the present article is that both frost
action and freezing and thawing involve water: it is water
that is the culprit.
Carbonation
Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere can react with some prod-
ucts of hydration of cement, notably calcium hydroxide.
However, it is not gaseous carbon dioxide that reacts: the
presence of water is necessary so that the actual agent is a
weak carbonic acid. It is evident then that water is the essen-
tial element in carbonation of concrete, which reduces the
alkalinity of the hydrated cement paste and can lead to cor-
rosion of reinforcement.
Alkali-aggregate reaction
Two types of reaction exist: one involving silica, the other
carbonate, either of these being present in the aggregate; the
source of alkalies is the cement. It could be thought that con-
sideration of this deleterious reaction is not within the scope
of this article; however, this is not so: the alkali-aggregate
reactions proceed only in the presence of water. Even if the
reaction has developed to the point of causing some dam-
age, drying out the concrete and maintaining it dry will ar-
rest all further reaction; the damage is not reversible but it is
certainly stoppable. Thus, once again, water is an essential
element in the process of deterioration of concrete.
Cavitation and erosion
Although concrete is used extensively in hydraulic works,
including spillways and closed conduits, flowing water can
cause severe damage by cavitation. Cavitation can occur
when the flow of water is not steady and not tangential to
the surface of the concrete at all locations, but when there is
a divergence between the direction of flow and the surface
of the concrete. Under such circumstances, vapor bubbles
can form when the local absolute pressure drops to the value
of the ambient vapor pressure of water at the ambient tem-
perature. These bubbles travel downstream and, on entering
an area of higher pressure, they collapse with great impact.
This collapse enables high-velocity water to enter previ-
ously vapor-occupied space and exert an extremely high
37
pressure on a small area of concrete surface. Such repeated
application of high pressure results in pitting of the sur-
face, making it more uneven and rough, thus exacerbating
further damage.
Erosion of concrete surface is another type of damage of
concrete in contact with flowing water. The damage here is
caused by solid particles carried by water, rather than by the
water itself. Thus, water is no more than the transporting
medium. Nevertheless, both in cavitation and in erosion,
water is a factor in the development of damage.
Part III: Special properties
It may now be useful to consider some properties of con-
crete that are significantly affected by the presence of free
water in the concrete.
Thermal insulation
Concrete is a relatively good insulator, and lightweight con-
crete is especially effective. Of particular interest is thermal
conductivity; this is defined as the ratio of the flux of heat to
the temperature gradient. Because the conductivity of air is
lower than that of water, the conductivity of a given con-
crete depends on the degree of saturation with water of the
voids in the concrete. The effect is particularly significant in
lightweight concrete, which has a larger proportion of voids
than ordinary weight concrete. For example, an increase in
moisture content of 10% increases the conductivity of con-
crete by 50%. It follows that, if the insulating properties of
concrete are of importance, it must be dried out and not al-
lowed to become saturated. We can see thus that free water
in concrete, either from the original mixture or ingressed
later, has a considerable influence on the thermal insulation
properties of concrete in service.
“
Concrete and water are the two
materials most used by mankind,
water being the leader and concrete
the runner-up.
”
Electrical resistivity
Electrical properties of concrete are of importance in some
applications. The resistivity of concrete is greatly affected
by its degree of saturation. For example, air-dried concrete
has a resistivity of the order of 10,000 ohm-m; 6 the resistiv-
ity of oven-dried concrete is about four orders of magnitude
higher.7 The topic is fairly complicated, but what is of es-
sence is that electric current is conducted through moist con-
crete primarily by electrolytic means, that is, by ions in water
in the capillary pores. Other things being equal, the less water
in these pores, whatever its provenance, the higher the resis-
tivity of the concrete.
Quantities of concrete and water used
In addition to everything discussed so far, there is another spe-
cial relationship between concrete and water: as I mentioned
at the outset of this article, they are the two materials most
used by mankind, water being the leader and concrete the run-
ner-up. The consumption of concrete, that is, the quantity of
38
concrete placed per annum per head of world population —
woman, man, child — is about 2 1/2 Mg (2.8 tons).
The figure for water is less readily determined and depends
of course on what uses of water represent consumption. Also,
some of the water is treated and sold to households and indus-
try; other water, for example, that used for cooling, is taken
from a river and returned to it. It may be of interest that in
England, the total consumption per annum per capita is about
130 Mg (143 tons), but there is a considerable variation
worldwide.
Conclusions
I do not suppose that I have considered all the topics under the
heading of “water and concrete,” but I hope to have shown
the intimate relationships between the two materials in the
life of concrete. These relationships are numerous and they
exist from the construction stage, right through life in service,
including exposure to aggressive conditions. Sometimes the
relationships are for good, sometimes for evil, but they are
inevitable. I hope that the consideration of all of these rela-
tionships in the present article may help us in understanding
the nature and behavior of concrete: such a wide-ranging ap-
proach is likely to be beneficial, as all too often studies are
limited to a very narrow single relation under a single set of
conditions.
Let me summarize in terms of the title of my article. On the
one hand, it is not possible to make concrete without water:
water is not just an “optional” ingredient. Furthermore, appli-
cation of external water in curing and sometimes in cooling is
highly beneficial to concrete. This is the love element of the
relationship.
On the other hand, a great many mechanisms of deteriora-
tion and damage to concrete involve water as an essential fac-
tor. In those cases, water represents the hate element.
My wife of 48 years’ standing, who has contributed a great
deal to my “concrete thinking,” would not allow me to liken
this love-hate relationship to marriage. Let me just say that
there is no doubt that, for the foreseeable future, we shall need
not only water but also concrete: the two will have to live
together.
References
1. Neville, A. M., “Water — Cinderella Ingredient of Concrete,” Con-
crete International, V. 22, No. 9, Sept. 2000, pp. 66-71.
2. Neville, A. M., “How Useful is the Water-Cement Ratio?,” Concrete
International, V. 19, No. 9, Sept.1999, pp. 69-70.
3. Neville, A. M.; Dilger, W.; and Brooks, J. J., Creep of Plain and
Structural Concrete, Longman Group, London, 1983, 361 pp.
4. Adam Neville Symposium: Creep and Shrinkage — Structural Design
Effects, SP-192, A. Al-Manaseer, ed., American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, Mich., 424 pp.
5. Aïtcin, P.-C., “Demystifying Autogenous Shrinkage,” Concrete In-
ternational, V. 21, No. 11, Nov. 1999, pp. 54-56.
6. Whittington, H. W.; McCarter, J.; and Forde, M. C., “The Conduction
of Electricity Through Concrete,” Magazine of Concrete Research, V. 33,
No. 114, 1981, pp. 48-60.
7. Monfore, G. E., “The Electrical Resistivity of Concrete,” Journal of
the Portland Cement Association, V. 10, No. 2, 1968, pp. 35-48.
ACI Honorary Member Adam Neville is the author of the
book Properties of Concrete, the fourth edition of which ap-
peared in 1996. Arising from his work as a consultant in con-
crete, he has recently published in Concrete International a
number of papers developing applied knowledge to produce
better concrete in practice. He is a qualified arbitrator.
Concrete International