9.2 Electromagnetic Waves in Vacuum 393 In terms ofthe polarization angle 8, cose + sind §. (9.38) Thus, the wave pictured in Fig, 9.8e can be considered a superposition of two ‘waves—one horizontally polarized, the other vertically: Hz, 1) = Acosoye'™ P+ A sinayel ~ 5. 39) Problem 98 Equation 9.36 describes the most general nearly polarized wave on astring. Linear (or “plane”) polarization (so called because the displacement is par- alle a ied vector 8 ress from the combination of horizontally and vertically Polarized waves of the same phase (Eq. 9.39). If the two components are of equal ampli, but ou of phase by 90° (say, 8, = 0, 5, = 90", the esl cirealarly Polarized wave. In that ease: (a) acanxea out, snow tar ine sing moves incr about ne z axis. Loess 0 clockwise or counterclockwise, a yu look down the axis toward the origin? How woula you constucta wave ting he ofter way’ (Un optics, he cock- wise cate is called right circular polarization, and the counterclockwise, et tirealar polarization) ©) Sheth the sng atime ¢ = 0 (©) How would you shake the string in order to produce a circularly polarized wave? 9.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES IN VACUUM 9.2.1 Ml The Wave Equation for E and B In regions of space where there is no charge or current, Maxwell's equations read aB @ V-E= = . Gi) VxE=-S, (9.40) aE Gi) V-B=0, G) VxB=poeoq i ‘They constitute a set of coupled, first-order, partial differential equations for KE and B. They can be decoupled by applying the curl to (ii) and (iv): Vaan vy n-viE=v x ( 2 n elegant nation for circu poaiation (or elliptcal ithe amplitudes ae unequal iw we & comple bat shal tds a this ook394 9.2.2 m Monoch Chapter 9 Electromagnetic Waves a eB sno? x8) ~~ Sere ‘We now have separate equations for E and B, but they are of second order; that's the price you pay for decoupling them. Jn vacuum, then, each Cartesian component of E and B satisfies the three- dimensional wave equation, (This is the same as Eq. 9.2, except that 3? //3z? is replaced by its natural gen- eralization, V2.) So Maxwells equations imply that empty space supports the propagation of electromagnetic waves, traveling at a speed 1 Von which happens to be procisely the velocity of light e. The implication is astouue ing: Perhaps light is an electromagnetic wave.* Of course, this conclusion does ‘not surprise anyone today, but imagine what a revelation it was in Maxwell's time! Remember how ¢p and jp came into the theory in the first place: they were con- stants in Coulomb's law and the Biot-Savart law, respectively. You measure them in experiments involving charged pith balls, batteries, and wires—experiments, having nothing whatever to do with light. And yet, according to Maxwell's the- ‘ry, you can calculate c from these two numbers. Notice the crucial role played by ‘Maxwell's contribution to Ampére's law (1ig¢09B/91); without it, the wave equa- tion would not emerge, and thers would be no slectromagnstic theory of light. 00 x 108 m/s, 42) Plane Waves For reasons discussed in Sect. 9.1.2, we may confine our attention to sinusoidal ‘waves of frequency a. Since different frequencies in the visible range correspond to different colors, such waves are called monochromatic (Table 9.1). Suppose, “As Maxwell himself putt, "We can saree avoid the inference tha light consis in he transverse daltons ofthe same medium which isthe cause of elcrc and magnetic phenomena” See Ivan "Tolstoy, Lames Clerk Mawel A Biography (Chicago: Universi of Chicago Pres, 198).9.2 Electromagnetic Waves in Vacuum 395, VOW FIGURE 99 moreover, thatthe waves are traveling inthe z direction and have no x or y depen- dence: these are called plane waves.® because the fields are uniform over every plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation (Fig. 9.9). We are interested, ‘then, in Bilds of the form, Rez, 1) = Rigel, H(z, 1) = Figel-29 0.43) where fig and i are the (complex) amplindes (the physical fields, of course, ae ‘the real parts of E and B), and w = ck. "Now the wave equations for E and B (Ea, 9.41) were derived from Maxwell's equations, However, whereas every solution to Maxwell’ equations (in empty space) aust obey the wave equation, the wouverse is not tue; Maxwell's equa tions impose extra constraints on Ep and Bp, In particular, since W -E = 0 and V5 =0, stfollows® that (Eo): = (Bo): (aay electromagnetic waves are transverse: the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Moreover, Faraday’s law, V x E AB /at, implies a relation between the electric and magnetic amplitudes, to wit K(Bo)y = (Bode, K(Bo)x = (Body, 0.45) or, more compactly: = A@x fo (0.46) Fora discussion of spherical waves, this level, sce J. Ret, FJ. Milford, and R. W. Christy, Foundations of Elecomagnetie Theor, 3 ed, Sec. 17-5 (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 197). (Or work rob 935, Of course, over smal enough region any wave ese plane, akg athe wavelength is much ess han the rads of te curvature of the wave font Because the real par of cifers from the imaginary part ony in the replacement of sine by cosine, fe fonmer obeys Maxell’ equations, so docs the late, ad heae Eas wel,396 Chapter 9 Electromagnetic Waves "The Electromagnetic Spectrum Frequency iz) Type ‘Wavelength (m) 1 10 10 ‘gamma rays 10" 10 10" ia io-10 108 xrays 10° 107 10-8 10 ultraviolet 1077 105 Visible 10-8 10 infrared 10-5 108 10 4 10 103) 10" 107 10° microwave 107 10 1 108 VFM 10, 10 10 108 AM 10 10 10° 108 RP 10° 10 10° "The Visible Range ‘Frequency (Hz) Color ‘Wavelength (m) 1.0 10" near ultraviolet 3.0 x 1077 75x10 —showtest. 4.0% 10-7 65x 10% blue 4.6 x 10-7 56x10" green 34x 107 51x 10% yellow 5.9 x 107 49x10" orange 61x 107 39x10" longest visible red 7.6 x 10-7 3.0x 10% near infrared 1.0 x 10-6 TABLE 91 Evidently, E and B are in phase and mutually perpendicular; theit (real) ampli- tudes are related by By = Aen = 1a, ean ‘The fourth of Maxwell's equations, V x B = 1geo(9E/21), does not yield an in- dependent condition; it simply reproduces Eg 945.