Guideline VacuumSewerSystems FraunhoferIGB 2016 0

FRAUNHOFER-INSTITUT FÜR GRENZFLÄCHEN- UND BIOVERFAHRENSTECHNIK IGB
Guideline: Vacuum sewer systems

Guideline: Vacuum sewer systems
December 2016
Dr.-Ing. Marius Mohr, Jan Iden, Marc Beckett
Fraunhofer-Institut für Grenzflächen- und Bioverfahrenstechnik IGB

Nobelstraße 12
70569 Stuttgart
Content
1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1
2 Technology of vacuum sewer systems................................................................ 4

2.1 Concept ................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Components and their tasks..................................................................................... 5
2.3. Manufacturers / System providers .......................................................................... 21
3. Investment costs ................................................................................................. 25
4. Operation and Maintenance costs ..................................................................... 29

4.1. Electricity costs ....................................................................................................... 30
4.2. Personnel cost ........................................................................................................ 31
4.3. Material cost .......................................................................................................... 33
4.4. Other costs ............................................................................................................ 34
5. Durability (life span/life cycle) ........................................................................... 35
6. Operational and maintenance skills required .................................................. 38

6.1. Normal and preventive maintenance ...................................................................... 38
6.2. Emergency maintenance ........................................................................................ 41
6.3. Record keeping ...................................................................................................... 42
6.4. O&M manual ......................................................................................................... 44
6.5. Spare parts ............................................................................................................. 45
6.6. Summary................................................................................................................ 45
7. User friendliness.................................................................................................. 46
8. Cases for application........................................................................................... 49
9. Reference projects............................................................................................... 50
10 Vacuum sewers as part of an integrated water management concept ......... 54
11. Critical issues for building and operating a vacuum sewer system ............... 61
11.1. Pros and Cons ........................................................................................................ 61
11.2. Critical features ...................................................................................................... 62
11.2.1. General .................................................................................................................. 62
11.2.2. Collection pits ........................................................................................................ 63
11.2.3. Interface valve ........................................................................................................ 64
11.2.4. Vacuum lines / network.......................................................................................... 64
11.2.5. Vacuum station ...................................................................................................... 65
12. Summary & conclusion ....................................................................................... 67

References ........................................................................................................................... 69
Annex 1: ............................................................................................................................ 73
Annex 2: ............................................................................................................................ 76
Annex 3: ............................................................................................................................ 78
Annex 4: ............................................................................................................................ 79
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Overview of a vacuum sewer system involving the vacuum valve unit at the valve
pits, vacuum mains and the central vacuum station [8] 5
Figure 2: Left: Schematic layout of a collection pit with vacuum valve ; Right: prefabricated
collection pit . 6
Figure 3: Vacuum valve [12] 8
Figure 4: Valve pit with two interface valves to accommodate higher discharges [5]. 9
Figure 5:Hierachy of pipes within a vacuum sewer system and the corresponding pipe
diameters [5]. 10
Figure 6: Saw-tooth profile of a vacuum sewer line [5] 11
Figure 7: Filling material of excavation for a vacuum line. Trenching material in the top
layer, followed by a layer of gravel and a liner which separates the gravel from the sand [7] 13
Figure 8: Division valve with gauge tap at a vacuum main [5] 13
Figure 9: Service lateral connection [1]. Note that the diameter of der service lateral is
equal to the diameter of the interface valve (= 3 inch = 7.6 cm). Pipes should be joined at
the upper part of the receiving pipe at an angle of 60° 15
Figure 10: The vacuum station can be designed with high flexibility. Anything from
prefabricated houses to underground stations which are integrated into the environment
exists [12]. 16
Figure 11: All vacuum pumps are connected to the same pipe. The pumps are setup in
parallel. 17
Figure 12: Layout of a vacuum station with the collection tank in the ground and the
sewage pumps outside of the tank. The vacuum reservoir tank is integrated into the
collection tank in most layouts[5, 14] 18
Figure 13: Biofilter used for odour control from a vacuum tank. Right: woodchips are a
common filling material [1] 19
Figure 14:Vacuum station with external power connection for power supply in case of
blackouts [12] 20
Figure 15: Comparison of elements most susceptible to failure in different sewer systems;
diagram based on [26] 47
Figure 16: Reconditioning time for different sewer systems [26] 48
Figure 17: Number of vacuum sewer projects implemented by ROEDIGER and AIRVAC
(now Aqseptence Group) between 1973 and 2008 [28] 51
Figure 18: Vacuum pipe installed in existing channels; the PE pipe is attached to the wall
of the channel [46]. 54
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Figure 19: Layout of the sanitation and reuse concept in Outapi, Namibia [39]. 56
Figure 20: Schematic overview on how water management was designed in DEUS 21 with
vacuum sewers being the selected technology for wastewater conveyance [40] 57
Figure 21: Left: Garbage disposal unit in kitchen sink; Right: Vacuum toilet [1] 58
Figure 22: Black water and grey water are separately collected in separate collection
sumps within the same collection pit of the vacuum system [43] 59
Figure 23: Vacuum station in Böblingen-Dagersheim 79
Figure 24: Collection pit in Waldsee. Access is restricted due to construction of wooden
terrace. Access to the collection pit should be kept clear. 79
Figure 25: Vacuum tank placed in hedge in Waldsee. The components of the vacuum
station have been integrated in the hedge instead of a building. 80
Figure 26: Collection pit with vacuum valve in Walldorf. The collection pit is located on a
drivable road made of concrete. Respective measures were implemented. 80
Figure 27: Vacuum tank constructed underground at the vacuum station in Walldorf. The
relevant pipe connections and sensor provisions are located at the top of the tank. 81
Figure 28: Biofilter with additional aeration pipe at the vacuum station in Walldorf. Plants
grow on the filter material. 81
Figure 29: Vacuum tank at the vacuum station in Knittlingen. The wastewater pumps are
placed outside the tank. 82

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List of Tables
Table 1: Pipe diameters and the relation to maximum flow per minute and maximum
number of served households (data from [3]) 11
Table 2: Approximate investment costs for selected components of vacuum sewers under
conditions in Germany 26
Table 3: Cost of PE and PVC-U pipes per meter for different diameters under German
market conditions; note that material for PE is more expensive but the prices for PVC pipes
include solvent welding (not included for PE) and are thus higher [18] 27
Table 4: Costs which can vary significantly by region and affect the investment costs 28
Table 5: Selected tasks and their approximate duration (values based on experiences in
Germany and the USA) 32
Table 6: Approximate material costs for selected components of vacuum sewers 34
Table 7: Potential other costs related to O&M of vacuum sewers 35
Table 8: Durability of major components of a vacuum sewer network [2, 10, 12, 12, 18,
23, 24] 36
Table 9: Overview of normal and preventive maintenance tasks and their frequencies [21] 39
Table 10: List of relevant O&M records [21] 43
Table 11: List of O&M cost records 44
Table 12: Typical information included in O&M manuals 44
Table 13: Summary of advantages and disadvantages of vacuum sewers 61
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1 Introduction
Introduction
When talking about sewer systems most people think of gravity based
underground pipe networks which transport wastewater to a wastewater
treatment plant via a gradient. For a long time these gravity sewers have
been the most common practice especially in densely populated areas to
transport wastewater. Often these gravity based sewer systems also form
the drainage infrastructure and are therefore called combined sewers since
they convey wastewater and storm water. Nowadays, other concepts are
emerging focussing on the separation of waste water and storm water. One
interesting option is the vacuum sewer system which is considered an
alternative wastewater collection system and can only be applied in
separate sewer concepts since the system is not suitable for the drainage of
storm water. The term vacuum sewer system has been widely used for
simplification reasons and marketing purposes. However, technically
‘vacuum’ is not the correct term since a vacuum is a void space free of any
matter. The presented sewer system operates under negative pressure
compared to the atmospheric pressure. Because the term ‘vacuum sewer’ is
already established and common it will be used in this document.
This document aims at providing a comprehensive guide to vacuum sewers.
The following chapters present the development of vacuum sewers, a
detailed description of its key components and their requirements for
implementation, operation and maintenance, as well as experiences from
real cases, cost estimates and the potential application in integrated water
management concepts.
The concept of using negative pressure for sewage transport is not new. The
earliest reports of vacuum sewers go back to the end of the late 18th
century [1]. It is not entirely clear who can be named the inventor of
vacuum sewers. While Adrain LeMarquand proposed his wastewater
collection by barometric depression in the US in 1888 [2], the Dutch
engineer Charles Liernur presented his system in Europe at around the same
time [1]. Soon it was installed to cover wastewater services in suburbs of
Paris, Amsterdam and Berlin [3]. In 1892 in Levallois‐Perret, a North‐
Western suburb of Paris, the vacuum sewer system served 500 premises
accommodating around 15,000 inhabitants [1]. But despite excellent
experiences the system somehow got forgotten. It was not until 1959 when
the Swedish engineer Joel Liljendahl picked up the technology and
developed new improvements which led to increased interest in the vacuum
sewer technology and further developments[3].
Since the 1960s vacuum sewer systems have again gained increased
popularity. One of the driving factors for this is the comparative cost
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advantage that alternative sewer systems such as the vacuum sewer can
have over conventional gravity systems. In the USA the governments under Introduction
the lead of the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) created a
stimulating environment for increased use of vacuum sewer systems by
prioritizing public funding for vacuum sewers rather than conventional
sewer systems [4]. Although federal support in this way of promotion has
decreased over time it supported the initial development of systems and
increased operational experiences have led to increased knowledge and
acknowledgement of vacuum sewer systems which eventually increased
private sector involvement and increased incorporation in engineering
education [5]. This way previous obstacles, such as local legislation
discouraging or even prohibiting any alternative sewage system, unrealistic,
ultraconservative cost estimates and bad experiences from misdesign,
misinstallation and mismanagement could be overcome [5]. However, as
vacuum sewers are still not generally included in engineering education and
many engineers are still cautious of new concepts the distribution of
vacuum sewer systems is still limited.
Technological advancements and increased awareness on the untapped

potential of wastewater as a source of water, energy and nutrients has led
to the emerging of new concepts. While in the past most sewer systems
were designed to capture municipal wastewater as well as storm water
modern concepts involve increased material flow separation.
For instance, in Germany, changes in legislation result in increased interest
in biogas from municipal sludge and recovery of precious nutrients such as
Phosphorous. Processes targeting these resources are more efficient when
the carbon and nutrient load is concentrated. Advances in this area were
facilitated by the energy transition as well as a new law which required all
newly developed residential areas to implement separate systems for
wastewater and storm water drainage in order to reduce the load for sewer
systems during storm events in order to reduce the discharge of untreated
sewage into the environment.
The aspects mentioned above, among others, have led to increased interest
in alternative wastewater collection systems. The vacuum sewer system is
one of them.
The rapid urbanization in Asia brings about major challenges for urban
supply and municipal utilities in the fields of water supply and sanitation
systems, energy supply and energy efficiency, land use and food security. In
this context, the GIZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft fuer Internationale
Zusammenarbeit) project “Integrated Resource Management in Asian Cities:
the Urban Nexus” gives technical advice to different stakeholders in the
cities on how to integrate adapted technological solutions into the existing
state of development. The urban nexus project, funded by the German
Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development, started in

April 2013. The second phase of the project started in 2016. This report has
been developed in the context of this project and shall inform decision Introduction
makers and technical experts in cities about the characteristics of vacuum
sewer systems.

2 Technology of vacuum sewer systems Technology of vacuum sewer
systems
2.1 Concept
A vacuum sewer system works in a similar way as water distribution
systems. The only difference is the direction of flow. While water supply
uses positive pressure to ‘push’ the water from the treatment plant to the
point of consumption, vacuum sewers use negative pressure to ‘draw’ the
wastewater from the point of generation to the wastewater treatment plant
[6, 6].

In contrast to conventional gravity flow or pressured sewer systems vacuum
sewers use differential air pressure to transport wastewater which is
generated by vacuum pumps located at the vacuum station, a centralized
unit and in most designs the only point of electricity consumption. The
pumps draw in atmospheric air through specific air inlets located at the
wastewater collection points. The air inlets are attached to valve pits which
form the point of collection for wastewater from the surrounding buildings.
Besides the collection chamber (sump) for wastewater the valve pits contain
the control units and the interface valves which form the interface between
the negative pressure in the system and the atmospheric pressure in the
valve pit. The valve is usually closed and opens after the control unit signals
that a predetermined amount of sewage has accumulated in the sump. The
pressure difference between the network and the valve pit causes the water
to be sucked into the vacuum main where it is transported to the collection
tank located at the central vacuum station. The drawn air expands under the
negative pressure conditions and drives the transport mechanism. On the
way to the collection tank at the vacuum station the transported
wastewater temporarily comes to rest at depressions within the profile of
the pipe network due to friction and weight forces. This way the wastewater
is transported in frequent intervals until it reaches the collection tank at the
vacuum station which contains the pumps and control equipment. From
here pumps, usually pressured sewage pumps, forward the wastewater
towards the wastewater treatment plant.

A layout of a typical vacuum sewer network is shown in Figure 1.

Technology of vacuum sewer
systems

Figure 1: Overview of a vacuum sewer system involving the vacuum valve unit at
the valve pits, vacuum mains and the central vacuum station [7]
2.2 Components and their tasks
Valve pits & collection chambers
The valve pits are located at the first point of sewage collection. For
residential areas they are located in immediate vicinity of the building that
discharges the wastewater. Different manufacturers of the vacuum sewer
system offer a series of setups for valve pits many of which can be supplied
prefabricated simply requiring post‐excavation installation and connection
to the main line.
Different configurations for collection pits exist and can be selected
according to the local conditions and preferences. The valve pit can
compose of one single chamber in which the interface valve is in the same
compartment as the wastewater. But commonly the pit is separated into
two chambers. The valve and control unit is housed in the top chamber
while the lower compartment contains the sump that receives the sewage
from the house (see Figure 2). The evacuation cycle is triggered when 35 –
60 L of wastewater have accumulated in the sump. The total holding volume
should represent around 25% of the average daily flow. This volume can
also include the useful volume in the gravity connection from the house [9].
The installation of flap valves prevents backlogging of wastewater into the
house.

For buildings with higher discharge quantities buffer tanks can be placed Technology of vacuum sewer
between the gravity lateral and the valve pit. This might apply to schools, systems
industries or multi‐storey residential buildings. Buffer tanks can control up
to 25% of the daily flow [6]. Generally it is desirable to have many collection
pits with small flow inputs rather than single, large flow inputs, especially
not at the end of the sewer line [4]. Collection chambers should be
distributed evenly along the sewer line and long distances without collection
chambers should be avoided.
The installation depth of the collection chamber depends on the house
connection. The house connection is a gravity line connecting the house to
the collection pit. The pit should be located in proximity to the discharging
dwelling but routing of the house may require the pit to be located at some
distance to the house. While in most cases the pit is located on the premises
of the discharging building the pit can also be installed on public ground, for
instance beneath a road or other sealed surfaces.
Air needs a way to enter the chamber in order to be drawn in by the
differential pressure within the system. Without sufficient air the valve
would not function properly. There are two types of breathers: external
(Figure 2) and in‐sump breathers [8].
Figure 2: Left: Schematic layout of a collection pit with vacuum valve ; Right:
prefabricated collection pit .
Noise levels need to be taken into account when designing and configuring
the collection chamber including the valve unit. When the vacuum valve
opens to evacuate the accumulated wastewater the suction process is
accompanied with noise. Usually, no extra measures are necessary.

However, depending on the ground conditions, construction depth and the Technology of vacuum sewer
proximity of noise reflecting objects (e.g. buildings) additional noise systems
reduction measures might be required.
Most configurations for collection chambers and valve units do not contain
any electrical equipment or wiring since the emptying mechanism is
triggered pneumatically. However, the pits can be equipped with monitoring
installations (e.g. cycle counters). In this case, the valve pit must be
equipped with the corresponding provisions [9]. Battery powered
monitoring systems do exist and can pose a viable alternative for monitoring
valve functionality, opening frequency and troubleshooting.
Multiple houses can be connected to a single chamber. While in theory this
might seem viable and can lead to cost‐savings practice has shown that
other obstacles arise when following this arrangement. Potentially longer
runs of gravity laterals and deeper valve pits can lead to increased
construction costs [5]. In addition, local legislation and the coordination of
responsibilities for servicing the valve pits can be complicated. Therefore,
access must not be restricted by objects or any kind of construction and it is
necessary to obtain land access permission from the landowner [5].
Technical specifications:
- Buffer tanks should be installed when flow rates exceed 4 m³/h (15
GPM) per house connection [6] or more than 20 inhabitants discharge
into the same vacuum pit.
- House connections should be laid at a slope of 1:60 or steeper and the
minimum pipe size of house connection is 100 mm [10].
- The house connection should be made of Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) or
Polyethylene (PE) [8].
- Pit evacuation is usually triggered when 35‐60 L of wastewater have
accumulated.
- Noise reduction can be achieved by external aeration installations for
the vacuum valve and by sound insulation attached to the cover / lid of
the pit.
- When the connection of multiple houses to a single vacuum pit is
desired the service lines should be introduced to the pit at an angle of
90°
- The installation of a monitoring system is advisable in order to report
clogging, valve defect (remains open or closed) or water in the pit to
the operator [1]
- Storm water must not enter the collection pit; lids or similar measures
need to be provided.
- Upwelling needs to be prevented after heavy rainfalls.

- The collection pit needs to be made of corrosion proof material (e.g. Technology of vacuum sewer
polyethylene). systems
- The inner surface of the chamber should be smooth to allow for a self‐
cleaning discharge [9].
- Flap valves need to be installed to prevent backlogging.
- Valve pits in areas that are subject to flooding must be equipped with
measures that allow aeration even when the valve pit is submerged.
Interface Valve Unit
The valve unit, located in the valve pit forms the interface between the
atmospheric pressure and the negative pressure of the system. It is the
determining component for the removal of wastewater from the collection
chamber. During normal operation the valve is closed until a defined volume
of wastewater has accumulated in the sump. The valve opens and closes
pneumatically (by pressure) in most designs but electronically controlled
systems do also exist. Air gets trapped in the sensor pipe and the pressure
increases. Then the water level sensor in conjunction with the control unit
signal the valve to open. The differential pressure between the system and
the atmosphere then propels the collected sewage into the vacuum line
towards the vacuum tank at the vacuum station. When the sump is emptied
the air pressure in the sensor pipe decreases and the interface valve turns
back to the closed position.

Figure 3: Vacuum valve [11]
Some manufacturers prefer the use of a floating sensor rather than a sensor
pipe. When the water table in the collection sump rises the floating device
rises as well and at a certain volume it triggers the valve’s opening
mechanism.
The interplay of valve, control unit and sensor pipe is configured in a way
that the valve remains open for the duration of the removal of one batch

volume of wastewater. This includes sufficient time to simultaneously or Technology of vacuum sewer
successively draw in wastewater and air in order to achieve an adequate systems
air/liquid ratio. The air/liquid ratio is a very important parameter heavily
affecting the efficiency and profitability of the system [11]. The valve can be
adjusted according to the desired air/liquid ratios to optimize the removal
process. Air/liquid ratio depends on the position of the valve within the
network.
In the event of power blackouts (e.g. at the vacuum station) or other system
failures the valve must remain closed in order to avoid too much
wastewater within the vacuum mains, in case remaining system pressure is
too low to transport the wastewater to the collection tank.
Most problems affecting vacuum sewers are related to failures in the
opening/closing mechanism of the valve. When the valve fails to open this
may result in the accumulation of wastewater in the collection chamber and
potentially backup into the building [12]. Thus, precautions need to be taken
such as regular checks of the valves. On the contrary, when the valve fails to
close the whole system has reduced vacuum which eventually affects the
performance of the entire system and increases the electricity consumption.
The valves usually have a capacity to handle water from multiple homes or
larger dischargers, respectively. But in case of large flows buffer tanks or
configurations with multiple valves should be considered (see Figure 4) [7].

Figure 4: Valve pit with two interface valves to accommodate higher discharges [4].
‐ Valve size is usually around 2.5 to 3 inches (~6.5 to 7.6 cm) [5].
‐ Floating sensors must be designed in a way that pollution from the

contact with wastewater does not affect the functionality of the sensor. Technology of vacuum sewer
‐ Air/ liquid ratio varies between 3:1 – 15:1; the ratio is higher for valves systems
located further away from the vacuum station [11].
‐ All components that can come into contact with wastewater, such as the
water level gauge (sensor pipe), or even the valve itself, must be
resistant against wastewater [9].
‐ The opening mechanism should be enabled if local pressure is below
minus 0.15 bar [3, 9]; if the sump is more than 1 m below the valve the
threshold should be set to minus 0.35 bar [3].
‐ If flow‐rate exceeds 8.2 m³/h (30 GPM) buffer tanks or multiple valves
should be considered [7].
Vacuum mains and pipe network
Like for any other wastewater collection system the vacuum mains form a
network of pipes (see Figure 5) in which the wastewater is transported to
the central collection point.
Figure 5:Hierachy of pipes within a vacuum sewer system and the corresponding pipe
diameters [4].
The layout of a vacuum sewer system resembles a tree‐like structure. The
vacuum main, connected to the vacuum station, is usually the longest pipe
with the largest diameter from which the smaller pipes divert into different
branches to serve the valve pits. The diameter of the pipe is governed by its
position within the network and the expected flow (see Figure 5).

Table 1: Pipe diameters and the relation to maximum flow per minute and maximum
number of served households (data from [2]) Technology of vacuum sewer
systems
Pipe diameter Max flow Max number of houses

served
Inch mm GPM L/min #
4 101.6 55 208 70
6 152.4 150 577 260
8 203.2 305 1.155 570
10 254 545 2.063 1,050

The profile of the vacuum sewer line is a significant feature of the system.
The most common profile is the saw‐tooth profile (Figure 6). The saw‐tooth
profile enables to overcome heights up to 6m in flat terrains [13] but
simultaneously provides sufficient slope. This small positive slope towards
the vacuum station is maintained and when the main becomes too deep, so
called ‘lifts’ are incorporated, to raise the main to an acceptable depth.
Multiple small lifts are recommended over few large ones [4]. Lifts are
realised by using two 45° fittings joined by a piece of pipe. Lifts cause static
losses and thus should be as small as possible. The total losses made up by
friction and static losses govern the maximum length of the vacuum main.

Figure 6: Saw‐tooth profile of a vacuum sewer line [4]

On its way to the collection tank the wastewater temporarily comes to rest Technology of vacuum sewer
in the depressions of the main without sealing the pipe. This results in systems
minimised vacuum loss [8] and fast vacuum recovery. Wastewater within
the vacuum sewer line is transported at high velocities (4.5 – 6 m/s) [4]. This
is way higher than the required velocity for self‐cleaning which is estimated
at 0.6‐0.9 m/s and ensures that the pipes are cleaned regularly and that the
wastewater is aerated sufficiently, preventing the formation of odours and
gases which might lead to corrosion.
When only black water is transported through a vacuum network the risk of
precipitation and scaling through solids is increased if the pipe diameter is
too large and the transport velocity is reduced [14].
Vacuum mains are usually made from PVC or PE. PVC pipes are usually
cheaper, widely available but break down easier. On the other hand, PE
pipes have thicker walls and thus are more resistant but come at higher
costs. The higher material costs are compensated by lower labour intensity
and increased durability [5].
One characteristic of the vacuum sewer system is that the pipes can be laid
in much lower depths than in conventional gravity sewers. If soil conditions
allow, the trenches can be excavated manually. This is particularly useful for
areas where heavy excavation machines are unavailable or site access is
restricted. Usually frost conditions of the areas determine the depth in
which the vacuum main is laid. Typically the pipes are laid in depth of 90cm
[13] in narrow open trenches. In colder regions (e.g. northern USA) they are
often laid in depths of 1.2 – 1.5 m [4]. However, other factors than frost,
such as high groundwater tables, heavy rains that can lead to flooding or
local soil properties might require installation at lower or higher depths.
Obstacles, for example other infrastructure mains can also affect the routing
of the vacuum mains. If vacuum mains are laid in the same trench as water
supply lines it is advisable to lay them deeper than the water supply line in
order to have an additional prevention against cross contamination [4]. But
a great feature of the vacuum sewer system is its flexibility to go over, under
or around obstacles, allowing for a high degree of flexibility when planning
the system and even when discovering the obstacles during construction
[4]. However, changes in routing might affect static losses and need to be
considered in the layout of the system. For increased protection the lines
are embedded in sand and protected by gravel (Figure 7).

systems
Figure 7: Filling material of excavation for a vacuum line. Trenching material in
the top layer, followed by a layer of gravel and a liner which separates the gravel
from the sand [6]
Division or isolation valves (Figure 8) allow for the separation of individual

sections of the pipe network. They can facilitate the localisation of leakages
in the network and are used to isolate individual branches for test,
maintenance and repair activities. This way other branches remain
operational while selected branches can be taken out of service. This
reduces the impact an intervention has on the overall system. Additionally,
division valves can also be used to separate the service area into smaller
sub‐areas which adds additional operational flexibility and reduces the
required pipe diameter and thus costs.

Figure 8: Division valve with gauge tap at a vacuum main [4]

Division valves use plug valves or gate valves with gate valves being more systems
often used in modern systems. Division valves can be accompanied by gauge
taps. Gauge taps work as inspection pipes and allow monitoring of local
vacuum conditions without having to check the vacuum at the vacuum
station [4]. This can greatly reduce emergency and maintenance expenses in
terms of time and manpower.

While division valves and gauge taps can pose very useful installations some
system designers claim that localisation of defective components can be
efficiently achieved without them. The thought behind this is that pipe
leakage basically only occurs when it is being damaged during construction
activities, which makes the localisation obsolete. Further, detecting
malfunctioning valves can also be achieved by monitoring equipment within
the valve pit replacing the procedure of testing vacuum conditions along the
main. However, the decision to install or not to install inspection pipes and
gauge taps depends on the technical equipment of the systems and the
technical expertise and preference of the operator.

- A minimum slope of 0.2 % should be maintained.
- The minimum distance between two lifts should be 6 m.
- Maximum lift should not exceed 0.9 m [13, 15]
- The lifts for saw‐tooth profiles are normally 0.2 ‐ 0.45 m high [6].
- Operating pressure is usually between ‐ 0.5 and ‐ 0.6 bar
- This results in 5.5m available head
- ~1.5 m is required to open the interface valves
- 4 m head remain for lifts during sewage transportation [2]
- Remaining head must also account for friction losses (can be
neglected if slope is > 2%)
- Vacuum level is a function of the pipe diameter, line length, number of
connections and the number of lifts in the system [4; 13]
- Wastewater is transported at 4 – 6 m/s allowing for self‐cleaning of the
pipes
- Vacuum mains should be:
- Resistant to chemical and biochemical influences that lead to
corrosion
- Resistant to mechanical wear
- Functional at temperatures up to 35°C [3] and certified to operate
under negative pressure conditions.
- Made from
 PVC thermoplastic pipes of Class 200, SDR 21 or
 PE (MDPE, HDPE and ABS) [4].
- Connected with O‐ring rubber gaskets for improved PVC pipe
durability (should be the selected over solvent welding).

- When PE pipes are selected electronic welding is recommended for Technology of vacuum sewer
installing the fittings. systems
- The angle at which the collection chamber outlet joins the service line
should be 55° to the direction of flow [3] and at around 60° to the
vertical axis of the main [9] to prevent backflow (Figure 9)
- The service line should join the vacuum main at 45° to the direction of
flow [3].
Figure 9: Service lateral connection [1]. Note that the diameter of der service
lateral is equal to the diameter of the interface valve (= 3 inch = 7.6 cm).
Pipes should be joined at the upper part of the receiving pipe at an angle of
60°
- A minimum distance of 2m should be kept between the point of
diversion or joining of pipes and a lift [9].
- Division valves should be placed in intervals of maximum 450 m along
the vacuum main and for the separation of lateral lines which are
longer than 200 m [4, 9].
- Division valves should be corrosion‐proof and suitable for use under
vacuum conditions, as well as a negative pressure difference of 0.8 bar
[3, 9].
- Gauge taps (inspection pipes) need to provide for the insertion of
manometers and plugs.
- Gauge taps are placed every 100 m and before as well as behind
division valves [3].
- The location of both, division valves and gauge taps must be indicated
by signs in order to be located by operational and construction
personnel [3].
Vacuum station
The heart of the vacuum sewer system is the vacuum station. The
centrepiece accommodates the technological components such as the
vacuum and sewage pumps, control cabinets or electronic components for
monitoring, data logging and communication. Usually it is the only point of
the system where electricity is needed. Various designs for vacuum stations

have been developed. The flexibility in the design allows adapting the layout Technology of vacuum sewer
to different surroundings (see Figure 10). As noise and odour emissions from systems
the station can affect the people living in proximity of the station and thus
impact on the acceptance of the vacuum system the site selection should be
carried out carefully. The distance to other buildings should be considered,
as well as the placement at the lowest possible point of the service area
since this will affect the static losses and thus the economics of the system.
Figure 10: The vacuum station can be designed with high flexibility. Anything from
prefabricated houses to underground stations which are integrated into the
environment exists [11].
Container based stations are also possible and can serve up to 150
customers [2]. In some cases the whole station is even located
underground, eliminating the need for surface construction. The vacuum
pumps are located at the station.
The vacuum pumps generate the differential pressure for the sewage
transport mechanism (Figure 11). Operating pressure varies between ‐ 0.5 –
‐ 0.7 bar. Vacuum pumps do not run continuously but rather in cycles for
short periods of around 3‐5 h/ day in order to maintain sufficient vacuum
pressure in the system. Exact pump runtime varies for each system and
depends on vacuum loss through valve pit evacuation or any kind of leaks.
However, vacuum pumps should be able to run continuously to ensure
normal operations in the case of special events. The opening of the valves at
the collection chambers results in periodic pressure loss. When the system
pressure drops below a certain threshold (e.g. ‐0.5 bar) the vacuum pumps
start running and restore operating pressure (e.g. ‐0.6 bar).

systems
Figure 11: All vacuum pumps are connected to the same pipe. The pumps are setup in
parallel.
Commonly used types of vacuum pumps are either sliding vane or liquid‐
ring pumps with the sliding vane type being used more often in newer
vacuum sewer systems. Sliding vane pumps require oil cooling and regular
oil changes to maintain the performance advantages over other pump
types. The number and capacity of the vacuum pumps should be selected
according to the size of the network and the amount of sewage to be
transported. It should be kept in mind, that the number of pumps should be
selected so that the remaining pumps can deliver normal operation while
another pump is serviced or broken. Vacuum pumps are installed in parallel
(Figure 11). Measures for insulation, ventilation and heating should be
provided.

systems

Figure 12: Layout of a vacuum station with the collection tank in the ground and the
sewage pumps outside of the tank. The vacuum reservoir tank is integrated into the
collection tank in most layouts[4, 13]
The vacuum pumps are connected to the vacuum tank. The tank forms the
collection point of the domestic sewage collected through the network.
Vacuum tanks can be made from carbon steel, stainless steel or fiberglass.
Each type has its advantages and specific costs and the choice of material
depends on the location of the vacuum tank. In many layouts the tank is
buried under ground but it can also be placed inside the vacuum station.
The advantage of having the vacuum tank in the ground is that the sewage
does not have to overcome an additional height difference which increases
available head for the system routing and saves electricity. The downside
can be higher construction costs [1]. Either way, access to the tank, also to
the interior, needs to be ensured for maintenance and cleaning purposes
[9]. Further, the tank functions as a buffer for the negative pressure created
by the vacuum pumps in order to maintain the system pressure over a
longer period of time.
The wastewater pumps forward the accumulated sewage from the

collection tank to the wastewater treatment plant. While some designers
and operators prefer wastewater pumps to be set up dry, most systems
have submersible wastewater pumps located inside the tank. The pumps
forward the wastewater to the next main line which could be a main gravity
sewer line or directly to the wastewater treatment plant. Duplicate pumps,
each of them capable of delivering the design capacity at the specified head
conditions should be used [4]. Early systems experienced frequent failures
due to a small diameter of the valves at the discharge pumps which resulted
in clogging of the valves. Increased diameters and the addition of shredding
devices increased pump reliability significantly [1]. When located inside the

vacuum tank, discharge pumps need to be certified to operate under Technology of vacuum sewer
vacuum pressure conditions [4]. systems
When located in residential areas the vacuum station must be equipped
with measures in order to control odours from the sewage in the vacuum
tank. A common method is the use of biofilters (Figure 13). Odorous air
from the vacuum tank is directed to the biofilter via a pipe. The
microorganisms living in the filling material decompose organic pollutants
and odorous compounds. Filling material can compose of woodchips, root
wood, bark mulch, turf or coconut fibre [11]. The material needs to be kept
moist in order to maintain good microclimate for the bacteria. As the filling
material decreases it needs to be refilled every couple of years as part of
regular maintenance. In dry regions, as well as in densely developed areas,
activated carbon can pose a good alternative to the materials mentioned
above. The activated carbon has to be exchanged in regular intervals to
guarantee its functionality.

Figure 13: Biofilter used for odour control from a vacuum tank. Right: woodchips are a
common filling material [1]

The vacuum station also contains the relevant components of the control
and monitoring system. All relevant data regarding system performance are
collected here and the individual system components are connected.
The filling level sensors which are attached to the vacuum tank activate the
wastewater discharge pumps when a certain volume is reached. The system
is set up in way that normal operation is automated and the individual
components communicate with each other. For instance, when a sensor
reports low vacuum the signal is forwarded to the vacuum pumps which
come on to re‐establish adequate vacuum conditions. Or when a certain
volume of wastewater has been collected in the vacuum tank the
wastewater discharge pumps come on and forward the wastewater to the
treatment plant. A central control panel is used to control all of the motor
starters, control circuitry, overloads, and the runtime of each discharge and
vacuum pump. Even data from individual valves are collected here,
depending on whether a valve monitoring system has been installed.

Additionally, the control and monitoring system is equipped with an alarm Technology of vacuum sewer
system which notifies the operator via a text message in the event of a fault. systems
An adequate transmitting device (e.g. modem) equipped with backup power
supply needs to be provided.
The pumps and control units located at the vacuum station require
electricity in order for the vacuum sewer system to fulfil its function.
Therefore it is imperative to ensure constant electricity supply. It is
advisable to provide measures for the connection of external backup power,
such as emergency generators, to keep the system operational in events of
power blackouts. This especially applies to areas which experience frequent
power blackouts. In case of a power blackout vacuum will remain sufficient
for about two hours [11] which can provide enough time to set‐up a
temporary power supply.

Figure 14:Vacuum station with external power connection for power supply in case of
blackouts [11]
Depending on the extent of the service area, the number of houses and
customers served, the amount of sewage to be collected and whether
industries discharge into the sewer system it is necessary to consider the
capacity of one single vacuum station. In certain cases it can pose viable to
have multiple vacuum stations within the service area. The flexibility of
vacuum sewer systems allows for different dewatering configurations of
service areas.
Technical specifications
‐ Vacuum pumps should be operated within +1°C and +35°C room
temperature [3, 9].
‐ Vacuum tank(s) should be dimensioned according to the dimensions
of the network and the expected amount of sewage.
‐ Some layouts may require the installation of multiple vacuum tanks;
multiple tanks should be interconnected

‐ Additionally, the filling control must react to the following filling Technology of vacuum sewer
levels [9]: systems
o Emergency shut off filling level:
Interrupts the vacuum build up but continues the discharge
process by wastewater pumps
o Start filling level:
Initiates discharge of wastewater by wastewater pumps
o Stop filling level:
Interrupts the discharge process of the wastewater pumps
‐ To ensure adequate service the following alarms need to be in place
[9]:
o Alarm for insufficient vacuum:
Is triggered when system vacuum falls below a previously
determined threshold (usually ‐0.3 bar)
o Alarm for wastewater level too high:
Is triggered when the maximum filling level threshold inside
the vacuum tank is exceeded. Not more than half of the
vacuum tank’s volume must be filled with wastewater.
o Alarm for faults:
Is triggered when an important system component is
malfunctioning, a power blackout occurs or the maximum
continuous runtime of the vacuum pump is exceeded.
2.3. Manufacturers / System providers
Since vacuum sewers are still not very common the number of technology
providers available is limited. However, the following list presents a
selection of companies offering vacuum sewer solutions on the market. The
list provides an overview and does not claim to be complete (in alphabetical
order):
AIRVAC / ROEDIGER – Aqseptence Group
ROEDIGER and AIRVAC have been acquired by Aqseptence Group from
Bilfinger Water Technologies in 2016. The two companies are associated
and provide the same technology.

Founded 2016 ( AIRVAC 1969; ROEDGER 1978) Technology of vacuum sewer
systems
Based in USA; Germany
branch offices /partners Australia, China, India, Japan, France, Italy,
Russia, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Peru
Realised vacuum projects More than 2,000
Markets Mostly USA & Germany, Central Europe,
Global: e.g. South Africa, Namibia, UAE
Highlights - Market leader
- Realised systems on all continents
- Broad spectrum of layouts
Website www.airvac.com
http://www.water.bilfinger.com

SIVAC – Sekisui Chemical Co. Ltd. Japan
Founded 1991
Based in Japan
branch offices /partners Singapore, Australia, Malaysia
Realised vacuum projects 123 in Japan (until 2008)
Markets Mostly Japan; Malaysia
Highlights - Mini vacuum station available (no
sewage pumps needed)
- Up to 1,000 m horizontal pipeline
without lift
- 75 mm valves certified for 300,000
cycles
Website http://sivacvacuumsewer.com


FLOVAC Technology of vacuum sewer
systems
Founded 1984
Based in Australia
branch offices / partners New Zealand, India, UAE, Bahrain, Iran,
Slovenia, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, England,
Estonia, France, Germany, Greece,
Netherlands, Ireland, Lithuania, Poland,
Portugal, Romania, Russia, Spain, Argentina,
Peru, USA
Realised vacuum projects No data
Markets Mostly Australia
Global: e.g. Afghanistan, Europe, New Zealand,
USA, Canada, Barbados, Pakistan, Buthan etc.
Highlights - Deployable vacuum system available
- Comprehensive information on
website
- Wireless monitoring system
compatible with other systems (e.g.
AIRVAC)
Website www.flovac.com
REDIVAC – Iseki Vacuum System s Ltd.
Founded 1990s
Based in United Kingdom
branch offices / partners Hungary, Brazil, Malaysia, Italy, Australia,
Oman
Markets Mostly UK;
Oman, Hong Kong, Malaysia, United Arab
Emirates

Highlights - Vacuum system for roof drainage Technology of vacuum sewer
- Broad applications systems
Website http://www.iseki‐vacuum.co.uk
VAB GmbH – Vakuum Anlagen Bau GmbH
VAB was founded in 1995 and is a medium‐sized company from Germany.
Founded 1995
Based in Germany
branch offices /partners
Realised vacuum projects 127 new sewers
31 refurbishments
Markets Mostly Germany; other European countries
Highlights - FLOVAC valves are used
- 10 years of warranty
- Operational support via telemetry
Website www.vabgmbh.de
VACUFLOW – QUA‐VAC
Founded 1990
Based in Netherlands
branch offices / partners Cyprus, Greece, Spain, France, Italy,
Switzerland, Germany, United Kingdom,
Puerto Rico, Bahrein, Iran, Singapore, Vietnam,
Russia, India, China, Japan, South Korea
Markets Mostly Netherlands;
Europe, India, Botswana

Highlights - Broad network of partners Investment costs
- Established retrofit of existing vacuum
systems
Website www.quavac.com
3. Investment costs
The selection of a sewer system is mainly guided by its costs. Although other
factors such as user friendliness and environmental aspects play an
important role the economics of an infrastructure project is the driving
factor for system selection. And since most infrastructure projects are
designed to have a lifespan of several decades it is important to consider all
associated costs.
One reason why vacuum sewers have gained increased popularity is the
potential cost advantage it can have over conventional gravity sewers. The
main cost saving factor is the lower construction cost of the pipe network.
Smaller trenches at lower depths eliminate the necessity of dewatering
during construction, a common problem in areas where groundwater tables
are high. Also excavation and thus refilling can be reduced. Further, the
pipes in vacuum sewers are much smaller reducing material costs [10].
Since every infrastructure project is individual the costs of vacuum sewers
can vary significantly and are site specific. Factors, such as the slope of the
project area, the height of the groundwater table, local soil and climate
conditions can impact the construction costs and other necessary measures
[15]. Also the number of collection pits determines the costs of the system.
Table 2 shows investment costs for individual components of a vacuum

sewer network. The values are based on literature research and reference
project data. As the dimensions and capacities can vary significantly with
system design the values represent approximations only.

Table 2: Approximate investment costs for selected components of vacuum sewers
under conditions in Germany Investment costs
Component Specification Approximate cost in €
(experience from
Germany)
Prefabricated building Depending on size 35,000 – 50,000

for vacuum station
Bio‐filter 5,000 – 17,000
Wastewater pump e.g. 7.5 kW 4,500 – 9,000
Vacuum pump Power: 4 ‐ 15 kW 4,000 – 15,000
Vacuum tank 3 ‐ 15 m³ 10,000 – 21,000
depending on
installation above or
underground
Control cabinet Electronic alarm and 15,000 – 25,000

control system
Valve pit incl. installation, valve, 2,000 – 3,000

monitoring unit, piping

Valve unit 600‐800
Monitoring unit Located at valve pit; incl. 400 ‐ 800

installation
Underground cable For monitoring valve pits 1 € / m
Vacuum pipe Depending on diameter See Table 3

& excavation/
- PE restoration and labour
- PVC‐U cost
Division valve Depending on pipe 1,000 – 1,500

diameter, depth and
length (e.g. every) 450m
When comparing different sewer systems the greatest cost saving factor of
the vacuum sewer compared to gravity sewers is the pipe network. Small

diameters and low trenches give the vacuum sewer a good cost advantage Investment costs
over alternative systems.
shows the cost for PE and PVC‐U pipes with different diameters. It should
be noted, that the costs for PE pipes represent material and delivery only.
Although, PVC‐U material costs are cheaper the prices shown include
connection via solvent welding. Connecting units, such as fittings, joints etc.
are not listed here and need to be considered as well when estimating the
investment costs of a vacuum sewer.
Table 3: Cost of PE and PVC-U pipes per meter for different diameters under German
market conditions; note that material for PE is more expensive but the prices for PVC
pipes include solvent welding (not included for PE) and are thus higher [16]
Pipe diameter PE PVC-U

Material,
Material,
delivery,
delivery,
installation in
installation in
trench
trench
connection
D110 17,30 € 19,20 €
D125 19,40 € 22,30 €

D160 24,60 € 28,10 €
D200 31,10 € 42,10 €
D250 40,00 € 59,50 €
Many other cost factors determine the investment costs of a vacuum sewer
project. Some can vary significantly by region and have high impact on the
total investment costs. Local soil conditions, whether the ground is rocky or
sandy, affect the cost for excavation. Another relevant factor is whether the
excavation material can be reused as filling or needs to be disposed of. The
availability of materials, such as filling material (sand, gravel etc.), PE pipes
(if selected) and other system components strongly affect the investment
costs.
Further, the cost of deploying construction machines can vary significantly
between different regions and the same applies to labour costs of local staff
[6, 17]. The acquisition of land and permits is also regionally dependent, as
well as the cost for planning, design and supervision. Table 4 shows factors
which are associated with initial costs of vacuum sewer projects but can
vary significantly between different regions and are difficult to estimate but
nevertheless need to be considered.
It is desirable to design the sewer network in a way that small pipe
diameters can be selected. This can be a layout with multiple service zones
and division valves which not only affect the investment costs but also add
operational flexibility to the system.

Table 4: Costs which can vary significantly by region and affect the investment Investment costs
costs
Locally defined costs Examples Reference from

Germany
Labour construction workers 35‐45 €/ h
Material PVC/PE pipes & fittings; See

sand & gravel

Excavation Depending on soil

conditions (e.g. rocky)
Supervision During construction,

planning
Permits
Connections For electricity and 3,000 € (Water)

water at the vacuum
station 5,000 € (Electricity)
Training Of operator(s)
User education Awareness creation
In a study the investment costs for gravity and vacuum sewers for two
villages in Greece have been compared [6]. It concluded that excavation
costs for the vacuum sewer is only 25 % of excavation costs for the gravity
sewers. Thus, the shallow trenches resulted in lower costs for subsequent
sand (50 % savings) and gravel (25% savings) filling as compared to the
gravity system. Although cost of manholes for the gravity system was about
33% cheaper than all additional components which are used in vacuum
systems (vacuum valves, inspection pipes, connections and division valves)
the total investment cost for the vacuum sewer was 35% lower than for the
gravity sewer option.
In contrast to the cost factors referred to above, a number of costs
associated with the construction of a sewer system can be hard to estimate.
In some cases it can be even hard to attribute a monetary value to a certain
impact or activity and reflect this in the project cost. Environmental and
social costs need to be considered as well. The construction of a sewer
system takes a long period of time. During this time the surrounding
infrastructure and its users can be challenged to conduct their regular tasks.
If the sewer line is designed to run underneath the road, construction work
will affect traffic and subsequently people and goods travelling on the road. Operation and Maintenance costs
Also, the accessibility of shops or other commercial buildings can be
affected from sewer construction imposing a financial burden on the
affected owners. Also, the environmental footprint of constructing and
operating a sewer can be significant, especially when dewatering of
trenches is required, let alone the environmental impact of wastewater
leaking from conventional sewers into the ground and groundwater.
Although these aspects are hard to quantify it can be assumed that the
flexibility of design (e.g. construction of lines on the sidewalk), shallower
trenches and smaller pipe diameters make the construction of a vacuum
sewer less invasive than the installation of a gravity sewer. Further, the
mentioned characteristics result in shorter construction times of vacuum
sewers. These ‘associated costs’ should be evaluated in addition to the
investment costs when deciding on the system for a sewer project.
4. Operation and Maintenance costs
Whether an infrastructure investment is sustainable depends on how much
attention the system requires and how the costs for operation and
maintenance of the system are designed. In any case a comparative cost
analysis should be undertaken over a long period of time (e.g. 60 year life
cycle cost). The analysis will give weight to the running costs of the analysed
systems which will then reveal the more economical option.
When comparing the Operation and Maintenance (O&M) costs of vacuum
sewers with O&M costs of conventional gravity sewers different authors
come to different conclusions. While Masteller & Moler [18] state that O&M
costs in vacuum sewers are higher due to the high number of mechanical
elements, higher electricity costs and the need for personnel to monitor the
system, Beauclair [19] and Islam [6] come to the conclusion that O&M costs
are lower or similar to gravity systems due to the high scouring velocities
and similar electricity costs. In conventional gravity systems it can be
necessary to use pumping stations when the pipes have to be installed too
deep beneath the surface to guarantee the necessary slope. Further, in
conventional gravity systems the transport relies on sufficient water to
convey the waste contained in sewage. Sometimes flow can be insufficient
and the objects or accumulated substances cause blockages in the pipe.
These need to be removed by additional flushing, for example with a
hydroblaster. Due to the high scouring velocities this is not required in
vacuum sewer systems.
O&M costs can vary significantly depending on how well the system is
designed and how reconditioning of system failures is managed. Electricity
and personnel costs are the major cost components. Both are determined
by the skills of the operating personnel and can vary significantly between

different countries and over time. Material costs are also important but Operation and Maintenance costs
usually are much lower than the electricity and personnel costs. However, if
a vacuum sewer network is not designed and maintained properly and
frequent failures occur (e.g. malfunctioning valves) the material costs can
increase drastically.
4.1. Electricity costs

In most vacuum sewer designs the only point of electricity consumption is at
the vacuum station. Some systems have monitoring devices installed at the
valve pits which, depending on the power source, can require additional
electricity inputs. At the vacuum station most of the electricity is used to run
the vacuum and sewerage pumps. Apart from the pumps, electricity is
needed for the control and monitoring system, the alarm system as well as
for the recording and transmission of operational data. Further, electricity
might be required for ventilation, heating and cooling of the vacuum station
[15].
The electricity consumption of a vacuum sewer is mainly governed by the
runtime of the vacuum pumps. Electricity for the vacuum pumps can make
up to 80% of the total electricity consumption [11]. Since the vacuum pumps
are responsible for maintaining and restoring adequate vacuum conditions
the electricity consumption is a function of the loss of vacuum from leaks
(e.g. faulty valves) and the opening frequency of the valves. The frequency
of the occurrence of these leaks as well as the reconditioning time for
restoring normal operation affects the runtime of the vacuum pumps.
During normal operation the runtime of the vacuum pumps is
predetermined by the system layout. Every valve opening represents a small
loss of vacuum. Thus, the higher the frequency of valve opening the more
vacuum is lost and needs to be restored by the pumps. The opening
frequency is a function of multiple design parameters. Especially, the air‐to‐
liquid ratio at the valve pits has implications for the electrical energy
demand. The higher the ratio, the higher is the electricity consumption.
Further, the number of house connections and the number of people
discharging into a valve pit determine how often the pit needs to be
evacuated and thus how often the interface opens. Finally, user behaviour,
such as long showers, and appliances, such as full flush toilets, contribute to
increased wastewater generation which also affects the frequency of the pit
evacuation and thus vacuum pump runtime. In addition, the increased
amount of wastewater extends the runtime of the sewage pumps at the
vacuum station.
The cost of electricity is a variable cost factor. The price of electricity can
vary significantly between regions and can even depend on the time of day

it is consumed. In order to provide guidance on the energy costs of a Operation and Maintenance costs
vacuum system it can be advisable to provide estimations for electricity
consumption rather than actual cost. In a comparative study on vacuum
sewers in Germany electricity consumption of vacuum sewers was found to
be in the following ranges [11]:
15 ‐ 30 kWh / person & year
0.2 – 0.4 kWh / connection & day
0.2 – 0.7 kWh / m³ wastewater
This range seems realistic for vacuum sewer systems in Germany. In 2005 a
demonstration project for sustainable urban water management was
initiated in Knittlingen, a small town in the South‐West of Germany. The
vacuum sewer option was selected as sewer system for a residential area
serving around 100 plots. The experiences after more than 10 years of
operation indicate an electricity consumption of around 24. 6 kWh/ person
/ year.

4.2. Personnel cost

The cost of personnel can vary significantly between regions as well. Thus, it
is hard to attribute a value to the personnel costs. However, the personnel
costs are related to the amount of time that the staff spends on operating
and maintaining the vacuum system. If the system is well designed and
operators have the adequate knowledge, skills and training, the required
time for O&M can be reduced. In contrast, more time will be required if
failures are frequent (e.g. due to user behaviour; material defects etc.).
Table 5 gives an indication of the duration of selected tasks. The list of
activities is not complete and additional time will be needed for other tasks.
Further activities can be found in Chapter 6 and the Annex.

Table 5: Selected tasks and their approximate duration (values based on
Operation and Maintenance costs
experiences in Germany and the USA)
Task Approximate Remark
duration
Exchange of vacuum 1 h / pump Cleaning, exchanging oil

pump components filters, air‐de‐oil filters and
every 3 ‐5 years others; oil change approx.
every 1000 running hours

General inspection at 15 – 30 min /day
the station
Maintenance of 2‐ 3 h/a
vacuum tank &
electronics
Maintenance of 0.5 – 3 h /a
sewage pumps
Inspection of control 1‐2 h/a
cabinet
Biofilter 4 h Renewal of filter material

maintenance every 3‐4 years
Visual inspection and 5 – 15 min /a Depends on travel distance

maintenance of and accessibility
interface valve
Exchange of 15 – 30 min
membrane
Exchange of 5 – 15 min
pneumatic control
unit
Exchange of entire 10 – 15 min Common practice for

valve unit service calls
Controller rebuild 1 h
every 5 years
Valve rebuild 1.75 h
every 10 years
* NOTE: The table does not represent a complete list of activities and
serves as indication for selected tasks only. The values are derived from
experiences in Germany and the USA.

It should be kept in mind that a valve monitoring system facilitates the work Operation and Maintenance costs
of the operator and faults can be localised quickly, thus reducing time and
personnel cost.
A comprehensive operator survey conducted for 49 systems in the United
States (20% of all operating systems in 2003) revealed the amount of labour
associated with vacuum sewer systems. Most operators viewed the work
associated with the vacuum station similar to the work required for a
pumping station in a gravity system. The average values are a realistic
representation of a normally operating system. The figures highlight the
small amount of time associated with the mains which is a major advantage
over gravity systems and benefits the operators. For the vacuum valves
some operators reported preventive maintenance as routine. However, it
should be noted, that the majority of labour related to vacuum valves is
associated with service calls, but still remains low.
4.3. Material cost

The cost of material highly depends on the frequency and severity of faults
in the system. A well designed and maintained system with few faults will
require materials less frequent than systems where maintenance is poor
and system failures are common. Since the majority of faults and damages
occur at the valve pit the materials required for the controller and the
interface valve are the most relevant material costs. Table 6 shows the
material costs for selected components of vacuum sewers.

Table 6: Approximate material costs for selected components of vacuum sewers Operation and Maintenance costs
Item Cost Estimated replacement
Membrane (at valve) 10 – 14 € Every 3 – 5 years
Pneumatic control unit 90 – 100 € Every 10 years
Rubber gasket (valve) 8 – 10 € Every 10 years
Filter material for 200 – 300 € Every 3‐5 years

biofilter
Oil 15 – 20 € / Liter Quantities depend on

pump
Air‐de‐oil elements ~ 140 € /unit Number of elements

depend on vacuum
pump
Oil filter ~ 18 €/ unit Every 1,000 operational

hours; Number of
elements depend on
vacuum pump
Gaskets (vacuum ~ 32 €/ unit Every 5 years

pump)
4.4. Other costs

The previous sections provided a rough estimate on the different O&M costs
related to vacuum sewers. Further costs can arise which do not fit into the
categories highlighted above. Usually these costs should not have too much
of an impact on the O&M costs but should be kept in mind. A selection of
potential other costs is provided in Table 7.

Table 7: Potential other costs related to O&M of vacuum sewers Durability (life span/life cycle)
Item Specifications
Utilities Telephone, water (fuel)
etc.
Clerical staff Administration, stamps,
envelopes etc.
Transportation Vehicles; fuel;
insurance; taxes; O&M
related transportation
Supplies Spare parts (e.g. oil,
fuses etc.)
Miscellaneous Insurance; structural
maintenance;
professional services
(e.g. accounting, legal)
QUICK PICKS:
- O & M costs are affected by cost for personnel, electricity and

material
- O & M costs are highly affected by electricity consumption for
vacuum pumps
- User behaviour, as well as the frequency and duration of faults
impact on vacuum pump runtime
- Electricity consumption should be within the range of 10 –
30 kWh /person /a
5. Durability (life span/life cycle)

The sustainability of a vacuum sewer system is determined by its reliability
and economics. Both aspects affect each other. The more reliable the
system and its components are the more financially viable is the system. In
the past, systems have experienced frequent component and material
failures which impeded a better image and more frequent consideration of

vacuum sewers as wastewater transportation technology. In recent years, Durability (life span/life cycle)
major technical and operational improvements have been made increasing
the durability of the individual vacuum sewer components [3, 5]. The
durability of the major components of a vacuum sewer system is given in
Table 8:
Table 8: Durability of major components of a vacuum sewer network [1, 9, 11,

11, 16, 20, 21]
Component Life span Varying factors

(years)
Vacuum main / line 50 – 80 Damage from other excavations;

Design faults; selected material
Vacuum station 50 Vandalism; selected materials

(building)
Vacuum pumps 12.5 ‐ 20 Inadequate maintenance;

continuous run; type and brand,
cavitation
Sewage pumps 12.5 ‐ 15 Inadequate maintenance;

continuous run; type and brand;
dry running; cavitation; clogging
Vacuum tank 25 ‐ 40 Material; maintenance; corrosion
Division valves 20 Material; brand; mechanical

wear
Valve pit 30‐55 Protection from vandalism,

storm water, upwelling
Valve unit (30) Maintenance; user education on

flushable objects; brand; size;
- Membrane 6.25 opening frequency; mechanical
- Pneumatic wear
control unit 12.5
Valve pit monitoring 25 Maintenance; power supply;

unit vandalism
The values presented in Table 8 indicate individual life spans of components
and assume the correct operation of the system. External factors, such as
vandalism or environmental factors (e.g. floods) can reduce the life span of

the components. Besides the life span in years, Table 8 also shows which Durability (life span/life cycle)
factors influence the durability of the components. It has to be kept in mind
that some components of the vacuum sewer are mechanical (e.g. pumps,
valves etc.) and that, like mechanical components in other systems, they are
subject to mechanical wear.
Although every part will fail or break at some point, a lot can be done to
extend the life cycle of each component. Preventive action approaches
minimise the risk of failures before they emerge. For vacuum sewers
preventive action starts in the design phase. Appropriate design can
increase life cycle time of vacuum sewer components. Proper coordination
of components and their individual properties is crucial. It is imperative to
determine the amount of wastewater and select the components according
to the required capacities. This applies not only to vacuum and sewerage
pump capacities but also to the diameter of the vacuum mains. Due to
lower transport velocities vacuum mains which have a large pipe diameter
are more prone to scaling and precipitation from compounds contained in
the wastewater. This can affect the durability of the selected material and
thus the life span. Additionally, specific measures might be required to
adjust the vacuum sewer to the environmental settings. If the area for
which the vacuum sewer is designed experiences heavy rainfalls which can
lead to floods, this needs to be taken into account in the design. Measures
which prevent upwelling of pits and mains or which minimise the amount of
storm water entering the valve pits need to be considered. Further, the
components need to be protected from vandalism or theft.
In the design stage a comprehensive plan should be developed on how to
resolve system failures as fast as possible. Especially when there is no valve
monitoring system in place it can take time to localize the point of failure in
the systems. The longer it takes to localize and repair a vacuum leak or a
faulty valve the longer the vacuum pumps have to run in order to restore or
maintain vacuum conditions. This can increase mechanical wear of the
pumps and reduce their life span. Similarly, a comprehensive maintenance
plan based on the recommendations of the manufacturers of the individual
system components is required. Regular inspection, oiling, replacement,
cleaning etc. will increase durability of the integral parts of the system and
minimise the need for emergency actions. Additionally, the technical
knowledge and capacity of the operational personnel needs to be adequate
to identify problems, take appropriate action as well as carry out preventive
measures. Capacity building should be considered in areas where
operational and maintenance knowledge is suspected to be insufficient.
In any case, the introduction of a vacuum sewer system needs to be
accompanied by a comprehensive user education. The people discharging
into vacuum sewers need to be aware of the sensitivity of the interface
valve towards large objects which can affect the functionality or even break
the valve. Awareness creation on flushable objects is especially important in

areas where adequate solid waste management is missing in order to Operational and maintenance
increase durability of system components. skills required
The availability of components needs to be checked and ensured when
choosing a vacuum sewer system. In the event of system failure or material
wear individual parts need to be available to ensure quick recovery of the
sewer function. Therefore, sufficient stock and long‐term material supply
need to be assured. It is advisable to discuss the supply of materials with the
selected manufacturer in order to have an estimate in mind where the
closest supplier is located and how long it takes to deliver the requested
materials. Local providers of individual parts can pose a valuable alternative.
However, quality assurance standards must be met and the use of materials
other than supplied by the system manufacturer can lead to incompatibility
with other components. Strong collaboration with the manufacturer is
crucial. The company can use its own network to facilitate the contact with
appropriate suppliers in the region.

6. Operational and maintenance skills required
Cost is not the only consideration that needs to be taken into account when
selecting a sewer system. The availability of knowledge and skills should also
influence the decision for an alternative. Vacuum systems have the
reputation of being O&M intensive. While this has been true for earlier
systems newer projects have benefitted from many technical and
operational improvements which have reduced O&M requirements [22].
Operating and maintaining a vacuum sewer does indeed require technical

expertise and demand a lot from the operator in terms of knowledge and
skills. While effective operation of a vacuum sewer system begins with
proper design and construction O&M requires at least one trained operator
that is familiar with the system, including the locations of all the collection
chambers, lines, division valves and other key components. The operator
must understand how the main components of the vacuum sewer system
are interrelated and work together as a system. Ideally, the training of
operator(s) should commence while the system is still under construction in
order to become familiar with the system and its components [22].

Maintenance of the vacuum sewer system can be divided into two groups:
normal including preventative maintenance, and emergency maintenance.
6.1. Normal and preventive maintenance

Concentrating on the normal and preventative maintenance minimizes the
need of emergency maintenance [15]. As vacuum systems must operate and
be maintained all year long variations in workload can occur. Thus, it is
important to plan and schedule preventive maintenance. A maintenance

schedule for all components should be developed which highlights the Operational and maintenance
priority of tasks and any special information, e.g. tools, equipment or parts skills required
required for the job. The schedule should consider the manufacturers
recommendations for the individual components. Normal and preventive
maintenance of the vacuum sewer system is done by regular inspection of
system components by staff or remote monitoring [12].

Vacuum Station
Most vacuum stations are equipped with monitoring systems which monitor
the operation at the station as well as the collection system and
automatically notify the operator (e.g. via phone) when an alarm was
triggered, for example, in cases of low vacuum, high levels of sewage or
power outages. During normal operation the operator visits the station on a
daily basis to record pump running hours and check oil and block
temperatures. Especially at the beginning this is important in order to gain
familiarity with the system. Remote monitoring and recording may facilitate
these tasks. An overview of the maintenance tasks and their frequency is
given in Table 9. A more detailed maintenance plan for the vacuum sewer
can be found in the Annex.

Table 9: Overview of normal and preventive maintenance tasks and their
frequencies [22]
Normal vacuum system O&M Tasks and frequencies
Frequency Task
Daily - Visually check gauges/ charts
- Record all pump run times
- Check oil level in vacuum pump sight
glass
Weekly - Exercise generator (if applicable)
Monthly - Change oil and oil filters (depends on

manufacturer’s recommendations)
- Remove and clean inlet filters on vacuum
pumps
- Test all alarm systems
- Check all motor couplings and adjust if
needed
- Clean all sight glasses
- Exercise all shut off valves (vacuum
station)
Semi‐annually to annually - Conduct external leak test on all vacuum
valves

Preventive maintenance tasks and frequencies Operational and maintenance
skills required
- Exercise division valves
- Inspect vacuum and sewage pumps for
Every year wear
- Visual inspection of all pits and valves
- Check valve timing and adjust if needed
Every 3 years Rebuild controller (buffer tank valves only)
Every 5 years Rebuild controller (most valves)

Vacuum network / collection systems
Under normal operation there should be no need for the operator to visit
the collection systems. The pipe network has very low maintenance
requirements. However, it might be desired to inspect areas where difficult
or unusual conditions have been encountered during construction. If in
place, division valves should be inspected once a year and put through the
entire opening and closing cycle at least once. This will also familiarize new
personnel with the location of these valves [22].

Vacuum valves
Routine maintenance of the vacuum valves and controllers involves visual
inspection once a year. Visual inspection can be carried out easily from the
ground surface and the only tools required are a cover pick to gain access to
the collection pit and a sensor pipe puller to drain accumulated water [22].
The valves should be manually cycled to see whether they are operating
properly and the controller timing is still in accordance with the original
setting. The operator should check whether dirt or water is in the controller,
valve and tubing which could affect functionality in the future and remove
any unwanted substances. Visual inspection should take around 10 – 30
minutes per connection [22].

Every 5 years the controller should be replaced with a new one. The
removed unit can then be returned to the workshop where it is inspected
for mechanical wear and repaired, if applicable. For valves with higher cycle
frequencies renewal should take place every 3 years. This usually applies to
valves installed in buffer tanks. Each vacuum valve should be replaced every
10 years and inspected for mechanical wear at the workshop, similar to the
controller after 5 years. The worn parts can then be replaced and the valve
can be reassembled and reused. Removal and replacement procedure at the
valve pit should take around 5‐10 minutes. Rebuilding of components at the
workshop should take around 1 hour for the controller and 1‐2 hours for the
valve [22].

6.2. Emergency maintenance Operational and maintenance
The vacuum sewer system has recommended maintenance tasks and in case skills required
of a failure there is a troubleshooting method to track the failure. Modern
systems are usually equipped with a set of alarms which inform the
operator of the fault via a mobile phone. Emergency incidents can occur
anytime of the day requiring personnel to resolve the problem after working
hours on an overtime basis. Emergency or breakdown maintenance can
occur at the vacuum valve, the vacuum station or the pipe network.

Vacuum station
If the preventive maintenance measures described above are carried out
accordingly there are very few emergencies that occur at the vacuum
station. However, most systems are designed in a way that redundancy
allows for a lot of time before the fault affects the normal operation. The
number of pumps is selected so that the system continues to work normally
with one pump offline. Thus, the operator has enough time to identify the
problem and recondition the pump (e.g. replace parts etc.). Further, the
vacuum tank is designed to have sufficient capacity to accept sewage while
the wastewater pumps are out of service, for example during a power
blackout. The vacuum tank also functions as a vacuum buffer for the
collection system. This way, drops in system vacuum are slowed down giving
the operator more time to recondition the system. Backup electricity supply,
such as a generator or a connection for quick deployment of an external
power source, should be provided as well as a procedure how to restore
power in cases of power blackouts [22]. Emergencies related to power
blackouts are rare but the most common faults at the vacuum station. Other
faults may involve clogging of the wastewater pumps. The operator needs
to have adequate skills to identify and solve faults in a timely manner.

Vacuum network / collection system
If the design and construction of the pipe network has been carried out
properly there are few things that can lead to emergencies affecting the
collection system. The high transport velocities of wastewater minimise the
precipitation and scaling of solids. For systems with separated black water
streams this risk is increased and needs to be addressed. But since most
vacuum sewers transport mixed wastewater the greatest risk for the
vacuum collection system arises from landslides or excavations for other
utilities. When these events result in line breaks system vacuum will be lost.
If the incident is not reported by the utilities the operator can isolate
different lines and localise the defective section by closing and opening
division valves along the piping route in a logical manner [22]. Additionally,
the operator can use the inspection valves and check for vacuum conditions
in various sections. However, any rupture or damage to the pipe network
needs to be resolved in a timely fashion most likely by exchanging the
affected pipe. Collaboration with the impact causing entity may facilitate

and accelerate reconditioning, especially since the excavation machines are Operational and maintenance
already at the site. skills required

Vacuum valves
Most service calls related to the vacuum valves are caused by the users.
Around 70% of faults result from flushing objects that lead to clogging in the
valve or other parts of the pipework in the collection pit [11]. Other faults
are caused by extraneous water for example from rainwater entering the pit
and damaging the controller or mechanical wear of valve components. In
most cases maintenance is fairly simple. The controller is taken out, dried
and reinstalled. The operator needs to initiate action so that the design
error of water entering the pit is corrected. Waterproof controllers are also
available however it is undesirable to have stormwater entering the
collection pit. Exchanging a faulty valve is relatively simple and can be
completed within 10‐15 minutes by a single person [11]. But where no
remote monitoring is installed emergency maintenance usually requires
more than one person to locate the affected valve pit using the inspection
valves. This can be difficult and adequate training of the personnel is
imperative. The faulty valve is then taken back to the workshop where it is
rebuilt and made fit for reuse.

Since valve failures can cause failures in other parts of the system it is crucial
that the operator is capable of identifying and resolving any emerging issues
quickly. If the vacuum pumps cannot keep up with the loss of vacuum then
other valves will have insufficient vacuum to perform their function. This
can lead to backups which possibly result in waterlogging since an increased
amount of sewage will have to be transported at a changed, possibly
inadequate, water to air ratio when vacuum is restored [22].

The design, construction and operation of the system affect the
maintenance. In many cases it can be advisable to develop a maintenance
agreement with the system provider to ensure adequate maintenance and
advisory services [11]. This especially applies to municipalities or regions
that have no or little experience with operating and maintaining vacuum
sewers. The maintenance agreement increases operational safety and
reliability and ensures that local operating personnel is trained accordingly.
Since a high degree of technical knowledge is required the project should
budget 3‐6 months on‐site training [22].
6.3. Record keeping

Proper record keeping of operational data, performed maintenance and
incidents is imperative to successfully operate and maintain vacuum sewers.
A crucial step to short‐term and long‐term troubleshooting alike is the
analysis of records. The more comprehensive the records the more valuable
they are for troubleshooting and system optimisation. Most systems have
electronic, computer assisted, automated data recording systems e.g. for

technical data or incident/ alarm recording. Records should be kept on all Operational and maintenance
normal, preventive and emergency maintenance as well as operating costs. skills required
Brief summaries in form of monthly reports can be useful complemented by
a more comprehensive annual report. Table 10 gives an overview of the
relevant O&M records.
Table 10: List of relevant O&M records [22]

Normal maintenance Preventive Emergency
records maintenance records maintenance records
Daily information Aligned with Aligned with emergency

maintenance plan plan
Date and weather Information on last Date and time of

conditions service by component occurrence
Routine duties Next service date Person(s) responding to

performed problem
Operating range of Results of periodic Description of problem

vacuum pumps inspections
Run‐times of vacuum List of problems Remedy of problem

& sewage pumps
Accidents or injuries Repairs conducted Total time to correct

problem
Personnel on duty Recommendations Parts and equipment

used
Flow data Recommendations
Alterations to the
system
Unusual conditions
Facility visitors
Complaints received
and remedies

In order to ensure budget adequacy and cost recovery it is important to
keep accurate information on all costs related to operation and
maintenance activities (see Chapter 4). The records should include
information on:

Operational and maintenance
Table 11: List of O&M cost records skills required
Cost records
Wages and benefits
Power and fuel consumption
Utility charges
Equipment purchases
Repair and replacement expenses
Miscellaneous costs
6.4. O&M manual
In order to operate and maintain a vacuum sewer system an O&M manual is
crucial. It provides the personnel with a comprehensive compilation of
technical and management aspects and also serves as a training document
as well as for troubleshooting advice. The manual serves as technical
assistance and thus system providers and engineers nowadays provide it to
the operating staff. Problems in earlier systems partly arose due to the lack
of an O&M manual [22]. Each vacuum sewer system needs to be looked at
individually. Integral parts of the system might differ from other systems
and maintenance may lead to replacements or alterations of system
components. Thus, an O&M manual needs to be designed for the specific
system. Typical information that is included in an O&M manual is given in
Table 12.
Table 12: Typical information included in O&M manuals

Typical information in O&M manuals
Design data
Equipment manuals
Technical specifications and data
Product descriptions
Shop drawings
Permits & Standards

Regulations & certifications Operational and maintenance
skills required
Operation & Control information
Records
Preventive maintenance schedules
Emergency operating & response program
Troubleshooting
Safety information
Utility listings
A close collaboration between the operating agency and the system

provider should be maintained in order to constantly update and improve
the O&M manual. It should be noted that the O&M manual can only
support and facilitate the operator’s work. It is not an ultimate solution to
every problem. The quality of service and maintenance will depend mostly
on the skill and attitude of the operator.
6.5. Spare parts
It is in the responsibility of the operator to ensure that sufficient materials,
tools and spare parts are available. While pipes and fittings can usually be
acquired locally through local builder’s supply companies some parts are
unique to the vacuum systems and thus difficult to purchase. Thus, it is
important to constantly maintain a certain stock of components and tools.
Planning ahead is crucial especially when the system provider does not have
a branch in the region and delivery of specific spare parts is expected to take
a long time which can have a devastating impact on the performance and
acceptance of the system. A table in the annex provides an exemplary
overview of recommended spare parts. Please note that the recommended
quantities are given for each 100 valves and for conditions for AIRVAC
systems in the USA. Different manufacturers may recommend different lists.

6.6. Summary
There is ongoing debate on how intense O&M is necessary in vacuum sewer
systems due to different opinions, preferences and experiences. The section
presented the different aspects of operating and maintaining a vacuum
sewer system and provided an overview over the required tasks and skills.
Without a doubt the O&M of a vacuum sewer requires sound technical
knowledge, clear ownership and responsibility and proactive attitude. While

good design can facilitate O&M, adequate training of operators is User friendliness
imperative. Adequate planning of maintenance activities, sufficient spare
parts stocks, the development of a maintenance plan, thorough record
keeping and troubleshooting systems are crucial for the sustainable
operation of a vacuum sewer system.
7. User friendliness
The vacuum sewer system contains mechanical and electrical components

which require supervision and management. Generally, the more
technological components a system has the more prone it is to failures and
therefore needs more attention. Vacuum sewer systems can facilitate the
wastewater service provision in many ways. First of all, the operator can
identify system failures very easily. As the differential pressure generated by
the vacuum pumps is the driving force of wastewater transport any leaks in
the transmission lines or damages to the valve units result in the increase of
pump running time and energy consumption which can be observed at the
vacuum station and can even be monitored in real‐time using online
monitoring and communication tools. Thus, technical staff can quickly
identify and resolve system failures.
A special feature of the vacuum system is the fact that it is a closed system.
Thus, exfiltration into the environment is very unlikely. Exfiltration would be
caused by leaks or ruptures along the conduits in other sewer systems, but
as the vacuum system is under lower pressure than the environment, no
exfiltration can occur. However, any leaks would make it very difficult for
the vacuum pumps to generate sufficient vacuum in the system due to the
inflowing air. In absence of differential pressure no wastewater can be
transported. This is the main reason why vacuum lines can be placed in the
same trenches as the drinking water mains and that makes it suitable for
water protection areas or areas with high‐groundwater tables. These
features facilitate installation and servicing of the network for every
stakeholder, especially when the water service provider is the same entity
as the wastewater service provider which very often is the case.
Although damages to the pipes can occur they remain very rare. In a
comparative study Kruk [23] found that more than 80 % of failures in the
vacuum system occur at the collection chambers (valve pits) (Figure 15) and
only few are reported for the conduits. The most frequent failures at the
collection chambers were associated with the opening and closing
mechanisms of the valve and flooding of the valve control unit (92 %). These
failures are most likely to be caused by inadequate user behaviour, such as
flushing of objects which are too big to pass the valve or which can damage
the valve components (e.g. sharp objects can pierce the membrane). The
study by Günthert [11] confirms this. The researchers concluded that 70% of
all blockages are caused by users flushing objects which damage the valve or

block the pipes. Tackling this issue can be facilitated by preventive action by User friendliness
educating and informing users connected to the vacuum sewer. Around
10 % of system failures can be accounted to the vacuum station where the
majority of defects are caused by power failures. With the vast majority of
system failures occurring at easily accessible points, repair and maintenance
procedures become significantly easier for the operating entity. For gravity
sewer systems manholes remain indispensable, since almost all failures
occur at the conduit components of the systems (Figure 15). The need for
manholes is eliminated in vacuum sewers making maintenance and repairs
easier and safer for technical staff [24]. In case of a defect related to a leak
or rupture of the pipes the staff can easily locate the error by using the
monitoring system and/or the division and inspection valves and the staff
does not get into contact with wastewater.
100
90 Collection chamber with
80 vacuum interface valve /
small pumping station /
70
service connection
% of failures
60 manhole
50 Vacuum network / Pressure
40 network / Gravity network
30
20
10
Vacuum station
0
Transit pipes
Vacuum Pressure Gravity sewer
sewer system sewer system system
Figure 15: Comparison of elements most susceptible to failure in different sewer
systems; diagram based on [23]
Another advantage of such a limited number of potential failure sources is
the shortened reconditioning time. If the point of error can be located easily
then this reduces the amount of time to resolve the problem. Figure 16
illustrates the shorter reconditioning time for vacuum sewers compared to
pressure or gravity sewer systems. More than 60 % of failures are resolved
within one hour and 86 % of failures can be removed within 2 hours.

User friendliness

Figure 16: Reconditioning time for different sewer systems [23]
Another indicator for the user friendliness and the operational reliability of
vacuum sewers is the Mean Time Between Service Calls (MTBSC). It is
determined by dividing the number of valves by the number of service calls
(emergencies) within a year. This means a system with 100 valves and 10
service calls in one year would have a MTSBC of 10 years. The
aforementioned Operator’s Survey of 49 systems in the US revealed an
average MTBSC of 5.1 years with values ranging from 2 to 27 years [22]. This
is a significant improvement compared to the MTBSC of 2.2 years (range: 1
to 22.5 years) determined by the U.S. EPA [13] for 6 older vacuum sewer
systems. This strong increase highlights the technical and management
improvements made over the years resulting in increased reliability of
vacuum sewer systems.
Under normal operation the user should not notice any difference between
being connected to a gravity system or a vacuum sewer. However, one
significant difference lies within the potential implications of system
failures. While gravity systems are designed along a slope there is only one
direction the wastewater can be transported and any failures do not affect
the building but system sections further downstream. In contrast, when a
vacuum valve is malfunctioning in a way that evacuation cannot be carried
out and no check‐valves are installed in the collection chambers, sewage can
backflow into the house connections and finally into the building. This can
be easily prevented by ensuring the installation of check‐valves.
Another aspect that might affect users and residents is related to the
vacuum station. Since the vacuum station is usually located within or in the
vicinity of the service area, people living close to the station could be
affected by odours and noises emerging from the station if the system is not
well designed and respective measures are omitted (e.g. appropriate
aeration of the biofilter) [11]. The aesthetic aspect of the vacuum station
can also lead to discomfort of residents.

QUICK PICKS: Cases for application
- Faults in vacuum sewers mainly occur at the vacuum valves and the
station => easily accessible and thus safer and more hygienic for
operational staff
- Localisation of faults quickly possible = > Short reconditioning time
- Odour and noise from vacuum station are main concerns for
residents
8. Cases for application
The chapters above present the technical aspects of a vacuum sewer
network. The differences between conventional gravity sewers and vacuum
sewers are quite significant. Thus, the ‘alternative wastewater collection
system’ has its strengths in other areas of application than the gravity sewer
concept.
In vacuum sewers the driving mechanism is air rather than water. Thus, less
water is required to convey the sewage to the treatment plant. This makes
the vacuum technology a good choice in water scarce regions where water
saving has great impact. Gravity based sewers require larger water
quantities to wash away all the waste contained in sewage. This is the
reason why combined sewers also collect storm water. Where separation
into sanitary sewer and storm water drainage is desired (or required)
vacuum sewers are a good choice since they can transport wastewater
efficiently with little water. The role of vacuum sewer in integrated water
management concepts is described in more detail in Chapter 10.
Besides requiring a significant amount of water gravity sewers face the
challenge to rely on a constant slope of minimum 2%. If the gradient cannot
be provided by the terrain conditions, excavations have to reach very deep.
Additional lift stations might be required to elevate the wastewater to
higher levels into a new pipe section which once again provides sufficient
slope. This is a common problem in areas with flat terrain. High
groundwater tables can also pose a challenge to the construction of a
gravity sewer since dewatering might be required during construction. Since
vacuum sewers do not rely on gravity and differential pressure is the driving
force of transportation they are very suitable for flat areas. Vacuum sewers
can even accommodate small inclinations and overcome small height. And
since the lines can be placed in low depths vacuum sewers are also suitable
for areas where high groundwater and rocky or sandy soil conditions pose
challenges to deep excavation.
This advantage of shallower and less complicated excavations has a

significant cost saving potential. Additional savings can be achieved through

the shorter construction period. Municipalities which face budget Reference projects
constraints but require an investment in their wastewater infrastructure
might find the option of a vacuum sewer attractive.
A significant characteristic of the vacuum sewer system is the fact that
exfiltration is detected immediately. The system is closed and tight and any
leak will directly result in loss of vacuum and increased pump runtime which
is noticed by the operator. Larger damages can even result in a total stop of
sewage transport. Vacuum lines are considered safe enough to be placed in
the same trench as drinking water lines. Leakages in conventional sewer
systems often go unnoticed and untreated sewage leaks into the
environment. Elaborate and costly measures are necessary to minimise the
risk of exfiltration for conventional systems. The environmental safety of the
vacuum sewer makes it a good choice for ecologically sensitive areas as well
as areas with protected groundwater resources.
In gravity sewers, infiltration of stormwater and groundwater is a frequent
issue as well. Thus, clean water is mixed with the sewage and increases the
costs for wastewater treatment significantly. As the vacuum sewer system
has to be tight to operate, infiltration should not occur. Therefore this
system has advantages in areas with high groundwater table and areas
prone to flooding.
Exemplary cases for application include coastal areas which are often
characterised by flat terrain and high groundwater tables. Thus, vacuum
sewer systems can pose a viable sewer option for coastal communities.
Another application can be found in the drainage of seasonal settlements
such as recreation areas, camping sites etc. where the number of
dischargers varies over the year. Gravity based systems face the problem of
sedimentation if the line is not flushed regularly. Due to the high transport
velocities this is not a problem in vacuum sewers making it a good choice for
seasonal operation.
9. Reference projects
Vacuum sewer projects have gained increasing interest over the years. The
first modern systems were implemented in the 1970s and the number is
constantly growing. Growing operational experience and increasing
awareness on the strengths of this sewer alternative has led to a growing
number of implemented vacuum sewer projects. Figure 17 displays the
number of projects in several countries realised by the two biggest system
providers, AIRVAC and ROEDIGER, until the year 2008. The majority of
systems have been implemented in USA and Germany followed by Japan,
France, the UK, Australia, Czech Republic and Poland. Additional projects
have been realised since then. The other aforementioned manufacturers
have also realised many projects in many parts of the world.

Reference projects
Figure 17: Number of vacuum sewer projects implemented by ROEDIGER and
AIRVAC (now Aqseptence Group) between 1973 and 2008 [25]
With several thousand systems implemented worldwide it is impossible to
provide detailed information about each system. The following sections will
present more information on successful vacuum sewer projects as well as
on sewer systems which experienced challenges.
Although most projects involving the vacuum sewer technology have been
successfully implemented and are running well some cases exist that
highlight the need for careful planning, operational and maintenance
procedures as well as organisational structures.
The German community of Ernsgarden in Bavaria implemented a vacuum

sewer system in 1978 due to the flat terrain in the Donau Valley. Ernsgarden
is home to around 1,700 people and has experienced ongoing problems
with its 17 km long sewer. During strong rainfall events and when
groundwater tables rise the risk of introduced water is very high. Further,
the community realized a high susceptibility to failures especially due to
false user behaviour. This resulted in increased personnel deployment for
repair and maintenance and thus higher operational costs. The community
has been looking into replacing the system with a pressured sewer system
but has come to the conclusion that it is cheaper to refurbish and optimise
the existing vacuum sewer system to lower the operational costs [26, 27].
The case shows that the education of users is crucial for the sustainable
operation of a vacuum sewer. Further, the example of Ernsgarden highlights
the need for comprehensive refurbishment after a long period of operation.
Vacuum sewers are not limited to Europe or the USA. Its potential cost
advantages, flexible design character and low‐impact construction make the
technology a considerable alternative in low‐income areas. In Kosovo, an

informal settlement in South Africa’s Cape Town, a vacuum sewerage Reference projects
system was completed in 2009. In an area where flat terrain, high
groundwater table and sandy soils dominate, the involved consultants and
municipal officers viewed the vacuum technology as appropriate [28]. The
completion of 354 communal full‐flush toilets in 43 blocks in 2009 posed a
smart solution to the demands of Kosovo’s growing population and growing
drainage problems due to the low‐impact installation with shallower
trenches, fewer pumping stations required and less residential relocation
compared to conventional gravity systems. Unfortunately, the system has
continuously been hampered by poor management from both the end users
(Kosovo residents) and the service providers [19]. Items such as bricks or
sharp objects like cutlery led to clogging and membrane rupture at the
valve. In addition, disposal of fats and dirt by the end‐users caused
malfunctioning in the sensor controllers. As a consequence of the valve
failure to open and close properly the valve pits over‐filled and sewage
regularly spilled out onto the ground and around the toilet blocks. Vacuum
pumps overworked due to air leakages and the valve pits were used as 40 L
conservancy tanks emptied three times a week. The acquisition of spare
parts proofed to be expensive and time‐consuming due to the unavailability
of local providers. All parts had to be purchased from the German
manufacturer. The technical problems arose from inadequate management
and responsibility. In hindsight the municipality lacked the technical
knowledge and capacity to operate and maintain such a complex system as
the vacuum sewer system. Operation and maintenance (O&M) trainings for
the technical staff have not been carried out until the commissioning of the
system. O&M manuals were not given to the relevant staff who had to find
out how to operate the system using trial and error.
Insufficient attention was given to the social context of an informal
settlement where solid waste disposal is insufficient and residents use
sanitary infrastructure to dispose of other wastes. Education and awareness
programmes targeted at the end users have been neglected. Additionally,
the high staff turnover and municipal restructuring made it difficult to hold
anybody accountable for the failures and responsible for resolving the
problems. The lack of communication and coordination between the
relevant departments of the City of Cape Town resulted in the lack of
project ownership. The Department of Development Services, initially
responsible for the project, was closed down in 2007. Personnel were
dispersed to other departments and the O&M of the vacuum system was
transferred to the Water and Sanitation Informal Settlements Unit (WSISU)
in 2009.
Similar experiences were made with several vacuum sewer systems in
Namibia. The local authorities of Ondangwa, Gobabis, Henties Bay, Kalkrand
and Stampriet each implemented a vacuum sewer in the period between
2001 and 2010. Vacuum sewers were selected due to the potential cost

savings in flat terrain and sandy soils. However, the local operators faced a Reference projects
series of operational and organisational challenges. The vacuum sewer in
Gibeon was not operating anymore after only 4 years. Where alternatives
are available the authorities reconnect the houses to the gravity sewer
system or replace the vacuum sewer with another systems [8]. In Ondangwa
and Stampriet it was decided to reconnect the houses back to the old
gravity sewer. In 2012 a vacuum sewer was implemented within the scope
of a demonstration project on integrated water management in Outapi. The
system is still operational; more information can be found in Chapter 10.
Another example of a vacuum sewer is the first vacuum sewer installed in
New Zealand that was commissioned in Kawakawa Bay, Auckland, in 2011.
The popular holiday area used to discharge the wastewater of 200
permanent and additional 800 temporary residents via septic tanks into the
ocean. This led to polluted coastal waters and beaches unsuitable for
recreational swimming or fishing. Manukau Council looked into various
sewerage systems but selected the vacuum sewer due to environmental,
economic and operational benefits. The installation has led to dramatic
improvements in marine water quality and warning signs could be taken
down only one year after the vacuum sewer started to operate [29, 30].
The experiences in Auckland convinced the public utilities in Christchurch,
New Zealand. The city’s infrastructure is still affected by the damages from
the earthquake in 2011 and frequently experiences heavy earthquakes, such
as in February and November 2016. The authorities considered the vacuum
sewer to be the best solution to respond to future earthquakes and to the
large damages caused by previous ones [31]. The system which is designed
to serve 2,700 households is in the final phase of construction.
In 2008 the municipal council of the city of Walldorf decided to implement a
vacuum sewer system for 140 units in the development area Walldorf‐Süd
as wastewater infrastructure. Between 2010 and 2012 the area has been
developed and since then the wastewater is collected using the vacuum
sewer. Between 2013 and 2015 the area ‘Östlich der Waldstraße’ in
Böblingen‐Dagersheim was developed. 25 existing units and 80 newly
developed units were connected to a vacuum sewer which is operating
since 2015.
The applicability of vacuum sewers is not limited to new developments.
Vacuum sewers can be installed in pipes of existing sewer networks. The
small pipe diameter and the low risk of leaks allow for a high degree of
flexibility and since the channels or pipes already exist, construction costs
can be saved. When an old gravity sewer would require extensive and
expensive refurbishment or the municipality decides to switch from a
combined sewer to a system where wastewater and storm water are
drained separately vacuum sewers installed in the existing sewer network
can be a good solution to save costs. This has been successfully

implemented in the small German municipality Schwalmtal – Rainrod with Vacuum sewers as part of an
140 connections and the system is operating since 2011 [32]. integrated water management
concept
Figure 18: Vacuum pipe installed in existing channels; the PE pipe is attached to the wall
of the channel [32].
When a combined sewer is replaced by a vacuum sewer network the
challenge arises that the existing water infrastructure at the house needs to
be separated since wastewater and rain water feed into the same pipes. The
rain gutter is usually connected to the house connection under the building
which leads to the sewer. This is a challenge in already developed areas
when existing dwellings are connected to a vacuum sewer. Every house
connection needs to be surveyed individually at all access points [33] and a
new pathway for storm water flow is required while on the other hand the
wastewater will be directed to the vacuum pit.

10 Vacuum sewers as part of an integrated water

management concept
Efforts to recycle water, energy and nutrients from wastewater streams
have been subject to research worldwide and numerous demonstration
projects have been implemented. The vacuum sewer system is considered
as a suitable option in order to separate wastewater at the source.
Especially when targeting nutrient recovery from wastewater streams it is
essential to concentrate nutrient rich waters, such as black water from
household toilets or other sources with high nutrient load, in order to
increase efficiency of the recycling process. The same applies to the process
of energy recovery from wastewater. The higher the organic load of the
wastewater the higher is the energy yield (most commonly in form of
biogas). Therefore it is crucial to find ways of separating the different

streams of wastewater. In conventional wastewater planning, serviced areas Vacuum sewers as part of an
are drained in combined sewers where storm water runoff and municipal integrated water management
wastewater are brought together. The nutrient and organic load in these concept
mixed waters are highly diluted making recovery of nutrients and energy
extremely inefficient. Therefore, using separate drainage methods to
transport wastewater and storm water can increase the efficiency and
viability of recycling processes, as well as the overall sustainability and
environmental performance of the wastewater transport and treatment.
Vacuum sewers pose a viable wastewater transportation system since the

dominant transportation medium is air rather than water. This can be
especially beneficial in combination with vacuum toilets which only use a
fraction of water conventional flush toilets require. Also, in areas facing
water stress and with limited water availability vacuum sewers can be a
good sewage transportation system. Especially in the Middle East (United
Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, Oman), vacuum sewer systems become more
and more popular due to easy and fast installation along with water saving
effects and numerous projects have already been realised [34].
In a comparative study, Kjerstadius et al. [35] investigated the potential for
energy and nutrient recovery from wastewater and food waste under
different treatment schemes. The researchers compared the output in
terms of biogas and recovered nutrients under conventional schemes
(gravity sewers and waste collection by truck) as well as with source control
systems which separated the different waste streams. Both gravity and
vacuum sewer systems were analysed. The study concluded that methane
production as well as phosphorous and nitrogen recovery were highest for
systems that involved vacuum sewers. Nutrients were recovered through
ammonia stripping and struvite precipitation. Although the systems differed
in some treatment stages it was obvious that vacuum based systems
achieved the highest potential recovery due to separation of black water,
greywater and food waste at the source, leading to higher concentrations of
organics and nutrients. For instance, phosphorous recovery was up to 23
times higher with source control than under conventional treatment
schemes [35].

The Cuve Waters Project aims at demonstrating the potential of integrated
water management in rapidly growing informal settlements in Outapi,
Namibia. Like most parts of the country Outapi faces water scarcity and
challenges to provide water based service to the community. The sanitation
and water reuse component of the project implemented a new sanitation
concept for around 1,500 residents in 2012. Communal washhouses, cluster
units and individual houses were connected to the vacuum sewer system.
The sandy soils and flat terrain made the vacuum sewer the most economic
wastewater conveyance option. The 66 collection chambers were installed
along the 1,525m vacuum network [36]. The installation of flush toilets with

little water consumption drove the selection of the vacuum technology. At Vacuum sewers as part of an
the treatment plant the water is at first treated anaerobically in an integrated water management
anaerobic treatment process where biogas is harvested. In the subsequent concept
aerobic treatment the suspended solids are removed. The water passes a
rotating biological contactor, a clarifier and a micro strainer. Finally, the
water is disinfected by UV radiation. The sludge is thickened in a fermenter
and dried in drying beds for subsequent use as soil conditioner. The treated
water is collected in a pond and used as irrigation water (see Figure 19).
The project increased the access of the local population to sanitary services.
Diarrheal diseases dropped by 46% and open defecation decreased by 20%.
The implementation also resulted in increased agricultural activity and
higher yields through the use of reclaimed water. Further benefits included
the biogas yield which was sufficient to run the treatment infrastructure and
the creation of additional employment opportunities [37].
Figure 19: Layout of the sanitation and reuse concept in Outapi, Namibia [37].

An example of a demonstration project for integrated water management in
Germany is DEUS 21. DEUS stands for DEcentralised Urban Infrastructure
Systems and the project was initiated in Knittlingen, Germany, in 2005 by a
consortium under the lead of the Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial
Engineering and Biotechnology IGB. DEUS 21 was designed to demonstrate
an innovative, flexible and efficient approach to semi‐decentralised and
integrated urban water management in a newly developed residential area
accommodating around 100 households.

Vacuum sewers as part of an
integrated water management
concept
Figure 20: Schematic overview on how water management was designed in

DEUS 21 with vacuum sewers being the selected technology for wastewater
conveyance [38]
In some of the households, vacuum toilets (figure 21) were installed which
resulted in a further reduction in water usage. The concept included a
vacuum sewer for wastewater transportation. A vacuum sewer was selected
because it can operate efficiently with little water. Some houses also
connected a shredding garbage disposal unit which was also connected to
the vacuum sewer and thus increased the organic load carried in the
wastewater. Not all households decided to install vacuum toilets or garbage
disposers due to the current high investment costs. Each device has a capital
cost of around 1,500 €1 and thus the amortisation period is relatively long.
However, it was the goal of the project to demonstrate the integration of
different concepts to close nutrient, energy and water cycles. The
wastewater was collected at a nearby station. The station served as a
vacuum station as well as a compact treatment plant. Here the wastewater
was biologically treated using a modern membrane bioreactor under
anaerobic conditions which also allowed the generation of biogas.

1
Under German market conditions

Vacuum sewers as part of an
integrated water management
concept
Figure 21: Left: Garbage disposal unit in kitchen sink; Right: Vacuum
toilet [1]

One of the earliest projects involving vacuum sewers in integrated water
management was implemented in Lübeck‐Flintenbreite in Northern
Germany in 2000. 30 residential units have been constructed for around 116
residents. The concept is designed to allow an integrative holistic approach
to infrastructure services with a focus on water and wastewater
infrastructure. The houses are equipped with vacuum toilets which require
only 0.7‐1.2 L per flush. After initial problems the users adopted the vacuum
toilets very well. The water consumption per capita in Flintenbreite is well
below the average water consumption in Germany. Additionally, shredders
were installed in the kitchens and together with the black water from the
toilets the organic waste is transported to a local treatment facility via a
vacuum sewer network. At the treatment facility biogas is generated and
used for local electricity and heat provision. The greywater from kitchen,
bathrooms etc. is transported to a constructed wetland where it is treated
and eventually discharged to a local creek [39, 40].
The city of Pfaffenhofen an der Ilm designed a mixed residential area for
ecologically and socially healthy living conditions. The project is currently
under construction. The so‐called Eco‐Quarter aims at using modern
concepts of energy and water management. A key component of the project
is the vacuum sewer system as it facilitates the separation of different
wastewater streams. The network is 4 km long and designed to serve 1,100
people plus the connected small commercial area. The system includes a
new type of collection pit where black water and grey water are separately
collected in the same vacuum pit (Figure 22). Greywater will be transported
to a constructed wetland where it is treated for subsequent reuse in

irrigation in the community gardens or stored for other potential Vacuum sewers as part of an
applications in the households (e.g. toilet flushing or gardening) [41, 42]. integrated water management
concept
Figure 22: Black water and grey water are separately collected in separate
collection sumps within the same collection pit of the vacuum system [42]
A similar approach was realised in the newly developed residential area
Jenfelder Au in Hamburg. The local water utility, Hamburg Wasser, has
realised the potential of separate wastewater streams and developed the
Hamburg Water Cycle. The approach aims at closing nutrient, water and
energy cycles by utilizing the individual characteristics of black, grey and rain
water. The innovative concept was applied to the quarter Jenfelder Au
which provides space for around 630 apartments, home to around 2,500
people. Grey water from kitchens and bathrooms is treated at the local
depot and made available again to the local water cycle or is discharged to
local water bodies. On the other hand, the black water from vacuum toilets,
which require only 1 L of water for flushing, is transported to the depot via a
vacuum sewer network where it is treated anaerobically in order to produce
biogas that is subsequently used for heat and electricity generation [43].
Regarding rain water the area provides plenty of green spaces for infiltration
as well as detention basins which hold back excess rain water. The high
degree of sealed surfaces is a problem in many urban areas since rain water
becomes surface runoff which can pose a risk of flooding and can potentially
overload the local drainage infrastructure. Jenfelder Au is planned in a way
that rainwater can infiltrate into the ground or provide water for the ponds,
lakes and other landscape elements. This results in aquifer recharge and
reduced flood risk for the local river.
Jenfelder Au is accompanied by a research project named ‘KREIS –

Versorgung durch Entsorgung’ (eng: ‘supply by disposal’) [14]. During the
examination of the vacuum sewer network, which conveys only black water,
incrustations on the inside of the pipes were detected. Due to the high
concentration of the black water precipitation occurs. Fibres from food or
hygienic paper settle on the interior of the pipe wall as an organic layer.

Then urease‐positive bacteria grow on the biofilm and increase the Vacuum sewers as part of an
hydrolysis of urea contained in the black water. As a result of the change in integrated water management
pH the chemical solubility of calcium‐phosphate, carbonate compounds and concept
ammonium magnesia phosphate changes and precipitation products form.
Crystalline structures with high stability form which provide further
breeding ground for bacteria [14]. Factors which contribute to the formation
of incrustations include existing incrustations, temperature, leaks and
surface roughness. Water hardness also contributes to incrustations but has
proven to be a minor factor. The compounds contained in black water have
a greater impact. It is also important to consider the flow velocity which is a
function of the pipe diameter. If the pipe is too large the transport velocity
is reduced which facilitates the formation of incrustations. Measures to
prevent or remove incrustations include high pressure flushing and timely
maintenance and cleaning activities. Additional access points for servicing
need to be provided.
A different challenge arises when vacuum sewers are supposed to service
high‐rise buildings. The large flows which can occur in multi‐storey
residential buildings can overwhelm individual valves. Thus, it is important
to adjust the flow. One approach to tackle this issue is the provision of a
buffer tank of sufficient volume. A configuration with multiple valves is also
possible. For large buildings several buffer tanks or even several connections
can pose a solution to large wastewater volumes. Another approach
involves the separation of black water and grey water. Greywater makes up
more than 50% of the daily wastewater flows [45]. Compared to black water
greywater can be treated much easier as it contains less organic pollutants,
nutrients and bacteria. The treatment of grey water in a fluidised bed
process can be considered state‐of‐the‐art, as there are plants operating for
10 years in Germany [44].
While the vacuum sewer could be used to transport the black water to the
treatment plant grey water could be treated and reused onsite. While this
can be challenging to implement in existing multi‐storey buildings newly
planned buildings should consider the local treatment and reuse concept.
Clarification is needed on the cost compensation for the initial investment
costs for additional pipework and the decentralised treatment facility. In
Germany, the extra costs for a second pipe network and a modern grey
water treatment have been estimated to be around 20 € per m2 living area
for new multi‐storey buildings. The area demand for the treatment plant is
around 0.1 m2 per inhabitant [44]. This approach could effectively reduce
the amount of wastewater and simultaneously reduce the fresh water
demand of these buildings. In some countries, such as Vietnam, black and
greywater are traditionally collected separately and while black water is
often partially treated in onsite septic tanks greywater is commonly
discharged into the environment without further treatment [46]. This

existing separation can be a good basis for the development of recycling‐ Critical issues for building and
oriented water management concepts including source separation. operating a vacuum sewer system
The aforementioned examples pose a selection of projects where the

vacuum sewer technology has been implemented as a component of an
integrated water management concept. Most of these projects involve the
separation of black water, grey water and rainwater which is commonly
collected, treated and perceived as one single stream. The projects highlight
the advantage of the vacuum sewer technology in collecting wastewater
while requiring only a small amount of water which makes it a suitable
technology to convey black water. The transported black water has a high
concentration of organic matter which is ideal for the production of biogas.
11. Critical issues for building and operating a vacuum

sewer system
11.1. Pros and Cons

Vacuum sewers pose an alternative to conventional gravity systems. Many
features of vacuum sewers can lead to significant benefits over other sewer
systems. However, despite its flexibility a vacuum sewer does not pose a
solution to every problem. This section summarises the advantages and
disadvantages vacuum sewers can have compared to other sewer
technologies. It should be noted that what is perceived as ‘advantage’ or
‘disadvantage’ is partly subjective and this list is a summary of commonly
perceived pros and cons of vacuum sewers. Other factors might be relevant
on either side, for example due to local conditions.
Table 13: Summary of advantages and disadvantages of vacuum sewers
Advantages Disadvantages
Considerable savings potential in Expert design is needed
investment costs for construction
Shorter construction period Needs energy to maintain vacuum
Shallow and narrow trenches Skilled operators are required –
training necessary
Less water is needed for transport System is more vulnerable to
vandalism due to more accessible

to centralised treatment facility components Critical issues for building and
operating a vacuum sewer system
Flexible pipeline construction Network length is limited
independent from topography
No manholes are required Valves are sensitive to faults and
flushable objects
One central vacuum station replaces False user behaviour can limit the
several pumping stations; only one performance
point of electricity consumption
Fault detection is quick System components not quickly
available everywhere
Safe and hygienic work environment Faults at individual valves can affect
for operator the entire systems
Leakages from pipes are limited and Knowledge about the system not
easily detectable widely distributed yet (planners,
decision makers, construction
companies etc.)
Installation in the same trench as Number of system providers limited
water supply lines possible
High scouring velocities do not
require additional pipe flushing
Applicable in water protection zones
No infiltration of storm water or
groundwater due to tight system

11.2. Critical features

11.2.1. General
Planning & Construction
- System should be designed by experts such as planning engineers or
system providers.
- Responsibilities and organisational structure must be clarified among
the different actors.
- Future plans and demographics need to be considered in the design.
- Education and awareness campaigns from the start for end‐users.
- Political will is crucial for the success of the project.

- Supervision during construction is important. Critical issues for building and
- Selection of reliable and trustworthy contractors. operating a vacuum sewer system
- In case accurate data is unavailable 100‐150 L/person/day and
0.005 L/person/s should be used to estimate the potential wastewater
accumulation and flow in the service area; this may vary strongly in
different regions of the world.
- Vacuum sewer systems should take into account considerations of
future demographic and development trends and thus the system
should be designed with sufficient capacity to enable additional
connections and extensions in the future.
Operation & maintenance
- Maintain close relationship with manufacturer.
- Operational staff should be trained according to the high demand on
technical knowledge; 3‐6 months of training during start‐up phase
should be considered in planning and budgeting.
- Maintenance tasks should be carried out according to the planner’s and
manufacturer’s recommendations documented in the maintenance
plan.
11.2.2. Collection pits

- Buffer tanks for connections with continuous large amounts of

wastewater or flows above 4 m³/h or population equivalents of more
than 20 people to one collection pit.
- Collection chambers evenly distributed along mains – long distances
without collection chamber should be avoided.
- Large flows should occur closer to the vacuum station, not at the end of
the network.
- Gravity line from house to collection pit should be laid at a slope of 1:60
or steeper
- Minimum pipe diameter should be 100 mm (PVC or PE).
- Sump volume should consider space for back logs; total holding volume
should be 25% of the expected daily flow (holding volume can include
volume form gravity line from house connection)
- Measures to prevent infiltration of storm water or runoff (e.g. lids …).
- Material selection according to expected load (e.g. traffic …).
- Corrosion proof material to withstand any forces likely to work on the
material; inside smooth to allow self‐cleaning.
- Sufficient air supply in the pit or at the valve – external breathers if
necessary.
- Install check‐valves for house‐to‐pit connection.
- Valve pit must be made explosion proof.
- Monitoring of valve pit is advisable – battery powered designs are
available.

- Limit the number of houses connected to a valve pit (maximum 4). Critical issues for building and
- Accepting flow from other systems such as gravity systems is to be operating a vacuum sewer system
avoided.
- Air – liquid ratio should be adjusted at the vacuum valve as needed;
lower ratios represent higher efficiency but operational experience has
shown that L/A ratio varies between 3:1 – 15:1 depending on where the
valve is located in the network.
- Cycle volume is 35 – 60 L.
- Provide for backup electricity.
- Conduction of visual inspection according to maintenance plan.
- Repair of faulty, blocked or broken pipes inside the pit.
11.2.3. Interface valve

‐ All components that come into contact with wastewater (e.g. sensor
pipe) must be resistant to wear.
‐ In case of large flows, buffer tanks or multiple valve setups should be
considered.
‐ Valve size should be selected according to expected flow; 3 inch (~7.6
cm) valves are commonly used.
‐ Remote monitoring system at the valve pit is recommended.
‐ Monitoring of pumps to determine any leaks and control costs.
‐ Maintenance of components should be carried out according to
developed maintenance plan and manufacturer recommendations.
‐ The valve needs to remain open for the duration of one batch
evacuation, including sufficient time to draw in air; opening time can be
adjusted at the valve.
‐ Air /liquid ratio should be adjusted as needed according to efficiency
and economic aspects; the ratio should fall between 3:1 and 15:1.
‐ Sufficient spare parts and units should be available to the operator.
‐ The opening mechanism should be adjusted so that the valve only
opens if local pressure conditions are below ‐ 0.15 bar.
- If the bottom of the chamber is deeper than 1 m below the valve the
threshold for the opening mechanism must be adjusted to lower
pressures (< ‐ 0.35 bar).
11.2.4. Vacuum lines / network


‐ The largest pipe must lead to the vacuum station; smaller pipes divert Critical issues for building and
from the larger pipes (hierarchy of diameters). operating a vacuum sewer system
‐ It is recommended that the system provider instructs the staff of the
construction company regarding the construction of the network.
‐ Division valves should separate different service areas for operational
flexibility.
‐ Total hydraulic lift should not exceed 6 m.
‐ Pipes should be laid with a slope of at least 0.2 % (1:500).
‐ Minimum distance between two lifts should be 6 m.
‐ Maximum lift height should not exceed 0.9 m.
‐ Lifts should be realised using two 45° fittings joined by a piece of pipe.
‐ Head losses and friction losses must be considered during design as
they govern the maximum length of the network.
‐ Pipe material should be resistant to chemical and biochemical
influences that can result in corrosion as well as resistant to mechanical
wear and temperatures up to 35°C (or higher, depending on the local
conditions).
‐ Pipes, fittings and gaskets need to meet the requirements to operate
under the given pressure environment.
‐ Joining the collection chamber to the service line should take place at
the upper part of the service line at an angle of around 60° to the
vertical axis and 55° to the direction of flow.
‐ Joining the service line to a vacuum main should be done at an angle of
45° to the direction of flow.
‐ Minimum distance between two joining pipes and a lift should be 2m.
‐ The depths in which the pipes are laid should consider seasonal changes
in groundwater table, frost and other local conditions.
‐ Pipes should be embedded in sand and covered by a liner, a layer of
gravel and the trench material.
‐ Division valves should be placed in intervals of maximum 450 m along
the vacuum main and for the separation of lateral lines which are
longer than 200 m.
‐ Gauge taps (inspection pipes) need to provide for the insertion of
manometers, and plugs should be placed every 100 m and before as
well as behind division valves.
‐ Division and inspection valves need to be indicated.
‐ When black water is transported separately, additional cleaning of

pipes is required.
‐ Vacuum conditions should be inspected regularly at inspection valves.
‐ Locations of division and inspection valves should be documented.
‐ Division valves should be used to carry out maintenance activities.
11.2.5. Vacuum station

‐ The location of the station should be selected carefully, ideally at the Critical issues for building and
lowest point of the service area. operating a vacuum sewer system
‐ Noise and odour disturbances for residents can emerge and preventive
measures need to be provided.
‐ A biofilter with sufficient capacity should be installed.
‐ The vacuum station should be protected from vandalism.
‐ Measures for insulation, ventilation and heating should be provided at
the station.
‐ The number of vacuum pumps should be selected so that normal
operation can be ensured while one pump is offline.
‐ If multiple vacuum tanks are constructed the incoming mains should be
equipped with cross connections and division valves.
‐ The vacuum tank needs to be equipped with appropriate sensors in
order to trigger the relevant processes (e.g. pump activity) and alarms
(e.g. low vacuum).
‐ Vacuum tanks placed underground do not have to overcome additional
height and thus more head is available for transport.
‐ Access to the tank and its interior needs to be ensured for maintenance
and cleaning.
‐ The number of sewerage pumps should be selected so that normal
operation can be ensured while one pump is offline.
‐ The diameter of the inlet of the sewerage pumps should be at least as
large as the diameter of the vacuum main.
‐ If the inlet is smaller than the vacuum main a shredding device should
be installed to shred large objects.
‐ Wastewater pumps placed inside the vacuum tank need to be certified
to operate under vacuum pressure conditions.
‐ An alarm system needs to be installed which notifies the operator in
case of alarms (e.g. via text message).
‐ A backup electricity supply needs to be provided in case of power
blackout.
‐ The development of a maintenance manual and schedule according to
the manufacturer’s and planner’s recommendations is imperative.
‐ Vacuum pumps should maintain an operating pressure between ‐0.5

and ‐0.7 bar
‐ Minimum recommended vacuum pump capacity is 4.3 m³/min.
‐ Vacuum pumps should not run continuously, but should be able to in
order to continue operation in special events.
‐ Vacuum pumps should be maintained according to the manufacturer’s
instructions.
‐ The biofilter material needs to be exchanged every 3‐5 years.
‐ An adequate alarm system needs to be maintained.

‐ Appropriate maintenance of components according to the developed Summary & conclusion
plan is crucial.
‐ Record keeping on data, tasks and inventory must be done thoroughly.
12. Summary & conclusion

Vacuum sewers are considered an alternative wastewater collection system
and whether it is the technology of choice depends on a multitude of
criteria and service area conditions. The presented chapters aim at
providing adequate information to decision makers and other actors
involved in wastewater service provision in order to make an informed
decision on whether vacuum sewers pose a viable option to a certain service
area.
Technical improvements, increased operational experience and the

paradigm change towards integrated water management have led to
increased interest in vacuum sewers in the past decades. This guide
presents the relevant aspects regarding the concept, planning and operation
of vacuum sewer systems. The strengths and weaknesses of the technology
are highlighted, including rough cost estimates for individual components
and the operation and maintenance of vacuums sewers. Applicability,
investment and operational costs can vary significantly between regions and
need to be assessed under local conditions. Nevertheless a certain savings
potential over other sewer systems exists for vacuum sewers. The potential
use of vacuum sewers as transport technology within integrated water
management concepts is shown.
In summary it can be said that all stages from planning and design to O&M
require expert technical knowledge to ensure the sustainability of a vacuum
sewer project. Vacuum sewers compose of many mechanical parts
predominantly in form of the interface valves and pump equipment at the
vacuum station which can experience faults from false user behaviour and
inadequate maintenance. The absence of this expertise and clear
organisational structures can lead to severe and finally to irreparable
damages, eliminating the potential benefits vacuum sewers can have over
other forms of sewerage conveyance. Therefore, it is not surprising that
until now the majority of vacuum sewer projects have been realised in
Europe, the USA, Australia and Japan where market actors and knowledge
associated with the vacuum technology are well distributed.
The major benefit of the vacuum sewer technology is the pipe network. The
greatest cost savings are achieved here through shallow trenches, smaller
pipe diameters and high layout flexibility. Additionally, the environmental
benefits are significant. Leakage is very rare making the vacuum sewer
technology more suitable for areas where other sewerage systems need to

take extra precautions, such as in environmentally sensitive areas and water Summary & conclusion
protection zones.
However, in the face of increasing efforts to tackle water related issues,
including the provision of sanitary services, while incorporating aspects of
environmental, social and economic sustainability the vacuum sewer
technology should be considered as a possible option for future wastewater
infrastructure projects.


References Summary & conclusion
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accessed: 15.December, 2016
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innovativer Stadtentwässerung; Synthesebericht zum Forschungsprojekt KREIS;
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Manual of Practice, 2nd edn. McGraw-Hill Professional

16. IWR - Ingenieurbüro für Wasserwirtschaft und Ressourcenmanagement (2016)
Summary & conclusion
Investment costs for vacuum sewers; personal communication
17. Elawwad A, Ragab M, Abdel-Halim H (2014) Vacuum sewerage system in
developing regions and the impact on environemtnal management; Proceedings
of the 4th International Conference on Environmental Pollution and Remediation
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North Sebastian Area; Indian River County, Florida
19. Beauclair R (2010) Development and Disappointment: an Ethnographic Study of
Kosovo Informal Settlement's Water and Sanitation System Upgrade; Department
of Social Anthropology; M.A. dissertation, University of Cape Town
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personal communication
21. Freistaat Sachsen - Staatsministerium für Umwelt und Landwirtschaft (2004)
Abwasserinvestitionen im ländlichen Raum: Entscheidungsfindung am Beispiel des
Ortsteils Putzkau der Gemeinde Schmölln-Putzkau
22. Naret R (2009) Vacuum Sewers – Operation and Maintenance and System
Management Guidelines: Course Number C-4029. www.airvac.com/pdf/Vacuum
O&M and System Management.pdf. Accessed 15.December, 2016
23. Miszta-Kruk K (2016) Reliability and failure rate analysis of pressure, vacuum and
gravity sewer systems based on operating data. Engineering Failure Analysis
61: 37–45. doi: 10.1016/j.engfailanal.2015.07.034
24. Królikowska J, Debowska B, Królikowski A (2013) An evaluation of potential
losses associated with the loss of vacuum sewerage system reliability.
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25. Terryn IC, Lazar G (2016) Driving forces affecting the adoption of Eco-innovation:
A survey on vacuum sewer systems. Environmental Engineering and Management
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26. Gemeinde Ernsgarden Kanalsystem soll weiter optimiert werden.
http://www.ernsgaden.de/index.php?id=9760,604. Accessed 16 Nov 2016
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Kanalsystem soll weiter optimiert werden;
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2016(1)
28. Taing L, Armitage NP, Spiegel A (2011) Cape Town's problematic vacuum sewer:
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Alegre/ Brazil
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0612%20Vacuum%20information%20sheet%20FINAL.pdf; accessed:
15.December 2016

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2017



Annex 1: Selected maintenance tasks at the vacuum station and Annex 1: Selected maintenance
their frequency; extract from the maintenance plan in Böblingen- tasks at the vacuum station and
their frequency; extract from the
Dagersheim provided by ACQSEPTANCE Group [48] maintenance plan in Böblingen-
Dagersheim provided by
ACQSEPTANCE Group [48]
Tasks: Vacuum station Daily Weekly Monthly Biannually Annually
Check alarms at the X
control cabinet
Check vacuum system x
for leaks with
manometer and
record findings
Check electrical X
connections at the
station
Check pressure switch X
points of vacuum
pumps
Check shift controls of X
the level control
Check appearance of X
station (cleanliness &
accessibility)
Check and record x
energy consumption
of the system
Check state of X
construction of the
station (e.g.
structures, access,
corrosion etc.)
Check biofilter X
(odours, appearance,
humidity)
Check functionality of X
alarms

Tasks: Vacuum tank Daily Weekly Monthly Biannually Annually Annex 1: Selected maintenance
tasks at the vacuum station and
Check tightness of X their frequency; extract from the
flanges maintenance plan in Böblingen-
Check tank for X
deposits and remove
them
Tasks: Vacuum pumps
Check oil level X
Check oil colour X
Check for oil leaks X
Check functionality of x
air‐de‐oil unit
Check for unusual X
noises
Read and record X
running hours of
vacuum pumps
Check shutoff/check X
valves on the suction
side of the vacuum
pumps
Check and clean intake X
air filter
General visual X
inspection of pump
elements; clean if
necessary
Check air‐de‐oil unit; X
measure with filter
resistance manometer
Change oil of vacuum X
pump

Change oil filter of x Annex 1: Selected maintenance
vacuum pump tasks at the vacuum station and
their frequency; extract from the
Check electricity X maintenance plan in Böblingen-
uptake of vacuum
pump
Exchange air‐de‐oil As required
elements
Change oil and oil Every 500‐2000 working hours
filter and clean float
valve
General overhaul of According to manufacturer
vacuum pumps
Tasks: Wastewater Daily Weekly Monthly Biannually Annually

pumps
Record runtime of X
WW pumps
Check ring seal of WW X
pumps
Check for unusual X
noises
Check check valves on X
the pressure side of
the WW pumps for
proper closing
Carry out oil check After 1000 working h (then annually) x
Check oil quality Every 500 working hours


Annex 2: Spare parts inventory (exemplary) Annex 2: Spare parts inventory
(exemplary)
Vacuum valve
(recommendations per every 100 valves)
Part Quantity
Vacuum valve 3
Sump breather unit assembly 3
Sump breather installation parts bag 3
Controller 3
Controller rebuild kit 3
No‐hub couplings 6
Clear vacuum tubing (1.8 m long) 1
Clear vacuum tubing (3.6 m long) 1
Grommets (smaller size) 3
Grommets (larger size) 3
Vacuum valve rebuild kits 6
Controller mounting O‐ring 12
Tube controller grease 2
Tube vacuum valve grease 4
Surge suppressor 3
Tubing clamps 12
Controller mounting key 3
Cycle counters 3

Vacuum station Annex 2: Spare parts inventory
(exemplary)
Oil 15 gal / 57 L
Overhaul kit (vacuum pump) 1
Filter kit 1
Motor pump coupling set 1
Seal kit for sewage pump 1
Moto coupling (sewage pump) 2
Gasket set 1
Speciality tools and equipment
(1 set per system)
Portable vacuum chart recorders 1
0‐20 in W.G. magnehelic gauges 2
0‐50 in W.G. magnehelic gauges 1
Sensor pipe puller 1
Valve repair stand 1
No – hub torque wrenches 1
Vacuum gauges 1
Controller test box 1


Annex 3: Overview over vacuum sewer systems installed in Annex 3: Overview over vacuum
different countries by AIRVAC until 2008 sewer systems installed in
different countries by AIRVAC
until 2008

Annex 4: Selected photos from the vacuum sewer systems in Annex 4: Selected photos from
Böblingen-Dagersheim, Waldsee, Walldorf-Süd, and Knittlingen the vacuum sewer systems in
Böblingen-Dagersheim, Waldsee,
Walldorf-Süd, and Knittlingen
Figure 23: Vacuum station in Böblingen‐Dagersheim
Figure 24: Collection pit in Waldsee. Access is restricted due to construction of
wooden terrace. Access to the collection pit should be kept clear.

Annex 4: Selected photos from
the vacuum sewer systems in

Figure 25: Vacuum tank placed in hedge in Waldsee. The components of the vacuum
station have been integrated in the hedge instead of a building.
Figure 26: Collection pit with vacuum valve in Walldorf. The collection pit is
located on a drivable road made of concrete. Respective measures were
implemented.

Figure 27: Vacuum tank constructed underground at the vacuum station in
Walldorf. The relevant pipe connections and sensor provisions are located at the
top of the tank.
Figure 28: Biofilter with additional aeration pipe at the vacuum station in
Walldorf. Plants grow on the filter material.

Figure 29: Vacuum tank at the vacuum station in Knittlingen. The wastewater pumps
are placed outside the tank.

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FRAUNHOFER-INSTITUT FÜR GRENZFLÄCHEN- UND BIOVERFAHRENSTECHNIK IGB

Guideline: Vacuum sewer systems

Dr.-Ing. Marius Mohr, Jan Iden, Marc Beckett

Fraunhofer-Institut für Grenzflächen- und Bioverfahrenstechnik IGB

2 Technology of vacuum sewer systems................................................................ 4

3. Investment costs ................................................................................................. 25

4. Operation and Maintenance costs ..................................................................... 29

5. Durability (life span/life cycle) ........................................................................... 35

6. Operational and maintenance skills required .................................................. 38

7. User friendliness.................................................................................................. 46

8. Cases for application........................................................................................... 49

9. Reference projects............................................................................................... 50

12. Summary & conclusion ....................................................................................... 67

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer system GIZ GmbH I | IV

Figure 3: Vacuum valve [12] 8

Figure 6: Saw-tooth profile of a vacuum sewer line [5] 11

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer system GIZ GmbH II | IV

Figure 23: Vacuum station in Böblingen-Dagersheim 79

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer system GIZ GmbH III | IV

Table 7: Potential other costs related to O&M of vacuum sewers 35

Table 10: List of relevant O&M records [21] 43

Table 11: List of O&M cost records 44

Table 12: Typical information included in O&M manuals 44

Table 13: Summary of advantages and disadvantages of vacuum sewers 61

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer system GIZ GmbH IV | IV

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer systems GIZ GmbH 1 | 82

Technological advancements and increased awareness on the untapped

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer systems GIZ GmbH 2 | 82

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer systems GIZ GmbH 3 | 82

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer systems GIZ GmbH 4 | 82

2.2 Components and their tasks

Valve pits & collection chambers

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer systems GIZ GmbH 5 | 82

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer systems GIZ GmbH 6 | 82

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer systems GIZ GmbH 7 | 82

Interface Valve Unit

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer systems GIZ GmbH 8 | 82

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer systems GIZ GmbH 9 | 82

Vacuum mains and pipe network

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer systems GIZ GmbH 10 | 82

Pipe diameter Max flow Max number of houses

Inch mm GPM L/min #

4 101.6 55 208 70

6 152.4 150 577 260

8 203.2 305 1.155 570

10 254 545 2.063 1,050

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer systems GIZ GmbH 11 | 82

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer systems GIZ GmbH 12 | 82

Division or isolation valves (Figure 8) allow for the separation of individual

Figure 8: Division valve with gauge tap at a vacuum main [4]

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer systems GIZ GmbH 13 | 82

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer systems GIZ GmbH 14 | 82

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer systems GIZ GmbH 15 | 82

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer systems GIZ GmbH 16 | 82

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer systems GIZ GmbH 17 | 82

The wastewater pumps forward the accumulated sewage from the

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer systems GIZ GmbH 18 | 82

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer systems GIZ GmbH 19 | 82

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer systems GIZ GmbH 20 | 82

2.3. Manufacturers / System providers

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer systems GIZ GmbH 21 | 82

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer systems GIZ GmbH 22 | 82

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer systems GIZ GmbH 23 | 82

Fraunhofer IGB Vacuum sewer systems GIZ GmbH 24 | 82