6574

Every language affects English learners differently, so we can't simply list out all the common mistakes,
this post would be too long!
If you're a complete newcomer to the country you're in, then it can be hard to identify at first. The longer
you stay, the more often you'll notice the same mistakes occurring, which is likely a sign of the mother
tongue interfering. 
Pay attention to mistakes your students make, and when you come across the same ones over and over
again, ask somebody who speaks the local language if it might be caused by that language.
It's definitely worth doing this, because letting students know when they're being influenced by their
mother tongue is a good way of stopping it happening again. 
Equally, if you start learning the local language, you'll find yourself understanding mother tongue influence
a lot more, and will be able to correct it far more easily. This is an added bonus of taking the plunge and
learning the language.
You can also use other people's research. There are plenty of "How [language] affects English learning"
articles online and many books have been written on the subject too. All you need to do is find one that
applies to the language(s) of the country you're in, and you'll be set.
Also, be aware that words have different connections in different languages, or words that have multiple
meanings in English might not have the same (or any) alternate meanings for other languages. This
means that you should take extra care when presenting new vocabulary, as sometimes there are
ambiguities that you wouldn't have thought of.

Question 02 :

The term sociolinguistics can be defined as the study of language in relation to society. It is the
descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects of society including cultural norms, expectations and
context, on the way language is used, and society's effect on language. It differs from sociology of
language which focuses on the effect of language on society. Historically, it is closely related to linguistic
anthropology, and the distinction between the two fields has been questioned. It also studies how
language varieties differ between groups separated by certain social variables e.g., ethnicity, religion,
status, gender, level of education, age, etc. Furthermore, it focuses on various aspects such as how
creation and adherence to these rules is used to categorize individuals in social or socioeconomic
classes. William Labov is often regarded as the founder of the study of sociolinguistics. He is especially
famous for introducing the quantitative study of language variation and change, making the sociology of
language into a scientific discipline. Sociolinguistics has become a recognised part of most of the courses
on 'linguistics' or 'language' offered at university level. Sociolinguistics is indeed one of the main growth
points in the study of language from the perspectives of both teaching and research. There are major
English-language journals devoted to research publications which include:  Language in Society 
Language Variation and Change  International Journal of the Sociology of Language Most of the growth
in sociolinguistics has taken place since the late 1960s. This is not meant to imply that the study of
language in relation to society is an invention of the 1960s. What is new is the widespread interest in
sociolinguistics which reveals that it can throw much light both on the nature of language and the nature
of society. Like other subjects, Sociolinguistics is partly empirical and partly theoretical.

It is partly a matter of going out and amassing bodies of fact, and partly of sitting back and thinking. A
sociolinguist might determine through the study of social attitudes that particular vernacular would not be
considered appropriate language use in a business or professional setting. Sociolinguists might also
study grammar, phonetics, vocabulary, and other aspects of a sociolect, much as dialectologists would
study the same for a regional dialect.

In Pakistan, English is one of the official languages and the language of higher education, a prerequisite
for professional positions, and the most prestigious language. However, access to English may not be the
same for people belonging to different socioeconomic statuses because of different school systems.
There are different schools for the elites to which ordinary people have no access. This study explored
access to English in different schools employing a qualitative design strategy, a phenomenological case
study. Data were collected through participant observation in four different types of schools, through
interviews of the administrators, teachers, and students. The symbolic power of language and
sociolinguistics of English were used as theoretical framework. The data were coded and analyzed using
constructivist grounded theory. The study found that English language instruction prepares students for
variant social roles in different schools focusing on developing different linguistic resources and social
capital, which perpetuate class structure

Language represents ideas and ideologies of any society. In Pakistani culture, the English language
retains the
liberal values of western society as an official language. However, English is considered as a language of
empowerment in the contemporary world as well as in Pakistan. So, the researchers have tried to find out
the
constructions of local identity (ies) with the help of code-switching and code-mixing techniques utilized in
the
novel. Moreover, the present research also delimits itself only with the phenomenon of code-switching in
Hanif’s
novel (2011). The present study has been conducted in the field of linguistics (specifically in
sociolinguistics), so,
the written text of the novel has been preferred and studied rather than film or television. Moreover, the
objectives
of the present research are to represent power relations in patriarchal society through code-mixing in
Hanif’s novel
(2011); to interpret the status of women constructed through ideas and ideologies in a metropolitan city
(Karachi)
of Pakistan.
Furthermore, through the findings of the research, the researchers have tried to answer the following
questions:
1) How social identities and power relations have exposed through code-switched language by the writer?
2) How has code-switch language represented ideas as well as ideologies about women in Hanif’s novel
Our Lady
of Alice Bhatti (2011)?
3) How has code-switched language constructed social and cultural identities in a patriarchal society?

Language as a social practice enables people to negotiation, argument, and discussion in any society.
Languages
and the use of language manifest ‘who we are’ and we define reality partly through our language and
linguistic
behavior (Wodak, 2003). Identity is the prototype of ideology. Language grows out of life, out of its needs
and
experiences. Language is not merely a tool of communication while it is directly associated with ideology
(ies).
Man is always exposed as dominant, powerful, authoritative while woman is exposed as submissive,
subordinate,
powerless, fragile, obedient as well as innocence. It is commonly said that women have power in their
mouths and
men have the power in their fists. People are considered as part of the elite group who possess power.
The use of
the English language is considered as the part of elite social status. Because of this, the elite class refers
to their
children in English medium schools to achieve a higher social, cultural as well as political status.
According to
Rahman (1990), the English language is regarded as a symbol of power as well as the trait of
modernization. In the
power structure(s) of Pakistani society, the protagonist (Alice) belongs to the religious group of
Christianity. Being
a minority, Alice belongs to working-class status which deteriorates her position of nurse just because of
marginalization, demoralization in male-dominated (patriarchal) society. The Christian institute or school
of
nursing was threatened by the presence of Muslims what she calls Musla (Muslim) girls and the same
girls did
attack her when Alice called the Kafir den (Hanif, 2011, p. 172). Then the voices of slogans: “Who
belongs to
Pakistan, Musalman, Musalman” (Hanif, 2011, p. 172).
The use of English language in Hanif’s novel (2011) demonstrates\

The present study has exposed different ideas and ideologies through code-switching or ideological
positioning
from different perspective of religious (especially Muslims and Christians) lifestyles of metropolitan city
(Karachi)
in Pakistan. Hanif’s novel (2011) has depicted a highly effective story which highlights the representation
of social
and cultural practices, norms, customs, values, as well as power relations in a comprehensive manner.
Various
social identities have also reflected through the use of Urdu words in English fictional novel of Pakistan.
The
researchers have predicted that the novel revolves around disappointed Christian communities of
Pakistani society
where they lose their identity when Muslims call them Choorha (submissive individuals). Partially, women
also
face discriminatory attitude of the Muslim majority. Through the narrative, Hanif has also mocked the
social as
well as religious detachments in today’s Pakistani society.

Vocabulary and colloquialisms[edit]

Pakistani English contains many unique terms,[citation needed] as well as terms which are utilised
somewhat differently in Pakistan.[dubious – discuss]. For instance, "chips" is used for potato chips as well
as for French fries (usage of these terms is common in the UK) and "lemon" is used for both lime and
lemon.[10]:69–71

 "Uncle / Aunty" – Respectful way of addressing anyone who is significantly older than oneself:
"Uncle, please give way".[citation needed]
 Use of double and triple for numbers occurring twice or three times in succession (this is also in
usage in the UK), especially for a phone number: for example, a phone number 2233344 would be
pronounced as "double two, triple three, double four"; however the phone number 2222555 would be
pronounced as ”double two, double two, triple five”.
 Shopper means a shopping bag, rather than a person who is shopping, the latter is referred to as
a customer.
 Petrol pump — This term used to refer to a petrol station (gas station).
 Opening/closing an object refers to turning something on or off; this is due to the verbs for to
open and to close being the same as the verbs for to turn on and to turn off in Urdu and other
Pakistani languages.
 "Alphabet" - can be used to refer to a single letter and "alphabets" can refer to a group of two or
more letters.
 Light gone – This refers to the electric power outage from the electric supply company.
 Number – Often used in place of "marks" in an exam (used as both singular and plural
without s while speaking in mixed English-Urdu).
 His/her meter has turned or -is high means that the person has lost his/her temper. Usually used
for a sudden outburst, one which is construed as unreasonable.
 Got no lift – received no attention or assistance from someone.
 In-Charge – a casual as well as formal title given to unit, group or division heads.
 Same to same – an expression to indicate something is exactly the same to some other thing.
 On parade – being at work or at a set activity. Usually (though not always) in the context of
starting something for the first time. For example, I have been hired by the company, on parade from
next Monday.
 Become a direct Sergeant – be promoted out of turn/ given responsibility and authority very early.
Often in the context that a person is out of his/her depth. For example, no wonder that team has
failed so badly, leader was a direct Sergeant. Usually "Sergeant" is replaced by "Havildar" the
equivalent rank in the Pakistan Army. Also used for upwardly mobile, ambitious or nouveau riche.
 Miss is used to address or refer to female teachers, whatever their marital status, e.g. Yes, I have
done my homework, Miss. Less commonly used to refer to women colleagues or subordinates.
(Usage is also common in the UK)
 Madam is used to address and refer to females in positions of authority, usually a superior,
e.g. Madam has ordered me to get the figures for last years sales.Can also be used as a noun,
e.g. She is the madam of that department meaning she is the head of the department, without it
being derogatory.
 Sir is used for a male superior, often combined with their name or used as a noun. E.g. Is Sir
in? or Sir Raza wants to see you in his office as soon as possible.
 Well left – avoided artfully, often a tricky situation; from cricket, the term "well left" is applied when
a batsman chose not to play a potentially dangerous delivery, e.g. I well left that offer, it could have
caused many problems.
 Threw/Received a googly – an unexpected situation arose, a person was surprised, often
unpleasantly, e.g. had just settled down and then got the googly about the transfer. From googly, a
delivery in cricket.
 Yorker – a sudden, dangerous and potentially devastating situation; similar use to googly, but
usually has a certain amount of danger attached to it. My mother's heart attack while we were hiking
in the mountains hit like a yorker, we were far from any medical help. Also used in a similar
manner; bouncer. All three terms are derived from actual cricket deliveries, cricket being a popular
sport in the country.
 Hit middle stump – did an action in such a manner that there is little room for further action, or a
decisive blow, e.g. Really hit middle stump last year on that contract. Also derived from cricket.
 Master Sahib, contracted to Ma'Sahib – used to refer to a master craftsman. The term is now
used more frequently to refer to tailors and carpenters.
 Drinking a cigarette/cigar – smoking a cigarette. This is due to the verbs for smoking being the
same as the verbs for drinking in Urdu and other Pakistani languages.
 Elder – used as a comparative adjective in the sense of older. For example, "I am elder to you",
instead of "I am older than you."
 Even – as well/also/too: "Even I didn't know how to do it." This usage of even is borrowed from
native grammatical structure.
 Graduation – completion of a bachelor's degree (as in the UK): "I did my graduation at Presidency
College" ("I earned my bachelor's degree at Presidency College"), whereas in the United States it
refers to completion of Highschool, Master's or PhD as well.[dubious – discuss]
 Paining – hurting would be correct in Standard American and British: "My head is paining."
 Shirtings and suitings – the process of making such garments; a suffix in names of shops
specialising in men's formal/business wear.
 Timings – hours of operation; scheduled time, such as office timings or train timings, as opposed
to the standard usage such as "The timing of his ball delivery is very good."
 Gentry – generalised term for social class – not specifically 'high social class'. The use of 'good',
'bad', 'high' and 'low' prefixed to 'gentry' is common.
 mutton – goat meat instead of sheep meat.
Words unique to (i.e. not generally well known outside South Asia) and/or popular in Pakistan include
those in the following by no means exhaustive list:

 batchmate or batch-mate (not classmate, but a schoolmate of the same grade)

 compass box for a box holding mathematical instruments like compasses, divider, scale,
protractor etc.; also widely referred to as a "geometry box"
 cousin-brother (male first cousin) and cousin-sister (female first cousin)
 overhead bridge (bridge meant for pedestrians)
 flyover (overpass or an over-bridge over a section of road or train tracks)
 godown (warehouse)
 godman somewhat pejorative word for a person who claims to be divine or who claims to have
supernatural powers
 gully to mean a narrow lane or alley (from the Hindi word "gali" meaning the same).
 long-cut (the opposite of "short-cut", in other words, taking the longest route).
 mugging/cramming or mugging up (memorising, usually referring to learning "by rote," as used in
British English and having nothing to do with street crime, that the expression might also mean in
British/American English).
 nose-screw (woman's nose-ring)
 prepone (The "opposite" of postpone, that is to change a meeting to be earlier). Many dictionaries
have added this word.
 tiffin box for lunch box. The word is also commonly used to mean a between-meal snack.
 BHK is real-estate terminology for "Bedroom, Hall and Kitchen", used almost exclusively in
housing size categorisation. "Hall" refers to the living room, which is highlighted separately from other
rooms. For instance, a 2BHK apartment has a total of three rooms – two bedrooms and a living room.
o co-brother indicates relationship between two men who are married to sisters, as in "He
is my co-brother"
 co-inlaws indicates relationship between two sets of parents whose son and daughter are
married, as in "Our co-inlaws live in Karachi."
o co-sister indicates relationship between two women who are married to brothers, as in
"She is my co-sister"
 boss is a term used to refer to a male stranger such as shopkeeper: "Boss, what is the cost of
that pen?"
 vote-bank is a term commonly used during the elections in Pakistan, implying a particular bloc or
community of people inclined to cast their votes for a political party that promises to deliver policies
favouring them.
 pant – Trousers
 Mess – A dining hall, especially used by students at a dormitory. "Mess" is also used in reference
to eateries catering primarily to a working class population. Originated from the military term of similar
meaning.
 Eve teasing – Verbal sexual harassment of women.
 "Where are you put up?" means 'Where are you currently staying?".
 "Out of station": "out of town". This phrase has its origins in the posting of army officers to
particular "stations" during the days of the East India Company.
 ing pricey":"acting pricey": playing "hard to get", being snobbish.
 "pass out" is meant to graduate, as in "I passed out of the university in 1995". In American/British
English, this usage is limited to graduating out of military academies.
 "tight slap" to mean "hard slap".
 Time-pass – Doing something for leisure but with no intention or target/satisfaction,
procrastination, pastime.
 Time-waste – Something that is a waste of time; procrastination. Presumably not even useful for
leisure.
 Pindrop silence – Extreme silence (quiet enough to hear a pin drop).
 chargesheet: n. formal charges filed in a court; v. to file charges against someone in court
 redressal: n. redress, remedy, reparation
 "Hill Station" – mountain resort.
 "stepney" refers to a spare tyre. The word is a genericised trademark originating from
the Stepney Spare Motor Wheel, itself named after Stepney Street, in Llanelli, Wales.[17]
 Cooling glasses – sunglasses
 "cent per cent", "cent percent" – "100 percent/100 per cent" as in "He got cent per cent in
math/maths".
 "loose motion" – diarrhoea
 "expire" – To die, especially in reference to one's family member.
 "bunking" – To skip class without permission, compare UK bunking off
 "carrying" – to be pregnant, as in "She is carrying".
 "pressurise" – to put pressure on someone, to influence.
 "club" or "clubbing" – To merge or put two things together. "Just club it together.”
 "cantonment" – permanent military installation.
 "taking an exam/test" as opposed to "taking/writing an exam", a phrase more commonly used in
the US and Canada. ("giving a test" is used to refer to a person who is going to conduct the test)
 "register" as opposed to "notebook," a phrase more commonly used in the US.
 "copy" is used for notebook.
 "lady finger" is used for okra.
Words which are considered archaic in some varieties of English, but are still in use in Pakistani English:

 Curd – yogurt
 Dicky/Dickey/Digy – the trunk of a car (also obs "dicky seat" UK).[18]
 In tension – being concerned or nervous. Phrased another way, "He is taking too much tension".
Found in eighteenth-century British English.[19]
 Into – multiplied by, as in 2 into 2 equals 4, rather than 2 times 2 is 4, which is more common in
other varieties of English. The use of into dates back to the fifteenth century, when it had been
common in British English.[20]
 ragging – also used in public schools in the UK, hazing (US).
 Use of thrice, meaning "three times", is common in Pakistani English.
 Use of the phrases like nothing or like anything to express intensity. For example, "These people
will cheat you like anything". Such usage was part of colloquial English language in seventeenth
century Britain and America.[21][22]
 Word pairs "up to" and "in spite" compounded to "upto" and "inspite" respectively.
 Over – to speak frankly. "Don't be too over with me."
 Weeping – crying.

Question 03:

Recent advancements in educational technology have brought a significant change in the field of English
language teaching. Scarcity of the review of the literature on the usage of indigenous Computer Assisted
Language Learning materials in English language teaching in Pakistan shows the inadequacy of
technological facilities, traditional methodologies and the scarcity of scholastic work in the field. Keeping
these constraints in mind, computer-assisted language learning materials were developed of the
selective lessons from Book I & III of Punjab Textbook board, by the researcher following Multifaceted
Pedagogical CALL Model: Computer as Mode (Irshad, 2008). Data were collected through the field notes
and semi-structured interviews of twenty ESL students and five English language teachers selected
through purposive sampling. Findings revealed that students enjoyed using indigenous Computer
Assisted Language Learning materials with a change in the understanding of the text, attitude and
motivation while the teachers were found reluctant towards the development and usage of indigenous
computer-assisted language learning materials. The study suggests that Pakistani English language
teachers should be empowered with technology to meet with the divergent needs of the learners.

The modern wave of technology has revolutionized all the arenas of life, and the paradigm of education
is not an exception (Costa, Hammond & Younie, 2019). The teaching of second/foreign language has
ever been attractive to educationists and language researchers. Computer-assisted language learning is
a methodology which employs computer and its various applications for the learning of a second/foreign
language. According to Rodríguez-Castro (2018), computer-assisted language learning should not be
considered a method but only an approach to language teaching and learning which has the capability
to employ different types of approaches. Mahboob (2017) is of the view that in a developing country like
Pakistan, the English language is used as a tool for linguistic contact. In Pakistan, the English language is
learnt only in formal settings at schools and learning of English starts from early primary till graduation.
Panezai and Channa (2017) support this view by stating that the Punjab government has declared
English as a core subject at the early primary level since 1994. Despite this early exposure, the majority
of Pakistani students are unable to use the English language in everyday life. Several types of research
(Haidar & Fang, 2019; Yasmin, Sarkar, & Sohail, 2016; Manan, 2018) reveal that, in Pakistan, the English
language is associated with power, prestige and success for Pakistani students. Haidar (2017) expands
this idea by saying that the English language is considered as a symbol of success which ultimately
defines the destination of its inhabitants. According to Akram (2017), a few discouraging factors which
hinder students’ learning of English are ineffective teaching methodology, outdated syllabus and flawed
examination system. Other factors causing obstacles in effective English language learning and teaching
include vague educational policies, lack of provision of modern teaching technology in the public sector
institutions and an insufficient number of English teachers especially in the remotest located colleges
(Khan, Zahid & AKhtar, 2017). According to Rind and Kadiwal (2016), developments in information
technology expanded the usage of computer technology in learning a second/foreign language while in
Pakistan still, traditional methodologies are in practice. Khan and Khan (2016) urge English language
teachers to be computer literate for their success in the classroom. According to Babarinde, Babarinde
and Obitube (2019), computer-assisted language learning is the use of computer technology in language
teaching and learning. Development of computerassisted language learning materials has stemmed
from various language learning theories: behaviourism, constructivism, mentalism and theory of social
interaction (Parmaxi & Zaphiris, 2016). The attention of second/foreign language researchers has been
directed towards the development and implementation of materials to enhance the learning
environment (Weiss & Headlam, 2019; McDermott & Gormley, 2016). The actual problem is to enable
ESL teachers for the development of their own indigenous computer-assisted language learning
materials (Bippert & Harmon, 2016). Teachers as materials developers are advantageous for themselves
as well as serving institutions (Abadi, Pujiastuti & Assaat, 2017). Advancement in educational technology
has empowered teachers to cater to the individual learning styles of the learners (Bostancıoğlu &
Handley, 2018). Computer-assisted language learning promotes learner autonomy on the one hand and
learner empowerment on the other hand (Lenkaitis, 2019). Balaman and Sert (2017) are of the view that
the empowerment of teachers is directly aligned with the development of indigenous materials.
According to RosellAguilar (2018), computer-assisted language learning materials to enhance learner
efficiency, learner engagement and self-tutoring opportunities. To compete with the modern world, the
government of Pakistan also launched a project with the purpose of bringing reforms in the field of
English language teaching. Khattak and Abbasi (2010) support this view by saying that the primary
function of this project is to bring improvement in the field of English language teaching. According to
Irshad and Ghani (2017), technology can play a significant role in improving the existing scenario of
English language teaching. For this purpose, the Higher Education Commission (HEC) established a CALL
subcommittee for empowering English language teachers with technology. Several types of research
(Rogowsky, Terwilliger, Young, & Kribbs, 2017; Iben Maj Christiansen & Rosanne Els, 2019) have proved
that the development and the use of this indigenous computer assisted language learning materials
have always remained successful among teachers and students. Although a lot of materials are available
in the market they are incompatible with the Pakistani scenario due to content and context differences.

Students enjoyed a lot in learning the English language through computerassisted language learning
materials because the understanding of the text was clearer to the students after watching the videos
and reading text from the screen as well as taking online tests. Estapa and Amador (2016) also support
these findings by stating that video development should be promoted among teachers so that students
can become successful learners. They were of the view that watching videos of the lessons was the main
source of inspiration for their learning. Although, students had a computer with them at their home, yet
they were unable to use it for learning the English language. RosaJimenez, Marquez-Ballesteros, and
Nebot (2018) conducted a similar study and the findings revealed that the use of hypermedia promotes
learner autonomy. Majority of the students had never heard of computer-assisted language learning
materials because they were never exposed to it. Students also found reading the text from computer-
assisted language learning materials on the screen easier. A few students were of the view that reading
from book was an easy task because they could add annotations in Urdu language (L1) for the sake of
understanding the text written in the English language. Tham, Chau and Thang (2019) conducted a study
and the findings revealed that students usually support the idea of using L1 in the learning of the second
language. Tsai (2019) also supports these findings by stating that technology promotes individualized
learning. Learner autonomy is strengthened by the use of computer technology (Ding, & Shen, 2019).
Students wanted this methodology to be inducted in normal classroom teaching at a very early stage
because it can produce computer-assisted results. These findings support Hung, Sun, and Liu (2018)’s a
study which states that lazy bluffers can easily be brought into class by using computer technology.
Computer-assisted language learning can generate wonderful results. It JRRE Vol.13, No.2 2019 226 has
the potential of reducing the number of failures and can also bring many less motivated students back
to studies. Students’ attitude and motivation were found positive towards computer-assisted language
learning materials. Irshad and Ghani (2017) found in their study that teachers and students were
positive towards computer-assisted language learning. Traditional teaching methodologies are still in
practice which is also revealed by the findings of Haidar and Fang (2019). It was also revealed that
Pakistani public sector classrooms are still devoid of any latest audio-visual aids. It was found that
students wanted to adopt this methodology in the near future and requested the government to start
different campaigns related to the awareness of computer-assisted language learning among teachers
and students. Teachers are reluctant to do anything on their own. This is the reason for the rapidly
falling standard of English language teaching. If the English language teachers want to bring change, they
should be up to date with the latest methodologies. Every year, a significant number of students results
in underachieving English language exam. There are several factors behind this failure, and
inappropriate English language teaching methods have been found as a major contributory factor.
Although the government has conducted training and workshops for this purpose, they are very few.
The government should launch more and more research seminars, training, workshops and conferences
on the development and use of indigenous computer-assisted language learning materials. Noor and
Shahbaz (2015) also support the same findings by stating that the government should arrange sustained
teachers’ training programs. It was found that teachers were reluctant towards the use of technology
due to many factors and some feel it a threat to their jobs. These findings have also been supported by a
study conducted by Soomro, Memon and Memon (2016) that Pakistani English language teachers face
threats to their jobs when technology integration is there. English language teachers should not be the
buyers of already developed out of context computer-assisted language learning materials rather they
should develop their own materials to meet the best needs of their respective students. The present
study is successful in revealing that students enjoyed learning the English language through indigenous
computer-assisted language learning materials. Most of the students find computer-assisted language
learning interesting in boosting up their interest, and motivation towards learning the English language,
as these are the core after-effects of this methodology. The present study remained successful in making
the learners self-confident and autonomous. Students enjoyed learning English due to their different
flexible learning modes. The findings also revealed that Pakistani English language teachers are ignorant
of the modern technological advancements in academia. They are reluctant to use technology for the
teaching of the English language because they feel it a threat to their jobs.

Question 04:
Every society is composed of individuals who share a common culture thorough the language they
use. The continuity of this culture and its transmission to the other generations are mostly made
through the
language. The literary works are those transponders that convey the cultural heritage of the nations to
the
future and put a light on the past.
Although literature is supposed to do so, the language is shaped in the hands of master of languages;
namely,
literary men. As famous Russian literary critic, writer and philosopher Belinski said, literature is the best
expression of a nation’s spirit in the medium of language. In another word, the literature is to add
something
from the soul, feelings into the work of art by using language
Various sources have defined language and literature and as time passes, new definitions appear. In its

most classical definition, Longman Dictionary (2017) treats the language “as a system of communication
by written or spoken words, which is used by the people of a particular country or area” and according
to
Longman Anthology by David and his colleagues (2003) literature is a range of artistically shaped works
written in a changed language, appealing to the imagination at least as much as to discursive reasoning”.
As it is clear from the definitions, language and literature are correlated to each other.
Kaplan (2005) suggests that the interaction between language and literature is a direct intercourse. He
states that every society is composed of individuals; each of the individuals shares a common culture
thorough the language they use; and this culture is made to continue by use of language and
transmitted
to contemporaries, posterities or other nations by means of the language. One of the ways of this
transmission is „literature‟ which is an „institution of culture‟ just like language (Kantarcioglu, 1997) and
as Kaplan (2005) stated in his book Kultur ve Dil (Culture and Language), this cultural institution is a
kind of art that is composed of language.
However, the language of this art, that is to say literature, is more different from ordinary language. In
the statements of Jacobson, “the language of literature is a deviation, transformation and intensity
from
standard use of language in the society” (cited in Eagleton, 1983). Definitely, it is possible to see a daily
speech usage but this style of usage becomes a part of literary work; it is one of the ornaments of the
literature in the work of art.
A literary work is composed of form and content. Content is given thanks to form, that is to say, content
is presented through the language according to the selection of the author or poet. To I. A. Richards,
literary language provides an emotional and unpractical reaction by addressing to the senses. This
reaction is provided through the images used in a work of art. If reader manages to read a poem or a
literary work in demanded density –everybody [more or less] manages this [that is why there cannot be
man who is not affected with any kind of writing or discourse except for dead people]- she or he will get
a kind of [literary] density and the delight of this emotional density (Suer, 2005). This density is called
„defamiliarization‟ as Formalists said (Eagleton, 1983); In other words, language in the literature catches
people‟s attention whether they accept or not and make them be aware; for instance, when a fish
swims
in the sea, if it is taken to the river for a short time, the fish lives estrangement. Although the locations in
both cases are water in appearance, as formation and content of these are different from each other -
amounts of salt are different even though hues are the same-, the fish cannot adopt itself and feels
„notification‟ which Eagleton (1983) calls “all literature as a poetry”. Looking from this perspective, the
attention is paid only to what language did to people.
Another point is that the literature provides a systematic constitution as a whole for language; practice
area of language in an extended and transcendent way. Formalist view, for example, treats the language
in this perspective. Let‟s think of an artist who while painting his/her tableau, uses colors by help of the
brush to make his work. In this example colors stand for language in a literary work of art and brush is
the style of the author. Poets or writers gives new shapes to the words or makes archaic words alive (as
Horace said in his Art of Poetry) just like the painter does this to colors with the brush. In other words;
for instance, the reason of figures of speech is the literature itself or new shaped words are made to
accept through the literary works. Cetisli (2001, p. 17) expresses this situation as follows: “the most

significant share on the growth and development of the language belongs to poets and authors because
they are the masters and servants of the language who devoted their lives to [development of] the
language”.
Literature is a kind of art in which language is the most significant material. Now that, literature is the
reflection of a nation‟s culture into literary work, it also includes the language which is the mirror
of
culture and eventually, both of them capture each other. These cannot be separated from each other
because only to have knowledge of language will not be enough, neither will have the knowledge of
literature. They should be “whole” since the literature expresses itself thanks to language, as
people
express themselves by means of the language.
In other words, language is a bridge between people and literary work; without language it cannot be
talked about the literature because without it, literature remains as „unsaid‟. As Aristotle (n.d.) said,
“art
imitates life either in verse or prose”.
However, language of the literature should be different from the accustomed, daily and ordinary
language since one of the aims of literature is to lead our senses and attention to what we ignore or
what
we do not know although they have already been around us. Furthermore, it should not be neglected
that
the literature also has some essential dominance over the language due to the fact that the best users of
languages are the authors and poets