Online course

Grid codes for renewables

© Renewables Academy (RENAC) AG

This copyrighted course is part of the series of online study programs offered by the Renewables
Academy AG. The course materials are provided exclusively for personal or curriculum and course-
related purposes by enrolled students and registered users only. Any further use of this material shall
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prosecuted.
Berlin, 2017-04-04
Contents
1 Development and purpose ................................................................................................... 4
1.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 4
1.2 Vertically integrated utilities ................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Deregulated (unbundled) markets .......................................................................................... 5
1.4 Grid code approaches for renewable generation ................................................................... 6
1.4.1 Example: Grid code approaches for RE generation in Germany ..................................... 8
1.5 Summary of the chapter.......................................................................................................... 9
2 Grid code structure ............................................................................................................ 10
2.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 10
2.2 Overall structure.................................................................................................................... 10
2.3 Point of Connection (POC) and Point of Common Coupling (PCC) I...................................... 11
2.4 Point of Connection (POC) and Point of Common Coupling (PCC) II..................................... 12
2.5 Summary of the chapter........................................................................................................ 14
3 Technical requirements ...................................................................................................... 15
3.1 General considerations ......................................................................................................... 15
3.2 Frequency range of operation (E) ......................................................................................... 16
3.2.1 Frequency range requirements ..................................................................................... 16
3.2.2 Feasibility, cost and system security .............................................................................. 18
3.3 Voltage range of operation (during normal operation) (E) ................................................... 20
3.3.1 Voltage range requirements .......................................................................................... 21
3.3.2 Feasibility, cost and system security .............................................................................. 22
3.4 Power quality aspects (E) ...................................................................................................... 23
3.4.1 Harmonics...................................................................................................................... 23
3.4.2 Rapid voltage change and flicker ................................................................................... 25
3.5 Reactive power capability (E) ................................................................................................ 25
3.5.1 Reactive power requirements ....................................................................................... 26
3.5.2 Feasibility, cost and system security .............................................................................. 27
3.6 Voltage/reactive power control requirements ..................................................................... 29
3.6.1 Control modes I ............................................................................................................. 29
3.6.2 Control modes II ............................................................................................................ 31
3.6.3 Control modes III ........................................................................................................... 32
3.7 Active power control ............................................................................................................. 33

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 3.7.1 Requirements ................................................................................................................ 33
3.7.2 Feasibility, costs and system security ............................................................................ 34
3.8 Low and high voltage ride through capability ....................................................................... 36
3.8.1 Requirements ................................................................................................................ 36
3.8.2 Feasibility, costs and system security ............................................................................ 37
3.9 Reactive current support during LVRT/HVRT situations (E) .................................................. 38
3.9.1 Requirements ................................................................................................................ 39
3.9.2 Feasibility, costs and system security ............................................................................ 41
3.10 Active/reactive power requirements during voltage recovery (E)........................................ 43
3.10.1 Requirements ................................................................................................................ 44
3.10.2 Feasibility, costs and system security ............................................................................ 45
3.11 Grid code compliance ............................................................................................................ 46
3.12 Summary of the chapter........................................................................................................ 48
4 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 50

The purpose of this course is to explain the fundamental role of grid codes in the renewable energy
integration process. First of all, the need for grid codes in both vertically integrated and deregulated
power systems is presented, followed by an explanation of the boundaries, responsibilities and
interaction mechanisms that essentially rule the relationships between the system operator and all
users of a particular power system. Moreover, details regarding the general structure of a grid code are
presented in detail, addressing technical and economic considerations, particularly grid security, power
quality and economic viability. In terms of renewable generation integration, the concept of connection
conditions is described in detail, and technical restrictions applied to wind and solar farms are
presented. In particular, these are frequency response, low and high voltage ride through, and reactive
power capabilities, along with power quality limits applied to renewable generators (e.g. flicker,
harmonic emissions and voltage rapid changes). Upon completion of this course, the reader will have
a fundamental understanding of the key grid code requirements which are necessary to successfully
integrate large volumes of fluctuating renewable generation into the majority of power systems.
Learning objectives of the course:
Upon completion of this course, you will be able to
• describe the purpose, use and content of grid codes,
• distinguish Point of Connection (POC) and Point of Common Coupling (PCC),
• explain frequency range of operation and voltage range of operation and
• analyse power quality aspects (e.g. reactive power capability).

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1 Development and purpose
1.1 Introduction
Learning objectives: After the following pages, you should be able to
• Explain the role of vertically integrated utilities and independent power producers in the
power system,
• Provide reasons why renewable generation needs a grid code and
• Memorize the approaches which are considered to develop a grid code for renewable
generators.

The structure of the section is as follows:

• Vertically integrated utilities
• Deregulated (unbundled) markets
• Grid code approaches for renewable generation
• Summary

1.2 Vertically integrated utilities

In regulated markets, traditional vertically integrated utilities are responsible for
• generation
• transmission
• distribution

of electrical energy. In this case, system boundaries are at the supply points of:
• residential or commercial customers that are supplied by Low Voltage (LV) distribution
feeders, and
• large industrial customers that have a direct connection to a Medium Voltage (MV)
distribution system.

In such a traditional concept, system planning and operation are coordinated by one vertically
integrated utility having a complete overview of all aspects of the power system.
A vertically integrated utility carries out optimized system planning. This starts with an optimized
generation expansion plan, is followed by allocation of generation to different regions, and finishes
with an optimized grid expansion plan that allows optimum integration of newly planned generation.
On the operational side, generation dispatch and transmission system operation are executed by the
same organization (load dispatch center).
A vertically integrated utility does not need to provide many “Technical Guidelines” to external users.
This is because there are very few interfaces between the vertically integrated utility and its users.
These technical guidelines mainly cover connection conditions for MV and LV consumers. These specify
electrical safety aspects, installation-related aspects and some power quality criteria such as harmonic
emission limits, flicker limits, etc.

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All other technical requirements for system planning and operation of a vertically integrated utility are
“internal guidelines”, which are not public. Key technical requirements of generators are covered by
specifications to manufacturers and suppliers of power plants.

Interfaces in a Vertically Integrated Structure © RENAC --- Source: Markus Pöller

1.3 Deregulated (unbundled) markets

In an unbundled market structure, responsibilities for
• power generation
• power transmission
• power distribution

are held by different, independent organizations. In such a market, all power plants are operated by
IPPs (Independent Power Producers).
An independent power producer (IPP) is a utility that is independent from transmission, distribution
and trade of power. In some cases the ownership is only legally unbundled but if generation /
distribution / generation / sales are entirely unbundled then generation / distribution / generation /
sales are owned by different independent companies.

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 Interfaces in an Unbundled Structure© RENAC --- Source: Markus Pöller

1.4 Grid code approaches for renewable generation

Renewable generators such as wind plants, PV plants or CSP plants are in most cases built by IPPs
(Independent Power Producers), even in systems with a vertically integrated structure. Therefore, a
“grid code for renewable generation” must be defined as soon as renewable generators start being
used in a country.
Some reasons why grid codes are particularly needed for renewable generation are:
• Wind turbine generators or PV inverters largely follow a controlled response (i.e. designed
by an engineer) over very short time frames (of a few milliseconds). Over these short time
frames, conventional synchronous or asynchronous (induction) generators just follow
their physical response. Therefore, the response of renewable generators in all time
frames must be carefully specified to avoid malfunctioning.
• Since the controlled response is designed by the manufacturers of the devices, it needs to
be ensured that they comply with the requirements of the grid operator, regardless of the
actual manufacturer.
• Wind turbine generators and PV inverters are manufactured in large batches. Therefore,
they are very standardized. This makes it impractical to work with project-specific
specifications. Thus, a more general standardization of the relevant electrical
characteristics is required.

When considering renewable generators in grid codes, there are basically two approaches:

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 • integrating renewable generation into the existing grid code sections like connection
conditions, operation code, data exchange code, etc.
• developing a separate document

The first approach usually leads to better integration of renewables into the overall framework of a
system. Here all common aspects (e.g. frequency ranges of operation) are treated the same and only
aspects that require special treatment for special types of generation (e.g. wind and PV farms) are
treated separately.
The second approach (separate document) is usually much quicker because it does not require new
revisions of all grid code sections.
Often this second approach is adopted first (because of time pressure), and in the longer term the
technical requirements for renewable generators are integrated into the existing grid code sections.
In most cases, just the connection conditions for renewable generation are defined and not a
complete grid code containing all relevant grid code sections. Therefore, it may be better to talk
about “connection conditions for renewable generation” rather than “grid code for renewable
generation”.
Because of the similarities between wind plants and PV plants (both are power plants consisting of a
large number of generating units that are connected within a plant-internal MV-grid), it is practical to
consider them together (e.g. British grid code: “power park modules”) and to integrate renewable
power plants based on a thermal process (such as CSP and biomass) into the existing grid code for
conventional power plants.
In Europe, a common grid code for all generators is under development (Draft, 2015). Harmonized rules
for grid connection for all power generating modules could facilitate the integration of renewable
electricity sources.

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1.4.1 Example: Grid code approaches for RE generation in Germany
In the year 2009 the German government specified system service requirements and passed the
“Ordinance on System Services by Wind Energy Plants (System Service Ordinance – SDLWindV)”. It
defines all important parameters that are usually published in a grid code that is developed by grid
operators.
The German government decided to pass the SDLWindV ordinance because the following problems
needed a solution:
• Avoid that wind turbines endanger the network security (avoid that wind power plants
switch off over a large area during a network fault and that they consume reactive power
after fault clearance)
• Overcome the missing contribution of wind power to frequency and voltage control during
normal operation
• Give incentives to operators of “old” wind turbines to upgrade the turbines so that they fulfil
actual grid code requirements.

The aim of the ordinance was to increase the security and stability of the electricity network even
with very high shares of wind power in the network as well as to boost the technical development in
this field. Without fundamental changes the type 1 and type 2 induction generators, which were
widely used before 2009, would have hindered the further development of wind power. This means,
today’s wind power penetration in Germany of sometimes more than 50% would not have been
possible (see figure).
Referring to primary and secondary reserves for frequency control: The ordinance stipulated that
primary reserve requirement for conventional power plants are not applicable for wind energy plants,
although this would be technically possible. Secondary reserve products are traded in Germany in a
special market and it is up to the power plant operator to offer capacities.

Several days with more than 50% wind power penetration in the year 2016 in Germany (Source:
Agora-energiewende, [Link], 2017)

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1.5 Summary of the chapter
Grid Codes specify the technical interfaces between the technical devices owned and operated by
different market players in an unbundled electricity market. With the help of Grid Codes the
interoperability of all technical systems forming part of a power system is ensured.
Specific grid code sections are required for the connection of renewable generators because:
• RE power plants are in most cases built by IPPs, even in systems, which are generally
vertically integrated.
• WTGs and PV inverters follow a controlled response, even in the short time frame, and
therefore require very precise specification to ensure that power quality and system
security are maintained.
• WTGs and PV inverters are manufactured in large batches. Therefore, standardization is
essential to reduce development and production costs.

With regard to the development of grid code sections for renewable energies there are basically two
approaches:
• defining a separate document, e.g. a “grid code for renewable generation”
• including RE-specific aspects into existing grid codes and distribution codes.

In most cases, the second approach leads to a more consistent integration of renewable generators
into the existing system standards and is therefore the recommended approach.

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2 Grid code structure
2.1 Introduction
Learning objectives: After the following pages, you should be able to
• list typical elements of a grid code and
• define for Point of Connection (POC) and Point of Common Coupling (PCC).

The structure of the section is as follows:

• Overall structure
• Point of Connection (POC) and Point of Common Coupling (PCC)
• Summary

2.2 Overall structure

A grid code defines the operating procedures and principles governing the relationship between the
system operator and all users (consumers, generators, distribution network operators) of a power
system. The grid code specifies all relevant procedures for both planning and operation, and should
cover both normal and exceptional circumstances.
Typical elements of a grid code are:
• Planning code:

this defines the information exchange between the system users and the system operator
to enable optimized planning of the system.
• Connection conditions:
o these specify the minimum technical requirements that the system operator and
the users have to comply with at all connection sites.
o they provide compliance procedures (studies, field-tests, monitoring
requirements) for demonstrating compliance with the technical connection
requirements.
• Operating codes:

these provide specifications mainly to the system operator relating to:

o demand forecast
o outage planning process
o system security
o isolation and earthling during maintenance work
o reporting and documentation of system faults
• Data registration code:

this is a list of all data to be submitted by the system operator to a user, or by a user to the
system operator.
This section focuses on the definition of connection conditions for wind and PV plants, and on the
particular aspects that must be considered.

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2.3 Point of Connection (POC) and Point of Common Coupling (PCC) I
The Point of Connection (POC) is defined as the interface between the system operator and the
generator.
The POC of a renewable power plant can either be:
• at the HV side of a substation (using a dedicated transformer)
• at the secondary side of a substation (MV level): connection with a cable
• along a transmission or distribution line
• at the end of a dedicated line (dedicated feeder connection)

The POC is relevant for all requirements relating to the installation of equipment (circuit breakers and
other switches, protection equipment, metering devices, etc.).
Some other requirements, mainly relating to power quality aspects (flicker, harmonics, rapid voltage
changes, etc.) are not specified for the POC but for the PCC (Point of Common Coupling).
The PCC is the nearest point in the grid to which other users (loads, generators) are connected or can
potentially be connected. In most cases, POC and PCC are identical locations in the grid (e.g. always if
the POC is inside a substation).

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 Definition of the Point of Connection (POC) Source: Markus Pöller

2.4 Point of Connection (POC) and Point of Common Coupling (PCC) II

Situations, in which POC and PCC can be different are e.g. direct connections to lines (without any
substation on that line – see figure Example 1) or connections at the end of a dedicated feeder – see
figure Example 2).
However, it has to be highlighted, that the location of POC and PCC is mainly a matter of ownership of
equipment and operational responsibilities. It is really just a definition. In both examples, the PCC could
just as well be identical to the POC.
Generally, connection conditions should treat everything behind the POC as a “black box” and specify
the expected response of a generator on the basis of system needs ("behind" means from the
perspective of the grid, so the black box is the generator). However, in order to avoid making unfeasible
demands that would discriminate some technologies, it is important to understand and address the
particularities of different generation technologies.

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Example 1: PCC at the connection to a line, POC in the dedicated wind farm substation© RENAC--- Source: Markus Pöller

Example 2: POC at the end of a dedicated feeder, PCC in the substation © RENAC--- Source: Markus Pöller

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2.5 Summary of the chapter
This chapter provides an overview of relevant aspects relating to structure and definitions of grid codes.
With regard to the grid connection of wind and PV plants, the Connection Conditions are the most
relevant section of a grid code. These address the particular technical characteristics of wind and PV
farms.
The POC defines the interfaces between the power plant operator and the grid operator. Most technical
requirements specified in the Connection Conditions of a grid code relate to the POC.
The PCC is the nearest point in the grid to which other users (loads, generators) are connected or can
potentially be connected. In most cases, POC and PCC are identical locations in the grid (e.g. always if
the POC is inside a substation). The PCC is mainly relevant for the definition of power quality criteria
because it represents the nearest point in the grid at which other users could potentially be disturbed.

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3 Technical requirements
3.1 General considerations
Learning objectives: After this page, you should be able to
• identify constraints and cost aspects that might determine the definition of connection
conditions for renewable generation plants.

When defining connection conditions for renewable generation plants, the following constraints must
be considered:
• system security must not deteriorate due to the connection of renewable generation
plants.
• cost of renewable generation must not increase unreasonably due to technical
requirements unrelated to system security considerations.

In essence, connection conditions can be defined like an optimization problem with objective function
and constraints:
• minimize cost of renewable generation (including grid connection, electricity distribution)
while ensuring system security.

With regard to costs, the following aspects must be considered:

• wind turbine generators and PV inverters are mass produced: any technical requirement
that requires changes to individual wind turbine generators or PV inverters require new
development, testing and adapted production.
• deviation from international practice: country-specific requirements of countries with
relatively small, internal wind or PV markets require special development and testing for
only a small number of products. This introduces additional market barriers, reduces
competition, and hence will increase wind turbine generator and PV inverter costs in this
market.
• Compliance procedures: costs of grid code compliance procedures do not scale with the
size of a project. Hence, relative costs of these procedures increase with decreasing project
size. In order not to endanger the economic viability of small renewable generation
projects, corresponding procedures must be adjusted to project size.

These are just some of the aspects to consider. As a general rule, each individual technical requirement
of connection conditions must be well justified in terms of system security requirements.
In the following sections, some key elements of connection conditions for wind and PV plants will be
introduced. The focus will be on specific aspects of wind and PV generation.

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3.2 Frequency range of operation (E)
Learning objectives: After the following pages, you should be able to
• explain the meaning of grid frequency within and outside the range of normal operation
and
• understand the impact of frequency control on system security.

The structure of the section is as follows:

• Frequency range requirements
• Feasibility, cost and system security

3.2.1 Frequency range requirements

General
Frequency is a global variable in a power system. This means that the frequency is the same in the
whole synchronous area, across the whole geographical area, and across all voltage levels (with the
exception of transient situations).
Consequently, frequency ranges of operation, within which no generator may be disconnected, shall
be aligned for all types of generation (conventional and renewable) and for connection points at all
voltage levels.
The definition of relevant frequency ranges of operation typically distinguishes between
• frequency range of Normal Operation
• frequency range of Abnormal Operation

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Within the frequency range of Normal Operation, unrestricted operation (especially with regard to
active and reactive power outputs) is required and no disconnection is allowed.
Besides Normal and Abnormal Operation, frequency ranges of operation should also distinguish
between ranges of
• Continuous Operation
• operation within minimum operating times

Within the frequency range of Continuous Operation, no disconnection at all of any plant is permitted.
Outside the range of Continuous Operation, minimum operating times are usually defined, meaning
that a generation plant is permitted to trip if frequency stays below the given frequency limit for more
than the given time (see tables on next page).
Examples
The upper figure shows permitted active power reduction vs. frequency according to the German
standard “TC2007”. As can be derived from this figure, the required frequency range of unrestricted
operation is
• 49.5 Hz < F < 50.2 Hz

The figure at the bottom shows the corresponding requirement according to the British Grid Code (The
Grid Code, National Grid). Here, the required frequency range of unrestricted operation is
• 49.5 Hz < F < 50.5 Hz

As well as this, the British grid code only allows active power reduction down to 95% (at a frequency
of 47.5 Hz), whereas the German grid code allows operation at 80% of rated capacity for such low
frequencies.

Permitted active power reduction as a function of frequency according to TC2007 © RENAC --- Source: BDEW: TC2007

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Permitted active power reduction as a function of frequency according to The Grid Code, U.K. © RENAC --- Source: National
Grid “The Grid Code”

3.2.2 Feasibility, cost and system security

Special considerations for renewable generation
Specifications for frequency range of operation and permitted operating range should be the same for
renewable generators and for conventional generators because, as previously mentioned, frequency is
a global variable in a synchronized power system.
Frequency range requirements should always consider that a renewable power plant cannot deliver its
rated power at all times. Hence, each technical requirement, in which “rated power” or “rated capacity”
is relevant, must clearly specify whether “rated capacity” is indeed meant or whether “Maximum
Available Power” should be used instead. Maximum Available Power refers to the maximum power
that a renewable power plant can deliver during a certain moment of time depending on the availability
of primary energy (wind, sun).
Technical feasibility and cost impact on wind and PV generation
For thermal power plants, the frequency range of operation in which the plant must be able to deliver
full active power is an important design criterion because electrical frequency is directly coupled to
rotational speed of the turbine.
For variable speed WTGs it is much less challenging to operate under full capacity, even over a wider
frequency range, because rotational speed of the turbine and electrical frequency of the grid are
entirely decoupled.

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The technical and cost impact on WTGs with Fully Rated Converters and for PV inverters is extremely
low, because a static converter can basically operate at any frequency.
It may be slightly more challenging to operate WTGs with doubly-fed induction generators (IEC-Type 3)
or WTGs with variable rotor resistance induction generators (IEC-Type 2) at full capacity because these
generators require operation over a wider frequency range. This is however still not as challenging as
with steam or a gas turbines.
Impact on system security
Only in case the frequency range of operation of renewable generators is not properly defined, system
security is highly endangered for high penetration of renewable generation in a system.
For example, in Germany until recently, generators connected to a LV grid (e.g. rooftop PV systems)
were required to disconnect if frequency moved out of the normal frequency range of operation (49.5
Hz < F < 50.2 Hz). This would have meant that all PV generators in service would have tripped more or
less simultaneously if a heavy disturbance had caused frequency to go outside this normal band of
operation. If this had happened during daytime, the consequent loss of generation would have been
huge (installed PV capacity in Germany: around 30 GWp).
The relevant connection guidelines have now been changed in order to mitigate this problem. Now the
requirement is that LV-connected generators must not disconnect as long as the frequency stays within
the range of 47.5 Hz < F < 51.5 Hz. A program has been implemented in Germany to adjust the
frequency range of all PV inverters in line with this new requirement.
Table 1: frequency ranges of operation according to TC2007 (Germany) (immediate means the power
plant is permitted to trip immediately, 10 minutes means that the power plant has to stay connected
for 10 minutes and power plants may trip if the frequency stays longer in the given range; continuous
means the power plants may not trip)
F in Hz Minimum time of operation
F<47.5 immediate
47.5<F<48.0 10min
48.0<F<48.5 20min
48.5<F<49.0 30min
49.0<F<50.5 continuous
50.5<F<51.5 30min
51.5<F immediate

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Table 2: frequency ranges of operation according to the Grid Code of the National Grid, U.K.
F in Hz Minimum time of operation
F<47 immediate
47.0<F<47.5 20s
47.5<F<49.0 90min
49.0<F<51.0 continuous
51.0<F<51.5 90min
51.5<F<52.0 15min
52.0<F immediate

3.3 Voltage range of operation (during normal operation) (E)

Learning objectives: After the following pages, you should be able to
• describe the voltage range of operation at the POC over which no disconnection is
permitted,
• explain technical feasibility and cost impacts of voltage control on wind and PV generation
and
• determine the impact of voltage control on system security.

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The structure of the section is as follows:
• Voltage range requirements
• Feasibility, cost and system security

3.3.1 Voltage range requirements

General
Similar to the frequency range of operation, the voltage range of operation at the POC over which no
disconnection is permitted must be specified in Connection Conditions for renewable generation.
Generally, voltage ranges of operation shall be in line with corresponding requirements for
conventional generation, and the technical requirements must clearly specify whether continuous
operation (no disconnection is allowed) or unrestricted operation (e.g. fully active/reactive capability)
are required within the given voltage ranges of operation.
An upper limit for maximum operating voltages is given by the standardized IEC limits for maximum
continuous voltages (see Table ‘IEC limits for maximum continuous operation’).
Table: IEC limits for maximum continuous operation
Nom. Voltage in kV [Link] in kV Max. Voltage Dev. in %
765 800 4.60%
400 420 5.00%
275 300 9.10%
220 245 11.40%
132 145 9.80%
110 123 11.82%
88 100 13.60%
66 72.5 9.80%
30/33 36 20%/9.10%
20/22 24 20%/9.10%

Lower voltage limits are typically in a range between -10% and -5% of rated voltage, depending on
voltage level and operational practice.
Examples
The relevant voltage ranges for generators with a connection point at ≥110 kV are depicted in the table.
The voltage range definitions of the German TC2007 specify the continuous voltage range of operation
(upper limits are in line with IEC limits). Additionally, it specifies voltage ranges of operation for
Abnormal Operating Conditions together with minimum operating times during which disconnection
is not permitted.

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Table: voltage ranges of operation according to the British Grid Code (National Grid)
Un Normal Operating Range Abnormal Conditions
400 kV +/- 5% -10% (continuous), 5% -
10% for max. 15 min.
275 kV +/- 10%
132 kV +/- 10%

Relevant voltage ranges of operation according to the British Grid Code (National Grid) are depicted in
the table above. A comparison of these voltage limits with the IEC limits according to Table ‘IEC limits
for maximum continuous operation’ shows that there is a slight conflict between the Grid Code
requirements of the UK National Grid and the standardized maximum continuous voltages according
to IEC at 275 kV and 132 kV with regard to maximum continuous voltages. However, these differences
are so small that they are not highly relevant.

3.3.2 Feasibility, cost and system security

Technical feasibility and cost impacts on wind and PV generation
Technical feasibility and cost impacts on wind and PV plants with a connection point at high voltage
(HV) level are quite low as long as maximum required voltages are in-line with the standardized IEC
limits so that standard cables and transformers can be used. Wind/PV plants connected to a HV grid
usually have a transformer with an on-load tap changer that maintains the voltage in the wind/PV plant
internal MV grid. Hence, the required voltage range of operation at the POC may influence the required
range of the transformer tap changer but not any wind/PV plant internal component.
However, this is different, for smaller wind/PV plants with their POC at MV level because they are
directly connected to the surrounding distribution grid without a transformer. In this case, technical
implications and cost impact mainly depend on reactive power capability requirements and the highest
wind/PV plant internal voltage that must be expected. For example, a grid code that requires
continuous operation up to IEC limits at the POC and maximum overexcited reactive power capability
at the same time would lead to considerable technical feasibility/cost impact problems. In this case,
MV and LV voltages inside the wind/PV plant would exceed IEC limits and therefore require
components with non-standard voltage ranges or components for higher voltage levels.
However, if there is just a simple requirement to remain connected at these high voltages and the
wind/PV plant can use its reactive control capability for maintaining wind farm internal voltages below
IEC limits, technical feasibility will not be a problem and cost impact of such requirements will be rather
low.
Impact on System Security
It is essential for secure system operation that required voltage ranges of operation are defined
correctly. Generators must operate reliably without any operational restrictions as long as voltage
remains within the required limits.
For robust system operation, it is further advisable to specify additional voltage limits for Abnormal
Operating Conditions where operation with only a time constraint is required (as shown in the figure).

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For short disturbances (time frame of a few seconds), additional voltage vs. time requirements have to
be specified. These aspects will be treated as Low Voltage Ride Through (LVRT) or High Voltage Ride
Through (HVRT) requirements.

Voltage Ranges of Operation according to TC2007 (Germany) © RENAC --- Source: TC2007

3.4 Power quality aspects (E)

Learning objectives: After the following pages, you should be able to
• explain technical requirements of renewable generation on voltage quality at the PCC,
• describe the relation of switching actions and harmonic emissions of wind generators and
PV inverters and
• understand the meaning of wind farms connected to weak connection points at medium
voltage.

The structure of the section is as follows:

• Harmonics
• Rapid voltage change and flicker

3.4.1 Harmonics
General

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Technical requirements with regard to the impact of renewable generation on voltage quality generally
apply to the PCC (and not to the POC) because this is the nearest point in the grid where another grid
user could be disturbed.
The main power quality aspects that should be covered by Connection Conditions for renewable
generation are:
• harmonics
• rapid voltage changes
• flicker

Harmonics
Harmonic emissions of wind generators and PV inverters are a widely discussed topic because both
technologies rely on power electronic circuits that generally cause harmonics in the course of/due to
their switching actions.
However, it must be considered that wind generators and PV inverters nowadays use modern, voltage
sourced Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) converters with very high switching frequencies and
that their level of harmonic emission cannot be compared to older rectifier/inverter technologies that
were based on thyristor circuits.
With regard to harmonics, network operators generally have to comply with harmonic voltage limits at
all nodes in their grid (compatibility levels). Because the actual level of harmonic voltages in a grid is a
result of all harmonic injections from all harmonic sources (loads, generators) and the grid (network
impedance), it is not possible to define harmonic voltage (or harmonic current) limits that renewable
generators would generally have to comply with.
However, it is common practice to put a process in place that is based on the allocation of harmonic
voltage distortion limits for each individual site and each individual connection application. This takes
into consideration all existing generators and loads as well as all generators and loads that might be
connected to the grid in the future.
Such processes are described by IEC61000-3-6 or by national standards such as G4/5 (U.K.). The grid
code then only refers to the applicable standard.
Some codes, especially codes for MV or LV grids define procedures for allocating harmonic current
injection limits instead of harmonic voltage limits. These procedures calculate maximum permitted
harmonic current injections based on worst-case assumptions for the grid impedance but also consider
maximum permitted harmonic voltage limits in the first instance.
The advantage of defining limits for harmonic current injections is that compliance can easily be
validated by comparing actual harmonic current emissions with permitted values. However, the
problem with the connection of wind/PV plants is that, besides harmonic current injections, they also
influence network impedance considerably because of the addition of large numbers of cables.
Therefore, results of harmonic current allocation schemes don’t allow assessment of the impact of a
renewable generation plant on harmonics prior to commissioning. This is because assessment methods
based on harmonic current limits are too simplified and so produce highly inaccurate results.

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3.4.2 Rapid voltage change and flicker
Rapid voltage changes
Rapid voltage changes can occur during:
• switching actions of individual WTGs or individual PV inverters
• disconnection of a complete wind/PV plant (e.g. because of protection action)

Because switching of individual units represents a normal operating action, the corresponding limits
are usually stricter than limits that apply to the disconnection of a complete wind/PV plant.
Old WTGs based on directly coupled induction generators (IEC Type 1 and IEC Type 2 WTGs) can show
quite considerable inrush currents when being switched in because their magnetic field must be
energized. These generators are typically equipped with additional soft cut-in devices which ensure
smooth energization.
WTGs with doubly-fed induction generators (DFIG, IEC Type 3) or with fully rated converters (IEC Type
4) or PV inverters provide smooth, controlled cut-in of the generators and therefore usually do not
present a rapid voltage change problem for planned switching operations.
If a complete wind/PV plant is suddenly disconnected, the limit for rapid voltage changes can present
a limit on the maximum capacity that can be connected to a point in the system.
A rapid voltage change due to an unplanned disconnection of a complete wind/PV plant depends
entirely on the pre-disturbance operational conditions (P and Q) and the strength of the network at
the POC (value of grid impedance). Therefore, if such a rapid voltage change exceeds the permitted
limits, no countermeasures from the generator-side are possible. For this reason, it should be the
utility’s responsibility to carry out a rapid voltage change assessment when assigning a connection
point to a wind/PV plant and not to leave it up to the wind/PV plant planner to identify associated
problems. The utility should not offer a POC with such problems or it should reinforce the system so
that the effective fault level at the POC is higher (the system is stronger). This could be a new
transformer or transmission line.
Flicker
Flicker can be an issue if small wind plants are connected to weak connection points (at MV) and old
stall controlled WTGs are used.
Flicker is much less of a problem when connecting large wind plants with modern, variable speed WTGs
to a high voltage grid. This is because of the turbine technology, high X/R ratios at transmission levels,
and stochastic independence of flicker-relevant wind turbulence.
Flicker emissions from PV plants are generally much lower than flicker emissions from WTGs, as long
as inverter control is properly tuned.
The general process for allocating permitted flicker levels to individual projects (definition of planning
levels) is similar to the allocation of harmonic voltage limits. Connection conditions for renewable
generation typically refer to IEC61000-3-7 or corresponding national standards (e.g. G4/5 in the U.K.).
3.5 Reactive power capability (E)
Learning objectives: After the following pages, you should be able to

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 1. explain reactive power requirements for wind and PV plants and
2. explain reactive power capability under full and part load conditions for a typical renewable
generation plant with a POC at the high voltage grid.

The structure of the section is as follows:

• Reactive power requirements
• Feasibility, cost and system security

3.5.1 Reactive power requirements

General
Connection conditions should define similar reactive power capability requirements for renewable
generators as for conventional generators. This is to ensure that reactive power reserves are not
degraded as a result of increased penetrations of renewable generation. WTGs and PV inverters do not
have “natural” reactive power capability. Therefore, the precise definition of ‘reactive power capability
requirements’ is more complex for wind and PV plants than for conventional power plants, especially
when they are operating at part load.
Reactive power capability requirements of wind and PV plants is usually defined by the following three
elements:
• as a function of voltage at the POC under full load conditions.
• when operating at part load.
• for very low generation, including zero power output.

The figure shows reactive power capability under full and part load conditions for a typical renewable
generation plant with a POC at HV. The range shown can be explained as follows:
• full load conditions (upper graph of figure): the required reactive power capability is a
function of the voltage at the POC. The higher the voltage, the more the required reactive
power capability extends into the under excited range. The lower the voltage, the more it
extends into the overexcited range.
• part load conditions (lower graph of figure): according to this example, reactive power
capability is constant down to an active power level of 20% (of rated capacity). Below this
level, the required reactive power is relaxed. This relaxation is important, especially in the
case of wind farms, because we must assume that when active power production is low,
wind speed will be below cut-off at some turbines so some generators will be disconnected
and therefore not available for reactive power support.
• Low load conditions (blue area in the lower graph of the figure): in the case of very low
production levels (e.g. below 5% of rated capacity) it is common practice not to define any
reactive power capability requirement at all, but just to define a tolerance band, it is then
specified that reactive power must be within this tolerance band for very low production
levels. In the case of a wind plant, it is important that the reactive power of cables internal
to the wind plant is within this range.

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This reactive power capability requirement definition according to the figure is not entirely clear and
does not cover all relevant operational aspects. Open points that require additional clarification are:
• What is the reference for reactive power capability (i.e. how do we define Pn in the figure)?
As:
o rated installed capacity of wind turbine generators?
o maximum power that can be delivered at the POC (installed capacity minus wind
plant internal losses)?
o registered capacity at POC?
• What reactive power capability requirements apply in the case that not all WTGs or PV
inverters are available, e. g. because of maintenance (in a larger wind plant the probability
that all WTGs are available is very low)?

For a grid code user (e.g. wind plant planner), it is advisable to seek clarification about these
aspects at an early stage in the planning process. Entities that are responsible for grid code
definitions (e.g. system operators) should try to be as clear as possible.

Reactive power capability under full load and partial load conditions © RENAC --- Source: “Grid Code for Renewable
Generation in South Africa”; Markus Pöller.

3.5.2 Feasibility, cost and system security

Technical feasibility and cost impacts on wind and PV generation:

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Modern WTGs and modern PV inverters have excellent reactive power control capability. Hence,
reactive power can be delivered by WTGs/PV inverters and, if necessary, by additional reactive power
compensation equipment.
A larger reactive power capability requires a larger inverter size (Sn=Pn/cosphimin) which results in a
higher cost.
During the planning process for a wind/PV plant, it is up to the planner to find an optimum reactive
power control concept that complies with all requirements of the applicable grid code. This can be
either just by using the reactive power capability of the WTGs or PV inverters or by installing additional
reactive power compensation devices (fixed shunts, switched shunts, SVCs) depending on dynamic
requirements.
Impact on system security
Reactive power balancing is an essential task for operating a power system. Hence, it is very important
that wind and PV plants are able to contribute to reactive power control and voltage control.
However, it must also be highlighted that in some cases there are locations other than at the wind/PV
plant which are strategically better suited to installing reactive power control devices. Especially in
areas with a high concentration of wind and/or PV generation, the grid will experience high power
flows to loads in other areas during times of high wind and/or solar generation.
These situations can be very critical with regard to reactive power balancing. This is because even if
active power produced by remote wind or PV plants can be transferred over very long distances, it is
not possible to transfer reactive power over similar distances. Therefore, regardless of the reactive
power capability of the wind/PV plants, it might be necessary to install additional reactive power
compensation equipment near to load centers to ensuring voltage stability during times of high wind
or solar generation when many synchronous generators of conventional power plants are not running.
This example shows that, even if reactive power capability represents a very important aspect of a grid
code for renewable generation, strict reactive power capability requirements alone will in many cases
still not be sufficient to resolve all problems related to reactive power balancing.

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3.6 Voltage/reactive power control requirements
Learning objectives: After the following pages, you should be able to
• name the main task of the wind/PV plant controller,
• distinguish different control modes (voltage control, droop control and power factor
control),
• identify control modes based on a PQ-diagram,
• determine which voltage control mode should be applied for which voltage level,
• list the dynamic performance requirements which wind and PV farms are able to fulfill and
• discuss technical feasibility and cost impact of reactive power control on wind and PV
generation.

3.6.1 Control modes I

General
Every wind or PV plant that has to control reactive power or voltage at the POC is equipped with a
wind/PV plant controller that measures P, Q and v at the POC and applies local Q (or v) set points at
the individual WTG or PV inverter controllers. The plant controller is simply another level of control
which sits outside of the turbine or PV inverter. Typically controllers will be in the substation control
building, but they could in theory be located anywhere, as long as the communication is fast enough
between the measurement points and the turbines / PV converters.
This plant controller must operate considerably more slowly than the local WTG or PV inverter
controllers in order to ensure dynamic decoupling between the two control loops (to avoid dynamic
interaction).
Typically, plant controllers operate with time constants of several seconds (sampling time is of course
much faster) and local controllers operate in the time frame of a few milliseconds.
The main task of the plant controller is to control the actual reactive power flow at the POC to a given
value (see figure Wind plant with plant controller).
Control modes
Connection Conditions for renewable generation must specify the technical capability of the plant. In
the case of the plant controller, this is:
• supported control modes
• dynamic performance requirements
• parameter ranges

For power plants with a connection point at a transmission level, voltage control is very common. Here,
a plant controller should be able to support:
• voltage control
• droop control

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“Droop control” is defined by a reactive power vs. voltage characteristic (see figure Voltage Control
Modes). It stabilizes the control function and avoids “hunting effects” in the case of two plants
controlling voltage at the same node or at nodes in very close proximity.
Apart from voltage control, the other group of control modes is reactive power or power factor control.
(See next page)

Wind plant with plant controller © RENAC --- Source: Markus Pöller

Voltage control modes of farm controller © RENAC --- Source: Markus Pöller

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3.6.2 Control modes II
Apart from voltage control, the other group of control modes is reactive power or power factor control.
This can be well represented in a PQ-diagram (see upper figure). Here, the following modes should be
supported:
• constant reactive power (Q-control, see figure "Reactive power...")
• constant power factor (Power Factor Control, see figure "Reactive power...")
• active power dependent power factor (cosphi(P)-control, see figure "Active power...")

Voltage control modes should only be required for wind/PV plants with their POC at transmission levels.
For distributed/embedded wind/PV plants (POC at MV-level) reactive power control modes are
sufficient.

Reactive power control modes of plant controller © RENAC --- Source: Markus Pöller

Active power dependent power factor control © RENAC --- Source: Markus Pöller

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3.6.3 Control modes III
Dynamic performance
Dynamic performance requirements represent a very important element in the reactive power design
of a wind/PV plant.
Generally, Connection Conditions for wind/PV plants should clearly specify whether
• fast voltage control, or
• slow voltage control

is required.
This is typically defined by the maximum time that the controller must be able to pass over the
complete reactive power range (and back, to avoid discussions about energization times of mechanical
switches in mechanically switched capacitors/reactors).
If this maximum time is a few seconds, fast voltage/reactive power control is required and the complete
reactive power control concept must be based on the reactive power capability of the individual
WTGs/PV inverters. If this reactive power capability is not sufficient, or if it is impractical to control
reactive power by the WTGs/PV inverters, due for example to long distances between POC and
WTGs/PV inverters, STATCOMs must be installed.
On the other hand, if the maximum time is above 30s…1minute, only “slow” voltage control is required
and mechanically switched capacitors/reactors can be used to support reactive power control.
Technical feasibility and cost impact on wind and PV generation
Nowadays, requirements for controlling reactive power or voltage at the POC are standard features of
wind and PV plants. Most modern WTGs can even no longer operate without a plant controller.
Therefore, technical requirements relating to control modes do not have a considerable cost impact as
long as these requirements are in-line with international standards.
Dynamic performance requirements, on the other hand, can have a very high cost impact because
these define whether STATCOMs are required to support the reactive power control concept or if
mechanically switched capacitors or reactors are sufficient.
Examples:
In the U.K., there is a requirement for fast voltage control. Consequently, in the UK many wind farms
are equipped with STATCOMs. The German TC2007 however only requires “slow voltage control”.
Consequently, in Germany only very few wind farms are equipped with STATCOMs and most wind farms
having a POC at the 110kV grid use mechanically switched capacitors or reactors in addition to the
reactive power control capability of the individual WTGs.

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 Reactive power control modes of plant controller Source: Markus Pöller

3.7 Active power control

Learning objectives: After the following pages, you should be able to
• explain how wind turbines and PV inverters are able to deliver a large variety of ancillary
services, including primary and secondary frequency response and
• discuss technical feasibility and cost impact of active power control on wind and PV
generation and its impacts on system security.

The structure of the section is as follows:

• Requirements
• Feasibility, costs and system security

3.7.1 Requirements
General:
Modern WTGs and PV inverters are able to deliver a large variety of ancillary services, including primary
and secondary frequency response. However, as for every conventional power plant, it is necessary to
reduce the active power output of a wind/PV plant in order to provide primary or secondary control
reserve. However, in contrast to thermal power plants, the primary fuel for wind and PV plants is free,
therefore variable costs are extremely low. Thus, from an economic point of view, it is not advisable to
use wind or PV plants for primary or secondary frequency control, as long as there are sufficient
thermal power plants dispatched that can deliver these services under much more favorable
conditions.
For this reason, it only makes sense to include the requirement for technical capability for primary and
secondary frequency control in newly connected wind/PV plants if it is expected that over the lifetime

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of the plant, wind and PV penetration will become so high that wind and PV plants have to contribute
to these services.
In some situations, however (e.g. small systems or island systems), it is useful to have primary and
secondary control in case of emergency situations, e.g. if the system is split into separate islands.
Minimum requirement
A minimum requirement is that the system operator should be able to apply active power constraints
on individual wind/PV plants (Absolute Production Constraint). In order to implement this, the TSO and
the wind plant controller must be able to exchange communication signals. Standard protocols should
be developed for this purpose.
In addition to this, the Connection Conditions for variable renewable generation must require a
mandatory high frequency response: variable renewable power plants must reduce their active power
output in proportion to frequency if frequency exceeds the normal range of operation (see figure).
Modern wind plants have the technical capability of fully participating in primary and secondary
frequency control, including low and high frequency response.
If a wind plant is participating in primary and secondary control, it must operate below its maximum
possible power output (delta-control) in order to maintain the required active power reserve.
PV plants should theoretically also be able to do this. However, the standard control algorithm of PV
plants (based on a maximum power tracking strategy) makes such delta-control substantially more
complicated. This is currently not a standard feature of PV inverter controllers.

3.7.2 Feasibility, costs and system security

Technical feasibility and cost impact on wind and PV generation
Nowadays, active power constraints and high frequency response are standard features of WTGs and
PV inverters. Therefore, there is no cost impact associated with these control features, as long as the
actual specification complies with international standards.
It is feasible for most modern WTGs to have the technical capability of low frequency response but it
is certainly not a standard feature. Generally, therefore, it should only be a requirement for larger wind

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plants, where there is a credible possibility that the operators will participate in primary or secondary
control markets at some stage during the lifetime of the wind plant.
The main impact on cost does not arise due to the technical capability but from the actual usage of
primary and secondary frequency control and the resulting necessary power limitation. Therefore, it is
very important to distinguish clearly between requirements for technical capability (to be specified in
Connection Conditions) and requirements for actual operation (to be specified in an operations code).
However, in most power markets, primary and secondary frequency participation are market products
and remunerated according to a market price. In these systems, it will be up to the wind plant operators
to decide whether or not to use it, depending on the market price.
However, in power markets, in which participation in primary frequency control is mandatory for
conventional power plants, the introduction of a corresponding obligation for wind plants would have
a very substantial cost impact.
Impact on system security
Especially with regard to the management of grid congestions, it is important that the system operator
can impose constraints on the active power production of wind/PV plants, so that n-1 security can be
maintained during all times.
High frequency response contributes to better management of high frequency situations. In the past,
many TSOs required variable renewable generators simply to disconnect in the case of high frequency
situations. In systems with relatively low penetration levels, this may even be a reasonable strategy.
However, as soon as variable renewable generation reaches significant penetration levels,
disconnection in the case of high frequency represents a major threat to system security.
Examples:
Germany only requires active power constraint and high frequency response (according to
TC2007/SDLWindV). It is still not possible for wind plants to participate in primary and secondary
frequency control.
In the U.K., the technical capability for primary and secondary frequency control is mandatory for wind
plants with an installed capacity >50MW. The actual use of it is regulated by a corresponding market.

Example of a high frequency response in a 50Hz system © RENAC --- Source of picture: Markus Pöller Source of data: TC2007

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3.8 Low and high voltage ride through capability
Learning objectives: After the following pages, you should be able to
• explain the most important technical requirement for wind turbines and PV farms with
regard to system security called Low Voltage Ride Through or Fault Ride Through
Capability,
• realize situations in which a generator is not allowed to disconnect in the case of a short-
term voltage rise (High Voltage Ride Through) and
• discuss the technical feasibility and cost impact of Low/High Voltage Ride Through on wind
and PV generation and its impact on system security.

The structure of the section is as follows:

• Requirements
• Feasibility, costs and system security

3.8.1 Requirements
General - LVRT
LVRT (Low Voltage Ride Through) Capability probably represents the most important technical
requirement for WTGs and PV inverters with regard to system security. Very often, the term FRT (Fault
Ride Through) Capability is used instead.
LVRT generally means that a generator is not allowed to disconnect in the case of a short-term voltage
dip resulting from a short-circuit in the grid.
LVRT is typically specified by a curve which represents the lower limit of voltage vs. time for which no
disconnection is permitted. An example of such a curve is shown in the figure. All voltages that do not
cross the LVRT-curve must not lead to any disconnection of any generator (the figures on the next page
show examples of compliant voltages and non-compliant voltages).
The shape of a LVRT curve can be explained as follows:
• duration of zero voltage (150 ms in the example in the figure): maximum clearing time of a
fault at main transmission levels (including communication and breaker delays).
• straight line between low and normal voltages: covers slow voltage recovery and longer fault
clearing times in the case of faults at lower voltage levels (e.g. faults at adjacent MV-feeders that are
cleared by overcurrent-time protection).
General – HVRT
Analogous to LVRT, HVRT stands for “High Voltage Ride Through”. It generally means that a generator
is not allowed to disconnect in the case of a short-term voltage rise.
When looking at both LVRT and HVRT, as shown in the figure, it can be stated that for any voltage that
is between the LVRT and HVRT characteristic, no disconnection of any generator is permitted. For LVRT

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and HVRT, the term “Voltage” should ideally be defined as the lowest of the three line-line or line-
neutral voltages at the POC.

Typical LVRT and HVRT characteristics © RENAC --- Source: Markus Pöller

3.8.2 Feasibility, costs and system security

Technical feasibility and cost impacts on wind and PV generation
LVRT and HVRT capability definitely has a considerable cost impact. Nowadays, however, it is widely
accepted that LVRT and HVRT capability is essential for secure operation of power systems with
considerable shares of wind and PV generation. Therefore, LVRT and HVRT capability have become
standard features of WTGs and PV inverters.
As long as the LVRT/HVRT requirements in a grid code comply with international standards, additional
costs are moderate. However, if corresponding requirements deviate considerably from international
standards, associated costs for development and testing can be substantial, especially if tests with Fault
Ride Through Containers are required.
Impact on system security
LVRT and HVRT capability is essential for secure operation of a power system with considerable shares
of wind and PV generation. Without LVRT capability there would be a high risk that large amounts of
wind and PV generation would disconnect if a single fault on a major transmission line were to cause a
voltage dip over a wide area. The lost generation would have to be backed up by primary, secondary
and tertiary control reserve and the associated costs would be massive. Therefore, it is generally
accepted nowadays that LVRT (and HVRT) capability is essential so as not to endanger the security of a
power system.
Examples
LVRT capability is a standard feature of all Connection Conditions that specifically address wind and PV
generation.
With regard to HVRT this is not the case. In Germany, for example, HVRT is still not required. However,
is the requirement for HVRT is currently under discussion and will most likely be included in future
versions of the German codes.

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 Compliant voltages © RENAC --- Source: Markus Pöller

Non-compliant voltages © RENAC --- Source: Markus Pöller

3.9 Reactive current support during LVRT/HVRT situations (E)

Learning objectives: After the following pages, you should be able to
• explain why renewable generators must inject additional reactive current into the grid
during low voltage situations,
• give reasons why renewable generators must absorb reactive current during high voltage
conditions,
• describe a typical reactive current support characteristic and
• discuss technical feasibility, cost impact of reactive current support on wind and PV
generation as well as its impacts on the system security.

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The structure of the section is as follows:
• Requirements
• Feasibility, costs and system security

3.9.1 Requirements
General
In order to actively support voltage during low voltage situations (LVRT-situations), renewable
generators must inject additional reactive current into the grid, similar to the short-circuit current of a
synchronous generator.
Likewise, in order to actively reduce the voltage and help keep the voltage within reasonable limits
during high voltage conditions, renewable generators must absorb reactive current.
Besides supporting voltage during voltage dips, reactive current support helps to activate protection
relays, e.g. protection relays which have a current threshold as a starting characteristic.
A typical reactive current support characteristic is depicted in the figure. According to this diagram, a
WTG or PV inverter will inject an additional reactive current (ΔIq, in addition to the pre-fault reactive
current) into the grid if the difference between post-disturbance and pre-disturbance voltage (ΔU) goes
below -10%.
In the case that ΔU goes above 10%, a high voltage condition is identified and a ΔI will be absorbed in
order to stabilize the voltage. It is further recommended that ΔI is defined as being in proportion to ΔU
(the factor of proportionality is then named “K”).
Besides this, the definition of reactive current support shall include the following:
• does the requirement apply to symmetrical situations only, or to symmetrical and
asymmetrical situations?
• (Recommendation: both, symmetrical and asymmetrical)
• what is the precise definition of voltage and current?
• (Recommendation: positive sequence voltage and currents, deviation of post-fault from
pre-fault values)
• where does the requirement apply? At the POC or at the generator’s terminals?
• (Recommendation: at the generator terminals because POC is almost impossible to
implement)
• does the factor of proportionality, K, have to be settable? If yes, in which range?
• (Recommendation: settable, 0<=K<=10 -> reactive current support can be disabled)

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 • dynamic performance requirements: what is the settling time?
• (Recommendation: 60ms, well below minimum fault clearing times)
• accuracy: reactive current injection does not have to be a precise control algorithm,
therefore, what tolerance band is permitted?
• (Recommendation: +/-20% of the given value).
• limitation of current: to what value can the current be limited?
• (Recommendation: limitation of absolute current value to rated current)
• is there a minimum voltage threshold for the applicability of the reactive current support
scheme?
• (Recommendation: 10%, meaning that below a retained voltage of 10%, reactive current
injection is not required)
• during LVRT-situations, is it permitted to reduce active current and to prioritize reactive
current?
• (Recommendation: yes, reactive current prioritization)

Unfortunately, reactive current support requirements are much less standardized than other grid code
requirements for renewables. A large variety of definitions can be found with regard to the above listed
aspects. In many cases, some, if not most, of these aspects are not specified at all. As a general rule,
the reactive current support requirement should be specified in such a way that the behavior of
wind/PV plants during grid faults corresponds as closely as possible to the behavior of synchronous
machines.

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 Reactive current support © RENAC --- Source: Markus Pöller

3.9.2 Feasibility, costs and system security

Technical feasibility and cost impacts on wind and PV generation
LVRT with reactive current support is much more challenging for WTGs and PV inverters than the simple
LVRT requirement for wind and PV plants to remain connected during grid disturbances. Therefore,
there is a considerable cost impact on WTGs and PV inverters associated with reactive current support.
Nowadays, however, it can be assumed that reactive current support is a standard requirement for
WTGs. Therefore, as long as corresponding requirements are in-line with international standards, the
associated cost impact for PV inverters, and WTGs based on fully rated converters (IEC Type 4) is
relatively low.
The cost impact on WTGs with DFIG (IEC Type 3) depends on the machine’s LVRT strategy. DFIGs using
crow bar protection during LVRT situations will not be able to comply with reactive current
requirements if the required settling time is too short. For example, in Germany DFIGs with crow-bar
protection were basically eliminated when the settling time of 60ms was introduced in 2009.

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Wind plants having induction machines with variable rotor resistance (IEC Type 2) can only comply with
this requirement if additional STATCOMs with the ability to provide the required reactive current during
low voltage conditions are installed. The associated cost impact is considerable.
In the case of PV inverters, this is different. Currently, only large PV plants in Germany which have their
POC at MV have to inject reactive current during grid disturbances. In most other cases (connection to
LV, etc.), a simple LVRT requirement is sufficient.
Impact on system security
Generally, the relevance of reactive current support for system security is much less than the simple
LVRT requirement to remain connected. The main advantages of reactive current support are:
• a WTG or PV inverter helps itself to remain connected by injecting reactive current during
grid faults and lifting the voltage.
• especially in areas with low conventional generation and high renewable generation,
reactive current support helps support the voltage during grid faults, avoids disconnection
of loads and other generators without LVRT, and generally improves stability.

However, the “reach” of reactive current support is not very large. This means that systems with
variable renewable generation installed far from load centers, reactive current injection will not be able
to compensate for reduced short-circuit current resulting from a disconnection of large synchronous
generators during times of high wind or PV generation.
Furthermore, reactive current support can even cause problems, especially in low voltage and medium
voltage grids. Reactive current support is equivalent to a contribution to short-circuit currents. This
means that in radial grids, which may just be protected by non-directional overcurrent schemes, short
circuit in-feed from embedded generation may have negative impact on protection selectivity.
For this reason, it is strongly recommended that the distribution network operator be allowed to
disable reactive current support (e.g. by setting K=0) if he/she feels that this reduces problems
associated with embedded generators in his/her grid.
Examples
The German codes are widely in-line with the recommendations above (and the figure).
In the U.K., active current must be prioritized during grid faults and reactive current must be provided
“within the design limits” of the WTG or PV inverter.

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3.10 Active/reactive power requirements during voltage recovery (E)
Learning objectives: After the following pages, you should be able to
• name the requirements for active power recovery e.g. minimum time during which active
power has to be ramped up to pre-fault level,
• explain how to avoid that wind turbine and PV farms absorb large amounts of reactive
power during voltage recovery and
• discuss technical feasibility and cost impact of voltage recovery on wind and PV generation
and impacts on the system security.

The structure of the section is as follows:

• Requirements
• Feasibility, costs and system security

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3.10.1 Requirements
General
After fault clearance, when voltage is recovering it is important that
• renewable power plants re-establish active power production
• there is no adverse impact on voltage recovery

Active power
A requirement for active power recovery subsequent to a LVRT situation is almost as important as LVRT
itself. Ultimately, LVRT would be useless if active power weren’t restored.
Active power restoration is typically specified by a minimum time during which active power has to be
ramped up to pre-fault level (or maximum available power), or at least to 90% of pre-fault level.
However, with regard to the speed of active power restoration, substantial differences can be observed
when comparing grid codes of different countries.
Research and studies have shown that slow active power recovery times can have a positive impact on
transient stability (increased critical fault clearing times). However, in smaller systems, slow active
power recovery would lead to severe frequency drops and cannot be tolerated.
Consequently, substantial differences with regard to required active power recovery times can be found
when comparing grid codes for renewable generation of different system operators:
o operators of relatively small grids, in which frequency stability is the dominant
problem, usually require fast active power recovery times (e.g. 1 s)
o operators of large interconnected grids, in which frequency stability is less of an
issue but transient stability is the dominant problem, slower active power
recovery times are required (e.g. 10 s)

Reactive power
Fixed speed induction machines can have a very negative impact on voltage recovery because they
tend to absorb large amounts of reactive power during voltage recovery. For this reason, historically,
distribution network operators generally asked embedded generators to disconnect from the grid in
the case of voltage dips. However, with increasing shares of wind, PV and other embedded generation
it became obvious that disconnection would not resolve the problem, but that LVRT is required for all
renewable generators.
Hence, it is necessary to include clear definitions of the required reactive power behavior during
voltage recovery in order to avoid negative impact from renewable generators.
A reasonable definition could be that:
post-fault reactive power of wind and PV plants must not be below pre-fault reactive power.
In order to allow precise tests of this requirement, and to avoid short, transients’ effects not relevant
to system security from disqualifying some technologies, a tolerance limit should be added to the
reactive power value (e.g. 10%) and a delay time should be specified (e.g. 200 ms after fault clearance)
for the evaluation.

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3.10.2 Feasibility, costs and system security
Technical feasibility and cost impacts on wind and PV generation
Fast active power recovery of around 1s can be challenging to some wind turbine generators. PV
inverters generally don't have any problems with fast active power recovery.
With regard to reactive power requirements, cost impact highly depends on the chosen technology:
o fixed speed induction generators or induction generators with variable rotor
resistance (IEC- Types 1 and 2) can only comply with this requirement with
additional STATCOMS.
o generally, the cost impact for DFIG and wind turbines with fully rated converter
(IEC Types 3 and 4) and PV inverters is very low. However, DFIGs with crow bar
protection must ensure that there is no re-ignition of the crow bar upon fault
clearance.

Impact on system security

Both aspects, active power recovery and no excessive reactive power absorption are essential for
system security.
Sufficiently quick active power recovery is essential for frequency stability in the overall grid whereas
large reactive power absorption could have negative impact on voltage recovery or even drive the
system into a local voltage collapse.

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However, only fixed speed asynchronous machines or induction generators with variable rotor
resistance (IEC Types 1 and 2) are susceptible to dynamic voltage collapse. All other technologies have
a controlled reactive power response and the problem of excessive reactive power absorption
subsequent to a voltage dip doesn’t exist.
Therefore, it is recommended that wind plants having IEC Type 1 and 2 WTGs, which need STATCOM-
support to achieve LVRT capability, are asked to install a Q(U)-protection relay that trips if reactive
power is below a given threshold in the case of low voltages. This is to ensure that there is no risk of
dynamic voltage collapse.
For all other technologies (WTGs IEC Type 3 and 4, and PV inverters) Q(U) protection is not required if
grid compliant reactive power behavior during voltage restoration can be demonstrated by simulations.

3.11 Grid code compliance

Learning objectives: After this page, you should be able to
• explain the development steps that the grid code compliance tests should consider and
which tests should be carried out during the individual steps and
• discuss considerations on cost impacts and system security impacts.

General
Grid code compliance should be demonstrated at different stages of development, in particular
• development of generating units
• planning stage
• commissioning
• actual operation

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During the individual stages, the following tests should be carried out:
• development stage: type tests according to IEC61400-21 and development of a validated
model.
• planning stage: Grid Code compliance validation based on planning documents and
simulation.
• commissioning: verification of conformity of the installation with planning documents and
field-tests for validating grid code compliance.
• actual operation: installation and operation of monitoring equipment (data logger) during
actual operation.

Because wind and PV plants comprise individual generating units, certified type tests are essential for
grid code compliance.
In the planning stage, a wind plant planner must perform grid code compliance studies and submit
them to the system operator. It is in the strong interest of the wind/PV plant planner to have
confirmation of compliance because this creates a reasonable level of security: it is generally very
difficult to add components (e.g. reactive compensation plants) when a plant has already been built
(e.g. because of space requirements). Very often, such a confirmation is also a pre-requisite for
bankability.
Commissioning tests for validating grid code compliance on-site are in the strong interest of the system
operator. The system operator has to ensure that everything works according to the concept and in
accordance with the connection conditions.
During actual operation, a system operator should verify grid code compliance by installing suitable
measurement equipment with data logging functionality. This is to verify if the response of renewable
generation plants to actual system events (e.g. voltage or frequency disturbance) is grid code
compliant.
Cost impact
Generally, the grid code compliance process has to be adjusted to the overall size and cost of individual
projects. Otherwise, there is a considerable risk that small projects will become economically
unfeasible because of overhead costs: the grid code compliance process cannot be the same for very
small generation projects <100kW and very large wind/PV plants of several MW.
Therefore, Connection Conditions for renewable generation should clearly define what type of test is
required at what stage for which size of project.
Impact on system security
In order to ensure system security, a proper grid code compliance process is as important as the code
itself.
Experience has shown that only tested equipment works according to its specification (this does not
only apply to renewable generation projects but to all types of engineering).
Therefore, it is essential to test all installations for grid code compliance and to impose reasonable
sanctions for non-compliance.

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Examples
In Germany, grid code compliance testing is within the responsibility of independent, accredited
certification bodies. This includes unit-testing (type testing of WTGs and PV inverters) and grid code
compliance studies.
During commissioning, the certifier carries out conformity checks to verify that everything has been
installed according to the planning documents, (which previously will have received approval from the
planning authority).
In the U.K., the system operator (National Grid) requires type tested models and grid code compliance
studies, which are usually executed by the planner and submitted to the system operator for
verification.

3.12 Summary of the chapter

This chapter presents some key aspects relating to the definition of technical requirements for the
connection of wind and PV farms. These technical requirements form part of the Connection
Conditions of a Grid Code.
Generally, a Grid Code has to ensure that power quality and system security will not deteriorate due to
the connection of wind and PV farms while at the same time ensuring that costs stay within reasonable
ranges.
As well as this, it is essential that all technical requirements are very clearly specified, leaving no room
for interpretation.
Besides the actual definition of technical requirements, it is almost as important to define and
implement procedures for verifying the compliance of RE power plants with the grid code. In order to
ensure maximum system security, such a compliance procedure should cover the planning phase, the
commissioning phase and the actual operating phase of a RE power plant.

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4 Summary
This course introduces relevant aspects relating to the definition and interpretation of connection
conditions for renewable generation.
The objectives of this course are to:
• support network operators in the definition of grid codes for renewable generation
• support planners of wind and PV plants in the interpretation of grid code requirements for
renewable generation

The course explains the purpose and need for grid codes, provides typical grid code requirements for
renewable generation and explains the background of these requirements.
Finally, the course addresses important aspects relating to grid code compliance processes with special
emphasis on grid code compliance testing.

RENAC-seminar field trip to a distribution grid control center in Potsdam © RENAC

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