|Electrical Machines \ SISKINI | | Jnternational Siqdent Fditiia | ll ML ALP ate ee) ol eetfoe mit Hak [its AM j ae \| ‘ Dow? worry about faclures, tt j worry about the thances 5 ‘| Heat you miss when you WI a dovet ever ty, ar} 7 ELECTRICAL MACHINES i DIRECT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT "REAL FAILURE is when you REALIZED your | were so close to SUCCESS whew you GIVE UP") | a me | RCE ANT TECHNULE 3 a cies RESTIRGE CENTER | aah eae | ae CUBEF LIBRARY ANNEX) ES = aa veep] fA B2,500-ky or stench Company, rhine generator unit of the Florida: Power and Light Affa Co.) aatener a » Other books by Charles’ S, Siskind: Direct-current Machinery Electrical Cirewits: Direct and Alternating Current Electricity: Direci and Alternating Current Induction Motors } rinted tinder authority ential Déerse Now2SS. (As Amended-by B/D. 400 &'1203) by MERRIAM & WEBSTER BOOKSTORE, INC. B64-870 N. Reyes Sr. Averiue Sampaloc, Maniia EXPORT OF THIS BOOK FROM THE PHILIPPINES PUNISH:ABLE BY LAW, Printed by MW Publishing ine, No.3 ‘Quezon Ave. Gun aag y eae iyELECTRICAL MACHINES DIRECT ¢ ALTERNATING CURRENT CHARLES 8. SISKIND Associate Professor of Hlecirical Engineering Purdue University “Vas SECOND EDITION INTERNATIONAL STUDENT EDITION McGRAW-HILL INTERNATIONAL BOOK COMPANY Auckland Bogota Guatemala Hamburg Johannesburg Lisbon Lendon Madrid Mexico New Delhi Panama Paris San Juan Sao Paulo Singapore Sydney Tokyo acted BOC i SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY LEARNING RES! = CENTER CUSEP Licks cEM) MERRIAM & WEBSTER BOOKSTORE, INC. Manila, Philippines @GIENCE AND TECHNULOBY LEARNING RESUURCE CENTED (USEF LIBRARY ANNEG2) F yo. S 2a Iu Nik a1 oS ELECTRICAL MACHINES DIRECT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT INTERNATIONAL STUDENT EDITION Copyright © 1966 Exclusive rights by McGraw- Hill Kogakusha, Ltd! for tahutaeture and export. | hook cannot be re-ex ported from the country to which itis consigned by McGraw-Hill Tith Printing 1982 Copyright ( 1959 by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Ine. Copyright 1950 by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc, All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the perfor written permission of the publisher. Library of Gongreas Catalog Card Number: 58-10008 ISBN 971-30-0722-0"PREFACE Although the seopée and character of this volume are esgentially simi+ lar to those of the first edition, it does inelude numerous changes and additions of subject matter. Moreoyer, since modifications were made, in part, at the suggestion of practicing engineers, technicians, and educa- tors, it is both significant and gratifying to note that the text has been. widely used in industry as well as in formal courses of instruction in technical schools, colleges, and universities. Because of the great importance of control methods in the operation of modern direct- and alternating-current motors, they are given special treatment in the second edition, Such related topics as acceleration, reversing, dynamie braking and plugging, regeneration, and speed control are discussed in considerable detail, particularly in connection with the many kinds of manual and automatic controllers, Also added is 8 com- pletely new section, in Chapter 12, devoted to the subject of rectifters; these include the various metallic and are-discharge types of equipment such as copper-oxide, selenium, and silicon rectifiers; gas tubes, and mercury-are tubes and tanks. Furthermore, all theoretical and practical discussions are supplemented by helpful wiring diagrams and sketches as well as by carefully selected photographs, An extremely valuable aspect of the book is the suiution of a large number of illustrative examples; these generally follow derived equations and emphasize the usefulness of mathemetical relationships to analyze end predict machine performance. Many new examples are solyed in this edition. Moreover, each chapter is concluded by 8 set of questions and problems that follow the text material closely for assignment and hometstudy purposes; these portions of the book have alsa been con- siderably enlarged. Finally, many parts of the book have been reworded, modified, and rewritten where, it was felt, such changes helped to clarify the prineipies and practices of energy conversion equipment. Cuaxces 8. SiskinpCONTENTS eirere cod 0) VAM aie PP ta Aen TA ect INTRODUCTION Coapren 1. Enrerrcan Macnineny GuNmRALIMATIONS » ss 1 Rotating clectrienl machincs—Armature windings—Field poles-—Typea: of direct-ourrent generator—Voltige charscteristies of direal-current genera tors—Sneed of direct-current generntors—Alternating-current generatora— Types and characteriatios of dircet-current motors Starting direet-current motora--Commutiting poles for divect-eurrent. mnchinea—Typea and char- avteritics of alternating-murrent motora—Starting piternating-current motors—Tranaformers PART I. ELECTRICAL MAGHINES—DIRECT CURRENT CHAPTER 2,/ Dieeer-cunnent GrNERaton AND Moror Prex- GL PEEA IB ue ieee tes ak Ue | ae Og a a ees Principle éf generator action—Genaral yoltage equation for direct-ourrent generator—Dirsotion of generated voltage—The elementary alternating- current generator—The commutation process—Principle ‘of meter action— Force and torque developed by direct-current motora—-Com mutation in direct-current motore—Main fields in direct-current mactines a3 Cuartzn 38. Drreer-curnent Dysamos, Construction AND . AsMatune WINDINGR. . 5; SP Sie en eee ae Generator and motor conatruction—Types of armature winding—Coil span for all types of winding—Commututor pitch for lap windings—Parailel paths in simplex- and multiplex-lap windings—Simplox-wave windings—Numbar of parallel paths. in simplex-wavo windings—Multiplex-wave windings— Armntures with more commuteter segivents than slote—Dend, or dummy, elaments in armature windings—Equaliser connections for lap windings— ¥Frog-leg windings CHAPTER af Dinwor-cunnent Gungrator Cranacrenmtica. . 94 ‘Types of dircet-current generator—No-load charactorintica of generitara— Building up the voltage of » self-excited shunt generator—Behavier of a shunt generator under load—Controlling the terminal voltage of shunt gea- erators—Compound goaerator operation under load—Degrae of compound=. viii CONTENTS ing udjustment—Series generator behavior tinder load—Armature reaction in direst-current generstors—Interpolea for direct-current generators—Com- * ‘ pensating windings for direct-current generatora—Commutation and Teact- ance voltage—Need for operation of generators in parallel—Operation of shunt generators in parallel—Operation of. compound generators in porallel Cuarran 6. Direcr-connent Moron Cwanactentsrics . . . 184 Operating differences between motors and generators—Classification of direct-current motors—Counter electromotive force (counter emf); voltage generated by a motor—Starling « direct-current motar—Startera for shunt ) and compound motors—Controllers for series motors—Controllers for ahunt and compound motors—The automatic atarter for shunt and compound motors—Loading & motor; effect upon speed and armature current—Torque characteristics of direct-current moters—Speed characteristics of direct- current motors—Speed regulation of diréet-current motors—Differen- tisl-compound motors—Speed control of direct-current motors——Armature reaction in direct-current motors—Reversing the direction of rotation. of direct-current motors Cuapren 6. Erricrencr, Ratna, anp Arpiications or Dynamos 185 Power lomen in dynamos—Efficiency of direst-current generatorn—Eficionay of diroct-current motore—Importance of efficiancy—Hating of generators and motors—Selection of generstora and motora—Special dynamoa and applications—Dynamotore—PBooster systomn—Electrical braking of direat- curtent motors—Series-parallel control of railway motors—Direot-ourrent slynamo applications PART If. ELECTRICAL MACHINES— ALTERNATING CURRENT Cuarren 7. ALTERNATING-CURBENT GENERATORS. . «1. 226 Alternator conntruction—Frequency of alternating-current generators— = The revolving field—The ststor—Gensrated voltage in an alternator— Armature windings for sltermmators—Coil pitch and piteh factor—Diatribu- tion factor—Correeted voltage of an alternator—Alternator regulation— te Voltage drops in alternator armatures—Alternator phasor dingram—Syn- chronous reactance and synchronous impedance—Alternator efficiency — Operation of alternators in parallel Cnarren G( TeaNeronmrss . . =, 0 4 + : ar ek, ROB Transiormer action—Transforther construction—Transformar voltages and the general transformer equation—Voltage and current ratios in trans- formere—Ratio of transformation—Tapping s transformer—Loaiing a transformer—Regulation calculations using voltage valuea—Leakage renot- snce—Equivelent resistance, reactance, and impedance—Equivalent circuit of a transformer—The short-circuit test—The open-circuit toat—Regulation enlculations using short-circuit data—Eifficiency calculations using ahort- airoult and opencircuit data—Maximum efficiency—All-day efficiency— Autotransformers—Instrument transformers—Tranaformer polatity—Paral- Jel operation of transformers—Three-phase transformer connections— “‘Three-phase (ransformere—The congtant-current transformer—The induc- tion voltage regulatoroor E TENTS ix Cuarrer 9/ Pouyruase INptction Morons . . 846 Induction moter pringiplt-—The stator—The potor—The stator winding— The revolving feld—Siip and rotor spred—Gonerated voltace and frequency in a rotep>—Rotor current and power—Raotor torque—Starting terque—In- duction-motor eHiciensy- : blocked-roter test—SLarting induction motors uction motor starting methods —Operating characteristics of squirrels cage molors—Opcrating characreristics of wound-rotor motors—Spoed con- trol of induotion motors ctri¢ Giraking of alternating-current motors CHAPTER 10,” Sineiu-pase Morors, Te oe eee altar eee The shaded-pole —Thit tepulaion= repulsion-induction tosis motor=—Automat hase motor—The unive motor—Thes reluctance-stark motor—T stert indy motot—The repiisian motor—The reluctanoe moter-—The hye for split-phase motora Types of single al (eeries, een 1apTER 11” SywcHRoNavs Morons ieee Salle 1 SAME el keED, General” § concerning syachroneus motorsa—Synthransua mater cone s—Hiih-starting-torque sroneus motors—Principies of oporation—Loading & sytichronovs motor er-faetor majustment of synchronous motors— synchronous con- denser—-The dual-purpose aynehroneus motor—The syn hronous-indurtion motor—Huntin, hitetous motors—The supersynchro- Tous molor—-8 applications CHapreR 18. Convunrrks ann Reetiriers See) aL EME Fk Convertera—types and wsee—Synehronous sonverter eonstruickion—The sitigle-phase ¢ rter—The polyphase converter—Heating and ratings of synchronous aa: aré—Sbarding synchronous: converterse—Transfarmers and transformer connestions for sonverlors—Armature reaction and came muteting poles in converters—Controlling the direet-ourrent voltage of eonverter—Parullel- operation of converters——The inverted converler—Fre- quehey conyerlers—Phase-converters—Typea of recti iers—Hall-wave and full-wave rectification—The copper-nxide rectifier—The sclenium rectifier — The hot-eathode gaseous. rectifier—The merc: ‘yeare reotifi¢r—The two- anode single-phase meroury-ure rect ifine~ Multianode three-phase meraury~ are rectifiersa—lenitron rectifiers Aprenpix 1. Naruran Sinns, Cosines, TANGENTS, AND Coran- GENTS. . 7 ‘: > . = + = « ‘ . “ é . = . S44 ” APPENDIX 2. Locantrims or Numpens . 2), 2 4 » 4. (548 PEPE te AMS te a eee eee eee «BST Bsa Ti) Rete eee a oy ge oo aINTRODUCTIONWaa CHAPTER 1 ELECTRICAL MACHINERY GENERALIZATIONS Rotating Electrical Machines. Rotating electrical machines are widely used for the purpose of converting energy from oneformtoanother, The two most frequently used types of such machines are generators and motors: In the first of these, the generator, mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy. In the motor, electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy. Two other types of rotating electrical machines, not used so often as generators and motors, are rotary converters and frequency converters. When an electric generator is in operation, it is driven (rotated) by a mechanical machine usually called a prime mover. The latter may be a steam turbine, a gasoline engine, an electrie motor, or even a, hand-oper- ated crank. As will be pointed out later, generator action can take place when, and only when, there is relative motion between conducting wires (usually copper) and magnetic lines of force. When an electric motor is in operation, it is supplied with electrical energy and develops torque, that is, a tendency to produce rotation. And if the rotating element of the motor is free to turn, it will do so and thereby cause mechanical rotation of itself and its application. All rotating electric generators consist essentially of two important parts: (1) an even set of electromagnets or permanent magnets and (2) the laminated steel core containing current-carrying copper wires, the latter being called the armature winding. Im the d-c generator, the arma- ture winding is mechanically rotated through the stationary magnetic fields created by the electromagnets or permanent magnets; in the a-¢ generator, the electromagnets or the permanent magnets and their accom- panying magrietic fields are rotated with respect to the stationary arma- ture winding. In the d-c motor, current is sent into the armature wind- ing, the latter being placed inside a set of radially supported magnet poles. | Figure 1 shows the field structures of a d-c generator and an a-c machine. The large multipolar frame in the rear is for a 3,000-kw (kilowatt) 600-volt 250-rpm (revolutions per minute) generator and cledily shows the many /main and commutating poles (discussed later) bolted to the outside yoke; ulso visible is the brush rigging on the far side. In the foreground is an Lve ELECTRICAL MACHINES 18-pole field for a 3,500-kw 6,600-volt three-phase 60-cycle 400-rpm a-c machine, Note particularly the two rings mounted on the shaft; the two ends of the entire field winding are connected to these rings so that sta- tionary brushes riding on the latter can feed” direct current into the rotating structure. Figure 2 shows a laminated stationary stator core and its armature winding for a 1,330-kw 480-volt three-phase 60-cycle i ee a en nal Wia, 1. Field structures for a d-c generator (rear) (Allig-Chalmers Myf. Co.) eerste iam eee and an a-c machine (foreground). 225-rpm a-e generator, -A field similar to that depicted in the foreground of Wig. 1 would be rotated ineide such a frame as this, A. completely assembled d-c motor rated at 400 hp, 230 volts when operating at 250 rpm is illustrated in Fig. 3. The armature commutator and the carbon brushes are plainly visible on the near side. { In the a-¢ motor, current is sent into the armature winding, which is usually placed in a stationary laminated iron core; the rotating element may or may not be a set of magnet poles. Since there are many kinds of a-¢ motor construction, no general statement can be made concerning them as can be done in the case of d-c motors. The machine shown inBLECTRICAL MACHINERY GENERALIZATIONS © a Via. 2 Wound stationary armature for a low-speed a-c generator. Note the split wtator frame. (General Electric Co.) se Ohalmare Mfg. Co.)4 ELECTRICAL MACHINES Fig. 4 is of the so-called synchronous type, in which a small d-c generator is placed on the shaft extension to supply d-c excitation to the rotating field. In the rotary converter, electrical energy of one form is changed into electrical energy of another; the usual arrangement is to change a-c energy into d-c energy, although the reverse is sometimes done. ‘T'o accomplish this remarkable change in a s?ngle rotating machine, the input (a-c energy, for example) is first converted into mechanical energy, so that the rotating Fig. 4, A-c synchronous-type motor rated at 700 hp, to be operated at 500 rpm when connected at a 6,000-volt 50-cycle three-phase source, ‘The small generator on the shaft extension is of 5-kw capacity. (Allts-Chalmers Mfg. Co.) part functions as an electric motor; the resulting rotation then causes _ the machine to become a generator, thereby converting mechanical energy into d-c electrical energy. It should be understood that the a-c energy input first produces motor action, that is, mechanical energy; the mechani- cal motion of the revolving element then develops generator action, caus- ing it to deliver d-c energy. Figure 5 shows a 300-kw 275-volt rotary converter, the operating speed of which is 1,200.rpm. In the center portion are the yoke frame and its six poles, inside of which rotate the armature core and its winding; to the right may be seen the six rings into which the six-phase alternating current is ‘‘fed,’’ while to the left are the commutator and the six sets of brushes from which direct current ir “delivered’”’ to the external load.ELECTRICAL MACHINERY GENERALIZATIONS 5 Wa, 6. A 300kw 4 -200- rpm 275-volt yas converter for automatic operation, (General Blectric Co.) ‘The frequency converter has very limited application: its function is \o change a-c electrical energy at one frequency into a-c electrical energy ib another frequency, In the usual arrangement for such a change of frequeney, two rotating machines: are directly coupled together; one of them operates as an a-c motor when connectéd to an a-e source having a given frequency, while the other, driven, machine functions as an 2-c wen- erator to deliver electrical energy at some other frequency. Figure 6 , Fire, 6. A small frequeney-converter set. (The Louis Allis Co.)6 ELECTRICAL MACHINES illustrates a frequency-converter set mounted on a base. The machine on the left operates as an a-c motor and drives the one on the right. The stationary part of the latter is also connected to an a-c source, usually the same supply to which the motor is connected, but alternating current at a different frequency may be “taken” from the rings and brushes (visible in the photograph). It should be clear, therefore, that in every type of rotating electrical machine there is always an actual conyersion of energy from one form, electrical (or mechanical), to another form, mechanical (or electrical). Armature Windings. The armature windings of all types of motors and generators, whether of direct or alternating current, are always wound on laminated steel cores of good magnetic permeability. And, strange as this may seem to the student, it is nevertheless true that the current in the armature windings of all motors and generators, whether of direct or alter- nating current, 7s always allernafing. Alternating voltages are always generated in the windings of a-c and d-c generators; in the a-c generator, the generated alternating electromotive force (emf) is transmitted directly to the load; in the d-e generator; the generated alternating emf is first rectified by a commutator and its brushes, that is, changed to direct cur- rent, before it is transmitted toitsload, The a-c motor receives its energy directly from an a-c source and, without any change whatever in form, uses it as alternating currert in its winding to develop torque. In the d-c motor, however, direct current is delivered to the brushes but flows as alternating current in the armature winding after passing through the brushes and commutator. This extremely important commutation proe- ess will be discussed fully in Chap. 2. Field Poles. The clectromagnets (called field poles) used in all d-c gen- erators and motors, in a-c generators, and in one type of a-c motor are very simple in construction. There are always an even number of them in a given machine, and each one consists of a laminated steel core, of rec- tangular eross section, surrounded by one or more copper coils, One face of the steel core is concentric with the laminated armature core and has a larger cross-sectional area than the portion around which the copper coil of wireis placed. ‘The spread-out portion of the pole core, or shoe, permits the magnetic flux to enter the armature core over a wider area than would be possible with a core having straight sides. When the field structure is assembled for a stationary-field type of machine, the electromagnets are bolted to a yoke ring, as in Fig. 7, so that they project radially inward toward the rotating armature. In the rotating-field type of machine driven by a slow-speed prime mover, the electromagnets are bolted to a hub fastened to the shaft, asin Fig. 8, so that they project radially outward toward the stationary armature core; this construction is called a salient- pole field. When the alternator is driven by a high-speed turbine, the fieldELECTRICAL MACHINERY GENERALIZATIONS a Wa, 7. Nesorabled field structure for a ie motor, Note the four large (main) pole vores and their windings and the two narrow pole cores and their windings. (The. Louts Allis Co.) Winding is placed in a slotted core; this constructions called a non-salient- pole field. Types of Direct-current Generator. Practically speaking, there are only two general types of d-c generator. ‘They are distinguished by the way in which the flux is produced by the electromagnets (assuming the usual electromagnetic excitation); the type of generator is, however, absolutely independent of the manner in which the armature winding is placed on the armature core Shunt Generators. If the excitation is produced by a single winding connected to its own positive and negative brushes, the machine is called i aelf-excdted shunt generaior, or, briefly, a shunt generator. In some special oases in which the éxcitation is produced by a single wigding connected to (the positive and negative bus bars fed by ancther d-e generator, the machine is called a separately excited shunt generator. Although their Operating characteristics differ slightly, self- and separately excited shunt generators are usually classified under the same heading, “shunt genera- tor,” because their field windings are constructed and excited similarly. i? ee | The latter point will become clearer later, when it will be shown that the — ected to the commutator. A ihunt-field winding contains many turns of fine wire, has a comparatively a 2 I high resistance, and, when connected directly to the full-voltage source: My& WLECTRICAL MACHINES of » generator, will take a relatively low current, entirely independent of the load ov armature current. Compound Goierators, The second type of generator has two complete sete of fleld windings for excitation purposes: (1) the shunt field and (2) the series field, Both field windings are placed over one set of pole cores and act together to create a common set of magnetic fluxes. Such a 7 men i Fic, 8. Assembled field structure (14 poles) for an a-c generator. Note the two slip rings connected to the Held winding, Direct current is fed to the winding through brushes and to the rings from an outside source. (Westinghouse Electric Corp.) machine is called a compound generator. Its shunt field is, in every respect, exactly like that used in the shunt generator. Its series-field winding, however, differs greatly from the shunt-field winding because it contains very few turns of heavy wire, has an extremely low resistance, and is excited by the comparatively large load current. Since the two types of generator differ only by the addition or omission of a series field, it is quite possible to operate a compound generator as a shunt generator by completely disconnecting the series field from the machine or to change a Shunt generator into a compound generator by properly winding a seriesELECTRICAL MACHINERY GENERALIZATIONS ny field directly over the shunt field and connecting it to operate with the latior, : In home special installations in which it is used for purposes of control, fi monerator contains a series field only; it is then called a series generator, Much machines are not often used, but when they are, it is usually in Sonjunction with other equipment such as shunt or compound generators ind batteries. They are discussed in Chap. 6 (see Migs. 130 and 131). Voltage Characteristics of Direct-current Generators. ‘The most Important characteristic of a generator is its voltave behavior with respect lo loading. When the armature of a machine is delivering no current to ii Consuming device, it is said to be operating at no load; it will, of course, he ending a comparatively low value of current into its own shunt field if it, is a self-excited shunt generator. If the armature is delivering rated (iume-plate) current to one or more electrical consuming devices, the Miiehine is said to be operating at full load. Now then, ifa shunt genera- (or is operating at full load at a given voltage (rated voltage, for example) wnd the load is suddenly removed so that the machine is performing at no load, the voltage will always rise above the full-load value. ‘That is, (hore will be a change in voltage between full load and no load. A similar removal of the load on a compound generator may have almost any effect lipon the voltage, the change or lack of change depending upon several lnetors, the most important of which are the number of series-field turns nd the way in which the series field is connected with réspect to the shunt field. When full load is removed from a compound generator, the voltage may drop, remain constant, or rise. Just why compound genera: (ord behave in the manner indicated will be considered in detail in Chap, 4, Speed of Direct-current Generators. It is customary for a dec genera- for, whether shunt or compound, to operate at a speed that remains sub- thintially constant at all times. ‘There are, however, a few exceptions to fhis practice, as, for example, in automobile and train generators, the ipeeds of which vary over an extremely wide range; in such applications, fonerators must be specially designed and supplemented by other equip- Mont, such as batteries and control devices, if they are to function prop- oly, Obviously, the speed of a generator is determined and controlled by (ha machine that drives it, that is, its prime mover. ‘Therefore, if the prime mover is a constint-speed machine such as a*turbine, a steam ongine, a gas engine, a water wheel, or a synchronous motor, the generator speed will be constant. And since this is the most desirable and efficient method of operating a d-e generator, it is customary to maintain its peed at a definite predetermined value at all times. Strictly speaking, light speed changes are generally permissible and even expected, and uch departure from absolute constancy in speed is not particularly 5 objectionable, :