Chapter 1 Introduction To Machinery Prin

1
Chapter 1: Introduction to Machinery

Principles
EE 313 Electric Machines Fall 2014

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1.3: Rotational motion, Newton’s

law
Majority of electric machines rotate about an axis called a shaft of the machine.
1.3.1. Angular position  - an angle at which the object is oriented with

respect to an arbitrary reference point.
1.3.2. Angular velocity (speed)  - a rate of change of the angular position.

d
  rad s 
dt
m – angular velocity in radians per second
fm – angular velocity in revolutions per second
nm – angular velocity in revolutions per minute
m
fm 
2
nm  60 f m
3

law
1.3.3. Angular acceleration  - a rate of change of angular velocity.
d 
 rad s 2 
dt
1.3.4. Torque (moment)  - a “rotating force”.
r
axis 
F   r  F  rF sin   Nm  
Here F is an acting force, r is the vector pointing from the axis of rotation to the
point where the force is applied,  is the angle between two vectors.
1.3.5. Newton’s law of rotation:   J  [Nm]

J is a moment of inertia (a mass equivalent).

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law
1.3.6. Work W – amount of energy transferred by a force. W    d  J 
If the torque is constant: W  
1.3.7. Power P – increase in work per unit time. dW

P [W ]
dt
dW d ( ) d
For a constant torque: P     
dt dt dt
P   [W ]

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1.4: The magnetic field
Basic principles underlying usage of magnetic field
1. A wire carrying a current produces a magnetic field

around it.
2. A time-changing magnetic field induces a voltage in a
coil of wire if it passes through that coil (transformer
action).
3. A wire carrying a current in the presence of a magnetic
field experiences a force induced on it (motor action).
4. A wire moving in the presence of a magnetic field gets
a voltage induced in it (generator action).

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1.4.1. Production of magnetic field

Magneto-motive force: Product of current and number of turns of coil. It is
expressed as;
F  Ni
Magnetic field intensity is defined as
magnetomotive force per unit length.
H= Ni / lc
Where H [A-turns/m] is the intensity of
the magnetic field produced by the
current

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Magnetic flux density:

 Ni
B=flux//area ; and B  H  [Wb / m 2 or T (Tesla)]
lc
where   0  r is the magnetic permeability of a material.
0  4 107 H mthe permeabilityof  freespace
r – the relative permeability
The total flux in a given area:    B dA

A
If the magnetic flux density vector B is perpendicular to a plane of the area:
 NiA
  BA 
lc
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1.4.2. Magnetic circuits
Analogous to electric circuits,

there are magnetic circuits …
Instead of electromotive force (voltage) magnetomotive force (mmf) is

what drives magnetic circuits.
F  Ni
Like the Ohm’s law, the Hopkinson’s Law:
F = R
F- mmf;  magnetic flux;
R - reluctance

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1
Permeance: P=
R
 NiA A
Magnetic flux:  = FP = BA = F
lc lc
lc
Therefore, the reluctance: R
A
Series connection: R eq  R 1  R 2  ...  R N
1 1 1 1
Parallel connection:    ... 
R eq R 1 R 2 RN

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1
Permeance: P=
R
 NiA A
Magnetic flux:  = FP = BA = F
lc lc
lc
Therefore, the reluctance: R
A
Series connection: R eq  R 1  R 2  ...  R N

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1.4: Analogy between magnetic

and electric circuits:

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1.4: Analogy between magnetic

and electric circuits:

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Calculations of magnetic flux are always approximations!
1. We assume that all flux is confined within the

magnetic core but a leakage flux exists outside the
core since permeability of air is non-zero!
2. A mean path length and cross-sectional area are
assumed…
3. In ferromagnetic materials, the permeability varies
with the flux.
4. In air gaps, the cross-sectional area is bigger due to
the fringing effect.
The fringing effect results from the presence of the air gap in the magnetic circuit.
The main consequence of the fringing effect is to make the magnetic flux density
of the air gap different from the flux density of the core due to the path of the flux.

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Leakage Flux and Fringing Effect:

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Example 1.1: A ferromagnetic core is shown.

Three sides of this core are of uniform width,
while the fourth side is somewhat thinner.
The depth of the core (into the page) is
10cm, and the other dimensions are shown
in the figure. There is a 200 turn coil
wrapped around the left side of the core.
Assuming relative permeability µr of 2500,
how much flux will be produced by a 1A
input current?
The equivalent circuit

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L2 L1

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(a) The reluctance of the core:

lc lc 0.4
Rc    7
 66300 A  turns / Wb
 Ac 0  r Ac 4000  4 10  0.0012
Since the effective area of the air gap is 1.05 x 12 = 12.6 cm2, its reluctance:
la 0.0005
Ra   7
 316000 A  turns / Wb
0 Aa 4 10  0.00126
The total reluctance:
R eq  R c  R a  66300  316000  382300 A  turns / Wb
The air gap contribute most of the reluctance!

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(b) The mmf:
F = R  Ni  BAR
Therefore:
BAR 0.5  0.00126  383200

i   0.602 A
N 400
Since the air gap flux was required, the effective area of the gap was used.

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1.4: The magnetic field: Example 1.2

Example 1.2:
Figure shows a ferromagnetic core whose
mean path length is 40cm. There is a small
gap of 0.05cm in the structure of the otherwise
whole core. The csa of the core is 12cm2, the
relative permeability of the core is 4000, and
the coil of wire on the core has 400 turns.
Assume that fringing in the air gap increases
the effective csa of the gap by 5%. Given this
information, find
1.the total reluctance of the flux path
(iron plus air gap)
2.the current required to produce a flux
density of 0.5T in the air gap.

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Example 1.3:
In a simplified rotor and stator motor, the
mean path length of the stator is 50 cm, its
cross-sectional area is 12 cm2, and r =
2000. The mean path length of the rotor is 5
cm and its cross-sectional area is also 12
cm2, and r = 2000. Each air gap is 0.05 cm
wide, and the cross-section of each gap
(including fringing) is 14 cm2. The coil has
200 turns of wire. If the current in the wire is
1A, what will the resulting flux density in the
air gaps be?

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The reluctance of the stator is:

ls 0.5
Rs    166000 A  turns / Wb
r 0 As 2000  4 10 7  0.0012
The reluctance of the rotor is:

lr 0.05
Rr    16600 A  turns / Wb
r 0 Ar 2000  4 107  0.0012
The reluctance of each gap is:
la 0.0005
Ra  7
 284000 A  turns / Wb
0 Aa 4 10  0.0014
The total reluctance is:
R eq  R s  R a1  R r  R a 2  751000 A  turns / Wb

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The net mmf is:

F  Ni
The magnetic flux in the core is:
F Ni
 
R R
Finally, the magnetic flux density in the gap is:
 Ni 200 1
B    0.19T
A R A 751000  0.0014

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1.4.3. Magnetic behavior of ferromagnetic materials
Magnetic permeability can be defined as:

B

H
and was previously assumed as constant. However, for the ferromagnetic
materials (for which permeability can be up to 6000 times the permeability of
air), permeability is not a constant…
A saturation
(magnetization) curve
for a DC source …….

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The magnetizing intensity is: Ni F

H 
lc lc
The magnetic flux density:   BA

 Therefore, the magnetizing intensity is directly
proportional to mmf and the magnetic flux density is
directly proportional to magnetic flux for any
magnetic core.
 Permeability is large and relatively constant in
the unsaturated region whereas it drops to low
value as the core gets saturated.
 Ferromagnetic materials are advantageous since they allow to produce

much more flux for the given mmf than when air is used.

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 Generators and motors operate near the knee of the

magnetization curve
– If the resulting flux has to be proportional to the mmf,

then the core must be operated in the unsaturated
region.
– Generators and motors depend on magnetic flux to

produce voltage and torque, so they need as much
flux as possible.
 As magnetizing intensity H is increased, the relative

permeability first increases and then starts to drop off.

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1.4.4. Energy losses in a ferromagnetic core
If instead of a DC, a sinusoidal current is

applied to a magnetic core, a hysteresis loop
will be observed…
If a large mmf is applied to a core and then
removed, the flux in a core does not go to
zero! A magnetic field (or flux), called the
residual field (or flux), will be left in the
material. To force the flux to zero, an amount
of mmg (coercive mmf) is needed.

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Ferromagnetic materials consist

of small domains, within which
magnetic moments of atoms
are aligned. However, magnetic
moments of domains are
oriented randomly.
When an external magnetic field is applied, the domains pointing in the direction of
that field grow since the atoms at their boundaries physically switch their orientation
and align themselves in the direction of magnetic field. This increases magnetic flux
in the material which, in turn, causes more atoms to change orientation. As the
strength of the external field increases, more domains change orientation until almost
all atoms and domains are aligned with the field. Further increase in mmf can cause
only the same flux increase as it would be in a vacuum. This is a saturation.

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 When the external field is removed, the domains do not completely

randomize again. Re-aligning the atoms would require energy! Initially,
such energy was provided by the external field.
 Atoms can be realigned by an external mmf in other direction,

mechanical shock, or heating.
 The hysteresis loss in the core is the energy required to re-orient

domains during each cycle of AC applied to the core.
 Another type of energy losses is an eddy currents loss, which will be

examined later.

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1.5: Faraday’s law

Induced Voltage From a Time-Changing Magnetic Field
If a flux passes through a turn of a coil of wire, a voltage will be induced in that turn
which is directly proportional to the rate of change in the flux with respect to time:
d
eind  
dt
For a coil having N turns:
d
eind  N
dt
eind – voltage induced in the coil
N – number of turns of wire in the coil
ɸ – flux passing through the coil

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1.5: The Faradays law

The “minus sign” in the equation is a consequence of the “Lenz’s law”.
“The direction of the induced voltage in the
coil is such that if the coil terminals were d
short circuited, it would produce a current eind  N
that would cause a flux opposing the original dt
flux change.”

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Assume that the same flux is passing through each turn of the coil. If the windings
are closely coupled, this assumption almost holds. In most cases, a flux leakage
occurs. Therefore, more accurately:
di
ei 
dt
N N
di d  N 
ForN turns :eind   ei      i 
i 1 i 1 dt dt  i 1 
d
eind 
dt
N
 - a flux linkage of the coil:    i Wb  turns 
i 1
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A nature of Eddy Current Losses:
Voltages are generated within a ferromagnetic core by a time-changing
magnetic flux same way as they are induced in a wire. These voltages
cause currents flowing in the resistive material (ferromagnetic core)
called eddy currents. Therefore, energy is dissipated by these currents in
the form of heat.
 The amount of energy lost to eddy currents

is proportional to the size of the paths they
travel within the core. Therefore, ferromagnetic
cores are frequently laminated.
 Core consists of a set of tiny isolated strips.
 Eddy current losses are proportional to the
square of the lamination thickness.

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Eddy Current Losses:
Eddy current losses are minimized by lamination.

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1.6: Production of induced force on a

wire (Motor Action)
A second major effect of a magnetic field is
that it induces a force on a wire carrying a
current within the field.
  
F  i (l  B )
Where:
I is a vector of current,
B is the magnetic flux density vector.
For a wire of length l carrying a current i in a magnetic field with a flux

density B that makes an angle  to the wire, the magnitude of the force is:
F  ilB sin 
This is a basis for a motor action.
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1.7: Induced voltage on a conductor

moving in a magnetic field (generator action)
If a wire with the proper orientation moves
through a magnetic field, a voltage is induced in it.
eind = (VxB) . l
Where
v is the velocity of the wire,
l is its length in the magnetic field,
B – the magnetic flux density
This is a basis for a generator action.

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1.7: Induced voltage on a conductor

moving in a magnetic field
Example 1.8
The figure shows a conductor moving with a velocity of 5m/s to the right in the
presence of a magnetic field. The flux density is 0.5T into the page, and the wire is 1m
length, oriented as shown. What are the magnitude and polarity of the resulting
induced voltage?

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1.8. The Linear DC Machine
Linear DC machine is the simplest form of DC machine which is easy to understand

and it operates according to the same principles and exhibits the same behaviour as
motors and generators. Consider the following:
1. Production of Force
on a current carrying F  i l  B
conductor
2. Voltage induced on a
current carrying conductor eind   v  B  l
moving in a magnetic field
VB  iR  eind  0
3. Kirchoff’s voltage law
VB  eind  iR
4. Newton’s Law for motion Fnet  ma

•Current will flow in the circuit and the equation can be derived from Kirchoff’s law: 38
1.8.1. Starting the Linear DC Machine
1. To start the machine, the switch is closed.

2. Current will flow in the circuit
Since, VB  iR  eind
VB  eind
 i 
R
3. As the current flows down through the bar, a force will be induced on the bar
F  i (l  B)
To the right
 ilB sin 90
 ilB
4. The bar starts to move, its velocity will increase, and a voltage appears across
the bar. e  (v  B ) l ind
 vBl sin 90 Positive upward
 ilB
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5. Due to the presence of motion and induced potential (eind), the current flowing in
the bar will reduce
VB  eind 
i 
R
6. The induced force is thus reduced F  i  lB
And eventually F 0
At that point, eind  VB , i  0
And the bar moves at constant no load speed:

VB  eind  v steady state Bl
VB
 vsteady state 
Bl
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Summarization of the starting of

linear DC machine is sketched in
the figure below:

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• Real, reactive and Apparent power

• Power Factor
• Read from book or lecture notes

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1

Chapter 1: Introduction to Machinery

EE 313 Electric Machines Fall 2014

1.3: Rotational motion, Newton’s

1.3.1. Angular position  - an angle at which the object is oriented with

1.3.2. Angular velocity (speed)  - a rate of change of the angular position.

1.3: Rotational motion, Newton’s

1.3.5. Newton’s law of rotation:   J  [Nm]

EE 313 Electric Machines Fall 2014

1.3: Rotational motion, Newton’s

1.3.7. Power P – increase in work per unit time. dW

EE 313 Electric Machines Fall 2014

1.4: The magnetic field

Basic principles underlying usage of magnetic field

1. A wire carrying a current produces a magnetic field

EE 313 Electric Machines Fall 2014

1.4: The magnetic field

1.4.1. Production of magnetic field

EE 313 Electric Machines Fall 2014

1.4: The magnetic field

Magnetic flux density:

The total flux in a given area:    B dA

If the magnetic flux density vector B is perpendicular to a plane of the area:

1.4: The magnetic field

1.4.2. Magnetic circuits

Analogous to electric circuits,

Instead of electromotive force (voltage) magnetomotive force (mmf) is

EE 313 Electric Machines Fall 2014

1.4: The magnetic field

Series connection: R eq  R 1  R 2  ...  R N

EE 313 Electric Machines Fall 2014

1.4: The magnetic field

Series connection: R eq  R 1  R 2  ...  R N

EE 313 Electric Machines Fall 2014

1.4: Analogy between magnetic

EE 313 Electric Machines Fall 2014

1.4: Analogy between magnetic

EE 313 Electric Machines Fall 2014

1.4: The magnetic field

Calculations of magnetic flux are always approximations!

1. We assume that all flux is confined within the

EE 313 Electric Machines Fall 2014

1.4: The magnetic field

Leakage Flux and Fringing Effect:

EE 313 Electric Machines Fall 2014

1.4: The magnetic field

Example 1.1: A ferromagnetic core is shown.

The equivalent circuit

EE 313 Electric Machines Fall 2014

1.4: The magnetic field

EE 313 Electric Machines Fall 2014

1.4: The magnetic field

(a) The reluctance of the core:

The total reluctance:

R eq  R c  R a  66300  316000  382300 A  turns / Wb

The air gap contribute most of the reluctance!

EE 313 Electric Machines Fall 2014

1.4: The magnetic field

(b) The mmf:

BAR 0.5  0.00126  383200

EE 313 Electric Machines Fall 2014

1.4: The magnetic field: Example 1.2

The equivalent circuit